Música e História No Final Do Século XX

16/07/2017 Chapter 36: The End of the Millennium | A History of Western Music, 8e: W. W.
Norton StudySpace
A History of Western Music: W. W. Norton

StudySpace
Chapter
36
The End of the Millennium
Outline
I. Developments since 1970

A. Musical changes during the last few decades
1. The broadening conception of music as art
2. The influence of digital technologies
3. The increasing importance of mixed media
B. Four trends are especially prominent.
1. The fragmentation of popular music
2. Minimalism and its offshoots
3. Composers in the classical tradition wrote more accessible music.
4. The influence of non-Western music
C. Historical developments
1. The late 1960s and 1970s saw numerous political and economic shocks,
including assassinations, riots, and a presidential resignation.
2. Cold War tensions decreased, and Communism eventually collapsed in
Eastern Europe in the 1990s.
3. New conflicts and threats emerged, most notably in the attacks on
September 11, 2001.
4. Global economies became more interdependent.
5. Communication technology produced cable television, personal
computers, fax machines, and cell phones.
6. The arts appealed to a growing international audience.
a. In this multinational world, people are exposed to a great variety of
music on a daily basis.
b. Characteristics of various musical types have crossed over and
blended with other musical traditions.
II. Broadening the Meaning of "Art Music"
A. Jazz
1. Each style of jazz continues to be performed and to attract listeners.
2. All styles of jazz are available on recordings; historical recordings have
been transferred to compact discs (see HWM Music in Context, page
963).
3. New institutions preserve the classics of jazz, as jazz is now regarded as
art music with its own classic canon.
B. Rock
1. The history of rock music is now taught at colleges.
2. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame preserves the rock legacy (see HWM
Figure 36.1).
3. Continuing sales of recordings of rock music from the 1950s and the
number of "golden oldies" radio stations give evidence of a tradition of
classics.
C. Country music
1. Country music has also developed a classic repertory.
2. The Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville opened in
2001.
D. Musicals
1. Classic musicals have been revived on Broadway and around the world.
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16/07/2017 Chapter 36: The End of the Millennium | A History of Western Music, 8e: W. W. Norton StudySpace
2. New musicals often aspire to a high art level.

3. Stephen Sondheim (b. 1930), the dominant figure in American musicals,
uses a mixture of art song and popular styles.
4. Sondheim's subjects would not have been done earlier.
a. Company (1970) is a plotless social commentary.
b. Sweeney Todd (1979) deals with a murderous barber.
c. Sunday in the Park with George (1984) is based on a painting.
d. Assassins (1991) features assassins of American presidents.
5. Andrew Lloyd Webber (b. 1948), the leading English composer of
musicals, draws on a wide range of styles, while retaining the focus on
melody.
a. Jesus Christ Superstar (1970-1) is a rock music retelling of the life
of Jesus.
b. Evita (1976-78) is about Eva Peron, the wife of the Argentinean
dictator.
c. Cats (1981) is based on poetry by
E. S. Eliot.
F. The Phantom of the Opera (1986) is based on the classic book and film.
1. Claude-Michel Schnberg, a French composer, has created a number of
successful musicals.
a. Les Misrables (1980) is based on Victor Hugo's novel.
b. Miss Saigon (1989) retells Madama Butterfly in the context of the
Vietnam War.
2. Rent (1996) by Jonathan Larson adapts the plot of La Bohme to a story
of New York in the era of AIDS.
3. Asian classic traditions have also received international recognition.
III. New Technologies
A. Digital synthesis, recording, and reproduction have had a major impact on the
creators and listeners of music (see HWM Music in Context, page 963, and
Figure 36.2).
B. Sampling
1. This new process allows one to create a new composition by patching
together digital portions of previously recorded music.
2. Sampling has been used extensively in rap, other forms of popular music,
avant-garde, and classical concert music.
C. Composers have explored advancements in computers.
1. Charles Dodge (b. 1942)
a. Speech Songs (1972) features computer-synthesized vocal sounds.
b. Manipulations of lifelike imitations of speech create a word-based
music.
2. Paul Lansky (b. 1944) developed his own software to create music.
a. Smalltalk (1988) manipulates speech, and Night Traffic (1990)
manipulates traffic noises, transforming them beyond immediate
recognition.
b. He also draws upon pop traditions, including tonal harmonies and a
regular meter.
3. Jean-Claude Risset (b. 1938) served as director of the Institute for
Acoustic and Musical Research and Coordination in Paris.
a. Inharmonique (1977) uses a computer to mediate between live
musical sounds and synthesized sounds.
b. He continues to design new sounds through the interaction of sound
waves, harmonics, timbre, and other elements of sound.
IV. Mixed Media
A. Stage shows and music videos
1. By the 1980s, stage shows for popular music concerts involved elaborate
sets, costumes, intricate choreography, and visual effects.
2. Music videos
a. Short films accompanying the performance of popular songs came

