A HISTORY OF PLANNING IN THE PHILIPPINES

Eduardo F. Bober, Jr.

UNDER THE SPANIARDS (15211898)

The Laws of the Indies was employed as the standards to all

development in the Philippines under King Philip II reign. These laws
provided guidelines for:

Site selection (e.g.: elevated and healthy location with

fortification)
Layout and dimensions of squares (e.g.: grid layout; main plaza
as the starting point)
Streets and other land uses (e.g.: small plazas surrounded by
principal buildings; other lots for merchants shops and
dwellings and more farm lots)

Barangays were grouped into pueblos (towns); pueblos into

provinces (alcaldias), the provinces into the country.

In 1568, the country was divided into encomiendas. The system was
abolished in 1630 which was replaced by the establishment of the
provincial and municipal governments.
 All roads lead to Manila and Madrid, a centralization principle of
colonialism. This is manifested in the dendritic pattern of town
locations that easily siphoned off resources from the hinterlands to the
port or primate city of Manila.

The Galleon Trade (1790) and Mercantilism reinforced Manilas

primacy and favored only certain urban areas supplying selected
products.

The Maura Law of 1893 established a municipal tribunal or

council for each town with at least a
thousand taxpayers. It extended autonomy
to the provinces.

The Philippine Plaza Complex and

Spains reduccion policy meant to bring
the dispersed population under the bells.
Town (poblaciones) plans followed the
Greco-Roman pattern marked by a grid
pattern with the core (colonial) elements of
plaza complex of church, town hall,
market, and principalia dwellings.

Taga-Bayan and Taga-Bukid the

reduccion policy created town and rural
residents.

INTRAMUROS a self-
contained community that
interacted within its
surrounding communities.
It has 1.2 km2 area with a
3.4 km. walled-perimeter.
When decentralization
occurred, communities
were built in Malate, San
Miguel, Paco among
other areas.
 In 1890, other port cities continue to become urban centers, bridges
were built along coastal routes facilitating transport in Luzon.

UNDER THE AMERICANS (1898 -1946)

The plaza complex was modified. The town center which was focused
on the plaza ad the church shifted to the market place.

On July 31, 1903, by virtue of Act No. 183, the City of Manila was
incorporated. Manila encompassed Intramuros, the towns of Binondo,
Tondo, Sta. Cruz, Malate, Ermita, Paco and Pandacan.

Burnhams Plan for Manila (1905) Daniel H. Burnham, architect

and exponent of the City
Beautiful movement
prepared the plans for the
growth of Manila and
Baguio City. Planning
influence was that of
Patrick Geddes, i.e.
survey-analyze-plan. The
plan was implemented by
architect W. E. Parsons.

The plan focused on parks,

grand avenues and
monumental groupings of
public buildings as a strong central civic core.
 The Americans gave greater emphasis on sanitation, housing and
aesthetic improvements.

In 1910, rebuilding of settlements was done complete with

hygiene and sanitary facilities and drainage systems (Sanitary
barrios)

Barrio obrero in 1915 came up as a housing scheme for local

labor groups.

City planning did not get institutional foothold. A zoning plan was
prepared only in 1929. A zoning ordinance proposed in 1935 failed
five times due to opposition from real estate and other special interests.
It took effect only in 1940.

No laws (during the period) were enacted to mention about the

substance of planning.

In 1939, Commonwealth Act No. 457 authorized the transfer of the

capitol to an area of 1572 square hectares.

After the war, RA 333 designated

Quezon City as new capital and master
planning was done by the Capital city
Planning Commission.

City Beautiful reflected the

aspirations of an emerging nations and
the visions of a passionate leader.

In 1946 (post-commonwealth) the

National Urban Planning Committee
was created by President Sergio
Osmea for the reconstruction of sites.

