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220354en - Water Chemistry Basic Level
220354en - Water Chemistry Basic Level
Basic Level
Training Lesson
We reserve all rights in this document and in the information contained therein.
Reproduction, use or disclosure to third parties without express authority is strictly
forbidden.
Copyright by ALSTOM (Switzerland) Ltd 2005
This is a training lesson. It provides overall information about the specific system
only.
To understand the operation concept in detail the project specific documents as
defined in the document reference section have to be included together with this
lesson.
All mentioned / attached values and settings are for information only. Typical
values are used to clarify particular subjects. Settings furthermore are subject to
change site specifically during commissioning.
For actual values please refer to the final plant specific
Operation & Maintenance Documentation.
Table of Contents
Lesson Objectives................................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction to Water Chemistry ........................................................................................................... 7
General........................................................................................................................................... 7
Treatment, Purification...................................................................................................................... 8
Conditioning.................................................................................................................................... 9
Protective Layer on Steel in W/S Cycle ............................................................................................. 12
Supervision .................................................................................................................................... 14
Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Types of Corrosion ......................................................................................................................... 16
Influence of Chloride...................................................................................................................... 22
Cathodic Protection ........................................................................................................................ 23
Galvanic Coupling ......................................................................................................................... 24
Deposits ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 25
Exceeding of the Solubility Product .................................................................................................. 25
Dosing & Sampling Points.................................................................................................................. 28
Chemical Dosing System ................................................................................................................... 29
General......................................................................................................................................... 29
Ammonia & Hydrazine Dosing........................................................................................................... 31
Phosphate Dosing ............................................................................................................................. 36
Sampling System............................................................................................................................... 40
Direct Conductivity ......................................................................................................................... 45
Acid-Conductivity ........................................................................................................................... 46
Measurement of the pH Value......................................................................................................... 48
Measurement of Oxygen ................................................................................................................ 50
Measurement of Silicate ................................................................................................................. 51
Closed Cooling Water ....................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction to Main Cooling Water Chemistry.................................................................................... 54
General......................................................................................................................................... 54
Types of Water Treatment ............................................................................................................... 55
Impact by Biology .......................................................................................................................... 56
Biocide Dosing............................................................................................................................... 58
Preservation ...................................................................................................................................... 60
Atmospheric Corrosion................................................................................................................... 60
Dry Preservation............................................................................................................................. 61
Wet Preservation ............................................................................................................................ 62
Components .................................................................................................................................. 62
Steam Turbine Protection ................................................................................................................ 63
Preservation Supervision ................................................................................................................. 63
Condenser Lay-up.......................................................................................................................... 64
General Supervision .......................................................................................................................... 65
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 65
Conductivity Meter ......................................................................................................................... 66
pH Meter ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Spectrophotometer......................................................................................................................... 68
Importance of Chemical Parameters ............................................................................................... 70
Trend-lines .................................................................................................................................... 72
Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................................. 73
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 75
Annexs ............................................................................................................................................. 76
Annex 01: Units of Water Chemistry............................................................................................... 76
Annex 02: Conductivity of Pure Water ............................................................................................ 77
Annex 03: Types of Chemical Boiler Water Treatment ..................................................................... 78
Annex 04: Magnetite Solubility / Thickness of Protective Layer.......................................................... 79
Annex 05: Sacrificing Anodes ........................................................................................................ 80
Annex 06: Expansion Curves of Steam Turbines.............................................................................. 81
Annex 07: Description Ammonia/Hydrazine Dosing System............................................................. 82
Annex 08: Description Ammonia/Hydrazine Storage System............................................................ 84
Annex 09: Control Philosophy Ammonia/Hydrazine Dosing ............................................................ 86
Annex 10: Description Phosphate Dosing System ............................................................................ 88
Annex 11: Control Philosophy Phosphate Dosing ............................................................................ 90
Table of Figures
Lesson Objectives
Recognize the dangers that could arise in the water/steam cycle of a power
plant due to water impurities.
Salt: In the water/steam cycle of a power plant there are certain chemical reactions other
Deadly Disease than physical reactions that take place. Dissolved and undissolved salts in water can
cause corrosion and the formation of deposits on components. This not only affects
the function of the plant, but under the worst conditions can lead to irreparable
damage.
Reasons for
Damage
57 %
Deposition on blades
26 %
Localised corrosion
21 %
Formation
Formation
of cracks
0 20 40 60
CSXA403441.cdr
General (continued)
Critical The following components and systems can be affected by corrosion and deposits:
Components
System Issues
Steam generating Corrosion in heat transfer zones by electrolyte
system containing deposits.
High temperatures and high pressure.
Compromises between material and design.
Turbine Corrosion by deposits and acids on the steam
expansion path.
High stress level.
Compromises between material and design.
Condensers Steam side:
Erosion corrosion/droplet impingement during
condensation.
Water side:
Corrosion under deposits. Plugging by biological
growth.
Pumps, pipes, Erosion and erosion corrosion.
joints/ceilings Mechanical wear and tear.
Cooling water system Scaling and biological deposits.
Tasks and The prevention of corrosion and deposits is the most important task of power plant
measures chemistry. Specific measures required for this task are:
Removal of salts (electrolytes) in the make up resp. feed water.
Conditioning of the water in the water/steam cycle
Monitoring/controlling of the water/steam cycle.
Treatment, Purification
Precondition Dissolved and undissolved salts in the water cause corrosion and the formation of
deposits on the components.
As the raw water for a power plant contains salts it cannot be used directly. It has to
be purified i.e. salts must be separated from the water through a dematerialize
plant.
Removal of The concentrated contaminant resp. salt traces in the water/steam cycle are
Contaminants removed or at least reduced by the blow-down of the boiler.
from the Boiler
Make-up Water The make-up water parameters of the water/steam cycle can be checked through
Parameters various measuring parameters.
Treatment Plant The most important components of the dematerialize plant are:
Water supply raw water.
Plant specific pretreatment (filters, flocculation, membrane systems, chemical
dosing).
Cation exchanger.
Degasser (for expelling of carbon dioxide).
Anion exchanger.
Mixed bed.
Conditioning
Anti-Corrosion It is not enough to simply remove salts as pure water itself cannot prevent corrosion
Dosing when no conditioning agent is applied. For this purpose ammonia and phosphate
are used in the water steam cycle. They prevent corrosion and provide a safety
measure in case the water/steam cycle is accidentally polluted.
