antsoeity Cen ccwa: SY ei 0e) Premieri2 re i K.C. JohnRs. 250.00 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS FOR DIPLOMA KC. John (© 2009 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part af this book may be reproduced it ey form, by mimcogreph oF any ether means, without permission in writing fern the putsiaher. ISBN-078-81-209-9722.0 “The export rights of thie book are vated solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Leaming Privala Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Dethi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric: Press, Piet No. 2, Phase iV, HSIDC, Kundi-131028, Senopat, Haryana.Contents Preface 1.1 The GraphicLanguage _3 12 Traditional Drafting 3 1.3 Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) 3 14 Graphic Instruments and TheirUse_ LS Codeof Practice forEnginceringDrawing Lo__Lincs _# L7__Scales _U L8 Drawing Sheets and Title Block 7 1.9 Suggested Procedure for Drafting 12 Exercise 1 2, Lettering sssersstessnsssenenntnenestrae 18-22 21 Single Stroke Lewers 18 2.2 ‘Types and Sizes of Letters 2.3.___Vertical and Inclined Leners a8 18 24 LeneringA 18 25 LetteringB 20 2.6 Lettering Practice 20 Exercises 2 Freehand 3.1__Imponance of Freehand Drafting 32 'ypes of Sketches 23 3.3 Materials for Sketching 24 3.4 Sketching of Straight Lines 35 SkeichingofCirles 25 3G Skewhingof Arcs 25 3.7__ Sketching of Ellipses 26 2.8 Method of Sketching Views: Exercises az 3. pas 26 4.2 Methods of Indicating Dimensional Walues__i 4.3 Arrangement of Dimension Lines _32 44 Shape Indication RE] 45 Suggested Dimensioning System for Class ‘Work __34, 4.6 Rules of Dimensioning 35 Exercises _38 MODULE B: TWO-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS 5G ical C ‘i ge 5.1 Geometrical Shapes J 3.2__ Revision of Simple Geometrical Cor ns A $.3 Dividing a Line into any Number of Equal Parts _43. 5.4 Drawing of Tangent Arvs to Lines and Ciks 45 5.5___ Drawing of Tangents to Circles a7 5.6 Construction af Regular Polygons 4 5.7 SeribingaCircleinoron Any Triangle $0 5.8__ Scribing of a Regular Polygon in orona Circle _5f0 2 3.9 Construction of Ogee (Reverse) Curves Exercises 4 Gx_Camlc Sections ss snsemessnntsnnnnnnnnsnenasnsssnnnne SST} OL Types of Conic Sections 55. 62 —_Nomenclanre 58 6.3 Conic Defined as Loci _$7 6.4 Ellipse 58 6.5__ Methods of Construction of Ellipse __59iv Contents 6.9 Methods of Construction of Hyperbola 6Z 10.4 __ Inclined Line Placed in First Quadrant 0 Exercises 69 10.5 Inclined Line Placed in Any One of the Four ts dur L_Miscellaneous Curves 71-83 Trane of an Inclinad Line Placed in © Li = Rouleucs a Quadrant__112 22 Cyeloid = 10.7 Trace of an Inclined Line: Placed in Ter 13 Twoehoids 23 Quadrants Ld L& Epicyeloid 2 10.8 Three Views and Traces of an Inclined LS Epitrochoids 2 Line___11¢ 1G Hypooyeloid = 24 10.9 _Line Inclined to Both The HP and VP LI Hypotrochoids 28 (Oblique Line) 115 ZS Involutes __76 10.10 Traces of an Oblique Line I 19 Spiral Curves 7 10.11 True Length and True Inclinations of an 710 Helixs___&2 ‘Oblique Line #22 i Exercises _125 jections of Plane Figures ....... al Wt sofPlane Figures 127 &2 Representative Fraction af 11.2 Positions of Plane Figures 128 3 Plain Scale _85 11.3 Plane Figures Parallel to One of the Reference B4 Diagonal Scale 85 ‘Planes. ns 8.5 VemiecScales ag 11.4 _ Plane Figures Inclined to One of the Reference &6 Scaleof Chords #8 Planes __ 30 Exercises 82 11.5 Plane Figures Inclined to the Two Reference Planes __172 12.1 Classification of Solids _137 12.2 Position of a Solid with Respect to the ‘Reference Planes __1d 21 Systems of Projection _ 93 92 Multiview Projection __94 12.3__Method of Drawing Orthographic Projections 23 The Principle of Onhagraphic Projections of a ofSolids 140 Pointon HP and VP 9 12.4 Solids in Simple Position __I42 94 Conventional Representationof Views 97. 12.5 Axis Inclined to One of the Reference 95 Visualization ofthe Referens Planes 97. Planes 14d 9.6 Projections of a Point in the First 12.6 Axis Inclined to Both the Reference uiadrant 98 Planes _J48 22 Projections of a Point in the Third Exercises 153 Quadrant ] 28 — Projections of Points in All the Four 13, Sections of SoMiMS iiiinnniuniis 15160 13.1 Representation of the Section Plane 9.9 — Imerpretation of Projections of Points ior and the Surface Formed by Cutting 155 210 Projections of Pointson HP, VP and PP 10n 13.2__ True and Apparent Shapes of Section 4155. Exercises iid Suggested Procedure for Drawing a Sectional View _156 Planes __106, 10.3_Line Perpendicular to One of the Reference Exercies = 160 Planes 108Contents MODULE D: DRAWING OF SURFACES 14. Intersection of Surfaces ...sssnsessnannnsnenesenn UG 3=170 14.1 Classification of Imersecting Surfaces 163 14.2 Methods Uist to Draw the Line of Intersection __163 14.3 Line of Intersection of Prisms fit 14.4 Lines of Intersection of Cylinders 166 14.5 Lines of Intersection of Cylinder and Cone 16 Exercises 170 15. Development of Surfaces ..... sermons 171-195, 15.1 The Principle of Development of ‘Surfaces _177 15.2 Methods for Drawing the Development of ‘Surfaces _172 15.3 Development of Polyhedra 173 15.4 Development of Cylinder and Cone __175 15.5 Development of Truncated Solids 177 15.6 Development of Solids Having Hole or Cut__i8d 15.7 Development of Transition Pieces 184 15.8 Development ofObjects 186 15.9 Development of Spheres 187 Exercises _91 16.1 Principle of Isometric Projection __ 799 16.3 Procedure for Drawing Isometric Projection 207 16.4 Isometric Projection and Isometric View 207 16.5 Plane Figures 204 16.6 Solids _205 16.8 CombinationofSalids 24 16.9 Objects 204 Exercises 216 17. Oblique Projection -.rssessmerem 17.1 Principle of Oblique Projection __227 17.2 Receding Lines and Their Angles 227 I7-3 “Types of Oblique Projection 222 17-4 Method of Drawing Oblique Projection 224, 17.5 Oblique Projection of Solids 224 17.6 _ Oblique Projection of Objects 226 Esercises _227 18.1__ Principle of Perspective Projection 230 18.2 Nomenclature of Perspective Projection _2.40 18.3 Classification of Perspective Views 237 18.4 Methodsof Drawing Perspective Views 233 18.5 Visual Ray Method, Using Top and & Views 233 18.9 Angular Perspective by Vanishing Point Method 235 Excocises 237 MODULE F: INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DRAWING 19, Multiview Projection of Objects seen 241-257 19.1 Principle of Multiview (Orthographic) Projection 247 19.2__First Angle Projection and the Locations of he Three Views: 242 19.3__ Third Angle Projection and the Locations of he Thies Views 242 19.6 Transparent Box and the Six Onhographie Views oY 19.5 _ Indication of First Angle Projection 246 Vis 2 19.7_Use of Line Types and Dimensioning of Views 247 19.8 Suggested Drafting Procedure 248 19.9 First Angle Project of Objects Having Plane Surfaces 249" 19.10 First Angle Projection of Objects Having Curved Surfaces 19.11 Third Angle Projection of Objects 252 Exeaci 2a 20. Auxiliary View of Objects ...senrsernsmeeren 258-264 20.2 Location of Auxiliary Views 258 20.3_TheNeedforDrawing Auxiliary Views 259 20.4 Classification of Auxiliary Views 259 20.5 Methods of Drawing Primary Auxiliary Views: 260 20.6 Symmetrical Auxiliary Views 261 20.7 Unsymmetrical Awaliary Views 262 Exercises 263vi 21, Visualization of Objects .. rensansssersevers 265-272, 21.1 Principle of Visualization of Objects 265 21> “The Need for Visualizat 265 isualization of Three Dimensional Objects 266 21.4 Meaning of Lines and Areas in Orthographic Drawings 267 2.5 Visualization of Objects from Pictorial Views 26 21.6 Visualization of Objects from Orthographic Views 269. Exercises 271 22. Sectional Views of Obj saaneseensnne 273-280 22.1 __Principle of Sectional Views of Objects __273 f Secti 7? 22.3 FullSectional Views 275 224 HalfSectional Views — 276 22.5 Convention for Sectioning 276 22.6__Conventional Representation of Materials 277 Exercises _279 MODULE G: COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING 23 Tntroduction 10 CAD sssnmsmasssuersmreenmenr 2-2) 23.1 Hardware forCAD = 283 ‘Contents 23.3 General Features of Drawing Generstion 286 ies Exercises _290 24, Starting to Use CAD Software .ccccccasecou: 291-297 24.1 Setting of Workstation _ 29 24.2 Start up Dialogue Box 291 24.3_The Graphic Sereen__-291 244 Use of Function Keys 295, 245 Sening of Blank Sheet for Drawing = - 295 24.6 Saving the Blank Sheet 297 Exercises 297 25. ling of 2D sasenesorasssreeriassrennnesee 2IB—311. 25.1 Draw Commands _298 25.2 Modify Commands 301 25.3 DisplayCommands 303 25.4 ObjectSnap 304 25.5 MiscellaneousCommands 308 25.6 DimCommands 105 25.7_Drawing of Isometric Views 305 25.8 Printer Plotting of Drawings 306 Exercises _ i008 Problems and Solutions 0 dE Selected. ‘hnic Examination Questions Model ic Examination Questians 0... 