Wem300 Welding Practices

300 Welding Practices
Abstract
This section covers basic welding and heat treatment considerations for commonly
used alloys, including dissimilar metal combinations, overlay, and corrosion resis-
tance linings. It also reviews safe welding and cutting practices and covers general
welding troubleshooting.
Contents Page
310 Welding Common Alloys 300-3

311 Carbon Steels
312 Microalloyed Steels
313 Low Alloy Steels
314 Stainless Steels
315 Nonferrous Metals
316 Dissimilar Metals
317 Cast Iron
320 Special Welding Applications 300-24
321 Corrosion Resistant Linings
322 Corrosion and Wear Resistant Overlays and Coatings
323 Welding Cement Lined Pipe
330 Troubleshooting 300-30
331 Welding Defects
332 Cracks
333 Repair Welds
334 Residual Stresses and Distortion
335 Using Incorrect Weld Rod
336 Lamellar Tearing
340 Hot Tap Welding 300-43
Chevron Corporation 300-1 February 2001

300 Welding Practices Welding Manual
341 Primary Concerns During Hot Tap Welding

342 Selecting a Welding Process to the Risk of Hydrogen Cracking
343 Development Of Hardness Evaluation Procedure
344 Heat Input Control Methods
345 References
350 Repair Welding - Special Techniques for Repair Welding Without PWHT 300-56
351 Engineering Considerations and Guidelines for the Use of Controlled Deposi-
tion Repair Welding without PWHT
352 National Board Inspection Code Rules
353 Controlled Deposition Repair Welding
354 EWI and Other Industry Test Results for Controlled Deposition Repair Welds
355 Detailed Procedure for Controlled Deposition Repair Welding
356 References
February 2001 300-2 Chevron Corporation

Welding Manual 300 Welding Practices
310 Welding Common Alloys

Generally, the steels and alloys that are permitted by the various codes and stan-
dards that we use can be welded by following the proper welding procedures. For
the more frequently used materials, refer to the Alloy Fabrication Data Sheets in
Appendix A. These data sheets summarize most of the important information
needed (e.g., preheat, PWHT, electrodes, etc.) for preparing welding procedures.
They also list the ASTM and ASME specifications, chemical composition, and
mechanical properties of each alloy.
311 Carbon Steels

Most carbon steels used by the Company are easily weldable because they contain
less than about 0.30% carbon and 1.20% manganese. Above these values, addi-
tional precautions may be needed to prevent cracking, excessive hardness and low
toughness in the heat affected zone (HAZ). Welding problems are more likely to
occur in thicker sections (above 1.25 inches) and in higher strength grades. Welding
problems occur in thicker sections because of the increased restraint and the
changes in chemistry often required to maintain minimum strength. Chemistry is
most often changed by increasing carbon and manganese (sometimes with small
additions of Cr, Mo, Ni and Cu) or microalloying with elements such as Cb, V, Ti,
Al, and B where permitted by specification.
Carbon Equivalent
The carbon equivalent (CE) of steel can be used as a general guide for determining
weldability. It is primarily used to select preheat temperatures to avoid delayed
hydrogen cracking. Research has shown that the risk of cracking is directly related
to HAZ hardness, hydrogen in the weld metal, and the amount of restraint. HAZ
hardness depends on the level of alloying elements present in the steel and the
cooling rate during welding. The most widely used formula for determining CE is
the International Institute of Welding (IIW) formula, where CE in percent equals:
CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

(Eq. 300-1)
Where detailed chemistry is not available, a useful approximation for carbon steel
is:
CE = C + Mn/6
(Eq. 300-2)
Steels with a CE less than about 0.50% can generally be welded without difficulty
using conventional procedures and moderate preheat. Other CE formulas (such as
Pcm) may be more appropriate for the newer lower carbon (below about 0.18%)
microalloyed steels, often called high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels.
Section 140 describes the use of the CE formula for selecting preheat temperatures
to avoid delayed hydrogen cracking.

Preheat
In welding carbon steel, the actual composition is often unknown, so the Company
practice is to preheat thicknesses of 3/4 inch or greater. The need for preheat
increases as the thickness and restraint of weld joints increases. In addition to accel-
erating the diffusion of hydrogen out of the weld, preheat helps reduce residual
stresses and soften the weld zone, which are contributing factors in delayed
hydrogen cracking. (Refer to the Alloy Fabrication Data Sheets in Appendix A and
Section 100 for recommended preheat temperatures.)
Low Hydrogen Processes

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and certain other welding processes using
low hydrogen welding electrodes significantly reduce one of the three factors
needed for delayed hydrogen cracking to occur. Cellulosic electrodes (EXX10)
produce significantly more hydrogen in the weldment than do low hydrogen elec-
trodes (EXX18). (Care must be taken to keep low hydrogen electrodes completely
dry during handling and storage. Guidelines on storage and reconditioning of low
hydrogen electrodes are given in Section 100.)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
processes are essentially hydrogen free. Nevertheless, care must be taken to keep
steel surfaces dry, wires free of rust and moisture and to use shielding gases with
low dew points (e.g., -40F or below). Submerged arc welding (SAW) can also be
a very low hydrogen process if precautions are taken to use dry fluxes.
312 Microalloyed Steels

Medium to low carbon microalloyed steels (e.g. ASTM A633C, A737B or API
5LX Grade 60) are high strength steels used in offshore platforms, pressure vessels
and pipelines. They are used where ordinary carbon steel is not economical for
meeting design loads or lacks adequate toughness.
Microalloyed steels can have yield strengths from 45 to 90 ksi and are often used in
the normalized or as-rolled condition without being postweld heat treated. They
usually contain less than 2% alloying elements. Their carbon content is kept below
about 0.25% to minimize hardenability and the need for preheat. Newer grades have
carbon contents below about 0.15% and maintain their strength through microal-
loying with small additions of Cb, V, Ti, Al, or B. These newer steels can be used in
the quenched and tempered condition but are often controlled rolled. Some are
quenched after controlled rolling. Controlled rolling procedures must carefully
control temperatures and rolling operations to produce mechanical properties equiv-
alent to conventional heat treated materials. A major advantage of the new low
carbon microalloyed steels is that they require less preheat for welding.
313 Low Alloy Steels

Low alloy steels can be defined as iron based alloys containing no more than 10%
alloying elements. The alloying elements generally promote hardenability, so low
hydrogen electrodes and preheating are almost always required to prevent delayed

hydrogen cracking. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is also usually needed to

produce welds with adequately soft HAZs and good toughness. Examples of low
alloy steels are high carbon AISI 4140, chrome-moly steels, and 2 to 9% nickel
steels.
Refer to Appendix A for specific welding procedure recommendations, and to
Section 100 for heat treatment. For additional information on welding of low alloy
steels, refer to the American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook, Volume 4,
Seventh Edition.
Selection of Filler Metal

For low alloy steels, it is generally desirable to use a filler metal that matches the
parent metal in both chemical composition and strength. However, with certain low
alloy steels such as AISI 4140 and 8620, elevated temperature properties and resis-
tance to hydrogen attack are generally not a consideration. In this case, it is common
practice to use a filler metal with different composition that produces mechanical
properties of matching or lower strength. Low alloy steels can also be welded with
austenitic or high nickel filler metals (which generally produce lower strength
welds).
In the typical uses of low alloy steels, such as 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo, 5 Cr-1/2 Mo and other
Cr-Mo steels, hydrogen resistance and high-temperature properties are generally the
most important considerations. Therefore, it is necessary to use matching weld
metal chemistry and to select PWHT to obtain adequate softening of the weld and
heat affected zone. In general, the hardness of low alloy steel welds should not
exceed 215 BHN. (See Section 500 for a discussion of hardness testing and hard-
ness scales.) Preheat for welding is always required.
Almost all low alloy steel SMAW electrodes are of the low hydrogen type (the only
exception is E7010-A1, which contains 1/2% Mo) and will not produce a satisfac-
tory radiographic quality root pass in single welded joints (open butt pipe weld).
This limitation can be overcome by making the root pass with another process such
as GTAW or GMAW. Where it is possible to weld from both sides, such as in most
plate and forging welds, the root pass is normally backgouged to sound metal and
then the second side is welded.
High Carbon Low Alloy Steels (AISI 4130, 4140, 4340, 8630)
High carbon low alloy steels contain 0.30 to 0.50% carbon along with 2 to 4% of
other elements for hardening and are commonly used in the high strength, quenched
and tempered condition. A preheat of 350-450F is needed on 4130 and 8630 steel,
and 450-650F on higher carbon alloys like 4140 and 4340. Preheat on 4140 and
4340 should be held for two to four hours after welding. PWHT at 1000-1100F is
recommended to reduce HAZ hardness.
If it is necessary to return the steel to its original strength and toughness, a complete
normalizing and/or quench and tempering heat treatment will be required. When
either normalizing or quenching and tempering heat treatment is used, the weld
metal composition should be selected to respond to heat treatment in the same
manner as the base metal. This generally requires electrodes with the same composi-

tion as the base metal. Matching composition electrodes for these alloys are always
more crack sensitive and difficult to work with than conventional high strength elec-
trodes.
Carbon-Moly and Chrome-Moly Steels

This group of steels includes 1/2% Mo up through 9% Cr-1% Mo alloys with
carbon contents usually below 0.17% (except for 1/2% Mo steel). Pipes and tubes
are generally used in the annealed condition while plate and forging materials are
typically normalized or quenched and tempered. Heat treatment after welding is
generally required to lower hardness and improve toughness of the weld and HAZ.
Preheat may not be necessary on thin sections of 1/2% Mo steel, but it is recom-
mended on sections over 1/2 inch in thickness. All thicknesses of Cr-Mo steels must
be preheated (see Section 100) to avoid delayed hydrogen cracking. For chromium
contents over 2% or for thicker sections, preheat should be maintained after welding
until the start of PWHT. Alternately, a hydrogen diffusion treatment can be used
after welding in lieu of holding preheat until PWHT, such as heating to 1000-
1200F for 30 minutes or heating to 500-600F for 30 minutes per inch of thick-
ness, followed by slow cooling to ambient temperature. PWHT can then be
performed at a later time.
PWHT relieves welding stresses and, of more importance for these materials, it
softens hard welds and HAZs and improves toughness. See Section 100 for recom-
mended stress relieving temperatures for specific alloys. Company PWHT require-
ments for 1/2% Mo and Cr-Mo steels generally require higher temperatures than the
codes and standards, and require longer holding times for Cr-Mo steels (two hours
minimum at temperature) to obtain adequate softening.
With higher Cr steels (5%, 7% and 9%) it is important to let the welds cool to the
minimum preheat temperature after welding and before PWHT. This is to avoid
leaving untransformed austenite in the structure, which could later transform to
untempered martensite during cooling from the PWHT temperature.
It is also important to keep the weld temperature above the preheat temperature
before PWHT in order to avoid cracking, as discussed earlier.
Repair welds on these steels should be made with a matching weld metal composi-
tion, using preheat and then PWHT. Hot hydrogen service requires weld metals to
have at least as much alloy as the base metal. Special welds can also be made by
buttering the joint with an austenitic or high nickel electrode followed by PWHT.
The weld is later completed with the same electrode but without preheat or PWHT.
There are some disadvantages in using austenitic electrodes to weld low alloy steels,
such as differences in thermal expansion coefficients, the increased difficulty of
nondestructive testing (due to differences in density), and the fact that future repair
welds must be made with austenitic electrodes. As a result, matching composition
welds are preferred, especially for service above 500F.
Nickel Containing Steels

Nickel containing steels are used for low temperature service (below -20F) where
resistance to brittle fracture is important. Steels containing 2-1/4% to 3-1/2% nickel

are used for low temperatures, and 9% nickel steels are used for cryogenic service
(e.g., liquid oxygen or nitrogen). They are weldable by all common processes
including SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW. One problem with the 9% Ni steels is their
sensitivity to retaining magnetism (e.g., from handling with large magnets), which
can cause welding problems due to severe arc blow.
Filler metal of matching composition can be used for welding the 2-1/4% and 3-
1/2% Ni grades. Nickel based (60 to 70% Ni) filler metals are most commonly used
for the higher Ni grades (e.g., 9% Ni). Type 309 stainless steel may also be used for
filler metal on all grades but is less commonly used because of its lower strength,
especially for welding 9% Ni steel. The low alloy nickel steel electrodes (e.g.,
E8018-C1, -C2 or -C3) are of the low hydrogen type and require the same special
handling as other low hydrogen electrodes.
314 Stainless Steels

Stainless steels are defined as alloy steels containing about 12% or more of chrome.
They include:
Hardenable 12 to 18% Cr martensitic stainless steels (such as Type
410 and CA6NM)
Non-hardening 12 to 30% Cr ferritic stainless steels (such as Types
405 and 430)
Chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels with 18 to 25% Cr, 8-30% Ni (such
as Types 304, 316, 321 and 347)
The martensitic stainless steels harden during welding while the others do not.
Stainless steel alloys are commonly used where severe corrosive conditions exist, so
both the weld metal and the welding procedure must be selected to preserve corro-
sion resistance. Usually, the weld metal will match the composition of the parent
metal, but in some cases it is necessary to use a higher alloy weld metal. For
example, in a joint between a high alloy material and a carbon or low alloy steel,
dilution from the lower alloy material can cause cracking problems; therefore, a
higher alloy weld metal is needed. Welding dissimilar metal combinations is
discussed later in this section.
Precipitation hardening stainless steels, such as ASTM A 693 Grade 631(17-4 PH),
ASTM A 461 (AM-350) and ASTM A 461 Grade 660 (A 286), can be welded using
the GTAW process, but these are complex alloys and fabrication should not be
attempted without consulting a specialist in the CRTC Materials and Equipment
Engineering Unit.
Figure 300-1 can be used to select electrodes for joining the common types of stain-
less steels (see Section 315).

Electrode Selection Chart for Welding Ferrous Metal Combinations(1),(2),(3),(4)
February 2001

Fig. 300-1
20 Cr-35 Ni 18 Cr-8 Ni 17
Type of 18 Cr-8 Ni 18 Cr-8 Ni 18 Cr-8 Ni 18 Cr-8 Ni 12 Chrome 7 to 9 5 Cr- 2-1/4 1-1/4 Carbon Carbon
Alloy 20 Type 321 Chrome
Steel Type 316L Type 316 Type 304L Type 304 Type 4105 Cr-1Mo 1/2 Mo Cr-1Mo Cr-1/2Mo Moly Steel
Cb-3 & 347 Type 430
Carbon Steel E309 (5) E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E430 E309 E7018-A1 E7018-A1 E7018 E7018 E7018 E7018
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 E309 Inco 182 E7018-A1 E7018-A1 E6010 E6010
E320LR
Carbon-Moly E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E7018-A1 E7018-A1 E7018-A1 E7018-A1 E7018-A1
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 E9018-B3 E8018-B2 E7010-A1
1-1/4 Chrome- E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E8018-B2 E8018-B2 E8018-B2 E8018-B2
Moly Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 E9018-B3
2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E9018-B3 E9018-B3 E9018-B3
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182
5 Cr-1/2 Mo E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E502 E502
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 E505
7 to 9 Cr-Mo E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E505
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182
12 Chrome E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E309
Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 E430
Inco 182
17 Chrome E320LR E309 E309 E309 E309 E309 E430
Type 430 E309
300-8
18 Cr-8 Ni E309 E308 E308 E308 E308 E308

Type 304 E308 E347 E316 E316 E308L
E320LR
18 Cr-8 Ni E309L E308L E308L E308 E308L
Type 304L E308L E347 E316L E316
E320LR
18 Cr-8 Ni E309Mo E308 E316 E316
Type 316 E316 E316 E316L
E320LR
18 Cr-8 Ni E309LMo E316L E316L
Type 316L E316L E347
E320LR
18 Cr-8 Ni E320LR E347
Type 321 &
347
20 Cr-35 Ni E320LR
Chevron Corporation
Alloy 20 Cb-3
Welding Manual
(1) Root passes of pipe welds made by other processes (e.g., GTAW or GMAW) should be performed with matching composition filler metal.
(2) The first electrode listed is the preferred electrode except for welding 18Cr-8Ni stainless steel to carbon steel; where Inconel 182 performs better in severe cyclic temperature service.
(3) Inco Weld A or Inconel 112 may be substituted for Inconel 182; and EXX15 or EXX16 may be substituted for EXX18.
(4) Where E309 (or other E3XX electrodes) and Inconel 182 are listed together, it is cautioned that if they are used together, E309 will crack if welded over Inconel 182. However, Inconel 182
can be welded over E309 without cracking.
(5) E309 filler metal should not be substituted for E320LR in sulfuric acid service.
Martensitic Stainless Steels

The most common application of martensitic stainless steels is the low carbon Type
410S stainless steel cladding (metallurgically bonded facing) used in columns.
Overlay welding of the cut-back area around the base metal weld is generally done
with E309 or nickel-chrome-iron filler metals. Because of the low carbon content of
Type 410S stainless, preheat and PWHT are generally unnecessary for welding
cladding. Thin Type 410S stainless steel plate is also used for strip lining vessels,
where the fillet and filler welds are also made with E309 or nickel-chrome-iron
filler metals and are not preheated or postweld heat treated. For the other infrequent
applications where standard Type 410S stainless steel is used, E410 electrodes and
high preheat and PWHT temperatures are required.
Because of the high risk of delayed hydrogen cracking in welding conventional 12%
chromium steels, other alloys have been developed having lower carbon content and
a modified composition. One alloy, CA6NM, has less than about 0.1% carbon but
contains about 4% nickel to obtain a fully hardened structure. CA6NM also contains
about 0.5% molybdenum. Since the risk of delayed hydrogen cracking is lower with
this and similar alloys, most welding is carried out with matching composition filler
metals, a preheat, and an interpass temperature of 200F. PWHT is required for
tempering CA6NM HAZs (particularly in sour service), and is carried out at a
temperature lower than for the plain 12% chromium alloys (normally in the range of
1000 to 1175F) because of the nickel content.
Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic stainless steels are very sensitive to loss of toughness in the weld HAZ;
therefore, they are less widely used when welding is required. The Companys most
common uses in welded applications are Type 405 strip lining in columns, and Type
430 equipment in fertilizer plants. These materials require special precautions to
control heat input during welding. Additional technical assistance may be obtained
from The CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit and by referring to the
AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 4, Seventh Edition for more detailed information.
Type 405 (13% Cr) and Type 430 (17% Cr) stainless steels in thin gages can gener-
ally be welded without preheat or PWHT because of their non-hardening character-
istics.
Welding of ferritic stainless steel alloys causes embrittlement in the HAZ due to
grain growth; this can be severe. When these alloys are used in the as-welded condi-
tion, either E309 or nickel-chrome-iron electrodes are recommended. If the welds
are to be postweld heat treated, either E430 or nickel-chrome-iron electrodes can be
used. The use of E309 electrodes may not be the optimum choice at cyclic service
temperatures above 500F, because of the high stresses incurred as a result of the
differences in thermal expansion. Above 650F, ferritic stainless steel alloys should
not be used, especially Type 430, due to possible 885F embrittlement. Embrittle-
ment due to grain growth in the HAZ during welding can be lessened by mini-
mizing heat input. This requires using stringer beads with small diameter electrodes
and low preheat and interpass temperatures.