The conditioning is implemented by special dosing systems:
Boiler water Phosphate dosing system
Steam/condensate Ammonia dosing system
Conditioning (continued)
Biological and To prevent the growth of biological life forms in the condenser and at the cooling
Anti-Scale water intake as well as to prevent hardness scaling in re-circulating cooling systems
Dosing (cooling tower), conditioning is again implemented by special dosing systems:
Condenser and cooling water intake Sodium Hypochlorite dosing system
Re-circulating cooling systems Sulfuric Acid dosing system
Feed water and The following table shows the typical specification for the feed water and boiler
Boiler Water water.
Specification
Feed Water
Parameter Unit Maximum Value
Conductivity after cation-exchanger S cm-1 < 0. 2
Spec. conductivity S cm-1 3-11
pH 9.0 ... 9.6
Copper g kg-1 <3
Oxygen g kg-1 <10
Silicate as SiO2 g kg-1 < 20
Iron as Fe g kg-1 < 20
Boiler Water
Parameter Unit Maximum Value
Spec. conductivity S cm-1 < 40
pH 9.1 ... 9.6
Silicate as SiO2 mg kg-1 1.6 *
Phosphate as PO4 mg kg-1 2 ... 6
* Depending on Pressure
Steam purity The ALSTOM steam purity specification is state of the art. It is nearly identical with
Specification the VGB guidelines and differs only in some details from the EPRI guidelines which
are somewhat more strict in some parameters.
On the following pages we add an excerpt from the Alstom Steam Purity
Requirements for Turbine Operation, HTGD 90 486 E.
Conditioning (continued)
Without A vital aim of water chemistry is the corrosion prevention in boiler and W/S cycle
Protection Layer components. This is realized in the best way by providing adequate conditions (pure
no long-term water, correct chemical conditioning) that help to build up a protective layer from
Integrity of Steel iron oxides on the steel surface.
Components
This layer must be thin, homogenous and without cracks and pores, so that there is
a thin barrier (magnitude 10m) against the water- or the steam side in the
component. In the ideal case, there is no material transport neither from the water
to the steel (any contaminants) nor from the steel to the water (iron ions).
(Black) In pure water without any oxygen, the protective layer consists of tiny magnetite
Magnetite gives crystals (Fe3O4, a black oxide). Nowadays it is known that a layer from magnetite
a good But not alone is not ideally tight but has tiny channels resp. pores that allow some passage
the best of ions on the way from water to the steel and vice versa. Nevertheless, it had been
Protective Layer the classical philosophy for many decades that a pure magnetite layer is the
optimum.
Magnetite Since appr. 1970 it became more and more known that a certain low level of
together with oxygen in the W/S cycle water helps to make the protective layer even more tight,
some (Red) by plugging the channels, see above, with another type of iron oxides, the
Hematite gives hematite (Fe2O3, red oxide).
the optimized As a result, the modern philosophy for achieving an optimized protective layer
Protective Layer means:
For best conditioning of the water use clean water, raise the pH by ammonia,
and have a controlled low level of oxygen.
Deoxygenated The following figure shows a schematic of the oxide that forms in deoxygenated
iron based surfaces. It attempts to illustrate that the transport of oxygen is controlled
by the pores in the oxide:
H 2O
Oxide
protective
cover layer H2
H2
+
Fe(OH)
-
Fe
2+ OH +
Fe(OH) 2 3
2
1
Metal
CSXA403385.cdr
Oxygenated The oxide structure changes when the feedwater is oxygenated and FeOOH forms
both on the surface and within the oxide pores. The FeOOH on the surface reduces
the amount of corrosion products that enter the water because of the lower
solubility of FeOOH compared with Fe3O4.
The FeOOH in the pores affects the oxide growth by reducing the diffusion of
oxygen through the pores:
H 2O O2
Oxide
protective
cover layer
CSXA403386.cdr
Supervision
General The water in the water/steam cycle must be constantly checked so that correctional
measures can be made in time should a problem occur.
Manual Part of the supervision is completed by manual analysis. This has to be performed
Supervision periodically.
On-line However, important parameters are checked constantly by monitors. For example,
Supervision monitors for conductivity of the water, which define the extent/degree of the
impurity, are constantly in operation.
The measuring-results of these so-called on-line instruments are then routed to
the main control room (DCS).
Every single measured value and its interpretation permits constant actual
evaluation of the chemical condition of the plant. In case of irregularities,
indications are given of the possible functional disorders of the plant components
(e.g. cooling water in-leakage, disturbances in the water treatment plant,
contamination by boiler carry-over).
The interpretation of analytical results requires some experience. Important:
Look for consistency of the values in the boiler and W/S cycle, because the
parameters have certain logical connections and dependancies.
Corrosion
Definition In the corrosion standards, corrosion is defined according to DIN 50900 part 1 as
follows:
Corrosion is the reaction of a metallic material with an environment that causes
a measurable change in the material and can lead to corrosion damage.
A discoloration of a surface coming from any oxidation process and not giving any
suspicion of damage is not corrosion:
The wording corrosion is connected with damage.
Plant
Maintenance
Design
Environment
Corrosion
Stress
Corrosion
Design Design
Plant CSXA403387.cdr
Types of Corrosion
Introduction Corrosion research shows many types of corrosion processes all of which operate in
different ways. Not every corrosion type is detectable by the naked eye
(for example when no rust is seen). Here the corrosion specialist is consulted to
determine the exact nature and type of corrosion.
The following table shows the different types of corrosion which predominantly
appear in the power plant field.
Corrosion of The following table shows types of corrosion which can occur on turbine
Turbine Parts components during operation:
Dry Parts
First Condensate
Wet Parts
Erosion, e.g.:
Uniform Numerous base metals are unstable in both acidic and neutral environments and
Corrosion corrode at considerable to high speed.