of age in the early 1980s.
b. The cable channel MTV promoted music videos.
c. Videos were elaborate productions, with sets, costumes, dancing,
and quick editing.
B. Laurie Anderson (b. 1947) is one of the leading performance artists (see HWM
Figure 36.3).
1. Anderson employs a wide range of media, including singing and violin
playing.
2. O Superman (1981), featuring her synthesizer-processed voice in a simple
song, became a pop hit.
3. United States I-IV (1983) is a seven-hour stage show that uses all the tools
of modern media.
C. Spectacle works
1. STOMP (1991), created by Luke Cresswell and Steve McNicholase, has
no dialogue and consists of performers using everyday objects to produce
elaborate percussion music with stunning choreography (see HWM
Figure 36.4)
2. Blast! (2001) by Jim Mason brought the routines of marching-band
halftime shows to Broadway.
D. Film music
1. In some recent films, music has become a central part of the total artwork.
2. American Graffiti (1973) set a pattern by using pop music of the 1950s
and 60s.
3. Full symphonic scores with leitmotives, such as heard in the music by
John Williams (b. 1932) for the Star Wars movies, has reemerged in film
scoring.
4. Symphonic soundtracks have become popular recordings, outpacing other
orchestral music.
V. The Splintering of Popular Music
A. Disco
1. This style began as a type of dance music in New York during the 1970s.
2. The music catered to African Americans, Latinos, and gay men before
becoming an international craze.
3. Slick production and lush orchestrations characterized these uniform, 4/4
meter dance works.
4. Disco reached a height with the film Saturday Night Fever (1977),
featuring music by the Bee Gees.
B. Other rock types
1. Punk featured a hard-driving style and voiced teenager alienation.
a. The Sex Pistols popularized edgy fashions and preached nihilism.
b. Most punk musicians were untutored and used raw, unskilled
sounds.
2. New Wave groups, such as Talking Heads, maintained the nihilism of
punk but incorporated trained musical skills.
3. Grunge
a. This is one type of alternative rock, a general term for rock music
that is separate from the mainstream.
b. Grunge, centering in Seattle in the early 1990s, combined nihilism
and the electric-guitar sound of heavy metal with intimate lyrics and
dressed-down fashions.
c. Nirvana's Smells Like Teen Spirit (1991) brought grunge to national
attention.
C. Rap
1. Rap began in the 1970s as part of the African-American urban youth
culture.
2. The style featured rhymed lyrics over repeated dance beats.
3. From its New York beginnings, it has branched out into multiple types.
a. Gangsta rap celebrates lawlessness.