Sources:
Ocampo, RB. (October 1992). Planning and Development of Prewar Manila: Historical
Glimpses of Philippine City Planning. Philippine Journal of Public Administration,
Vol. 36, No. 4. pp. 305-325.
Gabitan, RS. (April 2008) History, Concepts, Theories and Principles of Environmental
Planning. Lecture presented at the UAP Capability Building Seminar, UAP HQ.
REPORT NOTES (Sourced from the NET):

1. In Book IV of the 1680 compilation of The Laws of the Indies, plans were set forth
for settlers in high detail on every facet of creating a community. Examples of the diverse
range of rules include: k

Those [Colonists] who should want to make a commitment to building a new

settlement in the form and manner already prescribed, be it of more or less than
30 neighbors, (know that) it should be of no less than twelve persons and be
awarded the authorization and territory in accordance with the prescribed
conditions.
Having made the selection of the site where the town is to be built, it must, as
already stated, be in an elevated and healthy location; [be] with means of
fortification; [have] fertile soil and with plenty of land for farming and pasturage;
have fuel, timber, and resources; [have] fresh water, a native population, ease of
transport, access and exit; [and be] open to the north wind; and, if on the coast,
due consideration should be paid to the quality of the harbor and that the sea does
not lie to the south or west; and if possible not near lagoons or marshes in which
poisonous animals and polluted air and water breed.
They [Colonists] shall try as far as possible to have the buildings all of one type
for the sake of the beauty of the town.
Within the town, a commons shall be delimited, large enough that although the
population may experience a rapid expansion, there will always be sufficient
space where the people may go to for recreation and take their cattle to pasture
without them making any damage.
The site and building lots for slaughter houses, fisheries, tanneries, and other
business which produce filth shall be so placed that the filth can easily be
disposed of.

These regulations are included in a body of 143 others (totaling 148) configuring any
settlement according to the rule of Spain and its colonies. This continued as a precedent
in all towns of Spanish control until the relinquishing of the land to others, as in the case
of the American colonies and their growth; however, the Laws of the Indies still serve as
an example to design guidelines for communities today.

2. As part of the Spanish economic policies during the start of colonization, the
encomienda system was employed by the Miguel Lopez de Legaspi to organize the new
Spanish colony (Philippines).

The word encomienda comes from the Spanish word encomendar which means "to
entrust". The Spanish conquistador Legaspi distributed 98 encomiendas among the first
Spanish colonists, following the practice that begun in the Americas during the time of
Christopher Columbus. Under the encomienda system, the native inhabitants in a given
geographic region were entrusted to an encomendero or trustee as a reward for his service
to the Spanish Crown. This system was not a land tenure. The encomendero had specific
responsibilities such as, to protect and to educate the natives in reading, writing and
Catholic doctrines. In return, the encomendero was authorized to collect tribute from the
natives and to recruit workers for the polos y servicios. The encomendero also had no
political authority or jurisdiction over the Filipinos but he could be appointed to a post in
the colonial government.

Although the intent of this system was to organize the colony and indoctrinate the natives
in Catholicism, it became a tool of oppression and exploitation by the encomenderos. The
encomienda was used as a pretext to seize the lands of the natives, arbitrarily increase the
tributes and forced the natives into slavery.

3. The Maura Law was a law that laid the basic foundations for municipal government
in the Philippines. It is named after its author, Don Antonio Maura, the Spanish Minister
of Colonies at the time. It was promulgated on May 19, 1893, and put into effect starting
in 1895. The law's preamble stated that the law was intended to "... insure to the natives,
in the future, whenever it may be possible, the necessary land for cultivation, in
accordance with traditional usages." Article 4, however, provides that "... title to all
agricultural lands which were capable of adjustment under the Royal decree of ... 1880,
but the adjustment of which has not been sought at the time of promulgation of this
decree ... will revert to the State. The law reorganized town governments in the
Philippines with the aim of making them more effective and autonomous. This law
created the municipal organization that was later adopted, revised, and further
strengthened by the American and Filipino governments that succeeded

The Maura Law established tribunales, municipales and juntas provinciales, and these
foundations laid by the Maura Law were later adopted, revised, and strengthened by the
American and Filipino governments that succeeded Spanish rule in the country.

4. The plaza as a historical and cultural space

Prior to the colonization of the country by the Spaniards, there were already many
thriving communities in the island of Panay. These communities or barangays were
generally situated along river banks or the seacoasts and were linear in character;
meaning, the houses were in a line. There were also thriving communities that were
nuclear or concentrated in one area but they were few.