8 H2 development 100
density
rate
6 50
Mass development
Corrosion current
[gm-2d-1]
[Acm-2]
4 20
2 10
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 2 3 4 5
pH pH
CSXA403392.cdr CSXA403393.cdr
Uniform 10
Corrosion 20 8
(continued)
Corrosion velocity
6
[vkorr]
vkorr
10 4
0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8
Velocity of
-1
flow Oxygen content
[ms ] CSXA403394.cdr
-1
[mgl ]
CSXA403395.cdr
Metal R Metal R
(mV) (mV)
Gold (+306) Remanit 1620 (120 kg.mm2) (+7)
G AlSiMg with casting (+274) Beryllium nickel , soft (-40)
Silver +194 V2A Steel (-84)
Titan (+181) AlMgSi (-124)
Silverin (+164) Aluminium Al 99.5 (-169)
New-silver Ns 6218 +161 Tin (plate metal) (-175)
Silver solder 4505 +156 hard chromium coating (50 m) on steel (-249)
Bronze SnBz8 +156 Tin Solder lsn 90 (-258)
Cr AlSig with casting (+155) Tin Sn 98 (-275)
Silver solder 4404 +154 Tin solder Sn 60 (-279)
Yellow brass soms 70 +153 Lead Pb 99.9 (-283)
Silver solder 2500 +152 Cylinder iron GG-22 with coating (cupola furnace) -346
Monel (+148) Steel Mu St 4 -350
Silver Solder 4003 +145 Machine iron GG-18 with coating (electric furnace) -376
Yellow brass Ms 63 +145 Steel 1.26 % C -377
Elmedur +144 Carbonyl iron -389
New silver Ns 6512 (+141) Machine iron GG-18 with coating (cupola furnace) -389
Copper +140 Cylinder iron GG-22 with coating (electric furnace) -404
Beryllium copper, hard +140 Cadmium (plate metal) -574
AlMBz10 (+139) GK ZnAl6Cu1 with coating -762
Beryllium copper , soft +135 GK ZnAl6Cu1 without coating -773
Monel K +131 Zinc coating(100 m cyan) on steel -794
Yellow brass G Ms 64 +126 Zinc Zn 99.975 -807
Nickel Ni 99.6 +118 Zinc Zn 99.5 -815
Yellow brass Ms 63 Pb +117 Zinc Zn 98.5 -823
Remanit 1620 (+76) Zinc Zn 99.995 -827
Beryllium nickel, hard (+64) GD Zn Al4 -853
AlCuMg (+21) Electron AM503 -1460
Metal R Metal R
(mV) (mV)
Gold (+243) Lead Pb 99.9 -259
Silver +149 Zinc Zn 98.5 -284
Nickel Ni 99.6 +46 Hard chromium coating -291
Silverin +44 Machine iron GG-18 with coating (cupola furnace) -307
Yellow brass SoMs 70 +28 Steel Mu St-4 -335
Yellow brass Ms 63 +13 AlCuMg -339
Monel K +12 Cylinder iron GG-22 with coating (cupola furnace) -347
Copper +10 Cylinder iron GG-22 with coating (electric furnace) -351
Beryllium copper, hard +0 Machine iron GG-18 with coating (electric furnace) -455
New silver Ns 6218 -1 Cadmium (plate metal) -519
AlMBz10 -1 Aluminium Al 99.5 667
Elmedur -8 AlMgSi -765
Silver Solder 4404 -15 Zinc coating (100 m acid) on steel -794
Beryllium nickel, hard -46 Zinc coating (100 m cyan) on steel -806
V2A Steel -45 Zinc Zn 98 -809
Titan (-111) GD Zn Al4 -935
Remanit 1620 -134 GK ZnAl6Cu1 without coating -987
Zinc (plate metal) -184 Electron AM503 -1355
Crevice Crevice corrosion deals with localized intensive corrosion in devices e.g. below
Corrosion deposits.
In cases where there is a difference in the concentration in the corrosion medium, it
gives rise to a galvanic corrosion system.
e
e
e Fe++ Fe++ e
e Fe++ e
CSXA403391.cdr
Influence of Chloride
Introduction Crevice corrosion and localized corrosion are initiated mainly by anions. In this
sense chloride is a very corrosive anion and it is present in practically all types of
water.
Corrosions Given the equilibrium rest potential of various materials in water with a certain
chloride content, one can estimate the probability of corrosion. This plays an
important role in the selection of the material that components are constructed from
(e.g. condenser-pipes).
Example If the chloride concentration amounts to, e.g. 10 mg . kg-1, then the free corrosion
potential amounts to approximately 200 mV when the pH - value is 8. Here the risk
of crevice corrosion is very small.
When the pH value sinks to 5, then the potential in this area reaches the point
where crevice corrosion begins.
10
10
108
Chloride concentration
106
[mgkg-1]
No corrosion
104 Corrosion crevice
102
pH 8
pH 7
0 pH 5
10
free potential with O2 free water
- 0.5 0 + 0.5 1
V (SHE) CSXA403390.cdr
Figure 13: Crevice and Local Corrosion Potentials for Stainless Steel 304 L (DIN 1.4306) (Typical)
Cathodic Protection
Principle If the potential lies in the critical range then with the help of baser materials a
galvanic coupling can be made. In doing so, contact corrosion is initiated with the
purpose of lowering the potential of the endangered substance into the uncritical
area.
Galvanic Coupling
Principle Heat exchanger pipes are processed out of Titanium or other rust free material.
(plated with stainless steel, e.g. DIN 1.4439)
Galvanic Coupling
Voltage measurement
[mV] range
Fe-
10 20 50
Anodes
5 10
0
20
1
0 50
WT
0 1k
OFF
pipes
V A
Pipe plate
Electrode Details
Pipe plate
Cathode
Cathode Anode
CSXA403389.cdr
Deposits
Introduction
When deposits form on some power plant components, the efficiency of the entire
power plant is impaired (e.g. on blades or in condenser pipes).
Impairment The deposits as such do not cause any permanent damage as they can be removed
by periodic cleaning. In condensers this is done by using rubber ball cleaning
devices and in gas turbines it is done by washing the compressor and turbine
blades.
Damages But the deposits can indirectly lead to permanent damage. They change the
chemical surroundings and encourage the corrosion processes, which are
irreversible. The problem here is that these chemical changes are not detectable by
on-line measuring techniques.
Conclusion So deposits should be avoided. Besides following the specification for water purity,
periodic inspection of the components is imperative.
Solubility Basically deposits develop when the solubility product of a substance is exceeded.
Product This solubility product (L) is constant at a given temperature.
Salt AB A + + B
L = (A) (B) = constant
SaltA 2B 2A + + B 2
L = (A) 2 (B) = constant
Example: mol2
Gypsum (CaSO4) L = (Ca) (SO 4 ) = (0.0153) 2
I2
Vaporization The concentration of the salts in the remaining water increases by vaporization.
Thereby the solubility product is exceeded and deposits develop.