355-364Preface Engineering Graphics is the language for communication and documentation of engineering design. With the arrival of computers, the usage of this language has advanced into the areas of manufacturing, assembly, inspection and maintenance since all these functions are well executed through computer aided drafting (CAD) and three- dimensional modelling. Based on these developments, it is highly recommended for the students entering the engincering field to study the fundamentals of this language in their first yearof the engineering course. Advanced topics in Engineering Graphies are covered in the following years according to their respective branches of study. Three- dimensional objects locatedin space have tobe converted and presented on a two-dimensional drawing sheet or monitor screen using the ISO Standard coding system. To fully understand the techniques used in this process, the student should develop good visualization capacity. Even though there are a number of textbooks available for engineering drawing, the treatment of the subject is still found to be difficult for an average student. This book is an effort to overcome or reduce this difficulty. ‘The content of the textbook Engineering Graphics for Diploma is divided into seven modules. A topic is first introduced in each chapter of a module, with brief explanation arid necessary pictorial views, and then mastered gradually through a number of worked-out examples. The examples are explained using a step-by-step procedure and illustrating drawings. All the drawings are prepared in First Angle Projection and strictly follow the ISO/BIS format. Module A—Preliminaries, covers the fundamentals of manual drafting, lettering, freehand sketching and dimensioning of views. Module B describes two- dimensional drawings like geometrical constructions, conics, miscellaneous curves and drawing of scales. Three- dimensional drawings are well explained in Module C, starting with projections of points and then straight lines located in all the four quadrants. Projections of plane larnina, gcometrical solids and sections of themare also described in detail in the same module, Module D deals with the surfaces of solids, such as intersection of surfaces and their developments. Drawings of pictorial views of solids and objects are illustrated in Module E. These include isometric projection, oblique projection and perspective projections, The perspective view drawing presented in first angle itself avoids discontinuity in study, as compared to-other available textbooks in the market. Fundamentals of machine drawing, are covered in Module F in four chapters. The last Module G introduces computer aided drafting (CAD) for producing professional levelonthographic drawings. Selected questions from various Diploma Examination question papers and theirsolutions arealso given. This enables students to prepare themselves for Diploma Examinations. T am highly grateful to the eminent professors, teachers and earnest students of various engineering institutions for their encouragement. Their creative criticism and suggestions helped me to prepare this book in its current form. Textend my heartfelt thanks to PHI Learning for taking interest and the effort to publish this textbook at intemational standards. Acknowledgement is also duc to the Bureau of Indian ‘Standards, whose work has been consulted for the preparation of this book, T would also like to express my gratitude to various Boards of Technical Education in India, for permitting me to include their examination questions as worked-out examples, K.C. John.Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter3 Chapter 4 Module A Preliminaries Introduction to Engineering Graphics Lettering Freehand Drafting DimensioningIntroduction to Engineering Graphics Ersizesine graphics is the principal method of ‘ommunication in the field of engineering and science, ‘The graphics of engineering design and construction is one: among the most important courses of all studies for engineering. The indisputable reason why graphics is so important is that, it is the language used by the designer, technician and engineer, to communicate, design and construct details to others. 1.1 THE GRAPHIC LANGUAGE Engineering drawing is the graphic language used by engineers and technologists. globally. The graphic language may be defined as the graphic representation of physical objects and their relationships. Like other spoken and written languages, this graphic language had also been developed through centuries. The language of graphics is written in the form of drawings using straight and curved lines which represent the shape, size and specifications of physical objects, The language is read by interpreting the drawings so that the physical objects can be constructed exactly asconceived by the designer. Like every language, the graphic language also has its awn rules of grammar. These rules are governed by certain code of practice, An engineer, should have proper understanding of the theory of projection, dimensioning and conventions Cc H A. P TFT ER related to working drawings, in order to become professionally efficient, 