Upon the arrival of the Spaniards, in order for them to facilitate the colonization of the
land and to bring the natives closer to Catholicism, they introduced the so-called plaza
complex. They required the inhabitants, near and far, to put up their houses around an
open space they called the plaza. The plaza complex consisted of an open space, usually
rectangular or square in shape, a chapel or church, a convent, a municipio or tribunal, a
market place, a cemetery, and the residences around it. This physical set-up enabled the
Spaniards to effectively manage and control the natives and to bring them closer to
Catholicism. It also served them well in terms of census-taking and collecting of taxes
from the natives, as well as conscripting them to render forced labor. It further made a
distinction between loyal subjects of Spain and those considered as enemies because they
refused to put up their residence close to the plaza. They were, therefore, labeled as
bandidos, ladrones, monteses, mondos and insurectos. Punishments like flogging and
executions of the enemy of the state and the church were also held in the plaza at that
time for all the people to see as a lesson for everybody.

The choice of the Spaniards for the plaza was based on the number of inhabitants in the
area, its accessibility, and its strategic location for defense. Thus, in many cases, these
open spaces were located along the mouths of rivers and along the seashores which also
served since colonial times as tabuan or trading centers.

Other than its political function, the plaza served well the religious component of the
Spanish colonization of the country. It served as the place of conversion and worship. It
became the center of the life of the people because their life cycle revolved around the
plaza. Their baptism, confirmation, confession, religious requirements, marriage,
anointing of the sick, and burial were all done in the plaza complex. It must be pointed
out that in the early years of the Spanish administration of the Philippines, the cemeteries
were also near the plaza.

Still, on the religious function of the plaza was the fact that it became the center of
various activities of the people. Patronal fiestas were introduced by the Spanish priests to
attract people to gather in the plaza. Furthermore, the holy week celebration, Christmas
celebration, passion singing, religious processions and, later, the Flores de Mayo and
Santacruzan added more religious fervor and piety to the parishioners and visitors alike
of the town or barangay.

On the cultural side during the Spanish period, stage plays, like the comedia, moro-moro,
later the zarzuela were later held in the plaza that provided color and entertainment to the
people.

During the American period up to the more recent times, the plaza as a religious space
continued to dominate. But, yet, certain changes in the function of the plaza can be
observed. Agro-industrial exhibition became a favorite feature as well as a variety of
cultural programs. There were the colorful muse contests, dance and sports competitions,
as well as rides and special shows. Political rallies started to be a feature in the string of
activities held in the plaza. In more recent times, plazas have begun to serve as bazaars,
specializing on ukay-ukay and borloloys, reminding people of Baclaran and Divisoria.

The plaza as a public space, indeed, is a very important legacy for us Filipinos. It is a
religious and cultural landmark serving as a silent witness to our eventful history. It is
reflective of our rich culture as a people, influenced by early foreign traders and by the
Spanish and American rulers. It is, therefore, imperative that the plaza be taken cared of;
if needed, rehabilitated, restored, improved, kept clean and preserved. Its use must be
regulated, preferably to religious and cultural activities only. We owe it to ourselves and
to our forefathers to do so.

5. Reduccion policies - Spanish military resettlement policy essentially meant a forced

relocation of small, scattered settlements into one larger town. It was designed for the
convenience of administration of the Spanish colony's population, a way for a small
number of armed Spanish constabulary to control more easily the movements and actions
of a large number of Filipinos. It was also designed to enable Spain to collect taxes from
their Christianized converts. Taga-Bayan and Taga-Bukid the reduccion policy
created town and rural residents. Within the town, peopled lived around the plaza, with
the illustrados located closest to the center and the lower class living at the periphery
within the sound of bells. The taga-bukid constituted a small minority who had to be in
the fields or rural areas planting rice.

6. Although they were not the first Europeans in the Philippines, the first well
documented arrival of western Europeans in the archipelago was the Spanish expedition
led by Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, which first sighted the mountains of Samar at
dawn on 16 March 1521 (Spanish calendar). Magellan had abandoned his Portuguese
citizenship and became a Spanish subject prior to his contract with Spain. On Easter
Sunday, 31 March 1521 (Spanish calendar), at Masao, Butuan, (now in Agusan Del
Norte), he solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea and
claimed possession of the islands he had seen for Spain, naming them Archipelago of
Saint Lazarus.

The first Holy Mass was celebrated on Easter Sunday, 31 March 1521 (Spanish calendar).