Deposits
Heating Boiling
Incipient Boiling Nucleate Boiling Film Boiling
Saturated
Steam
Boiler Water
Superheated
Steam
Risk of Depositis
Superheated Liquid
Heating Zone
CSXA403399.cdr
NaCl
steam expansion, the opposite
process is applied:
NaCl
NaOH
Substances with steam solubility
Na2SiO3
SiO2
(HCl)
condense again so that there is a
CSXA403400.cdr precipitation of a salt film on the dry
part of the turbine.
Figure 17: Deposits on the Steam Turbine (Typical)
According to the solubility the deposits are distributed variously on the turbine. Due
to this the efficiency level is decreased and the risk of corrosion increases.
Carry-Over:
Amount of contaminants that leave the boiler with the steam.
Definition
Explanation Carry-over can deal with solid or liquid contaminants. The most frequent case of
carry-over is when a small amount of water droplets is taken away with the steam.
In this way the dissolved or suspended (= undissolved, finely distributed) substances
find their way into the water/steam cycle.
Description The carry-over is defined by the comparison of the sodium content in steam and
boiler water:
* pressure dependent
Higher value leads (e.g.) to the known deposits on the superheater pipes or on the
turbine blades.
General The dosing and sampling points for a triple pressure reheat combined cycle power
plant are indicated in the following diagram.
Depending on the number of gas turbines used for combined cycle operation
additional sampling and dosing points are implemented for each boiler drum and
each steam line.
Blow-down sampling
Sat. steam
sampling
Ammonia dosing
Phosphate dosing
Hydrazine dosing
Blow-down sampling
To once through coolers
Condensate sampling
Sat. steam
sampling
Phosphate dosing
Blow-down sampling
IP live
steam sampling
From once through coolers
Demin water
Oil no 2
CSXA403442.cdr
Introduction Apart from the removal of salts, the conditioning of the water is an important
protection against corrosion.
Addition of base By the addition of a strong base, the pH value of the water is increased: By doing so
the occurrence of H+ ions in higher concentration, which lead to corrosion, can be
prevented. Normally ammonia and phosphate are added for conditioning. This is
done with the help of a dosing system.
10-1 M 10-1 M
H Cl HOH Na OH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 M HCl 0 mV 1 M NaCl
mV @ 20 C
D pH D pH
+ 58.16 mV - 58.16 mV
D pH
- 58.16 mV x 2
CSXA403401.cdr
General (continued)
2 T = 75 C
t = 24 h
= 1.6M m.s
-1
VM
= 0.02 mg.kg
-1
1 CO2
0
7 8 9 10
pH value
CSXA403402.cdr
General Ammonia is fed into the water/steam cycle in order to increase the pH value. Values
between 0.2 and 2.0 mg kg-1 are necessary to obtain the desired pH value
between 9 to 9.6.
Hydrazine is only used if the oxygen content of the water/steam cycle is too high.
Additionally it can be used for wet preservation.
Hydrazine is a reducing agent that removes dissolved oxygen by the following
reaction:
N2H4 + O2 2 H2O + N2
Feed Pipe The ammonia and the hydrazine can be typically injected with two dosing pipes:
Dosing into the feed water tank.
Dosing into the condensate line.
Demin. water
M M
M M
LFN20 LFN40
M M M M
CSXA403403.cdr
Feeding Point The liquid ammonia spreads rapidly through the water/steam cycle. Thus it is
sufficient to dose ammonia into the feed water tank.
In case of a problem, the dosing pipe into the condensate line can be used. It
should always be ensured that water flows through the corresponding pipeline to
avoid a high local concentration of ammonia.
The same applies for the hydrazine.
Ammonia
Dosing
Types of The ammonia and the hydrazine dosing systems can be operated manually by the
Operation local control panel or automatically from the control room.
When in manual operation mode, the pumps can be individually switched ON
and OFF: As a safety measure, the pumps do not switch ON when the tank is
empty.
When the system is in automatic operation mode, the pumps are switched ON
and OFF based on various criteria from the control room.
(Continued next page)
Ammonia Logic The ammonia dosing pump will be switched ON automatically if:
At least one condensate pump is in operation.
The condensate discharge control valve is >10 % open.
The switch on the local control panel is in REMOTE position.
The conductivity of the feed water is low.
The ammonia dosing pump is switched OFF if:
No condensate pump is in operation.
The condensate discharge control valve is <10 % open.
The level in the dosing tank is very low.
The switch on the local control panel is changed from REMOTE to LOCAL.
The conductivity of the feed water is high.
Hydrazine Logic The hydrazine dosing pump will be switched ON automatically if:
No condensate pump is in operation.
The condensate discharge control valve is <10 % open.
The level in the dosing tank is very low.
The switch on the local control panel is changed from REMOTE to LOCAL.
The pump will be switched OFF if:
At least one condensate pump is in operation.
The condensate discharge control valve is >10 % open.
The switch on the local control panel is in REMOTE position.
Local Control
Panel
Figure 23: Ammonia & Hydrazine Dosing Local Control Panel (Typical)
10.0 30
9.5 25
9.0 20
Conductivity [Scm-1]
IpH [-]
8.5 15
pH
8.0 10
Conductivity
7.5 5
7.0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
NH3 [ppm] CSXA403406.cdr
Filling If the ammonia tank is empty, then the signal Level-Ammonia tank low will be
indicated. After that there is sufficient time to refill the system:
Approximately 50 liters of concentrated ammonia solution (approximately 25 %) per
m3 is pumped into the tank and diluted with pure water. After the mixing with the
stirrer, the solution in the storage tank corresponds to about 1 %.
The same procedure can be applied for the filling of the hydrazine tank, using
approximately 50 liters of hydrazine solution.
At any cost the eyes should be protected: Protective glasses are imperative. It is
advisable to wear a gas mask with an ammonia filter.
If any part of the body comes into contact with any of these chemicals, it should
immediately be washed with water.
Additionally, hydrazine is listed as a "possible human carcinogen" and should
therefore be handled very carefully.
Phosphate Dosing
General Phosphate is not fluid and therefore it is dosed only into the boiler drums. The
addition of phosphate keeps the pH value of the boiler water higher than the water
in the water/steam cycle. In this way, the boiler is protected against any possible
corrosion. Furthermore, the phosphate acts as a buffer against a quick pH value
drop that could be caused by contamination.
The pH value of the boiler - water should be between 9.1 to 9.6, which corresponds
to a phosphate content of 2 to 6 mg kg-1.
As the boiler loses water with the blow down, a continuous addition of phosphate is
necessary.
LFN01 M M M M
CSXA403409.cdr
Figure 27: P&ID: Phosphate Dosing for Triple Pressure Stage Power Plant (Typical)
Types of The phosphate dosing system can be operated manually by the local control panel
Operation or automatically from the control room.