b. Conscious rap voices the woes of inequality and racism.
4. Public Enemy led the ranks of conscious rap with songs like Fight the
Power (see HWM Figure 36.5).
5. Rap soon appealed to white suburban teenagers and to international
audiences.
D. Music subcultures
1. Women's music is often in a folk style and reflects a feminist perspective.
2. Christian rock uses current popular styles to convey evangelical Christian
themes.
VI. Minimalism
A. Minimalism is one of the most prominent trends of the late twentieth century.
1. Materials are reduced to a minimum and procedures are simplified.
2. The content of the music should be readily apparent.
3. Minimalism began as an avant-garde style but became a popular and
expressive technique.
4. Influences for minimalism came from numerous sources:
a. Rock music
b. African music
c. Asian music
d. Tonality
e. Romanticism
B. Minimalism in art
1. The term, first coined by an art critic in 1965, was applied to art that
reduced materials and form to fundamentals.
2. The works were not intended to express feelings or states of mind.
3. Minimalist works often feature repetition of simple elements (see HWM
Figure 36.6).
C. Early minimalism in music
1. Musicians in New York and California created a parallel movement.
2. La Monte Young (b. 1935), one of the pioneers, used improvisation over a
fundamental drone on synthesizer in The Tortoise: His Dreams and
Journeys (1964).
D. Terry Riley (b. 1935)
1. Riley was a member of La Monte Young's ensemble.
2. He experimented with tape loops that played the same material repeatedly.
3. In C (1964) applied similar procedures with live instruments.
a. Any number of instruments can play; each plays the same series of
brief repeated figures over a pulsing octave C.
b. The number of repetitions in each part and the coordination of parts
are left to the performers in the tradition of indeterminacy.
c. These elements create a steady pulse with a slow change from
consonance to dissonance and back.
E. Steve Reich (b. 1936; see HWM Figure 36.7)
1. Reich, along with Glass and Adams, brought minimalist procedures into
art music with the intent of appealing to a wide audience.
2. He developed a quasi-canonic procedure in which musicians play the
same material out of phase with each other.
3. Piano Phase (1967), for two pianos (see HWM Example 36.1)
a. The same figure is repeated several times.
b. One pianist then pulls ahead slightly, creating new harmonic
combinations.
4. Reich founded his own ensemble, and wrote percussive music in the
1970s.
5. He attracted a wide range of listeners from the classical and pop worlds.
6. Reich used minimalist techniques to create large-scale works with
significant emotional content.
7. Tehillim (1981), section IV (NAWM 197)
a. Setting of psalm texts in Hebrew for four singers and orchestra