Magellan sought friendship among the natives beginning with Humabon, the chieftain of
Sugbu (now Cebu), and took special pride in converting them to Catholicism. Magellan
got involved with political rivalries among the Cebuano natives and took part in a battle
against Lapu-Lapu, chieftain of Mactan island and a mortal enemy of Humabon. At dawn
on 27 April 1521, Magellan invaded Mactan Island with 48 armed men (less than half his
crew) and 1,000 Cebuano warriors, but had great difficulty landing his men on the rocky
shore. Lapu-Lapu had an army of 1,500 on land. Magellan waded ashore with his soldiers
and attacked the Mactan defenders, ordering Humabon and his warriors to remain aboard
the ships and watch. Magellan seriously underestimated the Lapu-Lapu and his men, and
grossly outnumbered, The rest managed to reboard the ships.

The battle left the Spanish too few to man three ships so they abandoned the
"Concepcin". The remaining ships - "Trinidad" and "Victoria" - sailed to the Spice
Islands in present-day Indonesia. From there, the expedition split into two groups. The
Trinidad, commanded by Gonzalo Gmez de Espinoza tried to sail eastward across the
Pacific Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. Disease and shipwreck disrupted Espinoza's
voyage and most of the crew died. Survivors of the Trinidad returned to the Spice Islands,
where the Portuguese imprisoned them. The Victoria continued sailing westward,
commanded by Juan Sebastin Elcano, and managed to return to Sanlcar de Barrameda,
Spain in 1522. In 1529, Charles I of Spain relinquished all claims to the Spice Islands to
Portugal in the treaty of Zaragoza. However, the treaty did not stop the colonization of
the Philippine archipelago from New Spain.

After Magellan's voyage, subsequent expeditions were dispatched to the islands. Four
expeditions were authorized: that of Loaisa (1523), Cabot (1526), Saavedra (1527),
Villalobos (1542), and Legazpi (1564).The Legazpi expedition was the most successful
of all.
In 1543, Ruy Lpez de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar Las Islas
Filipinas after Philip II of Spain. Philip II became King of Spain on January 16, 1556,
when his father, Charles I of Spain, abdicated the Spanish throne. Philip was in Brussels
at the time and his return to Spain was delayed until 1559 because of european politics
and wars in northern Europe. Shortly after his return to Spain, Philip ordered an
expedition mounted to the Spice Islands, stating that its purpose was "to discover the
islands to the west". In reality its task was to conquer the Philippines for Spain.

On April 27, 1565, Spanish conquistadores numbering a mere 500 attacked the defiant
Tupas, who had succeeded Rajah Humabon as king of Cebu. Tupas was defeated and
made to sign an agreement after his defeat and effectively placing the Philippines under
Spain. On that same day, the first permanent Spanish settlement of San Miguel was
founded in Cebu. In 1570, Juan de Salcedo, in the service of Legaspi, conquered the
Kingdom of Maynila (now Manila). Legaspi then made Maynila the capital of the
Philippines and renamed it Nueva Castilla. The name didn't stick and the hispanized
name of Manila (from Maynila) survived to this day. This action pleased the King of
Spain and he appointed Legaspi as the colony's first governor-general. Cebu then receded
into the background as power shifted north to Luzon with the fertile lands of its central
plains. The archipelago was made Spain's outpost in the orient as the Spanish East Indies.
The colony was administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) until
1821 when Mexican patriots seceded from the Spanish Empire. After 1821, the colony
was governed directly from Spain.

Early colonial economy depended on the Galleon Trade which was inaugurated in 1565
between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico. To avoid hostile powers, most trade between
Spain and the Philippines was via the Pacific Ocean to Mexico (Manila to Acapulco), and
then across the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean to Spain (Veracruz to Cdiz). The
European population steadily grew although natives remained the majority. They
depended on the Galleon Trade for a living. In the later years of the 18th century,
Governor-General Basco introduced economic reforms that gave the colony its first real
income from the production of tobacco and other agricultural exports. In this later period,
agriculture was finally opened to the European population, which before was reserved
only for the natives.

During Spains 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the Chinese
pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in 1574),
Dutch forces, Portuguese forces, and indigenous attacks with limited resources. Moros
from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago constantly raided the coastal Christian
areas of Luzon and the Visayas and occasionally brought home loot and fair women.
They often sold their captives as slaves.

On February 8, 1597, King Philip II, near the end of his 42 year reign, issued a Royal
Cedula instructing to Francisco de Tello de Guzmn, then Governor-General of the
Philippines in severe terms to fulfill the laws of tributes and to provide for restitution of
ill-gotten taxes imposed on the natives. The Cedula also decreed an undertaking by which
the natives (referred to as Indians}, "... freely render to me submission." The decree was
published in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on 13 September, just forty days
after the publication of the decree, but his death was not known in the Philippines until
middle of 1599, by which time a referrendum by which the natives would acknowledge
Spanish rule was underway. With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599,
Spain could be said to have established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.[7]

In the late 16th century, the Japanese, under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, claimed control of the
Philippines and for a time the Spanish paid tribute to secure their trading routes and
protect Jesuit missionaries in Japan.