When in manual operation mode, the phosphate pumps can be individually
switched ON and OFF: As a safety measure, the pumps do not switch ON when the
tank is empty.
When the system is in automatic operation mode, the pumps are switched ON and
OFF based on various criteria from the control room.
Switch ON The pumps run in accordance with the following switching ON criteria:
Criteria The GT is in operation.
The continuous blow down valve is open.
The wheel chamber pressure is > 10 %.
The re-circulation pump is in operation (if available).
The pH value in the boiler drum is low
(each boiler drum is controlled individually).
The switch on the local control panel is in REMOTE position.
(Continued next page)
Switch OFF The pumps are switched OFF under the following criteria:
Criteria The GT is not in operation.
The continuous blow down valve is closed.
The wheel chamber pressure is < 10 %.
The re-circulation pump is not in operation (if available).
The pH value in the boiler drum is high.
The level in the dosing tank is very low.
The switch on the local control panel is changed from REMOTE to LOCAL.
Relation 10 45
between pH,
Conductivity and
9.9 40
Phosphate
Concentration
9.8 35
9.7 30
Conductivity [Scm-1]
9.6 25
IpH [-]
9.5 20
9.4 15
pH
9.3 10
Conductivity
9.2 5
9.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
PO4 [ppm] CSXA403410.cdr
Filling The filling of the dosing tank is completed by adding Na3PO4 10H2O to the
solvent tank and filling it up with water.
The agitator is then switched ON for a couple of minutes. The resulting solution is
about 1 %.
Sampling System
General The supervision of the water/steam cycle requires special monitors that are provided
to continuously check the water.
In addition to the continuous measurements, further tests are carried out manually
and analyses are made in the laboratory.
Conditioning The steam and boiler samples are too hot to use directly with the online equipment.
Therefore, the water is routed through special sampling coolers, resulting in sample
temperatures of below 40 C. The sampling coolers themselves are connected to
the closed cooling water cycle.
Legend:
CC = Cation conductivity
CC = Acid conductivity
C = Conductivity
O2 = Dissolved oxygen CC CC
= Grab sample QIRA QIRA
C C C
QIRA QIRA QIRA
pH pH pH
QIRA QIRA QIRA
C
QIRA
CC O2 CC
QIRA QIRA QIRA
CSXA403413.cdr
Figure 31: Process Flow Sheet: Sampling System for Triple Pressure Stage Power Plant (Typical)
CSXA403414.cdr
Direct Conductivity
Monitors In standard plants, these monitors indicate the direct conductivity. There is one
monitor for each boiler and one for the feed water.
Boiler Water The conductivity of the boiler water indicates the level of
contamination and/or the amount of phosphate in the
drum. The value for all the these boilers should be
< 40 S cm-1
Feed Water The direct conductivity of the feed water shows the
ammonia content.
The corresponding monitor should be attended to,
without fail and at any cost. As the control of ammonia
dosing depends on this value, an incorrect measurement
(e.g. In case of insufficient flow) could cause dosing
errors.
Acid-Conductivity
Acid-Conductivity (continued)
Measurement of The highest purity requirement is required on the superheated high-pressure steam,
HP Steam as the impurities are deposited on the steam turbine. This is why during the
operation of the steam turbine; the steam needs to be below 1 S cm-1 during start
up and under normal operation conditions below 0.2 S cm-1.
Maintenance Proper functioning of these monitors is essential as they control the phosphate
dosing. An incorrect signal, e.g.: during insufficient flow, causes incorrect dosing.
Qualified employees should calibrate the pH monitors once in every two weeks. For
this calibration two different solutions with known pH values (pH buffer) are used.
Maintenance
Measurement of Oxygen
Measurement of Silicate
Monitor Silicate does not break-up into ions in water therefore, it cannot be detected by the
acid-conductivity.
A silicate monitor can be used for the automatic measurement of the steam: By
adding different reagents, a blue - coloring develops in relation to the silicate
concentration. This can be checked photo metrically. If this monitor is not available,
manual measurement of the silicate concentration can be performed in the
laboratory.
Maintenance This monitor is very sensitive and should be checked every four weeks. While doing
so, the reagents are exchanged. A chemist should perform such maintenance.
General The closed cooling water usually consists of demineralized water. The chemicals for
the conditioning of this water are added with a special chemical lock.
The supervision of this water is completed manually in the laboratory.
Chemicals One of the following chemicals/mixtures is added to the closed cooling water cycle:
Hydrazine, N2H4 (100-300 mg kg-1)
Caustic Soda, NaOH (4 mg kg-1)
Glycol with 0.15 % NaBO2 and 0.3 % NaNO2
Hydrazine is often used because of the good oxygen removal effect of this chemical.
In countries where the use of hydrazine is not allowed, caustic soda is used in order
to adjust the pH to 10.
The demineralized water is fully saturated with air/oxygen. Therefore, any loss of
closed cooling water is to be avoided or at least minimized. The oxygen being
transported into the system will be quantitatively transformed into rust deposits if
caustic soda is used.
If the temperatures of the closed cooling cycle can drop to below zero, glycol
instead of demineralized water is used to fill the closed cooling water system.
Chemical Lock
Specification for The following 2 tables shows 2 standard specificsations for the conditioned closed
Conditioning cooling water. For freeze protection, glycol water mixtures have to be used. They
with Caustic necessitate a special conditioning (neither caustic nor hydrazine can be used).
Caustic conditioning
Parameter Unit Normal Value
pH 9-10
-1
Spec. conductivity S cm <40
Iron mg kg-1 < 0.5
Copper mg kg-1 -
-1
Oxygen g kg <20
-1
Chloride mg kg < 0.1
Total Hardness as ppm CaCO3 <2
Cooling Waters Raw waters show very different analytical compositions, and no raw water is
Differ strongly identical with any one else, because each raw water is a unique product the
composition of which is given by the natural environment and man-made influences
like waste waters. The qualities range from rain water-like types (10-100 S/cm) to
sea water (45000-55000 S/cm). Therefore , a raw water must be specifically
checked for use as a cooling water. Based on water analysis, the treatment of the
raw water must be designed.
Different On the one hand, the treatment has to assure that the inorganic constituents of the
Treatments are water are prevented form forming deposits and being corrosive. On the other
to be considered hand, the biological potential of the water must be controlled.
Prevent Deposits Deposits can widely influence the performance of a plant, be it by lowering the
power output or endanger the function of components ands systems.