Newer grades of ferritic stainless steels, called duplex (ferrite and austenite) stain-
less, containing about 18-30% Cr, 4-6% Ni and 2-3% Mo have been developed for
improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking. They have carbon
contents of 0.04% maximum, controlled nitrogen, and toughness properties that
generally exceed those of conventional ferritic stainless steels. They contain about
40 to 50% ferrite with the balance austenite. These materials have been used for salt
water and chloride containing process stream applications such as heat exchanger
tubing, process piping and pipelines.
The duplex stainless steels can be welded with the SMAW, GTAW and GMAW
processes. The nickel content of the filler metals is often higher than the base metal
in order to keep the ferrite in the weld deposit within the range of 40 to 60% for
good corrosion resistance and toughness.
Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are easily weldable with a variety of welding processes
such as SMAW, GTAW, GMAW and SAW. Preheat is not required for the austenitic
grades because of their non-hardening characteristics. However, low interpass
temperatures (350-400F maximum) are needed during welding to prevent sensiti-
zation and to reduce hot cracking tendencies.
Austenitic weld metals which contain small amounts of delta ferrite (e.g., 308, 309
and 316) are preferred because they are more resistant to hot cracking than fully
austenitic weld metals like E310. Ferrite content (a magnetic phase) in weld metal
can be determined by:
Calculation (where weld metal chemistry is available) using a ferrite diagram.
See Section 316 for discussion of the Schaeffler, DeLong and WRC Diagrams.
In order to use the DeLong and WRC Diagrams, the nitrogen must be taken
into account either by measurement or estimation.
Magnetic measurement using magnetic instruments (e.g., Severn Gage or
Ferrite Scope) that have been calibrated to AWS A4.2 Standard Procedures for
Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of
Austenitic and Duplex Austenitic-Ferrite Stainless Steel Weld Metal.
Ferrite content in the range of 3 to 11 FN (Ferrite number) or 3 to 10% ferrite is
preferred for deposited weld metals that do not contain columbium. Ferrite numbers
(FN) are preferred for specifying ferrite because ferrite can be more consistently
measured in practice using magnetic instruments that have been calibrated.
Fully austenitic weld metals like E310 are more susceptible to hot-short cracking,
especially with increasing thickness, restraint and residual elements (S and P). As a
result, E309 electrodes, which contain ferrite, are generally used in place of E310
electrodes for dissimilar metal welding and weld overlay.
Hot-short cracking is also a problem in joining stainless steels that contain colum-
bium, such as Type 347 and Alloy 20 materials. E347 weld metals with 5 to 11 FN
(5 to 10% ferrite) are much more resistant to hot cracking. Improved cracking resis-
tance can be obtained for welding Alloy 20 Cb-3 by using electrodes that are low in

residual elements (electrodes low in S and P are designated as LR types by the

AWS, e.g., E320LR-15).
Titanium, which is added to Type 321 stainless steel as a carbide stabilizer, cannot
be consistently transferred across the welding arc when contained in a filler metal.
The solution is to use E347 filler metal, which is columbium stabilized (and can be
transferred across the arc) for joining Type 321 stainless steel.
In new fabrication, cast austenitic stainless steels for high temperature service such
as HK, HH and HT alloys are as easily welded as any austenitic stainless steel.
However, after being in service above 1000F, these alloys embrittle by a combina-
tion of carbide precipitation and sigma phase formation. A 2000-2250F de-embrit-
tling heat treatment can be used to restore ductility before any repair welding is
performed.
315 Nonferrous Metals

Fabrication of nonferrous metals for Company applications is mainly confined to
nickel alloys. Other nonferrous metals encountered in order of decreasing use are:
(1) copper, (2) titanium, (3) aluminum, (4) lead, (5) zinc, (6) magnesium, and (7)
tantalum. Only the first four have enough Company applications to warrant consid-
eration here. Refer to the AWS Welding Handbooks and the ASM (American
Society for Metals) Metals Handbook, Volume 6 for information on joining other
metals.
Figure 300-2 can be used for selecting electrodes for joining nonferrous alloy mate-
rials.
Nickel and Nickel Base Alloys

Most of the nickel alloys used by the Company are used in the annealed condition
and are generally welded without preheat. However, stress relief or solution
annealing after welding may be needed in some types of corrosive service.
The most commonly used nickel alloys are Monel 400, Inconel 600, Inconel 625,
Incoloy 800, Incoloy 825, and the Hastelloy alloys B-2, C-22, and C-276.
The Hastelloy alloys B-2, C-22, and C-276 are normally used in the as-welded
condition but welding must be controlled to limit the interpass temperature and heat
input. The interpass temperature should be limited to 200F maximum and stringer
passes should be used to minimize heat input.
Nickel alloys are as weldable as austenitic stainless steels, and can be welded with
all of the common processes including SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, and to a limited
extent with SAW. However, nickel alloy weld metals act more viscously (sluggish)
during welding than other weld metals which makes them a little more difficult to
use. For the SMAW process, extra cleaning is needed between passes to thoroughly
remove all slag and oxides in order to avoid weld defects. The root pass of pipe
welds should be made with GTAW if high quality is required for radiography or for
corrosion resistance

Fig. 300-2 Electrode Selection Chart for Welding High Alloy Material Combinations
70-30
Type of Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Incoloy Inconel Alloy Nickel Monel
and 90-
Alloy B-2 C-276 C-22 825 600 800(1) 200 400
10 Cu-Ni
Carbon Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Nickel 141 Monel 190 Monel 190
Steel or B-2 C-276 C-22 E309 Al-Bronze
Low Alloy
Steel
300 Series Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Nickel 141 Inco 182 Monel 190
Stainless B-2 C-276 C-22 E309 Inco 182 Al-Bronze
Steel
70-30 and N/A N/A N/A Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Monel 190 Monel 190 Monel 187
90-10 Inco Weld Inco Weld Inco Weld Nickel 141 Monel 187 Monel 190
Cu-Ni A A A
Monel 400 Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182 Monel 190 Monel 190
B-2 Nickel 141
Nickel 200 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141 Nickel 141
Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182
B-2 C-276 C-22
Alloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182 Inco 182(2)
800(1) B-2 C-276 C-22
Inco 112 Inco 112 Inco 112
Inconel Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 182 Inco 182
600 B-2 C-276 C-22 Inco 132
Incoloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Inco 135
825 B-2 C-276 C-22 Inco 112
Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy
C-22 B-2 C-276 C-22
Hastelloy Hastelloy
C-22 C-22
Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy
C-276 B-2 C-276
Hastelloy
C-276
Hastelloy Hastelloy
B-2 B-2
Coated Electrode and Bare Wire Cross Reference(3)
Coated Electrode AWS Class & Specification Bare Wire AWS Class & Specification
Al-Bronze Al-Bronze
Ampco-Trode 10 ECuAl-A2 A5.6 Ampco-Trode 10 ERCuAl-A2 A5.7
Hastelloy B-2 ENiMo-7 A5.11 Hastelloy B-2 ERNiMo-7 A5.14
Hastelloy C-22 ENiCrMo-10 A5.11 Hastelloy C-22 ERNiCrMo-10 A5.14
Hastelloy C-276 ENiCrMo-4 A5.11 Hastelloy C-276 ERNiCrMo-4 A5.14
Inco Weld A ENiCrFe-2 A5.11 Inconel 82 ERNiCr-3 A5.14
Inconel 112 ENiCrMo-3 A5.11 Inconel 625 ERNiCrMo-3 A5.14
Inconel 117 ENiCrCoMo-1 A5.11 Inconel 617 ERNiCrCoMo-1 A5.14
Inconel 132 ENiCrFe-1 A5.11 Inconel 62 ERNiCrFe-5 A5.14
Incoloy 135 Incoloy 65 ERNiFeCr-1 A5.14
Nickel 141 ENi-1 A5.11 Nickel 61 ERNi-1 A5.14
Inconel 182 ENiCrFe-3 A5.11 Inconel 82 ERNiCr-3 A5.14
Monel 187 ECuNi A5.6 Monel 67 ERCuNi A5.7
Monel 190 ENiCu-7 A5.11 Monel 60 ERNiCu-7 A5.14
(1) For service temperatures above 1000F, use Alloy 800H in place of Alloy 800.
(2) Inconel 182 should not be used above 1000F because of poor creep properties. For temperatures in the range of 1000-1400F, use
Inconel 82 (or Thyssens Thermanit Nicro 82) and INCO Weld A. For temperatures over 1400F, use Inconel 117 and Inconel 617. Also see
Alloy Fabrication Data in Appendix A.
(3) Inco Weld A or Inconel 112 may be substituted for Inconel 182. Also See the temperature restrictions in Note 2.

Nickel alloy weld metals and base metals are susceptible to hot cracking if they are
contaminated with sulfur or other low melting point materials. Care must be taken
to remove all dirt, grease, oil, crayon markings, slag, flux, etc., from the weld bevels
and adjacent base metal surfaces to avoid contamination and hot cracking in the
weld metal and base metal. All welding slag must be removed after completion of
welding because adherent slag can cause high temperature corrosion in service.
Filler metals for the more common nickel alloys are listed in Figure 300-2. Precipi-
tation hardening nickel alloys such as K-Monel (Monel alloy K-500) and Inconel X-
750 can be joined by several processes, but require reheat treatment to restore
mechanical properties.
K-Monel can be welded by SMAW, GTAW, plasma arc welding, and electron beam
welding. Inconel X-750 can be welded by GTAW, plasma arc welding, and electron
beam welding.
Copper and Copper Alloys

The Company does relatively little welding on copper and copper alloys as most of
the applications are screwed valves, piping and heat exchanger tubes. Materials
include copper (99.3% or greater), high copper alloys (96 to 99.3%), brasses (Cu-Zn
alloys), tin bronzes (Cu-Sn alloys), aluminum bronzes (Cu-Al alloys), silicon
bronzes (Cu-Si alloys), and copper-nickel alloys (Cu-Ni).
The gas shielded arc processes, GTAW and GMAW, are generally preferred for
welding the copper alloys. Cu-Ni and Al-bronze are the most readily welded copper
alloys. SMAW electrodes are made for these and several other copper alloys, but
coated electrode welding is more difficult for the copper alloys. Copper-nickel 90-
10 and 70-30 alloys are generally welded with Monel 187 (70-30 Cu-Ni) coated
electrodes or Monel 67 (70-30 Cu-Ni) filler metal for the gas shielded processes
(GTAW or GMAW). Filler metals of composition 90-10 Cu-Ni for similar base
metals are generally not available from domestic manufacturers but are available
from European suppliers. The brasses and bronzes can be braze welded, gas metal
arc welded, or brazed with silver-based brazing alloys. When using GMAW with
brasses, zinc volatilizes so easily that filler wires of aluminum bronze, silicon
bronze or tin bronze are normally used.
The tin bronzes, aluminum bronzes and silicon bronzes can be joined by most
welding methods. Silicon bronze is hot-short, so interpass temperatures should not
exceed 200F and it should be welded with small beads. Tin bronzes are also hot-
short, but because of poor fluidity of the weld puddle, they must be preheated to
between 300 and 400F, particularly in heavy sections. They should also be welded
rapidly with small beads.
The copper-nickel alloys can also be joined by oxyfuel gas welding (OFW), but the
electric arc processes (SMAW, GTAW and GMAW) are preferred because they are
faster. Care must be exercised in brazing to prevent cracking by intergranular pene-
tration of the filler metal.
Oxygen-bearing copper is difficult to weld and is usually brazed with a silver-based
alloy. The flame must be oxidizing. Oxygen-free copper can be welded by most

processes, using high preheat (up to 1000F) to counteract the high thermal conduc-
tivity of the metal.
Leaded brasses and bronzes generally cannot be welded.
Titanium
The Company uses titanium for heat exchanger tubes, cladding on tubesheets,
shells, baffles, tie rods, etc. Most of these parts do not have to be welded. However,
when welding of titanium is required special precautions must be followed, because
the weld and HAZ will embrittle if contaminated with even small amounts of
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. Titanium must be meticulously cleaned of
oil, grease, dirt, iron imbedment, lint and fingerprints before welding. The filler
metal must also be clean and free of surface imperfections that would trap dirt.
Welding should be done with an inert gas shielded process; generally GTAW is the
most suitable. Torch nozzles require modification (e.g., adding a trailing shield) to
provide additional shielding of the weld zone to keep temperatures below about
800F. Both argon and helium can be used for shielding gases. Shielding gases
should have a dew point of -20F or below at the point of the weld. The back side of
weld joints should also be shielded using argon or helium to prevent contamination.
Nitrogen and carbon dioxide should never be used as purge gases because they will
cause embrittlement.
Because titanium is sensitive to so many contaminants that are often found in the
normal workplace, special care is usually given during all stages of fabrication.
Fabricators who routinely fabricate titanium parts and vessels use areas that are
separate from other production activities to provide clean room conditions, in
order to avoid contamination problems. Special care is required in joint preparation,
cleaning, tooling for shielding of the back side of the weld joint, and inert gas
shielding during welding. Critical parts are often welded in a welding chamber that
can be evacuated and backfilled with an inert gas in order to avoid any contamina-
tion from the atmosphere.
Exposure of the weld zone to the atmosphere at too high a temperature (due to loss
of shielding) will cause different colors to form on the weld depending upon the
amount of contamination. Weld colors provide an approximate visual determination
of the severity of contamination. Low contamination causes a change from silver to
a straw color. Increasing contamination causes a change to blue/purple, and finally
to a gray/powdery appearance. The straw color is generally acceptable although
ductility is reduced. The weld composition indicated by color changes after the
straw color is usually unacceptable because of the greater loss of ductility. Only
destructive testing will determine the actual extent of embrittlement. The bend test
requires a certain minimum amount of ductility (depending upon bend radius and
thickness) to pass. This test can be used to determine if embrittlement has occurred
by checking test pieces which have been welded separately, but under the same
conditions as the production welding.
Titanium can only be welded to itself because of its sensitivity to contamination.
Joints combining titanium with dissimilar metals can only be joined by mechanical
connections (including explosion bonding) or by silver brazing.

Caution should be exercised in flame cutting titanium during salvage or reclama-

tion. High heat input cutting can start a reaction with the oxygen in air and cause
titanium to burn by itself. Mechanical cutting operations during fabrication are
generally not a problem.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Because of the low melting point of aluminum (about 1200F), there is risk of it
melting in a fire, and it is seldom used in the Company for hydrocarbon process
equipment. Our primary use of welded aluminum is in fertilizer plants. For welding
purposes, aluminum and aluminum alloys may be divided into heat treatable (e.g.,
6061) and nonheat treatable (e.g., 1100, 3003 and 5083) types. The nonheat treat-
able types may be strengthened by cold working.
Commonly used aluminum alloys like 1100, 3003, 5083 and 6061-T6 are readily
welded using the inert gas shielded processes (GMAW and GTAW). Welders should
be trained or have experience in aluminum welding. Aluminum welding requires
good cleaning practices to remove contaminants from the weld joint in order to
avoid weld porosity. Protection from wind or drafts during welding is needed to
maintain good inert gas shielding of the arc and molten weld metal. Aluminum
welding differs from welding other metals because there is no color change during
heating, and because its high heat conductivity rapidly conducts heat away from the
weld zone. Preheat for welding is normally not required except to eliminate surface
moisture, or to compensate for heat loss in thicker sections when the GTAW process
is used.
Welding aluminum with the SMAW process is generally not recommended because
of poor weld quality and mechanical properties.
For aluminum alloys that are strengthened by either cold working or heat treatment,
the effect of welding on mechanical properties is to anneal the material in the HAZ.
Therefore, the minimum as-welded strength of heat treated or cold worked
aluminum alloys is usually specified to be no greater than that of the annealed
condition (zero temper) for butt welded joints.
316 Dissimilar Metals

Many combinations of dissimilar metals are routinely joined with high reliability.
The selection of the filler metal depends not only upon compatibility with the base
materials being joined but also on the suitability of the filler metal for the service.
Requirements for mechanical properties, thermal fatigue, and corrosion resistance
will influence filler metal selection and often limit selections where there is more
than one choice available.
Electrode selections for similar and dissimilar metal welds between many steel,
stainless steel and nickel alloy combinations are shown in Figures 300-1 and 300-2.
Deposited Weld Metal Composition

For dissimilar metal welds, the composition of the deposited weld metal is the result
of the dilution of the electrode composition with the base metals being joined. The

composition of deposited weld metal can be determined by chemical analysis, or it

can be calculated by estimating the welding dilution for joining or overlaying.
Figure 300-3 shows an example of determining deposited weld metal composition
by estimating dilution where the composition of the base metals and the electrode
used for joining them is known. For example, if a butt weld between Type 304 stain-
less steel and a plain carbon steel (0.20% C) is made using an E309 stainless steel
electrode and the dilution of the base metals is estimated to be 20% (dilution for
SMAW runs about 20 to 25%), the weld metal composition is made up of 20% plain
carbon steel, 20% Type 304 stainless steel and 60% E309 electrode. The composi-
tion of the weld metal can then be determined using actual or typical values for the
base metals and the electrode.
Fig. 300-3 Estimating Composition of Deposited Weld Metal When Welding Dissimilar Metals
Base Metal and Electrode Compositions (Known)
Material %C %Mn %Si %Cr %Ni
Carbon Steel 0.20 0.60 0.20
T304 stainless 0.05 1.50 0.70 18.0 8.0
E309 electrode 0.07 1.50 0.50 25.0 12.0
Deposited Weld Metal Composition from Dilution (Estimated)
Material Dilution %C %Mn %Si %Cr %Ni
Carbon Steel 20% 0.04 0.12 0.04
T304 stainless 20% 0.010 0.30 0.14 3.6 1.60
E309 electrode 60% 0.042 0.90 0.30 15.0 7.20
Deposited Weld Metal 0.092 1.32 0.48 18.6 8.80
Calculation of Chromium and Nickel Equivalents for Deposited Weld Metal(1)
Cr equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5(%Si) + 0.5(%Cb) = 18.6 + 0.0 + 1.5(0.48) + 0.0 = 19.32
Ni equivalent = %Ni + 30(%C) + 0.5(%Mn) = 8.80 + 30(0.092) + 0.5 (1.32) = 12.22
(1) See Equations 300-3 and 300-4.
Ferrite Determination Using A Ferrite Prediction Diagram

The amount of ferrite in stainless steel weld metal can be determined from one of
the ferrite prediction diagrams such as the Schaeffler, DeLong or WRC ferrite
diagram (see Figures 300-4, 300-5 and 300-6 by plotting the weld metal composi-
tion using the chromium and nickel equivalent expressions. Weld metal composi-
tion is separated into austenite stabilizing elements (Ni, C, and Mn) and ferrite
stabilizing elements (Cr, Mo, Si, Cb). Some elements have a stronger or weaker
potency than others, and this is taken into account in the nickel equivalent for the
austenite stabilizers and in the chromium equivalent for the ferrite stabilizers.
Where nitrogen content is known, ferrite can be more accurately determined from
either the DeLong diagram or the WRC ferrite diagram.