b. Uses rhythmic and melodic canons at the unison in constantly
changing meters over pulsing percussion and sustained diatonic but
dissonant harmonies
c. Each of the first three sections uses different procedures.
d. Section IV combines all these techniques and builds to a climax.
e. At times it becomes increasingly hard to hear and follow a single
part, and we hear the repeating melodic high points as a separate
plane of sound.
8. Because of the richness and complexity of works such as Tehillim, Reich's
music of the 1980s is sometimes called postminimalist.
F. Philip Glass (b. 1937)
1. Glass studied at Juilliard with Nadia Boulanger.
2. In Paris he met and worked with Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar.
3. In the mid-1960s, he composed music that combined the rhythmic
organization of Indian music with simple harmonic progressions and the
amplification of rock music.
4. Einstein on the Beach (1976) is a one act, four-hour opera.
a. There is no text other than solfge syllables, and the staging is
nonsensical.
b. The music consists primarily of repeated arpeggiations.
c. The orchestra includes electronic keyboard instruments,
woodwinds, and a solo violinist.
5. Other operas followed, including The Voyage (1992).
G. John Adams (b. 1947; see HWM Figure 36.8)
1. Phrygian Gates for piano (1977-78; see HWM Example 36.2) represents
minimalism in its early transitional phase.
a. This twenty-four-minute piano work relies predominantly on rapid
repetitive figuration or alternating chords.
b. The pitch content goes through a number of changes, what Adams
calls "gates."
2. Adams later combined minimalism with other techniques and styles.
3. Harmonielehre (1985), a symphonic poem, recalls Mahler or Berg.
4. Nixon in China (1987) is an opera dealing with Nixon's visit to China.
a. Minimalist techniques are combined with formal Baroque opera.
b. Short, driving ideas constantly evolve.
5. Short Ride in a Fast Machine (1986; NAWM 198)
a. This orchestral fanfare has become one of Adams's most frequently
played works.
b. Ostinatos and repeating chords create a sense of harmonic
progression and move the music forward.
c. Wide-ranging melodies emerge and dominate the texture.
d. The work culminates with three-part counterpoint over slowly
changing but rapidly pulsing harmonies.
6. The melodic element has become stronger in more recent works, such as
The Wound Dresser (1988) and The Violin Concerto (1993).
7. The diversity and depth of his style and subject matter have won Adams a
broad and enthusiastic audience.
VII. The New Accessibility
A. Audiences and the classic tradition
1. Composers in the classical tradition faced a new reality in the late
twentieth century.
2. Despite the support of universities, they found it difficult to get their
works performed after the premieres.
3. Few compositions entered the classical repertory.
4. Some composers sought to appeal to a wider audience through
minimalism and other techniques.
B. Accessible modernism
1. Some composers have used modernist ideas and procedures that are
simple and easy to grasp.
2. Vertige (Vertigo, 1990; NAWM 199) by Gyrgy Ligeti
a. Ligeti wrote a series of tudes for solo piano (1985-2001) that
combined elements of his earlier musicdissonant textures that
gradually changewith the virtuoso tradition of the nineteenth
century.
b. The ideas in Vertige, tude No. 9, are simple and familiar:
descending chromatic scales enter in succession and overlap to form
chordal sonorities.
c. They fuse together, making it difficult to hear individual lines.
d. The texture is varied through the number of lines, the intervals
between them, their ranges, and the dynamics.
e. The repetition reflects the influence of minimalism; the texture of
overlapping continuous lines comes from electronic music concepts
designed by Risset at IRCAM.
3. Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (b. 1939; see HWM Figure 36.9)
a. Zwilich combines continuous variation with older formal devices.
b. Her use of developing variation is similar to the procedure used by
Schoenberg, but the idea is much simpler and more readily
understood.
C. Symphony No. 1 (1982) by Zwilich (NAWM 200)
1. This work earned Zwilich a Pulitzer Prize in Music, the first ever given to
a woman.
2. Familiar harmonic materials
a. Tonal centers
b. Prominent thirds and fifths
c. Occasional triads
d. The E-major triad and passionate melody at measure 13 recall
Mahler.
3. Developing variation
a. All of the melodic material evolves through variation from the first
fifteen measures.
b. The opening threefold rising third serves as a motto and establishes
A as the tonal center.
c. This motive and an answering rising fifth create the central material
for the movement.
d. Several melodies are derived from this material.
e. Recurring melodies are subject to further variation.
4. The movement builds in tempo, dynamics, and density to a central allegro
and then slows and thins to a quiet close.
D. Radical simplification
1. Some composers embraced a radical simplification of materials.
2. One such type is minimalism, but other musical techniques also reflect
this trend.
3. Arvo Prt (b. 1935)
a. This Estonian composer began with neoclassical and serial works
and juxtaposed modernist and Baroque styles.
b. He later studied Gregorian chant and early polyphony.
c. Seeking greater international opportunities, Prt settled in
Germany in 1980.
4. Tintinnabuli
a. The term is derived from the bell-like sonorities that it can produce.
b. It features counterpoint between a mostly stepwise diatonic melody
and voices sounding notes of the tonic triad determined by a preset
system.
c. Prt developed this method in the 1970s.
E. Seven Magnificat Antiphons by Prt (1988, rev. 1991) (NAWM 201)
1. These choral works are based on antiphon texts from the week prior to
Christmas.
2. The traditional Latin has been translated into German, and these are
Prt's first works using the language of his adopted country.
3. O Weisheit
a. The text is set syllabically and homophonically.
b. Measure lines indicate lengths of individual words and do not
suggest meter.
c. The principal melody in the tenors moves by steps within a range of
a third.
d. The pitches from the other voices are from the A-major triad.
e. The basses and sopranos sing E and A only.
f. The altos sing the pitches from the triad that are closest to the notes
of the tenor melody.
4. O Knig aller Vlker (see HWM Example 36.3)
a. The second tenor has a modal tune centered on A.
b. The second soprano forms an augmentation canon with the tenor.
c. The altos recite the text on D.
d. The other parts sound notes of the D-minor triad.
e. The texture alternates between consonance and diatonic dissonance.
F. Extramusical imagery and meanings
1. Composers sometimes invoked extramusical meanings, such as
spirituality, to give unusual sounds clear meanings.
2. Sofia Gubaidulina (b. 1931; see HWM Figure 36.10)
a. She gave many of her works a spiritual dimension, despite the
official atheism of her native Soviet Union.
b. Rejoice! (1981) is a five-movement sonata for violin and cello
inspired by devotional texts.
c. Quotations from the Ukrainian philosopher Grigory Skovoroda
appear at the beginning of each movement.
d. The sonata expresses the transcendence from ordinary reality to joy.
e. The passage from a fundamental note to its harmonics represents
this journey.
3. Rejoice!, fifth movement (NAWM 202)
a. The fifth movement, Listen to the still small voice within, is a study
in chromatics, tremolos, and harmonics.
b. The violin introduces a sequence of four gestures.
c. Three variations on the same series of ideas follow (measures 33,
70, and 122).
d. The cello slowly and chromatically descends two octaves during the
movement.
e. The movement ends as both instruments play high natural
harmonics.
4. John Tavener (b. 1944)
a. Stravinsky influenced the early works of this English composer.
b. He began to incorporate elements of music for the Orthodox Church
in works such as Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (1977) for
unaccompanied choir.
c. He developed a harmonically simple, chant-derived idiom and
applied it to a series of instrumental works on religious subjects.
d. The Protecting Veil for cello and string orchestra (1987) is the best-
known of these works.
5. R. Murray Schafer (b. 1933) is the leading Canadian composer of this era.
a. He has worked in a variety of styles.
b. Several orchestral works reflect the culture of the Inuits, natives of
Canada.
c. He developed environmental music, which moves musical
performance out of the concert hall.
6. Wilderness Lake by Schafer (1979)

