Lecture XV Plant structure and Growth Dr.

Kopeny
Delivered 2/27, 3/1

http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/hdwimages1/

UNIT III: PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION

Plant structure and growth
Plant nutrition
Plant reproduction and development

Cardinal Flower Arabidopsis thaliana Red Maple

 Purves et al 2000

Purves et al 2000

Evolutionary relationships among the Angiosperms. The monocots and eudicots are
the largest monophyletic groups among the angiosperms. (The other groups remain to be
placed accurately on the phylogenetic tree).
 Monocotylenous and Dicotyledonous Plants

Monocots
~65,000 species
Lilies, irises, orchids, cattails, all
the grasses and grains
Monocot lineage, taxon, is
monophyletic; evolved from dicot
ancestor
Dicots
~175,000 species
Most trees and shrubs
Most annual plants mints,
sunflowers, peas, snapdragons
Most dicots are in members of the
Eudicot lineage a monophyletic
taxon

Palms

Grasses

Lilies
Purves et al 2000

Examples of Monocot angiosperms

 Purves et al 2000

Cactus

Flowering Dogwood

Rose

Examples of Dicots (more specifically, Eudicots)

Source: Freeman (2002)

Phylogenetic relationships among Angiosperm lineages

Angiosperms

Oldest living Several lineages

related to magnolias Monocots Eudicots
Non-Angiosperms angiosperm lineages

Lineages in green
are traditionally
called dicots - the
seeds of these
lineages have two
seed leaves.
Dicots dont form
a monophyletic
group -- ie
monocots are
descended from a
dicot lineage
Eudicots are a
monophyletic group
that includes much
of the angiosperm
diversity
Phylogenetic relationships
of the orders of flowering
plants (AGP, 1998)
Monocots apparently
diverged from dicots early
in the history of the
phylum
http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/newgate/cronang.htm
Desert annuals (above) and a giant
redwood (below)
ANNUAL, BIENNIAL AND PERRENIAL PLANTS
Annual Plants Life cycle (vegetative growth and reproduction)
occurs in the course of a single year; die after single year of
growth.
Most are entirely herbaceous, ie, lack secondary growth,
secondary tissue (wood); some (eg sunflowers) produce poorly
developed secondary tissues. Many crop plants (incl. corn,
wheat, soybeans) are annuals.
Biennial Plants Narrow definition; life cycle takes two years to
complete. Generally, vegetative growth in the first year;
flowering and senescence in the second year. Many bienniels
flower in year 3 or later, but all flower only once before dying.
Much less common than annuals. Crop plants include carrots,
cabbage. Wild plants include evening primrose, queen annes
lace
Perennial Plants Life cycle extends for for multiple, often many
years; flower repeatedly and live for many years. Most vascular
plants are perennials.
Many are herbaceous plants (eg wildflowers of prairie,
wetlands and woodlands) that usually lack secondary growth in
stems; stems die back each year following food accumulation,
often in substantial roots
Trees and shrubs have secondary growth and are perennial,
they are either deciduous (shed leaves at particular time of
year) or evergreen (leaves drop throughout year, plant never
appears leafless)
Sources: Raven & Johnson 1999, Purves 2000)
 PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH

The Angiosperm Body

root and shoot systems; adaptations to
terrestrial life
structural adaptations of protoplasts and
cell walls; specialized functions
plant tissue systems; dermal, vascular
and ground
Plant Growth
meristems continuously generate cells
for new organs
Primary growth; apical meristems
(Secondary growth: lateral meristems)

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF PLANT BODY;

ADAPTATION TO TERRESTRIAL LIFE
Root system; anchor; absorption & transport of
water, ions, dissolved mineral nutrients; food
storage
Shoot system; stem is scaffold for
photosynthetic leaves and reproductive
structures; transport of sugars from
photostynthetic to non-photosynthetic parts of
plant Shoot
Solomon et al 1999 Campbell et al 1999

Root

Roots Shoots
 Biological Organization in Plants
Cells Plant cells are eukaryotic, with
some unique modifiations, including
the cell wall. Cell types include
Parenchyma, Collenchyma
Schlerenchyma,
Tissues Tissues plant cells are
organized into tissues; groups of
cells that form a structural and
functional unit. Simple plant tissues Shoot
consist of single cell type. Complex
plant tissues consist of two or more
kinds of cells.
Tissue systems Groups of tissues
that extend throughout plant body;
Three main tissue sytems; ground,
vascular, dermal
Organs Roots, stems. leaves, flower
parts, and fruits are referred to as
organs because each is composed of
several different tissues. The tissue
systems of different plant organs
Root
fornm an interconnected network
througout the plant.