1.2. TRADITIONAL DRAFTING Engineering drawings are made up of straight and curved lines to represent the surfaces, edges and centres of objects. Symbols, dimensional values and word-notes are added to these lines so that they collectively make the complete description. The traditional drafting is the preparation of these drawings manually, by frechand sketching or with the help of drawing instruments, Freehand drawing is done by sketching the lines without instruments other than peneil and eraser. They are much used commercially as preliminary de: Preparation of drawings to scale, using various drawing instruments is the standard conventional drafting method. After the preparation of the scaled drawings, they are waced using instruments and ink pens to the tracing paper or tracing film for taking prints 1,3. COMPUTER-AIDED DRAFTING (CAD) In Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) the drawings are prepared with the help of computer and the prints of the required size are taken, using the output devices. CAD isdefined as a process of producing drawings in which a computer software and associated hardware are used. Nowadays, microcomputers are widely employed for automated drafting. Compared to traditional drafting, CAD is faster as well as efficient and the modifications can be brought out very easily. Depending on the drafting task, the production of drawings can be increased to about 2to 10 times with a good CAD system, In modem industries the traditional deafting is being replaced by computer aided drafting. This doesn’t mean that traditional drafting instruments are totally removed by computer and related output devices. The computer (the hardware and software) is only a strong tool to produce accurate drawings in the shortest time. Trained designers and drafters who know engineering graphics very well are supposed to operaic the CAD systems. This training in drafting is given using traditional graphic instruments. After understanding engineering graphics by traditional drafting methods, one can have the expertise in operating CAD system to develop the skill and speed for excellent performance. 4.4 GRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USE To prepare a neat and scaled pencil drawing, good drafting instruments are to be used. A list of drawing instruments and materials required for the same is given below: 1. Drawing board 2. Minidrafter of T-square Clomping screw Pivot plate browacier nese Engineering Graphics for Diploma 3. Instrument box. containing long compass. spring bow compass, small bow divider ete, 4. Set-squares (45° and 30-60°) and protractor 5. Engineer's scale set and steel nile (30 em) 6. Drawing pencils (standard and clutch pencils) 7. Eraser 8. Adhesive tape, drawing pins orclips 9. Sandpaper pad 10. Blade, pocket inife or pencil sharpener 11, Handkerchief, duster or dusting brush 12. Letter stencils, french curves, erasing shield and templates Drawing Board Drawing board, made up of seasoned soft wood (pine, fir, oak ete.) are used for traditional drafting. Figure 1.1 shows drawing board with a minidrafter clamped in position. Ifa ‘T-square is used instead of minidrafier for drafting, astraight working edge of hard wood (ebony) is also required on the Jeft edge of the board. Figure 1.2 shows a drawing board with a T-square in drawing position. The standard sizes of drawing boards as per Bureau of Indian standards are shown in Table 1.1, Minidrafter Drafting machines are used for professional drafting of engineering drawings. Itmainly consists oftwascalesatright Drawing sheet ppOrowing board \cScole of minidrafter Knob Fig.1.1. Drawing board with minidrafter clamped in position.Introduction to Engineering Graphics ~Sel-squore Drafting edge of T=square _-7 Drawing sheet Drawing board Fig. 1.2 Drafting board with T-square in drawing position Board Sizein'man Sheet Designation {yeidth x length) size Dy 1500 « 1000 Ay D, 1000 x 700 Ay D, 700 x 500 Ay B 500350 Ay angles which can dothe Function of T-square and protractor, A simplified version of the drafting machine is called minidrafter. Figure 1.1 shows a minidrafter fitted to a drawing board, The unit hasaclumping end which is fixedon ‘the board by a hand screw and two mutually perpendicular scales with protractor head on the other end. The body of the minidrafter contains two of parallelograms made of bars pivoted tothese ends. ‘To use the minidrafter, first of all set the protractor head _at zero position and tighten the knob. Then clamp the drafter to the top edge of board as shown in Fig, 1.1 using the hand screw so thatthe horizontal scale is parallel to the horizontal ‘edges of the board. T-square