Schaeffler Diagram
Equations 300-3 and 300-4 define the chromium and nickel equivalents that are
used in the Schaeffler diagram (Figure 300-4) to estimate the relative proportions of
austenite and ferrite in deposited weld metal. The elements are in weight percent.
Chromium equivalent = Cr + Mo + 1.5Si + 0.5Cb

(Eq. 300-3)
Nickel equivalent = Ni + 30C + 0.5Mn

(Eq. 300-4)
The calculation in Figure 300-3 shows that the estimated composition of the depos-
ited weld metal has a chromium equivalent of 19.32 and a nickel equivalent of
12.22. When these estimated values are plotted on the Schaeffler diagram in
Figure 300-4, the weld metal is predicted to have approximately 4% ferrite. As
noted in the section on stainless steel welding, ferrite should be in the range of 3 to
10% (3 to 11 FN) to avoid cracking for nonstabilized (not containing Cb) weld
metals.
Fig. 300-4 Schaeffler Diagram for Deposited Stainless Weld Metal
DeLong Diagram
A similar calculation can be made using the DeLong diagram (Figure 300-5) or the
WRC ferrite diagram (Figure 300-6), except nitrogen has to be known or estimated
(see the General Note on Figure 300-5. For the DeLong diagram, the results are
given in both percent ferrite and Ferrite Number (FN). Ferrite numbers and percent
ferrite are the same in the range from 0 to 6% on the DeLong diagram.

DeLong Diagram for Deposited Stainless Weld Metal
Fig. 300-5
For the DeLong diagram, the chromium equivalent is the same but the nickel equiv-
alent differs in that nitrogen is taken into account; however, both the chromium and
nickel equivalents differ for the WRC ferrite diagram which recently has become
accepted because of its greater ferrite range and better prediction accuracy for
certain compositions. Also, the WRC diagram refers to niobium (Nb) in lieu of
columbium (Nb) in its chromium equivalent expression.
As noted before, both the DeLong and WRC ferrite diagrams take nitrogen into
account as a variable, whereas the Schaeffler diagram assumes nitrogen to be
constant (at 0.05%). Nitrogen is a strong austenite stabilizer (it lowers ferrite) and
has the same potency as carbon on the DeLong Diagram. Certain welding processes
will deposit weld metals with higher nitrogen content than others. For example,
stainless welds made with the flux cored self-shielded welding process (FCAW-SS)
contain significantly more nitrogen than gas tungsten arc welds (GTAW) made with
standard filler metal. The DeLong or WRC ferrite diagram should be used for deter-
mining the ferrite content of high nitrogen weld metals because welds deposited
with low ferrite are more prone to cracking and the Schaeffler diagram will tend to
over estimate ferrite.
The same type of dilution calculation can be used for weld overlay to estimate the
composition and ferrite in the weld deposit. Base metal dilution can be estimated
from experience (e.g. 20 to 25% for SMAW) or determined from a welding proce-
dure qualification test plate.
WRC Ferrite Diagram

A new ferrite diagram1 is shown in Figure 300-6 which was developed by the
Welding Research Council (WRC). The WRC ferrite diagram has a broader ferrite
number (FN) range and better accuracy for predicting ferrite in stainless steel weld
metal. The WRC diagram has a ferrite number range from 0 to 100 FN and, in addi-
tion, indicates the primary solidification mode, which is useful in predicting hot
cracking susceptibility at lower ferrite numbers.
In a comparison of the accuracies of the DeLong, Schaeffler and WRC ferrite
diagrams, it was found that the new WRC diagram is a better predictor of ferrite
content.
Although for type 308 and 316 stainless steel welds the predictive accuracies of the
WRC diagram and the De Long diagram are similar, the DeLong diagram overesti-
mates ferrite for Type 309 weld metal and underestimates ferrite where the manga-
nese exceeds 2.5%.
The DeLong diagram is limited to a maximum ferrite of 18 FN, which excludes its
use on duplex stainless steels. For a typical duplex stainless steel having a volume
ferrite of 50% (and 50 vol. % austenite), the approximate ferrite number value is 80
FN and for a volume ferrite of 65%, the value is roughly equivalent to 100 FN.
1. McCowan, C.N., Siewert, T.A., and Olson, D.L., April 1989. Stainless Steel Weld Metal: Prediction of Ferrite
Content. WRC Bulletin 342.

WRC Ferrite Diagram for Deposited Stainless Steel Weld Metal
Fig. 300-6
On the WRC diagram, hot cracking-susceptibility is predicted to be the greatest for

the primary austenitic solidification (AF) mode and predicted to decrease at the
boundary where the primary ferritic solidification (FA) mode occurs. The austenitic
region is identified with an A and the ferritic region is identified with an F which
varies with the ferrite number. At low FN values, the solidification mode can be
more important than ferrite content in determining resistance to solidification
cracking in stainless steel welds. The initial solidification structure directly deter-
mines the sensitivity to cracking by controlling the solubility of elements that
promote cracking. Hence, there is improved cracking resistance for welds that
solidify by the primary ferritic solidification (FA) mode rather than by the primary
austenitic solidification (AF) mode.
Welding Carbon and Low Alloy Steels to Chrome-Moly Steels

The weld metal used for joining these combinations can be carbon steel, low alloy,
or chrome-moly alloy, but the preference is to select the weld metal for the lowest
alloy composition material (e.g., E7018 for carbon steel, E7018-A1 for C-Mo, etc.)
being joined. Preheat and PWHT should be based on the highest preheat and PWHT
requirements of the materials being joined. PWHT temperatures required by the
Company for Cr-Mo steels may exceed the lower critical temperature for carbon
steel. As a result, it is recommended that the maximum PWHT temperature be
restricted to 1325F (using a range of 1250-1325F) for Cr-Mo combinations with
carbon steel. HAZ softening may not be as great with the lower PWHT tempera-
tures.
Welding Carbon, Low Alloy and Cr-Mo Steels to Austenitic Stainless Steels
One major concern about welds made between ferrous materials and austenitic
stainless steels is the risk of thermal fatigue because of high thermal expansion
stresses that occur with cyclical service temperatures above about 600F. The
severity of the stress gradient across the weld joint can be decreased by using a filler
metal with a coefficient of thermal expansion between those of austenitic stainless
steel and low alloy steel. Inco 182 is a high nickel filler that is recommended when
improved resistance to cracking from thermal fatigue is needed and the corrosion
resistance is acceptable.
Where thermal expansion is not a problem (i.e., at service temperatures below
600F or higher temperatures where acceptable by analysis or experience) welds are
commonly made with less costly austenitic stainless steel filler metals. E309 filler
metal is recommended because with normal dilution (about 20%), the weld deposit
will have a composition that promotes the formation of both ferrite and austenite,
thus providing resistance to cracking (see the discussion at the beginning of this
section).
One technique that has been used to avoid problems with sensitization of the stain-
less material when joined to a material that requires PWHT has been to butter the
weld bevel of the hardenable material with several layers of nonhardenable weld
metal (e.g., Inco 182) using preheat. PWHT is then performed on the buttered hard-
enable piece. After PWHT, the buttered edge is machined to create a new weld prep-
aration, keeping the minimum thickness of the weld butter at least 3/16 inch. The

weld is then made without preheat and PWHT, using the same nonhardenable weld
metal as used for buttering.
Welding Steel to Monel

The major problem with this material combination is that relatively small amounts
of copper in steel (2% or more) will cause liquation type (grain boundary) cracking.
However, with arc welding and low dilution techniques, little copper penetration of
the steel occurs with normal weld cooling rates. For the SMAW process, Monel 190
is used to join Monel and carbon steel.
317 Cast Iron

Cast iron should not be welded, except where unavoidable (such as for repairs). This
section includes recommendations that will help in making welds without cracking.
Cast iron is a common term for a series of ferrous alloys that normally contain more
than 2% carbon and 1 to 3% silicon, as well as phosphorus and sulfur. Alloy cast
irons may also contain one or more other elements deliberately added to provide
desired properties such as strength, hardness, hardenability, or corrosion resistance.
Common alloy additions are chromium, copper, molybdenum, and nickel.
There are a number of types of cast irons, including gray iron, ductile or nodular
iron, compacted graphite iron, malleable iron, and white iron. White cast iron is not
weldable. The remaining cast iron grades can be welded, although the original
strength will be reduced in all cases except for low strength gray cast iron. Ductility
and toughness will generally be poor.
The mechanical properties of cast iron depend upon the type of microstructure as
well as the form and distribution of microstructural constituents. The microstruc-
tural constituent that has the most significant effect is free graphite (carbon). The
amount, size, and shape of the graphite particles affect the strength and ductility of
cast iron.
Hard, brittle HAZs are formed in cast iron during welding with the electric arc
processes. Heating and cooling during preheat and PWHT should be carefully
controlled to obtain uniform expansion and contraction in order to avoid cracking.
If a casting has been in a service where it has become contaminated with oil, grease
and other impurities, special precautions should be taken to remove the contamina-
tion before welding. The casting should be thoroughly cleaned and degreased in the
area of the weld joint and heated to 700-900F for 15 to 30 minutes to drive off
contaminants. After heating, the casting should be mechanically cleaned and solvent
degreased. The surface of the casting should be removed in the immediate area of
the weld to further remove contaminants such as burned-in dirt and paint, which
contribute to poor weld quality.
In making cast iron weld repairs, it is recommended that welders with previous cast
iron experience be employed where possible because of the sensitivity of the mate-
rial to cracking.

Preheat and Postheat

Heating of cast iron before, during and after welding is generally required. The base
metal will harden and form a brittle HAZ if cooled rapidly. This problem is rela-
tively less serious in cast iron because the base metal itself has very poor ductility.
Nonetheless, thermal treatments are still necessary to minimize cracking and to
reduce distortion.
Preheat should be high enough to prevent cracking and to minimize distortion.
Preheat temperatures in the range of 300-650F are used for nickel alloy arc
welding electrodes while 800-1200F is used for gas welding with cast iron filler
metal or 600-1000F for braze welding with copper alloy filler metal. In most cases,
the entire casting should be heated in order to avoid cracking from uneven cooling
after welding.
An alternate approach to preheating cast iron for repair welding is a cold welding
procedure. SMAW is used to deposit short (2-inch long) stringer beads at a very
slow rate, so that the casting never gets more than warm to the touch (100F).
Nickel-iron filler metals are generally used. This procedure prevents the type of
cracking that is caused when too much heat is built up in one area, thereby devel-
oping localized expansion stresses. The disadvantage is that the fusion zone will
probably have fine cracks and porosity because of the rapid cooling of the weld, and
it is unlikely that pressure tight welds can be made by this procedure.
PWHT of cast iron will relieve residual stresses and temper hard welds, fusion
zones and HAZs. A temperature range of 1100-1200F is used for gray iron with a
holding time of 1.5 hours per inch of thickness. PWHT is recommended for weld
repairs that will require subsequent machining or where there is dynamic loading in
service. Heating and cooling rates should be controlled to 100F/hr maximum above
600F.
Peening of nickel-iron or nickel weld beads during welding (while hot) can be bene-
ficial in controlling shrinkage and distortion. Peening should be done with caution
because there is risk of cracking the brittle parent metal from the impact of the
peening tool. The first and final layers should not be peened.
Welding Processes
Electric Arc Welding. Electric arc welding is most commonly by SMAW, although
FCAW or GTAW may also be used. Advantages of electric arc welding include
higher welding speeds and being able to weld without extremely high preheat (300-
600F is the normal practice except for the cold welding procedure discussed
earlier). PWHT may be needed if lower hardness or machining is required after
welding. In addition, the rate of welding must be restricted to prevent excessive
localized heating, which can cause cracking. Nickel-iron (ENiFe-CI) electrodes are
used for the best strength and resistance to hot cracking, whereas nickel (ENi-CI)
electrodes are used for best machinability. In general, there is a greater tendency for
porosity and cracking from picking up contaminants in the casting in electric arc
welds than in oxyacetylene welding, where the contaminants are more often driven
out by the additional heat required.

Braze Welding. This is a common method of repairing cast iron, and involves the
use of a copper base filler metal (RCuZn-CI) and flux deposited with an oxyacety-
lene torch. The part is preheated to 800-1200F, quite often by building a temporary
brick furnace around it and using natural gas or propane for heat. The prepared
surfaces are brought to the melting point of the filler metal (around 1600F, a red
heat) with the torch, then the filler metal is flowed on. After welding, the part
should be well wrapped or placed in a heated furnace and allowed to cool very
slowly. The braze welding process has the advantage of not requiring a stress relief
because of the high heat input, which also tends to boil out impurities and produce a
sounder weld than with coated electrodes. In addition, the weld is soft and ductile.
The disadvantages of this process are a dissimilar metal joint, no color match, and
except in the case of soft gray cast iron, the tensile strength of the weld metal will
be lower than that of the parent metal. Braze welding of cast iron cannot be used in
services involving ammonia, because ammonia causes stress corrosion cracking of
copper alloys.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding. Oxyfuel gas welding using a cast iron filler metal and flux is
used where a dissimilar metal joint cannot be used, or where higher strength or a
color match is needed. The technique is the same as in braze welding except that the
weld must be heated to the melting point of the base metal (about 2300F) for
fusion to occur. Slow cooling after welding is vital, and if machining is required,
PWHT should be performed after cooling to ambient temperature to reduce hard-
ness and hold tolerances. Gas welding with a nickel based filler metal can be used
as an alternative to brass or cast iron rods for higher strength welds.
Consult the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 4, Seventh Edition and the ASM
Handbook, Volume 9, Ninth Edition for more information on welding cast iron.
320 Special Welding Applications

This section provides guidance for special welding applications that are encoun-
tered within the Company such as corrosion resistant linings, weld overlay and
welding cement lined pipe.
321 Corrosion Resistant Linings

In many cases it is desirable to install a corrosion resistant lining in a tank or vessel
that has been in service and has encountered corrosion on portions of the inside
shell surface. One method for doing this is to field weld thin strips of alloy sheet to
the shell. The alloy and thickness should be based on the corrosion resistance
needed. Strip lining thicknesses of 1/8 inch or less are easiest to form and install.
Most common metals can be applied by strip lining, including carbon steel, 12% Cr
stainless steels, Cr-Ni stainless steels, nickel based alloys, and some copper based
alloys.
Size of Strips or Panels

The length of the strips used for strip lining will be influenced by handling limita-
tions inside the vessel; it is normally three to six feet. The width of the strip used

depends on the material, service temperature, and any manway access limitations.
For austenitic stainless steels, the maximum recommended strip width for various
operating temperatures is shown below:
Operating Temperature Maximum Strip Width
Up to 400F 6 inches
Up to 600F 5 inches
Up to 850F 4 inches
Up to 1000F 3 inches
For other materials with more favorable coefficients of thermal expansion and lower
service temperatures, strip widths as wide as accessible through a manway have
been used.
Attachment Welding
The best method of attaching strip lining is with a two layer weld detail; fillet welds
attach the liner and a filler weld covers the gap and any base metal remaining. See
Figure 300-7. Plug welds are not needed for narrow strips and they have not been
satisfactory for attaching linings to rough surfaces or for elevated temperature
service applications.
Fig. 300-7 Typical Strip Lining Welding Detail

Cleaning
In order to obtain sound welds, the base metal must be cleaned to a white metal
finish by careful abrasive blasting of the surface. In a few special cases, such as
some caustic treaters, chemical washing and/or surface grinding may also be
required to remove hard corrosion products like sulfides.
Orientation of Strips
On shell sections, the longitudinal axis of strip lining should be oriented circumfer-
entially to minimize vertical welding. Strip lining of heads is generally started in the
center and worked towards the girth seam. Layout drawings for strip lining place-
ment on heads are generally helpful to obtain the best use of material.
Welding Process and Electrode Selection

Both the SMAW and GMAW processes have been used successfully for attaching
strip lining. Electrodes for welding various material combinations should be
selected from Figure 300-1, Electrode Selection Chart for Welding Ferrous Metal
Combinations or Figure 300-2, Electrode Selection Chart for Welding High Alloy
Material Combinations.
Inspection
Pressure testing of each segment of strip lining with 20 psi of nitrogen or dry air is
important for finding and repairing any leak paths in the attachment welds that
would permit corrosive products to get behind the lining. Dye penetrant inspection
should be performed after welding to detect cracks and porosity.
Detailed procedures are available in Chevron U.S.A. Manufacturing Engineering
Instruction ES-501, Installing Strip and Sheet Lining in Pressure Vessels. Consult
the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit for specific applications.
322 Corrosion and Wear Resistant Overlays and Coatings

Weld overlays are used to protect material surfaces from corrosion, wear and
erosion. The overlay material must be resistant to the attacking media, and must also
meet other service requirements that may include such factors as differences in
coefficients of thermal expansion, shock resistance, high temperature strength, and
anti-galling characteristics. There is no one overlay that will meet all service
requirements; each application must be handled on the basis of its own require-
ments.
As with all dissimilar metal welds, overlay welding should be performed with a
procedure that minimizes dilution, cracking, poor fusion and other defects that
would decrease the usefulness of the deposit. The procedure may involve special
welding processes, use of intermediate layers and special equipment.
Methods of Coating and Weld Overlaying