Lowering of heat transfer by p.e. scaling in heat exchangers.
Plugging of heat exchanger tubes.
Plugging of cooling tower packs.
Providing Corrosive conditions under deposits.
Prevent The materials in contact must be either designed for corrosion resistance against
Corrosion the water or must be specially protected.
The composition of the cooling water must be carefully supervised to take measures
in time if the concentration of aggressive constituents exceeds the set limits.
Water For once through cooling systems, the treatment is generally restricted to dosing of
Treatments biocides. An additional water treatment is not necessary because there is no
concentration resp. change of chemical composition when passing the condenser
or other heat exchangers.
Easy for once The treatment of make up water for cooling tower systems is much more
through Cooling complicated. In dependance of the selected concentration factor and the given
materials, the make up water must be treated.
With normal water qualities and moderate concentration factors, acid dosing to
control hardness scaling and biocide dosing may be completely sufficient.
Complication With salty, high turbidity and dirty waters, an intensive make up water treatment
expected for involving one or more of the following steps may be necessary.
higher loaded Flocculation to remove high turbidity and colloids.
Waters
Full flow or side stream softening by lime dosage.
Filtration.
Acid dosing.
Hardness stabilizer dosing (mostly as replacement of acid dosing).
pH adjustments.
Oxidation processes to remove iron/manganese.
Biocide treatment.
Biological pretreatments.
Such treatment steps are costly and require adequate maintenance. So, the selected
concentration factor is a compromise between cost of water consumption and
investment/chemicals consumption/maintenance for the treatment.
Critical The following components and systems can be affected by corrosion and deposits:
Components
System Issues
Which Cooling tower packs Deposits can increase weight up to collapse of cooling tower.
Components
Cooling tower wood Wood is chemically attacked by too high chlorine level.
structure elements Wood fouls by intrusion of biological materials (molds, yeast)
Condenser water In case of stainless steel tubing pitting corrosion if water
side aggressive.
Under-rubber lining corrosion in case of mechanical deficiencies
of lining.
Plugging
Intercooler same as condenser, but possibly worse because no rubber ball
cleaning device available.
Pumps, pipes Erosion and erosion corrosion.
Mechanical wear and tear.
Cooling water basin If not controlled, a reservoir for sludge and fouling biology.
Danger by development of bacteria causing Legionaires disease
Impact by Biology
Biological The biological life forms are numerous and have ideal conditions for development
Potential of in the warm water flowing through a condenser. In hot climate countries the
Water biological growth is stimulated additionally by favourable temperatures. Nutrients
as a precondition for biological life is normally not a limiting factor because in
open cooling systems more than enough organic material is delivered by the make
up water. Cooling towers wash contaminants from the air that contributes also to
the organic inventory of the system.
Macro Fouling Macro fouling can encrust entire surface areas beginning from the intakes and
traveling belt filters to the condenser chambers and tubes as well as other
components.
Some typical sea water macro fouling species are given by:
Blue mussels:
a world wide generic problem, colonize in thick clusters
Oysters
Barnacles
Encrusting bryozoa
Sea weed:
sometimes a mass phenomenon plugging completely intake filter systems
etc.
The species of the mollusks travel as tiny larvae and can pass filters.
This is the dangerous time period, in which a biocide program must mitigate the
beginning of the infestation. If once settled on suitable surfaces, they grow very
quickly.
Barnacles cement themselves within apprr. 20 minutes on a surface and a quick
shell formation gives them soon a protection against a hostile environment
(in appr. 20 h).
The spawning period of the blue mussel depends from temperature and local
conditions, but it occurs mainly in the spring.
Fresh water macro fouling species:
The following 2 types are of special interest because they are spreading now to
many countries.
Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea):
This species is difficult to remove. Once established, it literally clams up if the
water is conditioned with biocides.
Zebra mussels (Dreissena. polymorpha):
Forms dense thick layers of mussel accumulations
Micro Fouling The micro fouling is primarily given by the formation of bacterial slime and even if
this film is hardly visible it can reduce clearly the heat transfer in the cooling system.
The process of film formation starts normally with a surface that absorbs some
nutrients, and microbes are attracted. The result of this attachment process is the
formation of extra cellular debris and a certain reproduction rate of the different
species. Later, a secondary population of other bacteria or macro fouling forming
protozoa or shellfish may grow on top of the primary film. The rate of growth may
be exponentially increasing. Bacteria films even trap other sediments like sand and
silt. They work as kind of glue.
Yeasts and molds are troublesome because they like to settle on wood elements
and tend to degrade the material.
Most bacteria, yeast and mold need organic material for their metabolism, whereas
algae are photosynthetic microbes and need light for growth and reproduction.
Bacteria may prefer very different environments for living and reproducing. This has
to do with their specific metabolism. Some species live anaerobic (like the sulfate
reducing bacterias or the sulfide bacterias). They grow in sludge or in dead
microbial film, with their metabolism producing corrosive products.
Biocide Dosing
Process Rarely the temperature shock method is applied, which means lifting the
temperature of the intake lines and the condenser by about 10 C to kill (only) the
macro fouling.
More common is however the use of a dosing station by which chemical solutions in
the magnitude of 1ppm are injected into the water.
The mostly used biocide is chlorine, which is applicated
As chlorine gas (rarely, from safety reasons),
As hypochlorite solution with 10-12 % active chlorine (dosing station, normally
for cooling towers) or
As on site produced hypochlorite solution (sea water eloctrolysis, with appr.
0.1 % active chlorine)
Chemicals A vast number of biocides is offered by chemical suppliers. Their application can be
successful or not, depending of the water conditions.
There are oxidizing and non-oxidizing biocides. A new type of biocide is based on
the film-forming character of a chemical that should prevent the macro fouling
species from cementing themselves on the surface.
The most used chemicals/methods are:
Chlorine, see above.
Chlorine-bromine mixtures.
Hydrogen peroxide.
Hydantoine derivatives.
Ozone.
UV light
The cleanliness in the cooling system resp. removal of biological products can be
improved by adding biodispersants.
Chlorine Dosing Cooling towers are treated by shock dosing: 2 ppm, p.e. 4x per day 15 minutes.
Philosophy If the cooling system cannot be controlled by this level, it might be elevated
temporarily up to 5 ppm Cl.
Sea water is normally chlorinated continuously. This requires a much higher
chlorine consumption per day, although the level of chlorine applied is relatively
low. 0.2 ppm should be measured as a minimum at the condenser inlet.