T-square is composed of a long strip ealled blade fixed rigidly by serews at right angles toa shorter strip called head (stock). Figure 1.2 shows a T-square placed on a drawing. board in its drawing position. T-squares are generally made of wood or plastic. For wooden T-squares the top drawing side of the blade and the inner sliding slide of the stock are fitted with straight edges of hardwood. A T-square is used for drafting on a drawing board fitted with straight working edge in the left hand side (see Fig. 1.2). The stock of the T-square is kept perfectly touching on the working edge and is moved forward and backward by left hand, so that different horizontal positions of the drafting edge are obtained for drawin Compared 10 minidrafter, T-square gives beer accuracy in large size drawings, but the speed of drafting is low. For small size drawings as well as for stady purpose the use of minidrafteris recommended. Instrument Box The drafting instruments like compass, divider, ete. are available in boxes called engineering drawing instrument box. A standard three bow-set instrument box contains the following devices: Large size compass Lengthening bar for large size compass Small bow compass Large size divider Small bow divider Small bow ink-pen Inking pens. ‘The most useful types of compasses and dividers are shown in Fig. 1.3. Inking-pens and bow ink-pen are used for tracing of drawings with ink. The large size compass is used todraw large size circles andarcs. A pointednecdle is fitted at Die & bp eeEngineering Graphics for Diploma Lorge (Big) compess Bow (smal compess Fig. 1.3. Drawing board with T=square in drawing position. one leg while a pencil lead is inserted in the otherleg. Both the legs are provided with knee joints so that while drawing circles orares of radius above 60 mm, they can be bentto keep, the lead and the pointed needle almost perpendicular to the surface of drawing sheet. See Fig. 1.4(a), For drawing ares and cireles of radius 180 mm and above. the lengthening bar is tobe added to the leg, holding the ead. Circles and ares of radius less than L5 mm are drawn, using the small bow compass. The lead tip of a compass has to be sharpened and set as shown in Fig, 1.4(b), This shape of point is formed by first sharpening the outside of the lead on the sandpaper pad to a long flat bevel approximately 6 mm long and then finishing it with a slight rocking motion to reduce the width of the point. A soft lead (HB) gives dark thick line which can be used for drawing object boundaries, while a bard lead (H) (a) Fig. 1.4 Use of large (big) compass. gives light coloured thin lines used forshowing construction lines. ‘The large size divider is used to divide curved lines or straight lines into desired number of equal parts. They are also used te transfer a length fram the seale to the drawing shect or to transfer a length from drawing sheet to the scale for measurement. Small bow divider is sed as the large divider for shorter lengths below 20 mm. Inking pens and bow pens are also included in the standard instrument box. They are used for tracing of drawings with ink, Set-squares and Protractor Set-squares ((riangles) and protractor are made of transparent plastic material. See Fig. 1.5. Set-squares (45° (a) Set—squares (b) Protractor (c) Use of set-square Fig.1.5 Sot-squares and protracter.Intreduction to Engineering Graphics and 30°-60°) are used to draw vertical as well as inclined lines. They are also used for setting combination of angles of 15°, while using T-square. Along with minidrafter set- squares are also used to draw inclined lines of 30°, 45° and 60° as shown in Fig. 1.5(c). Protractor of circular or semicircular type is used to set up or measure angles. Since the size of the protractor head of a minidrafter is small, the use of a large size protractor is recaramended for accurate angle setup and measurements. Engineers Scale Set and Steel Rule A sel of 8 scales designated from MIL to MB are required to take measurements for scaled drawings. They are made of cither cardboard or plastic [see Fig. 1,6¢a)]. A steel rule of 30 em length is also recommended to draw inclined lines.as well to use as full size seale for measurements. Drawing Pencils For the preparation of drawings, two lypes of pencils are generally used: (a) Wooden drawing pe (b) Clutch pencils. Wooden drawing pencils of hexagonal cross section are the traditional (ypes used for engineering drawings. They are designated as HB, H, 2H etc. Here, H stands for hardness and B for the blackness and sofiness. They sre sharpened as shown in Fig. 1.6¢b) to conical point or chis and and chisel points are shaped