Metal SprayUnfused. Wire or metal powder is melted in a special gun by a
plasma arc, electric arc, or fuel gas flame, and the molten droplets are sprayed from

the gun at high velocity to impinge upon and adhere to the specially prepared work
surface. One proprietary process employs detonation of a gas mixture to propel the
metal particles. This type of coating forms a mechanical bond that is porous and is
not suitable for applications where corrosion resistance is required. However, this
type of coating is useful for other applications such as restoring dimensions on
machinery parts including pistons, cylinder liners, and rods in gas compressors. This
process is almost free of distortion because there is very little heat buildup during
spraying.
The unfused metal spray process relies almost completely on mechanical adhesion
for bonding of the sprayed metal. As a result, it is difficult to nondestructively deter-
mine if the deposit is properly bonded. The quality of the bond is dependent on
good surface preparation of the base metal and the skill and experience of the oper-
ator to properly apply the metal spray. Service life of the coating may be shortened
if the surface preparation is inadequate, the spray technique is improper, or the
coating thickness is too heavy.
Metal SprayFused. Molten droplets are sprayed on the surface, then the deposit
is re-fused by heating with a gas torch to create a less porous metal layer that may
be metallurgically bonded to the parent metal. This coating can be used for wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, or both, where suitable spray material is available
that can be fused without loss of properties. Torch heating the deposit can adversely
affect the substrate due to the high heat required.
The fused metal spray process also requires good surface preparation and an experi-
enced operator for proper manipulation of the gun and careful torch fusing to obtain
a satisfactory bond and fusion without distortion, melting, spalling or cracking. If
the base metal is a hardenable alloy, the high temperature of torch fusing (1850-
2050F) can cause hardening and/or loss of heat treated properties. One advantage
of torch fusing is that lack of bonding or fusion can be detected during the heating
operation by the appearance of hot spots. In addition, because there is no dilution by
the parent metal, the composition and properties of the finished product are known
from the composition of the spray material.
Both spray methods have the advantages of fairly simple operation, good thickness
control, and minimum distortion but they are restricted mostly to shop work because
of the type of surface preparation required and the careful control needed in torch
fusing the spray deposit. Either method can be applied to round or flat surfaces.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). This process involves heating the part in an
atmospherically controlled furnace to deposit a thin surface layer of intermetallic
compounds. This process is used to control severe wear when a part, such as a pump
impeller, has hidden surfaces that cannot be coated by other means. Surface hard-
ness exceeds other more conventional processes, so wear rates are generally less.
Weld Overlay. Weld metal is generally deposited by electric arc welding processes
such as SMAW, GMAW, SAW (strip or series arc) or hot wire plasma arc,
depending on the application. Good bonding to the base metal is achieved with
these processes but consideration must be given to dilution of the overlay composi-
tion by pickup of parent metal. The effects of dilution on the deposited weld metal

should be considered in selecting the filler metal composition or specifying the

thickness of the deposit. See Section 316 for a discussion regarding dilution calcula-
tions and ferrite content in deposited weld metal.
For corrosion resistant overlays such as 308 or 347 stainless steels, it is necessary to
use either an intermediate layer of higher alloy material (e.g., 309 or 309 Cb) for
two layer deposits or a single layer of the higher alloy material (e.g., 309 or 309Cb)
for single layer deposits, to compensate for dilution from the parent metal. For high
alloy overlays (e.g., Inconel or Monel) on carbon and low alloy steels, it may be
necessary to use two or more layers in order to get the correct analysis (particularly
to compensate for iron pickup).
To avoid excessive dilution and achieve consistent chemistry results, the welding
procedure must be closely followed. Critical items in the welding procedure are the
welding process, filler metal, electrode diameter, amperage, voltage, travel speed,
oscillation and number of layers. Section IX of the ASME Code on Welding Quali-
fications has specific requirements for qualification of welding procedures for weld
overlay. The essential variables and testing requirements are sufficiently conserva-
tive; therefore, when properly followed, consistent results can be achieved. In order
to pass the side bend tests required by Section IX, the weld overlay must have at
least 20% ductility. This will eliminate welding procedures that produce cracking or
brittle deposits.
Wear resistant overlays (hard facing) have inherently low ductility as a result of
their high hardness and strength. There is always a high risk of cracking during
cooling after welding, particularly as deposit thickness and/or the extent of overlay
increases. Slow cooling after welding is an important precaution to reduce the risk
of cracking. High preheat temperatures (600-800F) can also be used to reduce the
risk of cracking, but they must be uniformly applied during welding. Stress
relieving (900-1100F) can be of benefit for reducing cracking for some hard facing
deposits that do not soften significantly (and reduce the necessary hardness) at
higher temperatures.
New Techniques for Corrosion Resistant Overlay

Strip overlay is a variation of the SAW process that is gaining wider acceptance for
weld overlaying large surface areas inside vessels and on tube sheets. Strip overlay
was widely used in Europe before being introduced to the U.S. It is limited to shop
fabrication and can only be used in the flat position. The electrode for strip overlay
is a thin, flat strip (0.5 mm thick by 30-200 mm wide) rather than the round wire
conventionally used with the SAW process. Dilution is low and high deposition
rates can be achieved depending on the strip width and current density. The process
uses a flux as with conventional SAW but may be operated either in the submerged
arc mode (arc between the electrode and work) or in the electroslag mode (resis-
tance heating of a slag bath). The process is generally operated in the submerged arc
mode in the U.S., but the Japanese use the electroslag mode for stainless steel over-
laying of heavy wall reactor vessels. The electroslag mode provides even higher
deposition rates and dilution is lower.

In situ weld overlay of field vessels has been successfully done on both large and
small jobs using the GMAW process. The process is automated by attaching a track
to the vessel wall (for horizontal passes), using a travel carriage to guide the
welding torch and automatic controls to maintain constant torch-to-work distance.
Overlay is generally done in one pass (3/16-inch thick) using small diameter wire
(0.035 inch) at high wire feed speeds (900 IPM). The deposition rate is not
extremely high (15 lb/hr) but multiple overlay units can be used for increased
productivity. Both austenitic stainless steels and high nickel alloys have been depos-
ited using this technique. One Company job required over 9000 ft2 of stainless
overlay (using 309 LSi filler metal) in two vessels with up to 12 overlay units being
used at a time in a vessel. The quality of the overlay was equal to new construction.
323 Welding Cement Lined Pipe

Information on joining cement lined pipe by welding is also covered in the Pipeline
Manual (Section 350, Internal Coatings and Linings), API RP10E (Recommended
Practice for Application of Cement Lining to Steel Tubular Goods, Handling, Instal-
lation and Joining), and several OpCo standards in Texas and California.
A typical joint detail for a butt welded cement-lined pipe joint is shown in
Figure 300-8. The problems with welding cement lined pipe have been largely asso-
ciated with gasket placement and mismatch (high-low) due to out-of-roundness.
Some incomplete penetration at the weld joint (typically 1/32 to 1/16 inch) is a
normal part of making the weld in order to avoid damaging the gasket and the
cement lining. Random radiography is often used to check for gasket placement but
interpretation of weld quality is hampered by the cement lining and the incomplete
penetration of the joint. The final check of weld integrity is the hydrostatic proof
test at 1.25 times the design pressure. Wherever possible, weld joints should be left
uncovered until completion of hydrostatic testing so that leaks can be more easily
found and repaired.
Fig. 300-8 Butt Welded Cement Lined Pipe Joint

Qualified welding procedures and qualified welders are important to obtaining good
weld quality and minimizing incomplete penetration. Welding procedures and
welders should be qualified to API 1104 on actual cement lined pipe because fitup
and gasket placement are critical to the final result. The welding procedure gener-
ally follows a standard downhill pipeline welding practices using cellulosic elec-
trodes. The welding procedures in the Chevron Pipeline Welding Standard can be
used as a guide. The exceptions are 1) the technique for welding the root pass
should permit venting of trapped gas and 2) lower welding heat should be used for
both the root and hot passes to avoid damaging the gasket and cement lining. The
welding procedure should state the maximum incomplete penetration and mismatch
(high-low) permitted for a given wall thickness.
For thinner pipe, gasket placement is very critical because incomplete penetration
coupled with mismatch can significantly decrease the effective throat of the weld. If
not controlled, they can reduce the effective weld throat to less than half the wall
thickness and result in failure during hydrostatic testing. Because of this, using
higher strength pipe to reduce the wall thickness may make welding more critical,
particularly for pipe 5/16 inch or less.
External line-up clamps should be used for the joint fitup. The fitup sequence
should include compressing the gasket in the weld joint for leak tightness. This can
be done by lifting the pipe ends about 5 degrees from the horizontal to the open the
groove, installing he gasket, pulling the pipe together, tack welding in the joint near
the bottom, and than lowering the pipe back to horizontal. Other tack welds should
be made on the top and sides to hold alignment and then the joint welding
completed. External weld reinforcement should be 1/16 inch minimum which helps
to compensate for the incomplete penetration at the root.
330 Troubleshooting
This section offers guidance in diagnosing and troubleshooting causes of various
welding problems and providing remedial measures. Also refer to Figures 300-9
through 300-13 for common causes, corrections, and examples of welding prob-
lems.
Welding problems encountered in the field can be more difficult to solve than in the
shop, because the shop provides a more controlled environment and greater oppor-
tunity to investigate all aspects of a problem. However, in the field there is often
evidence available that still can lead to solution of the problem, even though at that
time it may be too late to observe the actual welding operations. For example, in the
case of cracking, the location of the crack (weld, HAZ or parent metal), the orienta-
tion of the crack (random, longitudinal or transverse), and the characteristics of the
alloy being welded (austenitic, ferritic, hardenable, nonhardenable, etc.) will
provide clues as to the possible cause.

Fig. 300-9 Types of Weld Cracks with Possible Causes and Corrections
Defect Possible Causes Possible Corrections
Root Bead Cracks
Longitudinal Thin bead; wrong weld metal Deposit thicker bead; preheat; check welding materials
and base metal composition. Weld at least 2 passes
before allowing to cool.
Transverse Low ductility weld metal; high Check weld rod; allow freedom to shrink; use preheat.
restraint
Crack at edge of Lack of fusion; high S steel; dirty Correct welding fit-up or technique; use low hydrogen
weld bead surface on base metal electrodes; clean up base metal.
Other Weld Cracks
Transverse and Wrong weld metal; low ductility Permit freedom of movement, preheat; check for
Longitudinal weld metal; excessive restraint; possible sources of contaminants; preheat and/or iden-
pickup of Cu, S or other contami- tify composition of materials.
nants; hardenable weld metal or
base metal
Fine, unoriented Hot-short due to low melting Try another batch of weld rod; use welding technique
small cracks impurities in weld metal or base with minimum heat input and minimum restraint.
metal.
Crater cracks Improper breaking of arc Change welding technique to fill craters.
Base Metal Cracks
Longitudinal Hardenable alloy; high stresses Use preheat and postheat; allow freedom to shrink.
Fine, short Hot-short due to low melting Use welding technique with minimum heat input and
cracks in fusion impurities in base metal minimum restraint; butter beveled faces with one or
zone more layers of weld metal before joining the two parts.
Note In the possible cause and corrections categories, the most likely cause of the crack is listed first, along with its
corresponding corrective measure.
331 Welding Defects

Some weld defects such as incomplete penetration, excessive penetration, lack of
fusion, and high-low mismatch are often caused by weld joint problems such as
poor joint design, poor preparation, or improper fit-up. Other weld defects are the
result of poor welding processes, such as undercut, slag, porosity, and burn-through.
See Section 500 for a further description of these defects and the welding inspec-
tion procedures for preventing their occurrence.
The evaluation of weld defects should be based on the codes and standards in use
and on service requirements. In general, sharp linear defects such as cracks, lack of
penetration, and lack of fusion are of the greatest concern; rounded defects such as
porosity and slag are of less concern and are generally tolerated to at least some
extent. However, the operating conditions (temperature and pressure), product
toxicity, and possible fatigue due to cyclic loading also affect the significance of
various defects. For example, slight surface undercut on vibrating compressor
piping can be much more serious than fairly extensive lack of penetration in a low

Fig. 300-10 Various Types of Weld Cracks (Courtesy of the American Welding Society)
pressure crude oil line. Similarly, weld porosity would be of more concern in a line
carrying toxic vapors than in a crude oil line. Therefore, the seriousness of a weld
defect needs to be evaluated using a method appropriate to the service; the method
may range from an empirical evaluation to a formal fitness analysis.
332 Cracks
Weld metal longitudinal cracks in the center of the root pass, particularly in heavy
sections, are often caused by the weld being too thin to withstand the weld-
shrinkage stresses developed during cooling (see Figure 300-14(A)). A concave
bead shape increases susceptibility to centerline weld cracking, particularly in stain-
less steels. Where the cracks do not propagate to the surface, they can be difficult to
detect (see Figure 300-14(B)). These cracks may be prevented by depositing a
heavier root pass with a convex bead shape (see Figure 300-14(C)) or by using a
special welding sequence, such as backstepping. Longitudinal cracking can also
occur in subsequent passes if weld beads do not have a slightly convex contour or if
deep, narrow weld beads are made.
Another cause of longitudinal weld metal cracking is due to liquation cracking from
contaminants. See the discussion on hot-short cracking under random cracking,
below. The propensity for this type of cracking increases with concave bead shape
and increasing restraint on the joint from thickness and geometry. Fully austenitic
stainless steel weld metal (e.g., E310 and E320) is more susceptible to liquation
cracking.

Fig. 300-11 Examples of Weld Cracks

Longitudinal root bead crack
jagged direction indicates
possible hard weld metal.
Longitudinal weld crack

copper contamination.
Transverse weld cracks.
Longitudinal crack in heat

affected zone of base metal.
Hot-short cracks in base metal

fusion zone.

HAZ longitudinal cracking is generally due to underbead cracking from high hard-
ness and the presence of hydrogen. This type of cracking can generally be elimi-
nated by preheat. See Section 100 for a discussion of preheat and underbead
cracking. Where the weld bead pulls away from the parent metal, it can be from lack
of fusion due to poor welding processes, inadequate surface preparation to remove
contaminants (e.g., oxides or sulfide scales), or incompatibility of the weld metal
and base metal.
Weld metal transverse cracks are usually caused by lack of ductility in the weld
metal. This may be corrected by using a more ductile weld metal (lower strength) or
increasing the preheat temperature. Repetitive weld repairs in one area can cause
cracking because of the high shrinkage stresses developed during welding. Care-
fully planned repair procedures are helpful in avoiding repetitive repair welds.
Random cracks or fissures are usually the sign of hot-short cracking (liquation
cracks) from the presence of low melting point contaminants such as sulfur, phos-
phorus, or copper at grain boundaries. The contaminants form lower melting point
films that remain liquid to lower temperatures during cooling, and open up from
high shrinkage stresses. Contaminants like sulfur can be picked up during welding
from paint, grease, crayon markings or sulfide scale on the parent metal, or they can
be present in the filler wire. Copper can be picked up from sources such as contact
tips used in GMAW welding or bare welding cable.
Random cracks in the parent metal adjacent to the weld may be due to grain
boundary liquation cracking, either from foreign material on the surface or elements
already present in the parent metal (as in the case of columbium in Type 347 stain-
less steel).
Therefore, hot-short cracking in the base metal adjacent to the weld may be elimi-
nated by good surface preparation to remove contaminants or by reducing heat input
for Type 347 stainless steel.
In fillet welds, longitudinal cracking through the middle of the weld is often the
result of concave bead shape and the restraint imposed by the thickness of the base
material (see Figure 300-10). The parent metal along the sides of the weld chills
these areas and causes them to solidify and cool more rapidly than the center of the
weld. The shrinkage stresses produce a separation at the center, where the higher
temperature weld metal is lower in strength. This problem can be eliminated by
using a welding technique that produces a convex weld shape.
Toe cracks in fillet welds may be caused by:
Lack of fusion due to welding over heavy mill scale
Surface extension of underbead HAZ cracks or lamellar tearing, particularly in
structural quality steels
Reheat (stress relief) cracking from PWHT in steels containing chromium,
molybdenum, columbium or vanadium (in the HAZ close to the fusion line,
sometimes extending to the surface)

Fig. 300-12 Troubleshooting Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Defect Cause Correction
Cracked welds Faulty electrode Use low hydrogen electrodes

(also see hard welds) Rigidity of joint, stressed weld Redesign joint; use preheat and postheat; change
welding sequence
Thin bead Use slower travel or faster freezing electrode to give a
more convex bead
Crater cracks Back step to fill craters or use runoff tabs
Fast cooling rate Preheat
Hard welds Air hardening deposit Use austenitic electrodes if feasible

Wrong heat treatment Use proper preheat and postheat cycles
Wrong electrode Use low hydrogen or austenitic electrode
Base metal pickup Shallow penetration by directing arc on weld puddle
Incomplete Poor joint design Correct root opening, land, angle of bevel
penetration Too large an electrode Use smaller electrode for root pass
Insufficient welding current Increase welding current
Welding speed too rapid Decrease welding speed
Undercutting Welding speed too rapid Use lower current

Improper manipulation of the electrode Change angle of holding electrode so that arc force
will be used to fill undercut
High current Use lower current
Arc length too long Shorten arc length
Porous welds Foreign material in joint Remove rust, scale, oil, paint, etc.
Faulty electrodes Dry electrodes to remove moisture; replace electrodes
High sulfur or other impurities Use low hydrogen electrodes
Current too low Increase current values
Welding speed too rapid Slow down welding speed
Distortion and Improper design of weld Redesign to allow for expansion and contraction
warping Overheating Use lower current
Welding speed too slow Increase the speed of the arc travel
Improper welding sequence Improve welding sequence
Faulty clamping/fixturing Clamp properly to chill bar or add bracing
Poor appearance Current either too high or too low Adjust current
Improper manipulation of electrode Check welding technique
Faulty electrode Dry electrode to remove moisture; change electrode
Excessive spatter Current too high Use lower current

Carrying a long arc Shorten the arc length
Wrong polarity Change polarity
Faulty electrode coating Replace electrode
Excessive arc blow See below
Arc blow Magnetic field created when using DC Use AC machine

causes the arc to be unstable Counteract blow with angle of electrode
Relocate or split ground to straddle seam
Place large magnets adjacent to weld area at proper
angle
De-magnetize

Fig. 300-13 Troubleshooting GMAW Short Arc Welding (1 of 2)