The concentration can be easily measured by hand held instruments (photometer)
directly at the sampling point/site.
Control Apart from the routine analysis of the biocide, the best way to check for cleanliness
Philosophy is the inspection. If the condenser is shut down, or an intercooler or another heat
exchanger with cooling water contact is opened, these are the best occasions to
check for deposits.
Micro fouling/biological slime:
Can take some efficiency of the cooler. Optimizing biocide dosing, maybe
improvement of rubber ball cleaning device will help.
Macro fouling: may plug tubes partially or completely. The function of the
Component may be put in question. Immediate action is required:
shock dosing, mechanical cleaning.
Preservation
Atmospheric Corrosion
Steel Corrosion The atmospheric corrosion of steel is characterized by the following graph:
in Humid Air
0.4
0.1
0.0
0 25 50 75 100
Rel. humidity [%] CSXA403425.cdr
The corrosion rate is nearly zero below 40 % relative humidity. Clean surfaces of
steel remain clean for many years without any traces of rust.
The Corrosion is very slow below 55 % relative humidity. However, above 55 % the
relative humidity the corrosion increases considerately.
Even if there is a low concentration of gaseous contaminants in the atmosphere, we
observe a substantial increase of the corrosion rate.
This effect of gaseous contaminants is strengthened by particles such as soot.
Dry Preservation
Introduction The corrosion rate depends on the relative humidity of the air.
By providing a dry atmosphere for the metal surfaces, atmospheric corrosion can
be prevented. This is called dry preservation.
Drying Agents Drying agents like silica gel can provide a dry atmosphere. These agents absorb
moisture from the air. As a rule of thumb they absorb 10 to 20 % of their own
weight in water.
Dry Air Blowers Preservation can also be completed by the continuous absorption of humidity by dry
air blowers. The working principle of dry air blowers is to absorb the humidity in the
air by means of a continuously working device. It blows the dry air into the
components that are to be protected.
Instrument air can also be used if the humidity of this Air is low enough.
Hot Draining Corrosion can be prevented by draining water filled systems as long as they are still
warm. This helps removing local wetness by evaporation. This draining procedure is
often combined with the filling of nitrogen and provides protection for long
standstills.
Warm Air Warm air blowers can also be used to lower the relative humidity and provide a dry
Blowers atmosphere. This process is however doubtful from the practical point of view:
In this process parts of components get exposed to sufficiently dried warm air, but
colder parts may be confronted with higher humidity or even condensation
Wet Preservation
General Besides dry conservation, internal atmospheric corrosion can also be prevented by
filling components with suitably conditioned water.
This is called wet preservation.
With wet preservation, corrosion of components can be prevented by raising the pH
value, by conditioning agents, adding oxygen scavengers such as hydrazine if
necessary and closing of the system. No contact with CO2, air or oxygen is allowed.
Components
General The following table shows the main actions for maintaining acceptable Lay up
conditions:
General For lay up of a turbine with contaminated surfaces, a mobile air dryer is used. The
blow out of the air should be sufficient to change the air volume of the turbine 1 to
2 times per hour.
The achieved relative humidity should be a least below 40 %
The preservation of the low-pressure turbine should be started within 48 hours after
shutdown.
The high pressure and the low-pressure parts of the turbine will be connected to the
air blower as soon as the temperature falls below 100 C.
Preservation Supervision
Supervision The following points show the important parameters to be supervised in steam
turbines:
Measure the relative humidity periodically (target value <40 %)
Check the oil and the hydraulic liquids for water content once every six months.
Operate the lube oil pumps and hydraulic oil pumps for at least a few hours
every 15 days.
Check the turbine areas accessible for visual and endoscopes inspections once
every 3 months.
This type of preservation provides high safety against corrosion even for dirty
turbines for a long period. The requirement of manpower and investment for
equipment is also relatively low.
Condenser Lay-up
General In a condenser, the steam and water sides are exposed to different environments.
Thus, design, materials and surface protection are correspondingly different.
Water Side The water quality ranges from river water to seawater with different compositions of
salt content and amount of Suspended Solids. Remnants of this water or even
sludge can produce a very salty and aggressive surface film on tube sheets, around
rolled tube inlets and inside the tubes.
Figure 46: Condenser Water Side (Typical) Figure 47: Condenser Tube Sheet (Titanium)
(Typical)
The rubber limed water chamber surfaces however are normally completely
corrosion resistant and do not require special lay up considerations.
The type of water side preservation chosen is dependent upon the material the tube
is constructed from. ALSTOM Power gives specific instructions that are dependent
upon the material and water quality for the water side preservation.
A copper alloy tube condenser will be very sensitive for the correct lay up
procedure. Stainless steels are much more permissive.
Yet, both may be prone to pitting corrosion and other localized forms of corrosion.
Even titanium tube condensers require some care for lay up with respect to
minimize crevice corrosion between tube connections and the sheet.
Steam Side The steam is absolutely pure during operation and only light deposits of iron oxides
may be found in the condenser. If exposed to air, the low-alloyed steels will rust
only as long as the components concerned are wet.
General Supervision
Introduction
General For the supervision of the water/steam cycle, some parameters need to be checked
manually in the laboratory. Additionally it is important to double-check some
parameters from the online analyzer in the laboratory in order to ensure the correct
function of these analyzers.
The following table gives an indication of the Instruments used for the analysis of
the chemical parameters:
Conductivity Meter
General Apart from the online analyzers it is also possible to check the direct conductivity in
the laboratory. However for ultra pure water it is nearly impossible to take a grab
sample and analyze it in the laboratory without contamination. It is better to use a
portable conductivity meter in order to check the conductivity at the sample point
with a flow through cell.
Conductivity
Instruments
Figure 48: Laboratory Conductivity Meter (Typical) Figure 49: Portable Conductivity Meter
(Typical)
pH Meter
General The pH can be checked in the laboratory as well as with the online instruments. If
the pH is checked using a grab sample, special care must be taken with the
sampling procedure:
The sampling bottle needs to be filled completely with water and closed
immediately. This should prevent the contamination of the sample water with
carbon dioxide from the air, causing the pH to drop.
pH Instruments
Spectrophotometer
General The spectrophotometer is one of the most important instruments in the laboratory:
Several different chemical parameters can be checked using this instrument in
combination with special chemicals.