by grinding the eylindrieal lead on the sandpaper pad. (a) Pin, stip, ond tone Mechanical cluteh pencils of lead size 0.5 mm diameter are now available for reasonable prices [sec Fig. 1.6(d}]. ‘They are preferred because they can give better uniform line width and no sharpening is required. Lead grades of HB, H and 2H are used in these pencils. Eraser Soft natural rubber or nylon rubber is used as eraser to remove unnecessary lines on the drawing sheet [see Fig. 1.6ic)]. Adhesive Tape, Drawing Pins or Clips ‘To fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board adhesive tape is gencrally used [see Fig. 1.6(e)]. Use of drawing pins will spoil the surface of the board. Use of clips may not be possible while using a shorter drawing sheet on a large size drawing board. Sandpaper Pad This consists of a small wooden block on which fine grained sandpaper is pasted about half of its length (see Fig. 1.6). The sandpaper pad is used to sharpen wooden pencil lead and compass lead tip for correct line thickness. Blade, Pocket Knife or Pencil Sharpener These instruments are used for sharpening the wooden pencil and cutting of drawing sheets to the required size, (c) Eraser (#) Sondpeper ped Fig. 1.6 Drawing instrumentsFSbedetghltmnopgrstvenys ASCDEFGHIIKLWNOPORSTUWWHYZ 1234567890 (a) Letter stencil (b) French curve Engineering Graphics for Diploma of Q (c) Erasing shield ees \S050000| (8) Template for circles Fig.A7 Handkerchief, Duster or Dusting Brush Cleaning of board, and drawing sheet can be done using duster or dusting brush. Handkerchief ean be used for this as well as for wiping wet hands. Letter Stencils, French Curves, Erasing Shield and Templates ‘These items, made from transparent plastic sheets, are used to improve the speed and finish of drawing (see Fig, 1.7), Letter stencils are used to print letters especially in tracing. Curved rulers called French curves or irregular curves are used for drawing curved lines other than constant radius ares. They are available in different forms and sizes in boxes. Erasing shield is used to shield the required Tines while erasing the nearby unwanted lines. Templates are plastic sheets with the standard shapes likeciteles,cllipses. symbols ete. cutin them so that the drawing can be made fast and accurate. Templates are widely used for tracing of drawings. 4,8 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR ENGINEERING DRAWING Intemational Standards Organisation (LS.O.) Geneva, formulated and issued international standards for ‘engineering drawings in 1982, India, approved the same and accordingly modified the Indian Standards 1S: 696-1972 to IS: 10714-1983. The Indian Standards Institution (ISI) which is taking care of standards in India, has been renamed as Bureau of Indian Standards (B.1S.). Engineering Drawing Committee (E.D.C.) of B.1S, has adopted the 15.0, standards since 1983. As per letter No: EDC 20:1/T- ‘ST dated 17th Aptil 1984, IS: 696 -1972 has been withdrawn by the B.1.S. The new drawing standards are now available in 19 different booklets. For the use of students, a special publication containing all the relevant information in the ficld of drawing standards, was brought out in March 1989. ‘This special publication is referred to as SP:46-19B8 tithe “Engineering Drawing Practice for students of schools and colleges”. Allltechnical institutions should have the complete set of Indian standards accessible to technical drawing classes for ‘the benefit of the students. 1.6 LINES ‘One of the fundamentals of good draftsmanship is line work. For general engineering drawings, various types of lines are recommended by 1S:10714-1983. Each line has a specific meaning and function. Types of Lines Different types of lines recommended ate shown in Table 1.2. If lines of othertypes orthickness are tobe used for special fields ike electrical or pipe work diagrams, or if lines ‘specified in the table are tobe used for applications other than those mentioned, the convention adopted should be explained by notes on the drawing itself. Anexample of the use of various types of lines is shown in Fig. 1.8. The following are the types of lines used: 4. Type A ‘These types of lines.are continuous thick lines and are used to represent AL Visible out lines and A2 Visible edges. ‘Type A Lines are also used for the following applications: 1. Thread ends, 2. Limits of useful thread lengths, and 3. Mainrepresentation in diagrams, graphs, charts and flow diagrams,Introduction to Engineering Graphics ‘Table 1.2 Types of lines H r — Fig. 1.8 Use of various types of lines, 2. Type B These types of lines are continuous thin lines and used to represent: BI Imaginary lines of intersection B2 Dimension lines Deserip Continuous thick Continuoiss thin Continuous thin frechand Continuous thin with zig-zags (Chain thin, thick at ends and changes of direction Chain thick Chain thin double dashed B3 Projection B4 Leader lines BS Hatehing (section } lines B6-Oulline of revolved section in place and B7 Short centre lines. Type B lines are also-used for the following applications: Diagonal eross to represent flat surface Bent lines (as in the sheet metal works) Boxing or encieling of details Representation of repeating details (as rootcircle af gears) 5, Grain flow direction as in rolling. 