Erratic starts Hot start voltage too high Use a hot start voltage of 2 volts over welding voltage for about one
second
Unstable arc Voltage too low or too high Use correct voltage
Contact tip clogged Clean or renew contact tip
Thin slag glass on previous pass Remove thin slag glass
Bed too shallow Current too low Increase current
Incorrect nozzle angle Use 90 degree or leading angle
Convex bead Arc voltage too low Raise voltage
Oscillation too narrow Widen oscillation
Bead too high Current too high Decrease weld current
Travel speed too slow Increase travel speed
Burn-through and Current too high Adjust wire feeder to reduce wire feed speed (current)
too much penetration Excessive root opening Increase stick-out to 1/2 inch maximum. Weave to fill hole
Root face too small Same as above
Travel speed too slow Increase speed of travel
Lack of fusion to Root opening too narrow Increase root opening
tacks Tacks not adequately ground Feather tacks properly
Lack of fusion in root Root opening too narrow Increase root opening
Arc voltage too low Increase voltage
Whiskers Root opening too large Use smaller root opening. Use slight weaving action
Root face too thin Use slight weaving action. More stick-out, 1/2 inch max.
Speed of travel too fast Move slower keeping the wire in the leading edge of the puddle
Excessive current or wire feed speed Reduce amperage or wire feed speed
Undercutting in over- Current too high Reduce wire feed speed
head position Voltage too high Reduce arc voltage
Insufficient dwell at edge of bead Increase dwell
Wagon tracks Preceding pass too convexed Increase voltage. Travel faster. Widen oscillation
Too much voltage on succeeding Reduce voltage
passes
Improper manipulation of gun Work wire into side walls of bevel
Lack of penetration Root opening too tight (a) Correct root opening
(b) Increase welding current
(c) Reduce stick-out
(d) Travel uphill
Root face too big Same as above
Arc voltage too high Reduce voltage rheostat setting
Travel speed too fast Decrease speed of travel
Stick-out too long Reduce stick-out to 3/8 inch
Favoring one side Move wire to center of joint
Too large a puddle Increase speed, move wire to leading edge of puddle
Lack of penetration Travel speed too slow Increase speed of travel
or suckback in Root opening too wide Decrease root opening
overhead position
Cold lap Improper manipulation of gun Work wire into side wall, dont let the puddle do the fusing
(lack of fusion) Too large a puddle Move faster or reduce wire feed
Wire in center of puddle Move wire to leading edge of puddle or base metal ahead of puddle
Welding current and deposition rate Reduce wire feed speed
too high
Welding speed too slow Increase forward speed

Fig. 300-13 Troubleshooting GMAW Short Arc Welding (2 of 2)

Subsurface porosity Foreign material on surface; rust, oil, Clean weld bevels and area adjacent to weld with disc sander
pipe dope, etc. keep clean
Failure to remove islands of slag Vigorously clean to remove slag
Foreign material on wire Keep wire protected from dirt and weather
Excessive tip to work distance Move gun close to work
Too much gas flow Reduce gas flow
Too little gas flow Increase gas flow
Incorrect wire analysis Use recommended wire
Welding over stick electrode tacks Tack with MIG
Surface porosity Lack of gas coverage Check for gas flow
Due to wind Increase gas flow, use windbreak
Nozzle clogged Clean spatter from nozzle
Line broken Check for leaks in hose and gun
Frozen gas regulators Parallel tanks, use heater
Defective gas valve Replace gas valve
Wet CO2 gas Use Welding Grade (Dry) CO2
Dirt on electrode wire Use clean wire and protect
Excessive tip to work distance Move gun closer to work
Contamination on pipe Remove pipe dope and other contamination
Porosity in crater at Welder pulls gun away from puddle Hold gun at normal welding position until wire stops feeding and
end of weld before wire stops feeding gas flow stops
Fig. 300-14 Weld Metal Longitudinal Cracks

Underbead cracking is caused by hydrogen in the weld metal and high HAZ hard-
ness, and can be prevented by using low hydrogen electrodes and preheat. Reheat
(stress relief) cracking may be avoided by reducing the stress concentration (intensi-
fication) in welds by improving weld contours (e.g., blend grinding the toes of fillet
welds), peening during welding to reduce shrinkage, using lower strength weld
metal (to reduce the stress in the HAZ) or, where practical, by avoiding PWHT alto-
gether.
Crater cracks are shrinkage cracks that occur in the crater or depression at the end
of a weld bead when the arc is broken off too abruptly after the weld is completed.
Crater cracks can be prevented by filling the crater at the end of each weld bead
using good welding processes (e.g., hesitating momentarily and reversing travel
direction).
333 Repair Welds

A common problem in repair welding is failure to remove the entire defect before
making the repair weld, resulting in rejection after examination. Defects should be
completely removed and the cavity carefully inspected before welding.
In making repairs to plate or pipe welds that cannot be back welded, it is not
unusual to find incomplete penetration or lack of fusion defects during radiography
of through-wall repairs. This is often due to improper groove preparation before re-
welding. See Section 500 for a suggested procedure for single welded repairs.
The surface condition of a weld can interfere with radiographic interpretation by
masking (or hiding) defects. Rough ripples or deep valleys between beads should be
ground smooth (and sometimes flush) for best radiographic interpretation. When-
ever the surface condition of a weld is felt to be interfering with radiographic inter-
pretation, the weld surface should be ground smooth and the weld re-radiographed.
Casting Repair Problems

New castings at the foundry or in a shop should be repaired according to the guide-
lines established in the applicable casting material specification. After castings have
been in service, repairs can be either very time consuming or unsuccessful because
of the following:
Trying to seal weld over existing defects is often unsuccessful and can
compromise the design. The desire to weld over existing defects is often
prompted by reluctance to cut completely through the wall of a casting because
of inaccessibility of the back side. In general, all linear-type defects should be
removed before the repair welding is attempted. A special repair technique for
welding from one side is shown in Section 500.
Subsurface flaws adjacent to apparent surface defects can open up during repair
welding. Defects are often found adjacent to shrinkage areas, and these can be
much more extensive than indicated on the surface. When repair welding is
attempted, weld shrinkage can open up additional casting defects, resulting in a
much larger repair.

Defects can be removed from thin or critical sections by grinding in small incre-
ments (approximately 1/16 inch) and dye penetrant inspecting after each increment.
However, for defects that are one inch or greater in depth, it is more economical to
remove by air arc gouging using light to medium cuts (1/8 to 3/16 inch) until the
defect is removed, then grind smooth and inspect.
Preheat for mild steel castings should be not less than 200-300F, depending on wall
thickness (100F/inch over 2 inches). Preheat is more critical for castings because
composition can vary due to segregation and the increased restraint on the weld
from the repair cavity. (Also refer to Section 100 for more information on preheat.)
Radiographic inspection before repair excavation is a useful method to determine
the full extent of any underlying defective material.
After defect excavation, the repair cavity should be inspected before welding using
either dye penetrant (PT) or magnetic particle (MT) examination. In addition, radi-
ography can also be used for assurance of complete defect removal. The completed
repair weld should receive a surface (PT or MT) examination as a minimum and a
volumetric (RT or UT) examination as required for service.
PWHT is recommended for large repair welds, repairs in heavy sections, and where
dimensional stability is important (e.g., for machining). See Section 100 for more
information on PWHT.
334 Residual Stresses and Distortion

The expansion and contraction caused by the heat of welding can result in distor-
tion and residual stresses, which can cause cracking if they are high enough. There
are a number of preventive or remedial measures that may be taken to minimize
distortion and residual stresses where the severity of the problem justifies the action.
Control of Distortion
The following methods can be used to control distortion:
Design the weld joint for balanced shrinkage stresses.
Add restraint (strongbacks) on the back side of the joint being welded to resist
distortion.
Avoid over-welding, which increases shrinkage stresses.
Decrease the number of weld passes by using larger passes.
Use peening to reduce shrinkage stresses. Avoid cracking by excessive peening.
See Section 100 for peening methods.
Tack weld the joint rigidly before welding or use jigs and fixtures for restraint.
PWHT is sometimes necessary before cutting the fabrication free of its restraint
if tolerances are stringent.

See the AWS Welding Handbook Volume 1, Chapter 6 and the Lincoln Handbook,
Section 3.1 for detailed information on distortion. Consult a welding specialist as
needed for specific problems.
Control of Residual Welding Stresses

It may be necessary to use special procedures to minimize or relieve shrinkage
stresses in order to avoid cracking during welding, to maintain dimensional toler-
ances, or to prevent stress corrosion cracking in service.
Residual stresses can be reduced using many of the methods discussed for the
control of distortion, including using balanced welding, avoiding over-welding,
minimizing the number of passes, and peening.
However, thermal heat treatment is the most effective method of reducing residual
stresses. Preheat can be used to reduce or balance contraction stresses during
welding, but PWHT is required to reduce locked-up stresses after welding. Chapter
6 of the AWS Handbook, Volume 1 and Section 100 of this manual contain more
detailed information on PWHT.
335 Using Incorrect Weld Rod

A wide variety of problems can be encountered when filler metal selection is incor-
rect. Problems include cracking during fabrication, brittle fracture, or excessive
corrosion in service. A frequently occurring example of cracking during fabrication
is cracking caused by using cellulosic-coated electrodes on hardenable steel without
adequate preheat. Generally, weld metal should match the parent metal in composi-
tion and mechanical properties. See Section 310 and the data sheets in Appendix A
for recommendations on filler metal selection. Some of the more common problems
are discussed below.
Weld Dilution
When joining dissimilar metals, weld metal dilution is an important consideration,
because improper filler metal selection can result in cracking problems and loss of
integrity. Refer to Section 316 for a discussion of dissimilar metal welding.
Excessive Weld Strength

Welding material manufacturers design their products to meet operating characteris-
tics and mechanical property and toughness requirements. Good operating charac-
teristics include ease of welding, good bead appearance, ease of cleaning and
freedom from porosity when welding on rusty materials. The elements added to
filler metal to accomplish these objectives often increase strength and hardness and
lower ductility. Hardness above 240 Brinell in steel can cause in-service failures
from sulfide cracking.
Submerged arc welds are particularly vulnerable to producing hard deposits when
improper wire/flux combinations are selected. Fluxes that add manganese and
silicon to the weld deposit (generally for single pass welding on rusty steel) should
not be used in combination with electrodes containing medium to high manganese

and silicon content. The flux manufacturers should be consulted whenever there is
concern about a particular wire/flux combination. Often the flux manufacturers
literature will provide enough information to evaluate the acceptability of a
wire/flux combination.
Filler Metal Control and Checks

Make sure that the proper filler metal has been specified, and that it is actually being
used in fabrication. To help insure this, Company specifications covering most types
of fabrication require chemical analyses and/or hardness tests by the inspector or
fabricator. These requirements are intended to prevent, for example, using carbon
steel filler metal to join chrome-moly steel with resulting lower creep strength and
increased vulnerability to graphitization. Another example is the use of filler metal
which does not match base metal composition. This results in poor corrosion resis-
tance, high hardness, or cracking. Where assistance is needed, contact the CRTC
Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit.
Handling Requirements for Low Hydrogen Electrodes

Low hydrogen welding electrodes such as E7018 must be kept dry after the sealed
containers are opened. Once exposed to the atmosphere, these electrodes must be
reconditioned before using. If the coatings on low hydrogen electrodes are exposed
to the atmosphere for more than about eight hours (less time for higher strength
electrodes), they may lose their low hydrogen quality because of moisture absorp-
tion. Moisture pickup from exposure to the atmosphere can cause HAZ cracking
from hydrogen when welding many steels, but in the most severe case, moisture can
also cause coating deterioration and weld porosity. Low hydrogen electrodes that
become wet should be discarded. Electrodes exposed to the atmosphere in excess of
recommended times should be either reconditioned in an oven or else discarded. See
the storage and reconditioning recommendations for electrodes in Section 100.
336 Lamellar Tearing

Background
Lamellar tearing can occur in the base metal under surface attachment welds. The
most susceptible weld types are corner and T-joints (also Y or K) welded with full
or partial penetration grooves and fillets. During welding, high tensile stresses
develop perpendicular to the mid-plane of the material (through-thickness direc-
tion). The magnitude of the stresses depends upon weld size, thickness, welding
procedure, and restraint imposed by the weldment.
Lamellar tearing is more prone to occur when welding steel plate and structural
shapes produced by conventional steel making processes. It results from the decohe-
sion of non-metallic inclusions in the steel, and progresses from one inclusion to
another by ductile tearing. The high tensile stress developed perpendicular to the
surface causes internal tearing to initiate. Lamellar tearing may or may not propa-
gate to an exposed surface. On an etched cross section through the steel, lamellar
tearing is characterized by a step-like or jagged crack with each step nearly parallel
to the mid-plane of the plate. Figure 300-15 illustrates the locations susceptible to
lamellar tearing in typical T-joints and cover welds.

Fig. 300-15 Typical Lamellar Tearing Locations in T-Joints and Corner Welds
Material Improvements
Conventional steels have higher susceptibility to lamellar tearing because they
contain elongated manganese-sulfide and manganese-silicate inclusions. As a
remedy, improved steels are available from mills that are specially produced to
reduce and change the shape of the inclusions. This includes very low sulfur content
(typically 0.005% or less) and inclusion shape control through the addition of
calcium to promote spherical inclusion shape rather than the elongated shape that
normally occurs during mill rolling. Also, tensile testing in the through thickness
direction (normal to the plate surface) can be specified to guarantee more adequate
ductility. Steels with 30 percent minimum reduction of area on through thickness
tensile tests, such as those used for node cans for offshore platforms, are very resis-
tant to lamellar tearing.
Mitigation Techniques
The most effective mitigation technique to reduce the risk of lamellar tearing is to
use steel specially produced for improved through-thickness properties. Where this
is not possible, the following techniques can be used individually or in combina-
tion, depending upon the severity of the problem, to minimize the occurrence of
lamellar tearing.
1. Change the location and design of the weld joint to minimize the through-thick-
ness strain.
2. Butter the surface of the plate with weld metal. There are two options for
buttering depending upon the cracking risk.
a. Butter the plate surface with one or two layers prior to welding with the
footprint of the attachment weld plus 1/2 inch all around. Buttering can be
either an overlay or an inlay.
b. Butter the groove during welding (in situ) by keeping two or three passes
ahead on the lamellar tearing sensitive material.

3. Use lower strength weld metal (for lower yield stresses).

4. Reduce the available hydrogen through the use of low hydrogen electrodes.
There is strong evidence that the sensitivity to lamellar tearing is increased by
the presence of hydrogen.
5. Use preheat and interpass temperatures of at least 200F.
Preheat helps to remove any available hydrogen by increasing the rate of diffu-
sion.
6. Peen the weld beads to reduce weld shrinkage (except for the root and cover
passes).
Inspection
Lamellar tearing generally occurs at the time of welding. Subsurface lamellar
tearing can be best detected using longitudinal wave ultrasonic inspection when
access is available from both sides. Where lamellar tears are exposed to the surface,
magnetic particle and liquid penetrant inspection techniques can be used for detec-
tion. Where there is concern that lamellar tearing has occurred, it is often advisable
to use both ultrasonic and surface inspection techniques to determine the extent of
the problem.
340 Hot Tap Welding

This section discusses welding performed on in-service piping systems and pipe-
lines, called hot tap welding. Additional information on operational procedures and
guidance for hot tap welding is also given in Section 600 of the Piping Manual and
Section 800 of the Pipeline Manual.
This section was written to supplement those other Piping Manual sections and
contains more detailed information regarding the welding concerns associated with
hot tap welding. This section also provides recommendations for selecting proce-
dures appropriate for the carbon equivalent of the piping material and weld cooling
rate as a function of wall thickness and pipe contents. This section was developed as
a result of recent hot tap welding research performed by Edison Welding Institute
[1,2] (EWI) on a Joint Industry Program, EWI work for the Pipeline Research
Committee [3], and earlier work performed by Battelle [4] for the American Petro-
leum Institute.
Tanks have many of the primary concerns of hot tap welding of pipe, but the
methods to address the concerns are different. For in-service welding to be
performed on tanks, refer to Section 1100 of the Tank Manual.
341 Primary Concerns During Hot Tap Welding

There are two primary concerns when welding onto in-service piping systems: burn
through and hydrogen-induced cracking.