a. This work is to be performed at sunrise and sunset at a lake away
from human settlements.
b. Twelve trombonists, positioned around the shores, play meditative
melodies cued by a conductor in a raft.
c. Animal sounds are also added.
7. Joan Tower (b. 1938)
a. Many works by this American composer are based on images.
b. Silver Ladders (1986), for orchestra, has rising lines representing
ladders and other imagery.
G. Quotation and polystylism
1. Quotation and collage included past and present styles.
2. This style is similar to postmodernism, which considers all epochs and
cultures equally for source material (see HWM Figure 36.11).
3. Alfred Schnittke (1934-1998)
a. Schnittke worked in the Soviet Union primarily as a film composer
and moved to Germany in 1990.
b. As the Soviet government relaxed its cultural controls in the 1960s,
he explored several modernist techniques.
c. Schnittke later turned to polystylism, a combination of new and old
styles.
d. Symphony No. 1 (1969-72) incorporates passages from works by
numerous classical composers that present conflicting styles and
historical periods.
e. His later works, including eight more symphonies, focus more on a
small number of ideas borrowed from or modeled on earlier music.
4. Concerto Grosso No. 1 (1976), movement II (NAWM 203), by Schnittke
a. Sections evoke Vivaldi concertos, galant style, twelve-tone music,
and a hymnlike popular style.
b. Each style is defamiliarized through canons and polytonality.
c. All the themes are combined in the final section, resolving stylistic
differences into a dense modernist polyphony.
5. John Corigliano (b. 1938)
a. This American composer often draws upon styles from the Baroque
and Classic to avant-garde.
b. The opera The Ghosts of Versailles (1987) uses serial and other
modern techniques to portray the ghosts, while the play is set in a
Mozart opera style.
c. Symphony No. 1 (1989) is a memorial to friends who died of AIDS
and incorporates quotations of some of their favorite pieces.
d. Corigliano received an Oscar for his film score to The Red Violin,
which presents the principal themes in various styles ranging from
Baroque to modern.
6. Peter Schickele (b. 1935)
a. His early works are mostly tonal and draw upon a variety of styles.
b. He is best known for creating music under the guise of P. D. Q.
Bach, the fictitious youngest and least of J. S. Bach's sons.
c. With this persona, Schickele spoofed classic traditions, performers,
and musicologists.
d. Example: the cantata Iphigenia in Brooklyn (1964)
H. Neo-Romanticism
1. Some composers adopted the familiar tonal idiom of nineteenth-century
Romanticism, a trend known as neo-Romanticism.
2. Penderecki
a. Following his earlier works, Penderecki turned to a style that
focused on melody and drew upon neo-Romantic features.
b. Polish Requiem (1980-84) combines neo-Romanticism with
elements from Renaissance and Baroque styles and his textures
from the 1960s.