6. Direction of lay of layers (as transformer stamp- nes Bene ings) and 7. Grid lines 3. Type C Thesetypes of lines are continuous thin lines drawn frechand and used to represent: CI Limits of partial views, interrupted views, and sectional views (if limits are not chain thin lines).10 4. Type D ‘These types of lines are continugus thin (straight or curved ) limes with zig-zags and are used Lo represent: D1 Limits of partial views, interrupted views, and sectional views (if limits are not chain thin lines). 5. Type E ‘These types of lines are dashed thick lines and are used to represent: E1 Hidden outlines and E2 Hidden edges. 6. Type F ‘These type of lines are dashed thin lines and are used to repeesent: FI Hidden outlines and F2 Hidden edges. 7. Type G These types of lines are chain thin fines and are used to represent: Gi Centre lines, G2 Lines of symmetry and G3 Trajectories. Type G lines are alsa used far the following applications : L._ Pitch cirele of gears 2. Pitch cirele diameter af holes and 3. Parting-off planes. 8. Type H Thesetypesof lines are chain thin, thick atends andchange of direction. They are used to represent: HI Cutting planes. &. Type J ‘These types of lines are chain thiek lines and are used to represent: JI Indication of lines or surfaces to whieh a special requirement applies. 10. Type K ‘These types of lines are chain thin double dashed and are used to represent: K1 Outline of adjacent parts, K2 Alternative and extreme position of movable parts, K3 Centroidal lines, Kai Initial out fines peior to forming and KS Parts situated in front of the cutting plane. ‘These types of lines are also used for the following applications: Engineering Graphics for Diploma 1. Outline of selective details, 2. Finish forms of raw parts and 3. Enclosure of special fieldslareas. Thickness (width) of Lines and Their Spacing ‘The lines used in a drawing can be grouped into two types based on their thicknesses (widths). They are: 1. Thick lines 2. Thin lines. ‘The ratio of the thick to the thin line should not be less than 2:1. The thickness of lines should be acconding to the size and shape of thedrawingand itcan beselected from the following. grades: 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1, L4, and 2: mm It may be noted that the grading of these lines, is in V2 increments. The distance between parallel lines, including hatching should be greater than twice the thickness of the heaviest line. Now 1. The thickness (width) of lines for different views of an abject, should be the same, pravided the seale used is the same. The line thickness of 0.18 mm may be avoided. The minimum distance between parallel lines including hatching lines should be 0.7 mm. 4. Aline width of 0.5 mm for thick lines and 0,25 mm. for thin lines are recommended for pencil drawings. eR Order of Priority of Coinciding Lines. ‘When two or mare lines of different types shown in Fig. 1.8. coincide, the follawing order of priority should be observ (a) Firstpriarity for Type: visible oullinesand visible edges. (b) Second priority for Type Eor F: hidden outlinesand hidden edges. (©) Third priority for Type H. cutting planes represented by chain thin lines thickened at ends. (8) Forth priority for Type G: centre lines and lines of symmetry and trajectories. (e) Fifth priority far Type K: centroidal lines. (f) Sixth priority for Type Bz projection lines. Hidden Details Interior details of an object, which are not visible fromIntroduction to Engineering Graphics outside, are represented by hidden lines, Short dashes having an approximate length af 2 to 3 mm and a distance af 1 10 2mnubetweenthem, maybe used forhidden lines. The dashes, of the hidden lines should touch the v le outlines or hidden lines, both at the starting and ending points. Superimposing of hidden details is shown in Fig, 1.9 Fig. 1.9 Superimposing of hidden details 41.7 SCALES Seales is the ratio of the linear dimensions of one element of an object as represented in original drawing to the real linear dimension of the