Political System

The Spanish quickly organized their new colony according to their model. The first task
was the reduction, or relocation of native inhabitants into settlements. The earliest
political system used during the conquista period was the encomienda system, which
resembled the political system known as Feudalism in Medieval Europe. The
conquistadores, friars and native nobles were granted estates, in exchange for their
services to the King, and was given the privilege to collect tribute from its inhabitants. In
return, the person granted the encomienda, known as an encomendero, was tasked to
provide military protection to the inhabitants, justice and governance. In times of war, the
encomendero was duty bound to provide soldiers for the King, in particular, for the
defense of the colony from invaders such as the Dutch, British and Chinese. The
encomienda was entrusted to the encomendero by the King for only two generations. The
encomienda system was abused by encomenderos and was replaced by a more advanced
system of governance of the times.

The most prominent feature of Spanish cities was the plaza, a central area for town
activities such as the fiesta, and where government buildings, the church, a market area
and other infrastructures were located. Residential areas lay around the plaza. During the
conquista, the first task of colonization was the reduction, or relocation of the indigenous
population into settlements surrounding the plaza.

As in Europe, the church always had control over the state affairs of the colony. The
friars controlled the sentiments of the native population and was more powerful than the
governor-general himself. Among the issues that resulted to the Philippine revolution of
1898 that ended Spanish rule was the abuse of power by the religious orders.

National Government

On the national level, the King of Spain, through his Council of the Indies (Consejo de
Indias), governed through his sole representative in the Philippines: the Governor-
General (Gobernador y Capitn General). With the seat of power in Intramuros, Manila,
the Governor-General was given several duties: he headed the Supreme Court (Real
Audiencia), was Commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and was the economic
planner of the country. All known executive power of the local government stemmed
from him and as vice-regal patron, he had the right to supervise mission work and
oversee ecclesiastical appointments. His yearly salary was P40,000. For obvious reasons,
the Governor-General was usually a Peninsular (Spaniard born in Spain) to ensure
loyalty of the colony to the crown.

Provincial Government

On the provincial level, heading the pacified provinces (alcaldia), was the provincial
governor (alcalde mayor). The unpacified military zones (corregidor), such as Mariveles
and Mindoro, were headed by the corregidores. City governments (ayuntamientos), were
also headed by an alcalde mayor. Alcalde mayors and corregidores exercised multiple
prerogatives as judge, inspector of encomiendas, chief of police, tribute collector,
capitan-general of the province and even vice-regal patron. His annual salary ranged from
P300 to P2000 before 1847 and P1500 to P1600 after it. But this can be augmented
through the special privilege of "indulto de commercio" where all people were forced to
do business with him. The alcalde mayor was usually an Insulares (Spaniard born in the
Philippines). In the 1800s, the Peninsulares began to displace the Insulares which
resulted in the political unrests of 1872, notably the execution of GOMBURZA, Novales
Revolt and mutiny of the Cavite fort under La Madrid.

Municipal Government

The pueblo or town is headed by the gobernadorcillo or little governor. Among his
administrative duties were the preparation of the tribute list (padron), recruitment and
distribution of men for draft labor, communal public work and military conscription
(quinto), postal clerk and judge in minor civil suits. He intervened in all administrative
cases pertaining to his town: lands, justice, finance and the municipal police. His annual
salary, however, was only P24 but he was exempted from taxation. Any native or
Chinese mestizo, 25 years old, literate in oral or written Spanish and has been a cabeza de
barangay of 4 years can be a gobernadorcillo. Among those prominent is Emilio
Aguinaldo, a Chinese Mestizo and who was the gobernadorcillo of Cavite El Viejo (now
Kawit). Early officials of the pueblo were taken from the Maharlika class or nobles of
pre-colonial society. Their names are survived by prominent families in contemporary
Philippine society such as Tupas, Gatmaitan, Liwanag, Pangilinan, Panganiban and
Agbayani to name a few.