Burn Through
Burn through occurs when the welding arc penetrates the pipe wall and the pipe
contents are released. Burn through will occur if the unmelted area beneath the weld
pool has insufficient strength to contain the internal pressure of the pipe. Three
primary factors influence the susceptibility of an in-service piping system to burn
through:
Pipe wall thickness
Depth of weld penetration
Pipe operating conditions
The risk of burn through increases with decreasing pipe wall thickness and/or
increasing weld penetration. For shielded metal arc welding, penetration of the
welding arc into the pipe wall is a function of the welding parameters for a given
electrode type (e.g., E7018 or E6010). Penetration increases as heat input increases
and is greater for cellulosic electrodes (E6010) than for low hydrogen
electrodes (E7018). Low hydrogen electrodes have a maximum hydrogen content of
4 to 8 ml per 100 gm of deposited weld metal, depending upon electrode care. In
contrast, cellulosic electrodes have a hydrogen content of 40-60 ml/100 gm of
deposited weld metal.
Research by Battelle and others has shown that burn through will not occur unless
the inside surface temperature exceeds 1800oF when using low hydrogen electrodes
or 1400oF when using cellulosic electrodes. If the wall thickness is 1/4 in. or greater
it is unlikely the temperature will reach 1800F when using low hydrogen elec-
trodes. Additionally, wall thicknesses down to 3/16 in. can be welded without diffi-
culty where moderate control of heat input (e.g., stringer passes) is used. Take
special precautions for thicknesses less than 3/16 in. Evaluate each case separately
using Figure 300-16 as a guideline.
Fig. 300-16 Burn Through Susceptibility as a Function of Wall Thickness

Flow
Wall Thickness (t) Required(1) Limit Heat Input(2) Risk of Burn Through(3)
< 3/16 Significant risk
3/16< t <1/4 Limited risk
1/4 - 1/2 Very low risk
>1/2 No risk
(1) Some flow of pipe contents is required during welding to remove heat from the pipe wall to reduce the
risk of burn through.
(2) Limit the heat input on the pipe by running stringer passes for the first layer using 3/32 dia. E7018 elec-
trodes and 1/8 dia. E7018 electrodes for the next and subsequent layers.
(3) A computer program developed by Battelle is available from Materials and Equipment Engineering. The
program checks for the risk of burn through based on the given heat input, electrode type, wall thick-
ness, and pipeline operating conditions (temperature, pipe contents, flow rate and pressure).
Role of Flow and Pressure Reduction in Preventing Burn Through. It is

common practice to maintain flow and reduce operating pressure to minimize the

risk of burn through. However, work at Battelle has shown that if the pipe wall is
thick enough, the inside surface temperature will stay below the critical burn
through temperature even with little or no flow of product (see Figure 300-16).
Pressure reduction is sometimes specified because of safety concerns or to comply
with sleeve welding practices (to enhance load sharing with the sleeve at operating
pressure). However, pressure reduction alone is relatively ineffective at controlling
thermal conductivity and thus preventing burn through [4]. In the case of a gas line
(assuming there is some flow) reducing pressure in the gas line can actually increase
the risk of burn through. For liquid pipeline contents, the thermal transfer does not
vary greatly with pressure.
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Hydrogen cracking occurs in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds made on higher
carbon equivalent materials that cool too rapidly where a source of hydrogen is
present. Weld cooling rate is influenced by how quickly the product flowing through
the pipe removes heat from the pipe wall which is a function of pipe thickness and
operating conditions. Hydrogen is picked up from moisture in electrode coatings or
from surface contamination.
Hydrogen-induced cracking can occur in the heat-affected zones of welds during hot
tapping under certain specific conditions. The significance of these cracks on pipe
integrity will vary with the application and their presence in an operating system
may require a fitness for service evaluation. They have been documented to result in
consequences ranging from small leaks to catastrophic failure. For hydrogen-
induced cracking (also called cold or delayed cracking) to occur as a result of hot
tap welding, three primary, independent conditions must be present:
Hydrogen in the weld. All arc welding processes introduce hydrogen into the
weld to some extent. Hydrogen can originate from the moisture that exists in
electrode coatings, in the atmosphere (humidity) or on the pipe surface
(condensation). Hydrogen can also originate from hydrocarbons, grease, rust or
other organic contaminants on the pipe or on the welding consumables.
Susceptible microstructure. In general, hard HAZ microstructures (discussed
later in this section) are more susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking. Such
microstructures are promoted by rapid weld cooling rates in steels with a high
carbon equivalent. Weld cooling rates are determined by welding heat input,
wall thickness and pipeline operating conditions. The operating conditions that
influence weld cooling rates include, ambient and operating temperatures, pipe
contents, flow rate, and to a lesser degree, pressure.
Tensile stresses acting on the weld. Tensile stress can either be applied or
residual. Applied stress can result from movement of the pipeline due to soil
settlement (improper support in the ditch). Residual stresses arise from the
restraint of the welded connection and strains imposed by the contraction of the
weld during cooling.
Removing or preventing any one of these conditions can control hydrogen-induced
cracking. The first two conditions are directly controllable by the welding proce-

dure. While applied tensile stresses are controllable though good practices, residual
stresses are the most difficult to control short of postweld heat treatment, which is
rarely an option for hot tapping.
Hydrogen Control. The amount of hydrogen entering the weld can be signifi-
cantly limited as follows:
Use well cared for low hydrogen electrodes. Low hydrogen electrodes should
be purchased in hermetically sealed containers and stored in a heated oven at an
appropriate temperature (see Figure 100-43) or used from freshly opened pack-
ages.
Carefully clean the base materials to remove contaminants such as rust, dirt,
moisture, and hydrocarbons.
Employ techniques which help diffuse weld metal hydrogen content to the very
lowest levels during welding. This can be accomplished by increasing the weld
thermal cycle through either preheat or higher welding heat input (see
Section 342, Selecting a Welding Process to the Risk of Hydrogen Cracking).
Preheat reduces the weld cooling rate and holds the weld at a higher
temperature which allows more time for hydrogen to diffuse.
Higher welding heat input increases the weld thermal cycle time (slows the
cooling rate), but is less effective than preheat because it does not main-
tain a higher temperature after cooling so the weld does not continue to
diffuse hydrogen.
Microstructure Control. The risk of hydrogen-induced cracking in the HAZ gener-
ally increases with hardness, which depends on the chemical composition of the
pipe material, weld cooling rate (e.g., the time for the weld to cool from 800C to
500C), and subsequent thermal treatment. For a given weld cooling rate, HAZ
hardness is a direct function of the carbon equivalent of the material.
Hardness control through proper procedure selection may be required when hot tap
welding on pipe material that is more than 0.10% carbon in order to avoid
hydrogen-induced cracking. The procedure selection guideline in Section 342 takes
carbon equivalent into account in selecting a procedure to avoid hydrogen cracking.
Acceptable hardness levels were developed during the Edison Welding Institute
(EWI) program and are discussed in Section 343. Two ways to check chemical
composition of pipe material are:
Estimate the carbon equivalent of the pipe material from the ASTM specifica-
tion using maximum values (this method usually results in a higher carbon
equivalent).
Check the actual composition of the material by removing filings or chips from
the pipe material to be hot tapped and perform a chemical analysis.
The second method is preferred, because often a much less conservative procedure
can be used as determined from the procedure selection guideline in Section 342.
The carbon equivalent is calculated using the IIW carbon equivalent as discussed in

Section 342. The specification limits for several pipe materials are listed in
Figure 300-17, along with their calculated maximum carbon equivalents.
Fig. 300-17 Specification Limits for Pipe Materials

Material Grade Carbon Manganese Maximum Carbon Equivalent
A106 Grade B 0.30 0.29-1.06 0.48
API 5L Grade B 0.27 1.15 0.46
API 5L Grade X42 0.29 1.25 0.50
API 5L Grade 52 0.31 1.35 0.54
Note Single chemistry values are maximums.
Pipe material which has less than 0.10% carbon is unlikely to crack, so elaborate
procedures to control hardness levels are unnecessary. However, low carbon mate-
rials are generally only available in modern API 5L line pipe grades and have to be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis from each pipe mill.
342 Selecting a Welding Process to the Risk of Hydrogen Cracking

The variables that affect the selection of appropriate welding procedures to avoid
hydrogen cracking are: chemical composition of the pipe, wall thickness, thermal
severity of the pipe contents, and weld metal hydrogen level. The effect of chem-
ical composition is measured by the IIW carbon equivalent1 or carbon content for
materials with < 0.10% carbon. The combined effect of wall thickness and pipe
contents on cooling rate must be taken into account when determining thermal
conditions.
Procedure Selection Guideline

A two-year research program conducted at Edison Welding Institute resulted in the
procedure selection guideline shown in Figure 300-18. The EWI work showed that
weld cooling rates are altered by welding heat input and preheat for a given set of
thermal conditions (i.e., wall thickness and pipe contents). The work also showed
that for certain hydrogen levels, thermal conditions, and material compositions
(particularly high carbon equivalents), temper bead welding techniques must be
used to obtain lower hardness. This conclusion is reached when neither high heat
input or preheat are sufficient to produce acceptable hardness levels in the heat-
affected zone to prevent cracking.
1. CEIIW = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/6 + (Cu + Ni)/15

Fig. 300-18 Procedure Selection Guideline Summary for Hot Tap Welding
February 2001

Heat Input Hydrogen Level Applicable Materials Wall Thickness Thermal Severity
Filler Metal (kj/in.) (Diffusible) (Composition by Carbon or Carbon Equivalent) (in.) Category
Preheat 4 ml/ 8 ml/ % C <0.10 CEIIW CEIIW CEIIW <0.50 >0.50 I II

Temp. 100gm 100gm <0.35 <0.42 <0.50 (Fast) (Slow)
E7018 15 X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X
E7018 25 X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X
E7018 40 X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X
300-48
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X
E7018 15 X X X X X X X X
Temper 1st Pass X X X X X X X
Bead(1) 25 X X X X X X X
Temp.Bds. X X X X X X X
E7018 15 X X X X X X X
Preheat 200oF
E7018 25 X X X X X X X
Preheat 200oF
Chevron Corporation
E309 25 Austenitic X X X X X X X
Austenitic X X X X X X
Welding Manual
E6010 25 40-60 ml/100g X X X X
E6010 40 40-60 ml/100g X X X X X X
Note: Shaded rows show the conditions favorable for welding on the maximum carbon equivalent materials.
(1) Use stringer passes and 3/32 dia. electrodes for the first layer and 1/8 dia. electrodes for the second and remaining layers.
The following is a guide to using the information in Figure 300-18.

1. Determine the carbon equivalent (CE) of the pipe material, either by checking
the records for mill test reports or performing a chemical analysis on the mate-
rial to be hot tapped.
2. Determine the actual wall thickness at the hot tap.
3. From the pipe contents, decide if the weld will have a slow or a fast cooling
rate (thermal severity).
4. With the data from steps 1 to 3 above, turn to Figure 300-18. The shaded rows
show conditions favorable for welding on the maximum carbon equivalent
materials and will help in choosing the correct welding procedure (including
filler metal, hydrogen level, heat input, preheat or temper beads) to avoid
hydrogen cracking.
The following sections explain in detail the critical factors in Figure 300-18 that
need to be considered in selecting a safe welding procedure. Although the welding
procedure information in Figure 300-18 applies to several welding processes, this
discussion will be limited to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), because it is
Chevrons most common application.
Chemical Composition of Pipe Material

To achieve hardness control, EWI qualified and selected welding procedures on the
basis of chemical composition and the operating thermal conditions (determined by
wall thickness and pipe contents). The four material groups used in qualifying
procedures are:
Modern composition steels with low carbon content (0.10% max.)
Conventional composition steels with low CE level (CEIIW < 0.35)
Convention composition steels with medium CE level (CEIIW >0.35 < 0.42)
Conventional composition steels with high CE level (CE IIW >0.42 < 0.50)
Where records of the materials chemical composition are unavailable (usually the
case), either of two methods can be used to check the actual composition: (1) spec-
trographic analysis and (2) mechanically removed samples. Direct analysis using
portable spectrographic equipment has not been reliable, and generally removal of
samples (e.g., filings using a carbide burr) for laboratory chemical analysis is the
best method. Another option is to assume the worst case (highest) carbon equiva-
lent. While this approach is conservative, it does result in selecting procedures that
will produce crack free welds.
Wall Thickness
The welding procedure should also be selected on the basis of the thickness of the
pipe material because wall thickness affects cooling rate. The thermal conditions
cover two wall thickness ranges:
< 0.5 inch - pipe contents have a significant effect on weld cooling rate

> 0.5 inch - pipe contents do not have a significant effect on weld cooling rate
For materials 0.5 in. thick and less, the use of the guideline requires that the thermal
severity level be determined as described in the following sections.
Determining Thermal Severity Conditions

Two thermal severity categories are listed in Figure 300-18 for weld cooling caused
by the pipe contents. Category I covers fast cooling rates and Category II is for slow
cooling rates. The cooling rates were derived from simulated welding tests in which
flowing water and flowing motor oil were used in the laboratory and compared to
field conditions. Flowing water produced cooling rate conditions comparable to
gasoline or jet fuel and flowing motor oil produced cooling rate conditions compa-
rable to that encountered on crude lines. A correlation was also found between
flowing motor oil and methane.
Figure 300-19 summarizes the cooling rates for several pipe contents. Figure 300-20
shows the relationship between flowing methane, wall thickness, and heat input in
determining whether a fast or slow cooling rate will occur during welding. To use
the graph, a normalized volumetric flow rate (mmscfd/in2) is first calculated by
dividing the methane flow rate (mmscfd) by the cross sectional area (in.2) of the
inside diameter of the pipe. The Category I or II cooling rate can then be deter-
mined using the normalized flow rate, wall thickness and heat input. The heat input
levels are significant in that they indicate the level of procedure control required as
discussed in Electrodes and Heat Input A 15 kj/in. heat input means that no
special heat input control is required. A heat input of 25 or 40 kj/in. requires more
careful control of the welding procedure.
Fig. 300-19 Determination of cooling rate conditions based on pipe contents.

Cooling Rate
Pipe Contents Category I Category II
Fast Slow
Water X
Gasoline X
Jet Fuel X
Crude Oil X
(1)
Methane X X(1)
(1) See Figure 300-20 for determining the cooling rate category for
methane based on thickness and flow rate.
Effect of Pipe Contents on Cooling Rate. The two thermal conditions listed in
Figure 300-21 were used in the development and qualification of the procedures.
Weld cooling rates for pipe sections filled with flowing water are at least as severe
as those for in-service pipelines. Weld cooling rates for pipe sections filled with
flowing motor are less severe than those of flowing water.

Fig. 300-20 Determination of Cooling Rate Categories for Methane
Fig. 300-21 Effect of Pipe Contents on Cooling Rate

Qualification Condition Flow Rate Temperature Thermal Condition
Water 10 gpm 70F Category I (Fast)
Motor Oil (10W30) 5 gpm 80F Category II (Slow)
Effect of Wall Thickness on Cooling Rate. To ensure that realistic interpass

temperatures result however, the procedures for the thick wall group were qualified
using the flowing water condition. Therefore, the procedures qualified for the
thicker materials can be used for any pipe contents under any flow condition.
The results of the Pipeline Research Committee (PRC) work indicate that the use of
the flowing water condition on 0.375 in. wall thickness produces weld cooling rates
that are faster than any actual in-service condition, regardless of the wall thickness.
Therefore, the procedures qualified for the thinner materials under the flowing water
condition can be used for any pipe contents under any flow condition.
The results of the PRC work can also be used to determine the limiting flow condi-
tions for methane from which the procedures qualified for the thinner materials
under the flowing motor oil condition apply. The PRC work showed that weld
cooling rates are constant for a given value of the volumetric flow rate normalized
by the cross sectional area of the inside diameter of the pipe. The PRC work also
showed that for a given normalized volumetric flow rate, weld cooling rates are
independent of pressure.
Hardness Control (via Preheat and Heat Input)

The higher the hardness, the greater the risk of hydrogen-induced cracking. The
three commonly used options for hardness control are heat input, preheat and

temper-bead welding. Preheat is more difficult on thin materials because of the heat
loss to the pipe contents. For thicker materials, higher heat input and temper bead
welding are equally effective to avoid hydrogen cracking, with higher heat input
being less costly. However, it is often Chevrons preference to use the preheat
option, because it is easier to measure and control. The preheat option is listed in
Figure 300-18 for thick materials (>0.50 in.) and the slow cooling rate condition for
thin materials ( 0.50 in.).
Electrodes and Heat Input

The welding procedures in Figure 300-18 include heat input information for E7108,
E309, and E6010 electrodes (Filler Metal column). Heat input is given as a
minimum value and may be exceeded in all cases except for temper bead welding.
Checking of heat input is required for heat inputs of 25 kj/in. and above to insure
that the minimum heat input is being achieved to avoid hydrogen cracking. It may
be recalled from earlier discussions that heat input affects weld cooling rate and
higher heat input may be required to slow down the cooling rate to avoid cracking
for more severe applications. For information on how to control heat input see
Section 345.
E7018 Electrodes:
15 kj/in minimum heat input - no heat input control is required except for
temper bead welding as noted below.
25 kj/in minimum heat input - heat input control is required.
Temper-bead welding - 15 kj/in minimum heat input for the temper bead passes
using 3/32 in. dia. electrodes and 25 kj/in minimum heat input for fill passes
using 1/8 in. dia. electrodes.
E309 Electrodes (austenitic):
Austenitic stainless steel weld metal has high solubility for hydrogen and can be
used in fast-cooling-rate, high-carbon-equivalent situations but could cause cracking
if future repairs were ever attempted with carbon steel filler metals. As a result this
approach has not been used by Chevron. Its application should be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis with Materials and Equipment Engineering.
E6010 Electrodes:
Cellulosic (E6010) electrodes have high diffusible hydrogen levels in the range of
40 to 60 ml/100 gms of deposited weld metal. Because of their high hydrogen
levels, cellulosic electrodes are only suitable for slow cooling (Thermal Severity
Category II) applications which severely restricts their use. As a result, cellulosic
electrodes are generally not recommended for hot tap welding.

Hydrogen Levels for E7018 Electrodes

Figure 300-18 lists two hydrogen levels for E7018 electrodes. The electrode
hydrogen levels could be classified as low and extra low hydrogen at 8 ml/100 gm
and 4 ml/100 gm max. diffusible hydrogen. The following further describes the
meaning of these hydrogen levels. When using Figure 300-18 to select a procedure
to avoid hydrogen cracking, bear in mind that electrode hydrogen level plays a
significant role in you choosing a procedure that will not crack.
4 ml/100 gm max. diffusible hydrogen (extra low hydrogen). This is an electrode
representative of a well cared for low hydrogen electrode. This hydrogen level is
appropriate for applications where the conditions are favorable in terms of control-
ling electrode moisture and base material contamination. To insure that low
hydrogen electrodes are clean and dry, they should be used directly out of a freshly
opened can, or directly from an electrode holding oven.
8 ml/100 gm max. diffusible hydrogen (low hydrogen). This is representative of a
less well cared for low hydrogen electrode. Intended for applications where low
hydrogen electrodes cannot be well cared for and conditions that are unfavorable in
term of moisture and contamination. One example would be atmospheric condi-
tions that result in sweating of the pipeline that cannot be controlled.
343 Development Of Hardness Evaluation Procedure

In EWIs early screening experiments, a maximum HAZ hardness level of 350 HV
was used as the critical hardness level above which cracking could be expected.
However, it was found to be overly conservative in several experiments where
cracking did not occur. Work by other researchers and additional EWI experimental
work has shown that the critical hardness level at which cracking can be expected
depends upon the carbon equivalent of the base material and available hydrogen in
the welding arc (electrode hydrogen level). A summary of the critical hardness
levels as a function of the carbon equivalent (or carbon content) and hydrogen level
is shown in Figure 300-22. These hardness criteria were used in experiments which
evaluated hydrogen cracking sensitivity and which were used to develop
Figure 300-18 for selecting procedures to avoid hydrogen cracking.