Spectro-
photometer
Spectrophotometer (continued)
Example The following drawing shows as an example the method for the analysis of
phosphate in water.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Enter one of the following Rotate the wavelength dial Press: READ/ENTER Fill a 25-mL mixing
stored program numbers for until the small display shows: graduated cylinder with
the reactive phosphorus, 530nm The display will show: 25 mL of sample.
3-
amino acid method. mg/1 PO4 AA
or
Press: 4 8 5 READ/ENTER mg/1 P AA
3-
for units of mg/L PO4 OR
4 8 6 READ/ENTER for units
of mg/L P
5. 6. 7. 8.
Add 1 mL of molybdate Add 1 mL of amino acid Press: SHIFT TIMER Pour 25 mL of sample
reagent using a 1-mL reagent solution. (the blank) into a sample
calibrated dropper. Stopper and invert several A ten-minute reaction period cell.
times to dissolve will begin.
(the prepared sample).
Introduction Some chemical parameters are more important for the supervision of the water
chemistry in a power plant than others. The following points provide some
guidelines for the interpretation of chemical results.
Acid Conductivity The cation exchanger takes up the ammonia (which reacts as cation), but the
Cation contaminants pass the cation exchanger. The level of these contaminants is very
Conductivity small compared to ammonia. After the removal of ammonia, these contaminants
can be measured separately and easily.
Too high conductivity after cation exchanger means:
To many contaminants in steam/feed water/condensate. These contaminants
can be corrosive in the steam water cycle, especially in the turbine.
Very critical: The blades can crack if the contaminants are traces of acids that
condense with the first steam ("early condensate") in the turbine.
The turbine might not only suffer corrosion, but might get deposits that lower the
efficiency of the plant.
The Conductivity after cation exchanger is the most important parameter for
supervision because it shows immediately if the water chemistry is normal or not
and if actions are necessary or not.
Iron, Fe Iron is present as iron oxide in the water and steam. If the level is too high, the
water chemistry is not optimized. With good water chemistry, iron oxides are
present only in traces
(<20 g kg-1) in water and steam.
Too much iron has a detrimental effect in the feed water:
Formation of deposits can occur inside the boiler. This is not good for the
necessary heat transfer. Conditions for corrosion might develop. Local
overheating might also damage pipes.
Too much iron has a detrimental effect in the steam:
Formation of deposits can occur on the blades. This might increase the pressure
drop and lower the turbine efficiency.
Oxygen, O2 Too high oxygen level in the feed water (oxygen is specified only in the feed water)
may enhance corrosion in the economizer of the boiler.
Oxygen in clean feed water is not so critical as formerly stated. In the contrary, a
moderate level of oxygen (up to >100 g kg-1) contributes to the formation of a
protecting iron oxide layer in the steam water cycle. This is true for clean feed water.
So, one should only worry about oxygen if the level is constantly too high and the
feed water is dirty.
Copper, Cu This parameter is only important if some heat exchangers contain copper.
Otherwise, copper can only enter the steam/water cycle with dirty make-up/return
condensate.
If the level is too high, the boiler suffers from corrosion (corrosion under deposits).
Trend-lines
Introduction For the supervision of the water chemistry it is often important to know the history of
the observed parameter. Therefore, all of the continuous monitors have signal
outputs to the main control room. The parameters are recorded and can be viewed
in order to observe changes in time.
Example
Troubleshooting
Introduction If the chemical parameters are outside of the defined limits, the following tables
give some indication as to possible reasons for it:
Troubleshooting (continued)
Summary
General Dissolved or undissolved substances (salts) in water can lead to corrosion and the
formation of deposits in the water / steam cycle of a power - plant. That is why the
purity and the chemical conditioning of the water is imperative for the efficient and
effective operation of a plant.
Prevention of In order to prevent damages caused by corrosion and the formation of deposits, the
Damages following points should be fulfilled.
The water/steam cycle water must be clean.
The water of the must be conditioned i.e. particular chemical substances should
be mixed/added.
The water/steam cycle should be maintained.
Dosing System The conditioning of the water with ammonia and phosphate is completed by the
dosing system, which is operated either automatically or manually.
Measurements The water is checked with the help of monitors, which carry out the water - tests
automatically and which examine them for particular values. This continuous
maintenance / checking is done manually.
Annexs
Annex 01: Units of Water Chemistry
Concentrations
1 mg/kg = 1 ppm
1 g/kg = 1 ppb
1mg/kg = 1 mg/l
1 g/kg = 1 g/l
1 meq/l = 2.8 dH = 5 fH
Conductivity
1 S/cm = 1 MHO/cm
1 S/cm = 100 S/m
Examples
Atomic weight Na = 23
Cl = 35.5
3.4 meq/l Na
3.4 meq/l Cl
H2O H+ + OH -
Kw = (H+) x (OH -) = 10 14
T C C S/cm
___________________________________________________________________________
0 0.016
10 0.029
25 0.055
35 0.090
CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
ALCALINE TREATMENT
DRUM BOILER
Feedwater:
PH 9.0 9.6
Oxygen <10 ppb
Conductivity after cation exchanger < 0.2 S/cm
OXYGENATED TREATMENT
ONCE THROUGH BOILER
Feedwater:
Feedwater:
PH 9.0 9.6
Oxygen <10 ppb
Conductivity after cation exchanger < 0.2 S/cm
90 Ippm NH3
80
70
60
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 (C)
32 122 212 302 392 482 572 662 (F)
Temperature
CSXA403438.cdr
m m
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
I t in h
2000 4000 6000 8000
CSXA403439.cdr
Sacrificing UWK
Anodes AmV
-100
Cl2: 4h, 0,5mg/l
(residual)
- 200
- 300
d
- 400
150 155 160 164
CSXA402750.cdr
3600 3600
3500 3500
3400
Without RH 3400
RH-supercrit.
3300 3300
3200 3200
3100 3100
3000 3000
2900 2900
2800 2800
2500 2500
Wilso
n line
2400 MAGNOX 2400
2300 2300
2200 2200
2100 2100
2000 2000
6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
ENTROPIE / ENTROPY [s] = kJ/kg K
CSXA403440.cdr
Local mode
If the key switch is set to Local, the pumps can be taken into operation locally.
If the local mode is selected, the pumps will not recognize an ON/OFF signal pulse sent from the main
control room. Separate Stop/Start push buttons are provided for the purpose of operating the pumps.
Motors
Run and Trip lamps are provided on the control console for the dosing pumps and the stirrers.
No volt run contacts are provided.
From each pump an ON and OFF signal is sent to the main control room.
Mains on
A panel lamp and no-volt contact are provided for panel on indication.