same clement of the object itself. Drawings of small objects-can be made of the same size ax the object itself. If the actual dimensions of the object are used to prepare its drawing, the seale used is called fll size seale. For full size scale, the rativis 1:1.Ln thease af very large objects, the actual dimensions of the object cannot be used in the preparation of its drawing. Hence, linear dimensions of the ‘object are wo be reduced for the purpose of drawing. Now, the sealeis called reduction scale. Forreduction seale,the ratio’s smaller than I:1. In the case of very small objects, the drawings are to be made larger than the abject itself. The scale used for this, is called enlargement scale, For enlargement scale, the ratio is larger than 1:1. ‘The complete designation of scales can be indivated as follows: SCALE 1:1 for full size. SCALE 1:X for reduced scale. SCALE X:1 for enlargement scale. If there is no chance for misunderstanding, the word SCALE may be omitted. Scales recommended by RIS are shown int Table 1.3. 1.8 DRAWING SHEETS AND TITLE BLOCK Drawing sheets are white papers of good quality used forthe preparation of pencil drawings. One of the surfaces of the drawing sheet is usually smooth, This smooth surface is used for drawing. Table 13 Seales for use on technical drawings ([S:46- 1988) Category Enlargementscales Fullsize n seales Various preferred sizes of drawing sheets are available in the market. 1.$:107 11-1983 recommends various choices of the drawing sheetsbased on theirsizes, The preferred sizes of the drawing sheets are given in the Table 1.4. Table 14 Preferred sizes of drawing sheets Designation ‘Trimmed sizes in mum (width % length) Ao 841% 1189 Ay 504841 Ay 420594 Ay 297x420 Ag 210297 ‘The ratio between the (wo adjacent sides of a drawing, sheet is 1:2 (i.e.1:1.414). The surface area of the sheet designated by Agis one square metre. Twasuccessive sizes of drawing sheets are obtained either by halving ordaublingthe areas. For example, A, size drawing sheet is obtained by halving Ag size sheet Selection of the size of the drawing sheet depends onthe size of the object to be drawn and the scale used. Drawing, sheets may be used with their longer sides placed either horizontally or vertically, General Features General features of a drawing sheet is shown in Fig. 1.10, Four centring marks given on the border facilitates the positioning of the drawing when reproduced or microfilmed, Grid reference permits easy location of details, modifications, ete, The rectangular divisions of the grid are. marked by capital letters and numerals. Length of the side of therectangle should not be less than 25 mmand not more than 75 mm. Extra margin may be provided on the leftto facilitate easy filing and binding. Title Block Title block is to be placed within the drawing space al the bottom right hand corner of the drawing sheet and it should be visible when prints are folded. It should consist of one orGrd reference Drawing space Engineering Graphics for Diploma Minimums width Title block (20 mm for Ag & Ay rE 0 mim tor Age gy & Ag) Fig. 1.10 General features ofa drawing sheet more adjoining rectangles. These rectangles may be divided further into boxes for inserting specific information. This information is grouped into zones as Follows, 1, Identification zone and 2. One or more zones for additional information, In the identification zone the following basic information is, entered (refer to Fig. 1.11): (a) The registration or the identification number, (b) The title of the drawing and (c) The name of the legal owner of the drawing. Folding of Drawing Prints There are two methods of folding of drawing prints. First method of folding is used for filing or binding, The second method of folding is used for keeping the prints individually in filing cabinet and is shown im Fig. 1.12. It should be remembered that all the drawing prints larger than Ay size should be folded to Ay size. The title block should be seen ‘ouside on the right bottom comer. 1.9 SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR DRAFTING Engineering graphics is a subject to be studied nat only by reading the book but also by drafting. A smdent of graphics should manually draw the figures following the correct procedure. With more practice he can not only get more knowledge in the subject, but also can develop speed, dimensional accuracy and finish of drawing. Step by Step Procedure for Drafting 1. Set the minidrafter to its 2ero angle position and fix it on the left top comer of the drawing board such, el rj a a of 2 |) LY © } © © CI t 170 max | L170 max (b) () ‘Asrangements of information the title bolck,