Fig. 300-22 Hardness Level Evaluation Criteria

Consumable Type or Critical Hardness
Material Group Hydrogen Level, ml/100 gm Level, HV(1)
Austenitic (E309) 400
4 350
%C < 0.10
8 325
Cellulosic (E6010) 275
4 375
CEIIW < 0.35
8 350
4 400
CEIIW < 0.42
8 375
4 425
CEIIW < 0.50
8 400
(1) For hot tap welding procedures using a 200oF minimum preheat during welding and held for one
hour after completion of welding, an additional hardness allowance of 25 HV can be added (e.g., for
a CEIIW < 0.50 material using a low hydrogen electrode with 4 ml/100 gm diffusible hydrogen, the
maximum hardness would be 425 + 25 = 450 HV).
344 Heat Input Control Methods

To ensure that minimum required heat input requirements are being followed,
particularly for the higher heat input levels (i.e., 25 and 40 kj/in.), it is necessary to
check actual welding parameters during hot tapping. Conventional equipment such
as amp tongs, voltmeter, and a stop watch can be used to check amperage, voltage,
and travel speed to calculate heat input in kj/in. 1
Alternatively, a run-out ratio scheme, which is widely used in Europe, can be used
to check heat input levels. The run-out ratio scheme is a simple method of checking
heat input levels without the need to measure arc voltage, current, and travel speed.
The following is a derivation of run-out ratio scheme.
1. Heat Input (HI) = Amps x Volts x 60/Travel Speed x 1000 = kj/in. Travel Speed is recorded in inches per minute

The rate that an electrode is consumed and the welding current are proportional and
can be expressed as:
r 2 L/t = KI
(Eq. 300-5)
where:
r = radius of the electrode core wire
L = length of the electrode consumed in time t,
= density
K = a proportionality constant
I = welding current.
Heat input (H) is given by:
H = VI/S
(Eq. 300-6)
where:
V = arc voltage
S = travel speed D/t, D being the distance traveled in time t.
Substituting the first equation for current in the heat input equation gives:
H = r 2 ( V/K (L/D) )
(Eq. 300-7)
Therefore, for a given electrode diameter, the ratio of the length of electrode
consumed to the length of weld deposited (L/D) is proportional to heat input. The
ratio is defined as the run-out ratio. The run-out ratio can be calculated using the
formula:
Run-out = Weld Length (Original Electrode Length - Stub Length)

(Eq. 300-8)
Alternatively:
Weld Length = Run-out Ratio x (Original Electrode Length - Stub Length)

(Eq. 300-9)
The run-out ratios for various heat inputs are shown in Figure 300-23. Although the
run-out ratio is more accurate for heat inputs of 25 kj/in. and above, it is still useful
for checking the heat input for the first layer (15 kj/in.) of temper-bead welds where
ammeters and stop watches may not be available. The heat input restrictions for hot
tap welding are minimum values to avoid hydrogen-induced cracking and the corre-
sponding run-out ratios are minimum values.

Fig. 300-23 Run-Out Ratios for E7018 Electrodes

Electrode Heat Input, kj/in.
Diameter (in.) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
3/32 0.62 0.46 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.23
1/8 1.01 0.76 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.38 0.34 0.30
5/32 1.57 1.18 0.94 0.79 0.67 0.59 0.52 0.47
345 References
1. Bruce, W. A., Qualification and Selection of Procedures for Welding Onto In-
service Pipelines and Piping Systems, Edison Welding Institute, EWI Project
No. J6176, October 26, 1995.
2. Bruce, W. A., Hot-Tap Welding for Sour Service Pipelines, Edison Welding
Institute, EWI Project No. J2807 for ARCO Alaska Incorporated, July 14,
1996.
3. Bruce, W. A., Threadgill, P. L., Effect of Procedure Qualification Variables for
Welding Onto In-Service Pipelines, Edison welding Institute and TWI, EWI
Project No. J7141 for Welding Supervisory Committee, Pipeline Research
Committee, American Gas Association, July 21, 1994.
4. Bubenik, T. A., Fisher, R. D., Whitacre, G. R., Jones, D. J., Kiefner, J. F., Cola,
M., Bruce, W. A., Investigation and Prediction of Cooling Rates During Pipe-
line Maintenance Welding, Battelle, Final Report to American Petroleum Insti-
tute, December 1991.
350 Repair Welding - Special Techniques for Repair Welding Without

PWHT
Background
During the past ten years, research programs at Edison Welding Institute [1,2,3], the
University of Tennessee [4,5,6], Ontario Hydro [7], and the Electric Power Research
Institute [8] have focused on special welding procedures for repair welding called
controlled deposition welding. The purpose of these procedures is to control grain
refinement and tempering of the base-metal heat affected zone (HAZ) to allow
welding without postweld heat treatment (PWHT).
Chevron has supported two research programs at Edison Welding Institute (EWI)
that focused on 1Cr-Mo steels. Concurrent with these research programs was
recognition by the National Board Inspection Code (NBIC) ANSI/NB-23 that
changes to the rules were needed to permit broader use of the latest repair welding
technology on a broader range of materials. A review of the new rules [9] is
included in Section 352 along with commentary on their application and compar-
ison with the old NBIC rules and the API 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code.

The decision to use controlled deposition repair welding should be made after an
engineering evaluation is made of the appropriateness of the procedure for the
intended service. This technique, as discussed in Section 353, is not a panacea for
avoiding PWHT. The procedure is limited by joint geometry and the more rigorous
requirements for implementation of the welding procedure (see the NBIC rules and
procedure details). In addition, special welder training is recommended over and
above normal Code requirements (see Section 355). The complexity of this method
should be evaluated against the use of a conventional welding procedure with
PWHT. Generally, this welding repair method is not suitable for repairs to Cr-Mo
components where hydrogen or wet H2S is present in service.
351 Engineering Considerations and Guidelines for the Use of Controlled

Deposition Repair Welding without PWHT
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) for new vessel construction is specified by either
or both the original Code of construction or the Chevron vessel specification.
However, for field welded repairs, alternatives to PWHT (high preheat and temper-
bead/controlled deposition welding) are permitted by the NBIC rules which should
be evaluated as to suitability for both the material and the service. Sometimes, alter-
natives to PWHT are less expensive and should be considered.
Cr-Mo steels are relatively intolerant of welding without postweld heat treatment
and to do so requires special welding procedures and engineering evaluation of the
intended service and operating conditions. Therefore, repairs to existing Cr-Mo
pressure vessels, heat exchangers and piping should only be made after consider-
ation of all relevant factors, such as:
Material composition and product form.
Age and thermal history of the component needing repair.
Metallurgical condition of the material at operating temperature and normal
ambient temperature.
Estimated stresses acting on the component including residual stress.
Evaluation of the operating environment of the repaired component
These factors are relevant to all repairs in Cr-Mo steels, but specific limitations arise
where the component may be subjected to wet H2S conditions or where the normal
operating conditions expose the repair to high-temperature, high-pressure hydrogen
and risk of hydrogen embrittlement on cool-down.
Before making any repair, consider the factors listed below. If for reasons of
economics, material degradation, or safety, a repair is not practical, then it should
not be attempted. However, where repair is practical, analyzing these factors will
help plan and optimize the repair, evaluate risk and the need for operating
constraints, and assess remaining service life.
As-welded repairs should not be made to any Cr-Mo component that would be
subject wet H2S conditions, because of the high hardness of the weld and HAZ.

Repairs to Cr-Mo components in hydrogen service are generally not accept-

able; however, repairs may be considered under special circumstances where
the hydrogen partial pressure is low.
As matter of background, defining hydrogen operating conditions below the
Nelson Curve is not satisfactory for as-welded repairs, because the Nelson
Curve is based on experience with stress-relieved components. Therefore, it is
prudent to limit hydrogen partial pressure to 300 psi for repair welds without
PWHT. It should be recognized that the hydrogen risk is greatest for 2Cr-1Mo
components and somewhat less for 1Cr-Mo components.
It should be confirmed that recurrence of cracking would not pose a safety
concern or cause catastrophic failure of the component.
For components in creep service, a remaining-life assessment should be consid-
ered in judging the acceptability of repairs.
New inspection intervals should be defined for the repair welded component
and should take into account the severity of the operating conditions and the
consequences of failure. Also see In-Service InspectionInspection and Shut-
Down Intervals below.
In-Service InspectionInspection and Shut-Down Intervals

Planning for inspection intervals after returning to service should consider the
severity of the repair, the starting condition of the base material and criticality of the
component. Local conditions of operation may require more frequent inspection.
Access to the component in service may be limited due to high operating tempera-
tures and presence of insulation. Therefore, other forms of monitoring or contin-
uous inspection (e.g. acoustic emission) should also be given consideration.
Otherwise, more frequent shutdown intervals may be needed for inspection by
conventional techniques such as visual, magnetic particle (MT) and ultrasonic (UT).
Nondestructive Examination of Repair Welds

The initial weld layer of the repair weld should be examined by magnetic particle
inspection. Forty-eight hours after the weld has reached ambient temperature, the
weld should receive both a surface inspection using wet fluorescent magnetic
particle inspection and a volumetric examination using either radiography or ultra-
sonic shear wave. An alternative to the volumetric examination on the completed
repair is magnetic particle inspection of each weld layer. In either case, the final
layer should receive a wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspection after a 48 hour
delay. Also see RD-1020 in the NBIC Code for further discussion of the Nonde-
structive Examination requirements.
Operational Constraints on Start-Up

1. When choosing the appropriate pressurizing temperature to use after repair,
consider the toughness of the base metal, weld metal and HAZ. In setting the

pressurization temperature, take precautions to keep it above the 40 ft-lb

temperature during pressurization.
2. Examine the extent and severity of any creep or high-temperature damage to
the repaired material, and compare it with established creep or stress-rupture
data or by other remaining-life assessment techniques. Use the results to
specify any limitations of service temperature or remaining service life.
3. Assess the effect of service temperature on the hardness and residual stresses of
repair welds. The EWI experimental work has shown that as-welded repairs in
Cr-Mo steels will undergo either tempering or secondary hardening on expo-
sure to service temperatures. Also, residual stresses can undergo relaxation at
service temperatures. Hardness changes and stress relaxation are dependent
upon composition, temperature and time as shown by EWIs experimental
work. See Section 356 for the discussion of results.
352 National Board Inspection Code Rules

In 1991 the NBIC Committee [10] recognized a growing need to expand the Code
to allow repair welding of additional grades of ferritic steels without PWHT. The
need was especially great for welds in low-alloy steels, such as P-No. 4 and
P-No. 5A Cr-Mo steels. A Code change was considered possible because of the
progress made in developing different welding methods using controlled deposition
and temper-bead techniques; such improved methods being more practical in appli-
cation than the half-bead technique. Significant data was available from the major
research programs previously described and the nuclear industry.
From 1991 through 1994 the NBIC Committee developed the new Part RD on
Repair Methods and published it in the 1995 NBIC Code revising Part RD again in
1999. Figure 300-24 summarizes Part RD and compares it with the 1989 NBIC
Code and API 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code (Eighth Edition).
As shown in Figure 300-24, the new rules are divided into four welding methods
instead of the two methods found in the 1989 Code. The new welding methods are
identified as:
RD-1030 Welding Method 1 (Higher Preheat Method)
RD-1040 Welding Method 2 (Temperbead Technique)
RD-1050 Welding Method 3 (Temperbead Technique)
RD-1060 Welding Method 4 (Temperbead Technique) (For power boilers only)
The new Code revisions require consideration of notch toughness in the selection of
the welding method. Welding Methods 1, 3, and 4 provide for repair welding of
P-No. 1, P-No. 3, and P-No. 4/P-No. 5 materials where the rules of the original code
of construction did not require notch toughness testing. Welding Method 2 applies
where the original code of construction required notch toughness testing. In addi-
tion, Welding Method 2 has been expanded to cover both carbon and low alloy
steels. There is no limit on the grades of low alloy steels that can be repair welded.
For all three methods, there is no limit on the depth of repair welds.

Welding Method 1 is very similar to the high preheat method of the 1989 NBIC
Code and the preheating method in API 510. Welding Method 2 is completely new,
and there are no equivalent sections in either the old 1989 NBIC Code or API 510.
Welding Method 3 has been revised to cover all controlled deposition, temper-bead
and half-bead repair-welding techniques and is otherwise comparable to the half-
bead welding in the 1989 NBIC Code and temper-bead welding in API 510.
Welding Method 4 applies to power boilers only and is similar to Welding Method
2.
While Welding Method 2 is much broader in its scope of materials (both carbon and
low alloy steels) for which it permits repair welding, it is more rigorous in the quali-
fication and testing requirements for the welding procedure. The detailed procedure
developed by EWI for controlled deposition repair welding is contained in
Section 355 and provides a basis for repair welding procedure to meet the present
Code requirements. In addition, Section 351 provides guidelines for determining
when it is appropriate to consider the controlled deposition repair welding option of
Method 2 for low alloy steels.
Figure 300-24 is provided as a quick reference to the differences between NBIC and
API 510 rules but the actual rules should also be reviewed in developing a repair
welding plan. Figure 300-25 is a copy of Table 1 from NBIC Part RD Repair
Methods which covers the requirements for test plate thickness and groove depth for
procedure qualification.
Fig. 300-24 Comparison of New NBIC Rules with Old Rules and API 510 (1 of 3)
1998 National Board Inspection 1989 National Board Inspection API 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection
Code Code Code (Eighth Edition)
RD-1030 Method 1 Chapter III, Supplement 3 Para. 5.2.3
Higher Preheat Method Higher Preheat Method Heat Treatment - Preheating
To be used where original Code of Note 1 cautions that it should be deter- Notch toughness requirements unspecified
construction did not require notch tough- mined that the toughness characteristics in
ness testing. the AW condition are adequate at oper-
ating and pressure test temperatures.
P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3 P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3 P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3

P-No. 3, Grp 1 and 2 (except Mn-Mo steels) P-No. 3, Grp 1 and 2 (except Mn-Mo steels) P-No. 3, Grp 1, 2 and 3
No restriction on depth of repair. No depth restriction. P-No. 1 depth is 1.5 in. max.
P-No. 3 depth is 5/8 in. max.
SMAW (low hydrogen), GMAW, FCAW & Welding processes unspecified. Welding processes unspecified.
GTAW permitted.
Welders and welding procedures to be Welders and welding procedures to be Welders and welding procedures to be quali-
qualified in accordance with original Code. qualified in accordance with ASME Section fied in accordance with ASME Section IX.
IX.
300F min. preheat required 300F min. preheat required 300F min. preheat required
450F max. interpass. 450F max. interpass.

RD-1040 Method 2 Not applicable for 1989 rules Not applicable for API 510
Temperbead Technique
(Controlled deposition, temper bead or half
bead)
To be used where original Code of

construction required notch toughness
testing.
Carbon steels
Low alloy steels
Repair depth is unlimited provided a PQR is

qualified in accordance with Table 4.
SMAW (low hydrogen), GMAW, FCAW, and

GTAW
Welders and welding procedures to be

qualified in accordance with original Code
and Table 2 for PQR. PQR test material to be
same material spec. WM and HAZ notch
toughness testing required for PQR. Addi-
tional essential variables imposed.
Preheat and interpass temperature to be in

accordance with the qualified PQR
Welding technique to be as specified in

PQR.
Post heat at 500F for 2 hr. for SMAW and

FCAW only
The final temper-bead layer to be removed

substantially flush with the surface.
RD-1050 Method 3 Chapter III, Supplement 3 Para. 5.2.4

Temperbead Technique Half-bead welding technique Temper-bead welding
(Controlled deposition, temper bead or half (Grinding of first layer to 1/2 thickness (Grinding of first layer to 1/2 thickness
bead) required.) required.)
To be used where the original Code of Notch toughness requirements unspecified Notch toughness requirements unspecified
construction did not require notch tough-
ness testing.
SMAW (low hydrogen) and GTAW SMAW (low hydrogen) SMAW (low hydrogen)
P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3 P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3 P-No. 1, Grp 1, 2 and 3

P-No. 3, Grp 1, 2 and 3 P-No. 3, Grp 1 and 2 P-No. 3, Grp 1, 2 and 3
No restriction on depth of repair. P-No. 1 depth is 1.5 in. max. P-No. 1 depth is 1.5 in. max.
P-No. 3 depth is 5/8 in. max. P-No. 3 depth is 5/8 in. max.
Welders and welding procedures to be Welders and welding procedures to be Welders and welding procedures to be quali-
qualified in accordance with original Code qualified in accordance with ASME Section fied in accordance with ASME Section IX.
and Table 2 for PQR. PQR test material to be IX. Heat input control is required.
same material spec. Additional essential
variables imposed.

Preheat to 350F max. during repair. Preheat to 350F max. during repair. Preheat to 350F max. during repair.
Max. interpass temperature of 450F Max. interpass temperature of 450F Max. interpass temperature of 450F
1/8 in. max. electrode size for SMAW. 3/32 Weld first layer with 1/8 in. electrode. Weld first layer with 1/8 in. electrode. Approx.
in. maximum size for GTAW Approx. 1/2 thickness of layer to be 1/2 thickness of layer to be removed by
removed by grinding. Subsequent layers to grinding. Subsequent layers to be deposited
be deposited with 5/32 in. A final temper with 5/32 in.
bead layer to be applied to level above the
surface.
Post heat at 500 to 550F for 2 hr. for SMAW Post heat at 500F 50F for 2 hr. Post heat at 500F 50F for 2 hr.
only
The final temper-bead layer to be removed The final temper-bead layer to be removed The final temper-bead layer to be removed
substantially flush with the surface. substantially flush with the surface. substantially flush with the surface.
RD-1060 Method 4 Not applicable for 1989 rules Not applicable for API 510
Temperbead Technique
(Controlled deposition, temper bead)
To be used where original Code of

construction did not require notch tough-
ness testing.
Low alloy steels P.4 Gr 1 & 2, P-5A
Repair depth is unlimited provided a PQR is

qualified in accordance with Table 4.
SMAW (low hydrogen H8 or lower)
Welders and welding procedures to be

qualified in accordance with original Code
and Table 2 for PQR. PQR test material to be
same material spec.
Preheat and interpass temperature to be

350F for P-4 material, 400F for P-5A max in
the pass of 800F
3/32 in. max electrode size for 1st layer.

1/8 in. for 2nd and remaining layers
Post heat at 500F for 2 hr.
The final temper-bead layer to be removed

substantially flush with the surface.
353 Controlled Deposition Repair Welding

Controlled deposition repair welding is the technique used to obtain controlled grain
refinement and tempering of the underlying heat affected zone (HAZ) in the base
metal. Early on it was referred to as temper bead welding, which grew out of a
procedure called half-bead welding. Half-bead welding is referred to in the repair
welding sections in both the NBIC rules and API 510. In half-bead welding, one-
half of the first weld layer is ground off to facilitate grain refinement of the under-

Fig. 300-25 Qualification Thicknesses for Test Plates and Repair Grooves (Table 1, NB-23, Part RD, Repair Methods)
REPAIR PQR GROOVE
BASE METAL GROOVE DEPTH THICKNESS QUALIFIED
THICKNESS DEPTH PQR TEST MATERIAL THICKNESS NOTE(1) NOTE(2)
<2 <1 5 times the repair cavity depth, <1 See PQR test material thickness column
but need not exceed thickness of and < PQR groove depth
the base metal to be repaired.
<2 >1 Thickness of the base metal to be >1 < PQR test material thickness and <
repaired. groove depth.
>2 1 2 1 All base metal thickness and < 1 repair

groove depth
>2 >1 2 >1 All base metal thickness and < PQR
groove depth.
(1) Repair groove depth is limited to the maximum depth qualified.