Barrio Government

Barrio government (village or district) rested on the barrio administrator (cabeza de

barangay). He was responsible for peace and order and recruited men for communal
public works. Cabezas should be literate in Spanish and have good moral character and
property. Cabezas who served for 25 years were exempted from forced labor. In addition,
this is where the sentiment heard as, "Mi Barrio", first came from.

The Residencia and The Visita

To check the abuse of power of royal officials, two ancient castilian institutions were
brought to the Philippines. The Residencia, dating back to the fifth century and the Visita
differed from the residencia in that it was conducted clandestinely by a visitador-general
sent from Spain and might occur anytime within the officials term, without any previous
notice. Visitas may be specific or general.

Maura Law

Economy

Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade

The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade was the main source of income for the colony
during its early years. Service was inaugurated in 1565 and continued into the early 19th
century. The Galleon trade brought silver from New Spain, which was used to purchase
Asian goods such as silk from China, spices from the Moluccas, lacquerware from Japan
and Philippine cotton textiles. These goods were then exported to New Spain and
ultimately Europe by way of Manila. Thus, the Philippines earned its income through the
trade of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon. The trade was very prosperous and attracted many
merchants to Manila, specially Chinese. However, initially it neglected the development
of the colony's local industries which affected the Indios since agriculture was their main
source of income. In addition, the building and operation of galleons put too much burden
on the colonists' annual polo y servicio. However, it resulted in cultural and commercial
exchanges between Asia and the Americas that led to the introduction of new crops and
animals to the Philippines such as corn, potato, tomato, cotton and tobacco among others,
that gave the colony its first real income. The trade lasted for over two hundred years, and
ceased in 1815 just before the secession of American colonies from Spain.

Royal Society of Friends of the Country

Jos de Basco y Vargas, following a royal order to form a society of intellectuals who can
produce new, useful ideas, formally established the Real Sociedad Economica de Amigos
del Pais. Composed of leading men in business, industry and profession, the society was
tasked to explore and exploit the island's natural bounties. The society led to the creation
of Plan General Economico of Basco which implemented the monopolies on the areca
nut, tobacco, spirited liquors and explosives. It offered local ad foreign scholarships and
training grants in agriculture and established an academy of design. It was also credited
to the carabao ban of 1782, the formation of the silversmiths and gold beaters guild and
the construction of the first papermill in the Philippines in 1825. It was introduced on
1780, vanished temporarily on 1787-1819, 1820-1822 and 1875-1822 and ceased to exist
in the middle of the 1890s.

Royal Company of the Philippines

On March 10, 1785, Charles III created the Royal Philippine Company with a 25 year
charter. It was granted exclusive monopoly of bringing to Manila, Philippines; Chinese
and Indian goods and shipping them directly to Spain via the Cape of Good Hope. It was
stiffly objected by the Dutch and English who saw it as a direct attack on their trade of
Asian goods. It was also vehemently opposed by the traders of the Galleon trade who saw
it as competition. This gradually resulted into the death of both institutions: The Royal
Philippine Company in 1814 and the Galleon trade in 1815.
Taxation

To support the colony, several forms of taxes and monopolies were imposed. The buwis
(tribute), which could be paid in cash or kind (tobacco, chickens, produce, gold, blankets,
cotton, rice, etc., depending on the region of the country), was initially was fixed at 8
reales (one real being 12.5 centavos) and later increased to 15 reales, apportioned as
follows: ten reales buwis, one real diezmos prediales (tithes), one real to the town
community chest, one real sanctorum tax, and three reales for church support.

Also collected was the bandal (from the Tagalog word mandal, a round stack of rice
stalks to be threshed), an annual enforced sale and requisitioning of goods such as rice.
Custom duties and income tax were also collected. By 1884, the tribute was replaced by
the Cedula personal, wherein colonists were required to pay for personal identification.
Everyone over the age of 18 was obliged to pay.

Forced Labor (Polo y servicios)

The system of forced labor otherwise known as polo y servicios evolved within the
framework of the encomienda system, introduced into the South American colonies by
the Conquistadores and Catholic priests who accompanied them. Polo y servicios is the
forced labor for 40 days of men ranging from 16 to 60 years of age who were obligated to
give personal services to community projects. One could be exempted from polo by
paying the falla (corruption of the Spanish Falta, meaning "absence"), a daily fine of one
and a half real. In 1884, labor was reduced to 15 days. The polo system was patterned
after the Mexican repartimento, selection for forced labor.