CELL SPECIALIZATION; STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION IN CELL WALLS AND

CELL PROTOPLAST*

In plant cell division, daughter

cells secrete a middle lamella
that will adhere the adjoining
cells
Each the secretes a primary cell
wall of cellulose and other
polysaccharides, which grows
with growing cell
Depending on cell specialization,
after growth to final size, cell may
lay down a secondary cell wall of
polysaccarides and, depending
on cell type, lignin (characteristic
of wood) or suberin
(characteristic of cork, bark)
Secondary cell walls typically
function in structural support or
waterproofing
*Protoplast: cell contents exclusive of
cell wall Purves et. al. 2000
CELL SPECIALIZATION; STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION IN
CELL WALLS AND CELL PROTOPLAST

In addition to other
features of Eukaryotic
cells, plant cells have:
cell wall
chloroplasts
central vacuole,

Raven & Johnson 1999

Cell plate formation between two nuclei, during plant cytokinesis

Raven and Johnson 1999
PLANT CELLS ARE ORGANIZED INTO TISSUE SYSTEMS
Plant organs have three tissue systems that are continuous throughout the plant body. The
tissue systems derive from meristem tissue; localized regions of cell division

Meristems; apical & lateral meristems give

rise to all cells and tissues
Ground tissue system; storage, secretion,
photosynthesis; mostly parenchyma cells
Vascular tissue system; conduct water &
minerals (xylem), & carbohydrates, amino
acids, hormones (phloem)
Dermal tissue system; outer protective
covering

*We will discuss specialized reproductive

tissue in a later lecture

THE THREE TYPES OF CELLS AND GROUND TISSUES IN PLANTS

Parenchyma
Parenchyma cells are
relatively unspecialized; large
vacuoles, thin primary wall (no
secondary)
most common type of plant
cell; responsible for most of
plant metabolic functions -
primary sites of photosynthesis,
starch storage.
Fleshy tissue of most fruits
Collenchyma
Collenchyma cells provide
support to growing stems and
leaves; thickened primary cell
walls
Relatively flexible, allowing
organs to bend without breaking
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells have
tough, thick secondary walls,
often impregnated with lignin
Two types specialized for
support; fibers and sclereids.
Both function to strengthen
tissue in which they occur
(Solomon et al 1999)

cross-section from grass cross-section of a young cluster of sclereids (stained

blade elderberry branch red) in pulp of pear
 Raven and Johnson 1999

Vascular tissue functions in the movement of water, dissolved

inorganic materials and carbohydrates through a plant

Cell Types in Vascular Tissue System

Xylem cells
Tracheids & vessel elements; both function in water transport; both modified
sclerenchyma cells
Both have secondary cell walls and are dead at functional maturity
Dual function in gymnosperms; water transport, structural support (structural support in
angiosperms provided mainly by fiber cells
Tracheids Vessel Elements
long, thin cells with usually wide, short,
tapered ends oblique ends, thin-
walled, compared to
water moves between
tracheids
cells across pits
perforated end walls
function in support;
facilitates water flow
secondary walls
hardened with lignin

VESSEL ELEMENT
Photomicrograph
shows longitudinal
section of two
vessel elements
from an unknown
woody dicot

Solomon et al 1999
longitudinal section transverse section

Phloem Cells
Sieve-tube members: Food-conducting cells, arranged end to end
with porous walls (sieve plates) between them; cells living at
functional maturity, but lacking nuclei, ribosomes
Companion cells: Nucleated companion cell lies along side each
sieve-tube member

SELECTED CELL TYPES OF THE PLANT DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

Epidermal Cell;
living parenchyma cell with thin primary wall
outer wall usually thickened and covered by an
extra-cellular waxy cuticle
reduces water loss & protects surface of plant
body
epidermis is usually one cell layer thick

Guard Cell
specialized epidermal cells on leaves that
function in pairs; stoma (pore) is a gap between
two guard cells
guard cells, stoma, regulate gas exchange and
water loss (transpiration)

solomon et al 1999
PLANT GROWTH Meristems generate cells
for new organs throughout the lifetime of a plant
Primary plant growth;
-Apical meristems extend roots and shoots by
giving rise to the primary plant body
Secondary plant growth:
-Lateral meristems add girth by producing
secondary vascular tissue and periderm
Apical and Lateral Meristems Apical meristems produces primary plant body;
lateral meristems produce the secondary plant body
 Raven and Johnson 1999

Vascular tissue functions in the movement of water, dissolved

inorganic materials and carbohydrates through a plant