(2) The depth of the groove used for procedure qualification must be deep enough to remove test specimens.
lying HAZ. In time, it was found that half-bead grinding tended to be less consis-
tent, and grain refinement was better controlled by controlling the welding
technique and welding parameters for each layer.
Much of the research work on controlled deposition repair welding has focused on
Cr-Mo steels, namely 1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo, but the principles apply to other
materials as well. Controlled deposition repair welding requires control of the entire
welding procedure including the joint detail, preheating, post heating, welding tech-
nique, and welding parameters.
The joint detail and welding technique are both very important. The joint detail
must be sufficiently open to permit an electrode angle that is perpendicular to the
groove surface. A typical groove and correct electrode angle are shown in
Figure 300-29. The groove configuration is semi-circular which causes the grooves
width to much greater than its depth and tends to limit the procedure to shallow
grooves. Heat input is controlled for the first 4 layers. Bead overlap is critical to
obtaining grain refinement. Stringer passes are used and placed in such a manner
that the beads in each layer overlap each other by 50 percent. Proper overlap is
obtained by pointing the electrode at the toe of the previous bead. By stacking beads
closely together, the surface contour of the weld layer is kept flat which helps to
minimize scallops in the contour of base metal HAZ which promotes greater refine-
ment.
The controlled deposition welding procedure requires precise control for the first
four weld layers. Most of the refinement and tempering occur in the first three weld
layers. Approximately 80% of the HAZ grain refinement occurs with the first weld
layer. All of the remaining refinement and some tempering occurs with the second
weld layer. The third weld layer provides most of the tempering of the HAZ. The
fourth layer prevents uncontrolled intrusion into the first three layers. The heat input
for the first layer is kept low by limiting the electrode size to 3/32 in. diameter and
controlling amperage and travel speed. The subsequent three layers are also care-
fully controlled and are welded using 1/8 diameter electrodes. After the first layer,
the welding heat input is increased to obtain tempering and grain refinement.

Edison Welding Institute Controlled Deposition Welding Procedure

The detailed controlled deposition welding procedure developed by EWI is outlined
in Section 355. It incorporates the requirements of RD-1040 Welding Method 2
from the NBIC rules (see Section 352). Although the procedure was developed by
EWI to meet the necessary technical requirements, Chevron must qualify a specific
procedure to meet the Code requirements of each application. Also, special welder
qualification and training requirements need to be met as outlined in the procedure
in Section 355.
For procedure qualification, the requirements for test plate thickness and groove
depth are listed in Table 1 of Part RD Repair Methods; a copy of the table may also
be found as Figure 300-25 at the end of Section 352.
The depth of the repair groove is not limited, provided the test material thickness for
the welding procedure qualification is at least five times the depth of the repair but
does not need to be thicker than the material to be repaired, provided the test speci-
mens can be removed. When the thickness of the base metal to be repaired is greater
than 2 inches, the procedure qualification test material need not exceed 2 inches.
However, the depth of the groove in the test material is required to be the greater of
1 in. or the depth of the groove to be repaired. The net result is that separate proce-
dure qualifications are required where the base metal thickness is less than 2 inches
or 2 inches and above, and for groove depths of 1 inch and under or greater than 1
inch.
354 EWI and Other Industry Test Results for Controlled Deposition Repair
Welds
Considerable testing has been done by Edison Welding Institute and the University
of Tennessee (U of T) on the mechanical properties and residual stresses of
controlled deposition repair welds on 1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels without
PWHT. The following is an overview of those results and is furnished as reference
in evaluating mechanical properties and residual stresses of controlled deposition
repair welds.
High Notch Toughness

The controlled deposition welding procedure produces high notch toughness in the
heat affected zone as a result of the high percentage of grain refinement. Charpy Vee
notch tests of the HAZ shows improved toughness over the parent material for both
1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels by both research organizations.
Weld Metal Toughness

The data for weld metal toughness is not as good. Typical EWI data for E8018-B2
filler metal shows the 40 ft-lb temperature to be about 40F and 65F to 105F for
E9018-B3L filler metal depending upon position (with vertical being the lowest
toughness and flat the highest). Data from the U of T for low carbon 1Cr-Mo
weld metal (E8018-B2L) indicates considerably better toughness with the 40-ft-lb
temperature less than -20F. This is a significant difference and reinforces the pref-
erence for the lower carbon E8018-B2L weld metal. The lower toughness of the

E9018-B3L weld metal may require special operational considerations as discussed

in Section 351.
Tensile Test Results

The results of all-weld metal tensile tests indicate that the matching weld metals for
1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels significantly overmatch the strength of the base
metal in the as-welded condition. Typical tensile properties for E8018-B2 weld
metal in the as-welded condition is 90 ksi YS and 103 ksi UTS and 85 ksi YS and
94 ksi UTS for E8018-B2L. E9018-B3L weld metal strength runs 117 ksi YS and
129 ksi UTS. These high strengths occur because the weld metal is not tempered by
PWHT.
Reduction in HAZ Hardness

The results of the studies indicate that the reduction in HAZ hardness for controlled
deposition welding procedures is most effective for 1Cr-Mo steel and only
modestly effective on 2Cr-1Mo steel. Maximum HAZ hardness for 1Cr-Mo
was found to be 270 Vickers by the U of T and about 280 Vickers by EWI. Both U
of T and EWI obtained similar data for 2Cr-1Mo steel with maximum HAZ hard-
ness in the range of 330 to 340 Vickers. Higher peak hardness can occur adjacent to
last pass at the surface. The procedure assumes that this region will be removed by
grinding. Also, hardness values will vary with carbon content and can be slightly
higher with material on the high side of the specifications or lower with lower
carbon content.
Creep Test Data

Creep test data from both EWI and the U of T shows that:
Weld metal resists creep rupture better than the base metal for both regular and
low carbon SMAW weld metals. This is attributed to the overmatching in the
weld metal strength which occurs in the as-welded condition.
Creep failure typically occurs in the base metal adjacent to the repair, often in
the fine grain region.
The expected creep life for controlled deposition repairs is similar to that for
PWHT repairs.
Effects of Service Temperature Exposure

Controlled deposition repair welds in 1 to simulated service temperatures of 800F
and 1000F to evaluate the effects on weld and HAZ hardness and residual welding
stresses. Exposure times where from 10 weeks to 6 months.
Weld and HAZ Hardness

Microhardness testing was performed on as-welded specimens and again after
several exposure times. Data from the EWI tests are listed in Figure 300-26 below
and the results show that:

When exposed at 1000F, definite softening in the HAZ and weld metal occurs
in both 1Cr-1Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels, which improved with times of up to
4 months.
When exposed at 800F, a slight secondary hardening effect results in an
increase in both HAZ and weld metal hardness from the as-welded values for
1Cr-Mo steel after 10 weeks.
When exposed at 800F, a major secondary hardening effect results in a signifi-
cant increase in both HAZ and weld metal hardness from the as-welded values
for 2Cr-1Mo steel after 10 weeks and decreases slightly after longer expo-
sure.
Fig. 300-26 EWI Data on Effect of Elevated Temperature on Weldment Hardness

Peak Hardness (Vickers)
Condition 1Cr-Mo 2Cr-1Mo
HAZ E8018-B2 HAZ E9018-B3L

(1)
As-Welded 285 278 322 268
10 weeks - 1000F 264 279 275 255
4 months - 1000F 226 256 239 231
10 weeks - 800F 288 301 416 390
6 months - 800F 288 308 403 384
(1) Low carbon weld metal in the AW condition is reported as 190 HV by the U of T.
Residual Stresses
Residual stress data from EWI elevated temperature exposure tests on controlled
deposition repair weldments are listed in the Figure 300-27 below and the results
show that:
Exposure at 1000F reduced both surface and internal residual stresses in both
1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels.
Exposure at 800F significantly reduced both surface and internal residual
stresses in 1Cr-Mo steel.
Exposure at 800F produced no reduction in peak stresses but some reduction
in mean surface stresses in 2Cr-1Mo steel.

Fig. 300-27 Summary of EWI Residual Stress Results

Longitudinal Transverse
Condition Stresses (ksi) Stresses (ksi)
1Cr-Mo 2Cr-1Mo 1Cr-Mo 2Cr-1Mo
As-Welded 77 72 38 35
Peak Surface
1680 hrs at 800F 48 52 35 30
Stresses
1680 hrs at 1000F 15 13 12 10
As-Welded 57 34 26 18
Mean Surface
1680 hrs at 800F 36 27 22 8
Stresses
1680 hrs at 1000F 12 9 9 5
As-Welded 78 82 44 48
Peak Internal
1680 hrs at 800F 51 80 27 50
Stresses
1680 hrs at 1000F 13 12 6 11
355 Detailed Procedure for Controlled Deposition Repair Welding

Figure 300-28 describes the Edison Welding Institute controlled-deposition repair
welding procedure developed for use on 1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo steels without
PWHT. This procedure can be used on other materials but may require additional
testing and evaluation over and above Code requirements.
Fig. 300-28 Welding Procedures

Welding process SMAW
Electrodes E8018-B2L and E9018-B3L for 1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-
1Mo steels respectively
Groove Semi-elliptical (see Figures 300-29 and 300-31)
Preheat 300F
Interpass temperature 450F
Post heating 500F to 550F for 2 hours
Electrode Angle
Using the correct electrode angle leads to a high degree of grain refinement and
tempering for each pass and weld layer. The electrode should be positioned at an
angle of 80 to 90 degrees to the surface of the repair cavity (see Figure 300-29). The
repair cavity must be wide enough to achieve this electrode angle.
Runout Length
In order to assure that the correct heat input is being used for each layer, the current
is set per the procedure and a parameter called run-out length is kept constant. Run-
out length is the distance traveled for 12 in. of electrode consumed. The runout
length for all four layers is 10.5 in and is the same for all positions. Where the
length of electrode consumed is different than 12 in., the run-out length is propor-
tional to the actual length of electrode consumed (e.g., runout length = electrode
length consumed x 10.5/12).

Fig. 300-29 Proper Electrode Angle and Bead Overlap for First Four Layers
Welding Parameters
Figure 300-30 specifies parameters for weld layers and remaining fill passes.
Welding Direction in the Repair Cavity. For each of the first four weld layers,
welding should be started in the center of the cavity (running parallel to the length),
with passes added on each side until the top surface is reached. One pass should be
lapped over the top edge as shown in Figure 300-31.
Final Weld Metal Tempering Layer and Removal. After welding of the repair
cavity is completed, remove any irregularities on the weld surface by grinding. Add
one additional layer of weld metal to temper the underlying weld metal without
touching the base metal along the edges. Stay 1/16 in. from the edge of the weld to
avoid touching the base metal. Remove the additional layer of weld metal by
grinding and remove 1/16 to 3/32 in. deep of the parent steel HAZ along all edges of
the repair. The final repair surface should be smooth and blended to eliminate any
stress risers. Avoid reducing wall thickness below the minimum design thickness.

Fig. 300-30 Parameters for Weld Layers and Remaining Fill Passes
Chevron Corporation
Welding Manual
Remaining Fill Passes
1G and 2G Welding 3G and 4G Welding
Weld Layer 1 Weld Layer 2 Weld Layer 3 Weld Layer 4 Positions Positions
Electrode diameter 3/32 in. 1/8 in. 1/8 in. 1/8 in 5/32 in. 1/8 in.
Current 80 to 84 amps 118 to 122 amps 123 to 127 amps 125 to 130 amps 140 to 150 amps 120 to 130 amps
Voltage 20-21V 20-22V 20-22V 20-22V 22-24V 20-22V
Run-out length 10.5 in. of travel 10.5 in. of travel 10.5 in. of travel 10.5 in. of travel 10-12 in. of travel 10-12 in. of travel
length for length for approxi- length for approxi- length for approxi- length with approx- length with approx-
approximately 12 mately 12 in. of mately 12 in. of mately 12 in. of imately 12 in. of imately 12 in. of
in. of electrode electrode burn-off. electrode burn-off. electrode burn-off. electrode burn-off. electrode burn-off.
burn-off.
Bead type Stringer bead, Stringer bead Stringer bead Stringer bead
aim the elec-
trode tip at the
300-69
toe of the
previous weld
pass
Special Instruction Maintain as flat a Maintain a flat Maintain a flat Maintain a flat
weld surface weld surface weld surface weld surface
contour as contour (50% bead contour (50% bead contour (50% bead
possible by overlap required). overlap required). overlap required).
controlling bead
overlap (50%
bead overlap
required).
Heat input 9.5 to 10.0 kj/in. 17.0 to 17.5 kj/in. 19.5 kj/in. 20 to 22 kj/in 20 to 22 kj/in. 20 to 22 kj/in.

February 2001
Fig. 300-31 Bead Sequence for First Four Layers and Final Layers
Welder Qualification. Welders should be qualified in accordance with ASME

Section IX and on a mockup of a simulated repair cavity. The simulated cavity
should have the same geometry as to be repaired on the structure or alternately a 3/4
in. minimum depth semicircular groove can be prepared and welded similar to
Figure 300-31. The base material should be the same grade as to be repair welded.
Three cross sections should be removed from the mockup and examined metallo-
graphically for grain refinement and hardness. The grain refinement in the heat
affected zone should be at least 85 percent fine grain size on each cross section.
Fine grains are defined as being less than approximately 50 microns in size.
356 References
1. Friedman, L.M. and Bailey, N., January 1992, Development and Assessment
of Procedures for Repair Welding of Cr-Mo Steels without PWHT, Group
Sponsored Project, Final Report, Edison Welding Institute and The Welding
Institute.
2. Friedman, L.M., Scrutton, N. Francis-, Leggatt, R.H.,Bell, K., and Gittos, M.,
August 1994, Development and Assessment of Procedures for Repair Welding
of Cr-Mo Steels Without PWHT, Group Sponsored Project, Final Report,
Edison Welding Institute and TWI.
3. Friedman, L.M., January 1996 EWI Controlled Deposition Repair Welding
Procedure, PVRC/EWI Repair Welding Workshop, San Diego, California.
4. Lundin, C.D., and Wang, Y., 1995, Half-Bead/Temper Bead/Controlled Depo-
sition Techniques for Improvement of Fabrication and Service Performance of
Cr-Mo Steels, Welding Research Council Bulletin, (in Publication).
5. Lundin, C.D., Khan, K.K., Zhou, G. and Liu, P., July, 1995, Efficacy of Low
Carbon 1sed Cr-Mo Components, PVP Conference, Hawaii.

6. Lundin, C.D., January, 1996, Overview of Results from PVRC Program on

Half-Bead/Temper-Bead/Controlled Deposition Techniques for Improvement of
Fabrication and Service Performance of Cr-Mo Steels, PVRC/EWI Repair
Welding Workshop, San Diego, California.
7. Poon, G., Lau, T., January 1996, Development of Controlled Deposition
Repair Welding Procedures At Ontario Hydro, PVRC/EWI Repair Welding
Workshop, San Diego, California.
8. Gandy, D.W., Viswanathan, R., and Findlan, S.J., January 1996, Performance
of Weld Repairs on Service-Aged 2-1/4Cr-1Mo Girth Weldments Utilizing
Conventional Postweld Heat Treatment and Temperbead Repair Techniques,
PVRC/EWI Repair Welding Workshop, San Diego, California.
9. Part RD, Repair Methods, ANSI/NB-23, National Board Inspection Code,
1995, The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Columbus,
Ohio.
10. Doty, W.D., January 1996, History and Need Behind the New NBIC Rules on
Weld Repair Without PWHT, PVRC/EWI Repair Welding Workshop,
San Diego, California.

Wem300 Welding Practices

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wem300 Welding Practices

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

300 Welding Practices

310 Welding Common Alloys 300-3

Chevron Corporation 300-1 February 2001

341 Primary Concerns During Hot Tap Welding

February 2001 300-2 Chevron Corporation

310 Welding Common Alloys

311 Carbon Steels

CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

Chevron Corporation 300-3 February 2001

Low Hydrogen Processes

312 Microalloyed Steels

313 Low Alloy Steels

February 2001 300-4 Chevron Corporation

hydrogen cracking. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is also usually needed to

Selection of Filler Metal

Chevron Corporation 300-5 February 2001

Carbon-Moly and Chrome-Moly Steels

Nickel Containing Steels

February 2001 300-6 Chevron Corporation

314 Stainless Steels

Chevron Corporation 300-7 February 2001

300 Welding Practices

18 Cr-8 Ni E309 E308 E308 E308 E308 E308

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Chevron Corporation 300-9 February 2001

Austenitic Stainless Steels

February 2001 300-10 Chevron Corporation

residual elements (electrodes low in S and P are designated as LR types by the

315 Nonferrous Metals

Nickel and Nickel Base Alloys

Chevron Corporation 300-11 February 2001

February 2001 300-12 Chevron Corporation

Copper and Copper Alloys

Chevron Corporation 300-13 February 2001

February 2001 300-14 Chevron Corporation

Caution should be exercised in flame cutting titanium during salvage or reclama-

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

316 Dissimilar Metals

Deposited Weld Metal Composition

Chevron Corporation 300-15 February 2001

composition of deposited weld metal can be determined by chemical analysis, or it

Ferrite Determination Using A Ferrite Prediction Diagram

February 2001 300-16 Chevron Corporation

Chromium equivalent = Cr + Mo + 1.5Si + 0.5Cb

Nickel equivalent = Ni + 30C + 0.5Mn

Fig. 300-4 Schaeffler Diagram for Deposited Stainless Weld Metal

Chevron Corporation 300-17 February 2001

WRC Ferrite Diagram

Chevron Corporation 300-19 February 2001

On the WRC diagram, hot cracking-susceptibility is predicted to be the greatest for

Welding Carbon and Low Alloy Steels to Chrome-Moly Steels

Chevron Corporation 300-21 February 2001

Welding Steel to Monel

317 Cast Iron

February 2001 300-22 Chevron Corporation

Preheat and Postheat

Chevron Corporation 300-23 February 2001

320 Special Welding Applications

321 Corrosion Resistant Linings

Size of Strips or Panels

February 2001 300-24 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 300-7 Typical Strip Lining Welding Detail