3. George Rochberg
a. After working in serialism and quotation, Rochberg embraced neo-
Romanticism in the 1970s.
b. In String Quartet No. 5 (1978), three of five movements are neo-
Romantic; the styles and forms evoke a wide range of composers
and periods.
c. The mixture of styles challenged the notion of stylistic uniformity.
4. David Del Tredici (b. 1937)
a. His early works are serial and atonal.
b. He changed styles when he set excerpts from Lewis Carroll's stories
for children.
5. Final Alice (1975; see HWM Example 36.4)
a. Del Tredici based this work on the text from the final chapters of
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
b. It is scored for amplified soprano, who narrates and sings several
arias, and orchestra, including banjo, mandolin, accordion, and two
soprano saxophones.
c. A rising major sixth is the central motive of "The Accusation," sung
by the White Rabbit.
d. Most of the music is tonal, ranging from folklike to the style of
Richard Strauss.
e. The "strange occurrence" is set with atonal music and the sounds of
the Theremin.
f. Del Tredici renounced the modernist idea of progress (see HWM
Source Reading, page 983).
VIII. Evoking Popular Musics
A. Composers have sought to connect to listeners by incorporating elements from
popular music.
1. This is related to neo-Romanticism, which uses the most popular classical
tradition.
2. This is also similar to third stream music, which combines jazz with
classical styles.
B. stor Piazzolla (1921-1992)
1. Argentine composer who combined the Argentine tradition of tango with
jazz and classical elements to create nuevo tango
2. The style incorporated improvisation from jazz and features of Baroque
and modern music.
3. He moved to Rome in 1974 and wrote more ambitious works.
C. Osvaldo Golijov (b. 1960)
1. Has drawn upon classical music, nuevo tango, synagogue music, and
klezmer (a European Jewish popular style)
2. He made his career in the United States and studied with George Crumb.
3. Ainadamar: Fountain of Tears (2005)
a. This opera won a Grammy Award.
b. It deals with the 1936 murder of Spanish poet Federico Garcia
Lorca by fascists.
c. Combines computer music, musique concrte, and modernist
dissonance with elements from Spanish flamenco music, Cuban
rhythms, and Latin American popular music.
D. Michael Daugherty (b. 1954)
1. Played in jazz and rock bands in his youth
2. Later studied at Yale, IRCAM in Paris, and Hamburg with Ligeti
3. His works combine modernist structural principles with elements of
popular music.
4. Many of his works focus on pop figures such as Superman and Jackie
Onassis.
5. Dead Elvis (1993; NAWM 204)
a. This memorial to Elvis Presley features a bassoon soloist dressed as

an Elvis impersonator (see HWM Figure 36.12).
b. The Dies irae chant goes through variations that evoke styles from
1950s rock to Latin jazz to the music of the Las Vegas shows.
IX. Interactions with Non-Western Music
A. Minimalism is inspired in part by music from Asia and Africa.
B. Some composers draw on Asian and African music more directly.
1. Bright Sheng (b. 1955)
a. Born and trained in China, he moved to New York in 1982.
b. His music integrates elements of Asian and Western music.
2. Seven Tunes Heard in China, No. 1, Spring (1999; NAWM 205)
a. This suite for solo cello can be linked to the cello suites of Bach.
b. Sheng calls upon the style of Chinese music and imitates the sound
of Chinese string, wind, and percussion instruments.
c. The predominantly pentatonic Chinese tune is fragmented and spun
out using both Baroque and modernist techniques.
d. The key area centers on the tritone of A and E-flat.
3. South African Kevin Volans (b. 1949) has brought about a similar union of
Western and African traditions.
4. Peter Schulthorpe (b. 1929), from Australia, uses Aboriginal melodies.
C. World Beat
1. African popular music, called World Beat, reached international
audiences.
2. Musicians like Nigerian Fela Kuti (1938-1997) merged popular styles
from the United States with local traditions.
3. World Beat was assimilated by some Western artists, such as Paul Simon
on his album Graceland (1986).
4. All of these works are quintessentially Western, representing the
centuries-old capacity of European music to absorb regional and foreign
elements.
X. The New Millennium
A. Trends change too quickly to complete an overview of recent music.
B. All music seems to be searching for both a niche of committed listeners and for
a wide audience.
C. The instant success of figures such as Beethoven, Verdi, Duke Ellington, and the
Beatles no longer seems to be possible in such a divided world.
D. Music of the past and of the entire world is more available than ever, allowing us
to focus on variety, not just a handful of individual composers.
E. With technology, the untrained can now make music; we may be returning to a
time when every singer sings his or her own song.

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16/07/2017 Chapter 36: The End of the Millennium | A History of Western Music, 8e: W. W.

A History of Western Music: W. W. Norton

I. Developments since 1970

2. New musicals often aspire to a high art level.

a. Short films accompanying the performance of popular songs came

a. Gangsta rap celebrates lawlessness.

a. Setting of psalm texts in Hebrew for four singers and orchestra

6. Wilderness Lake by Schafer (1979)

from the 1960s.

a. This memorial to Elvis Presley features a bassoon soloist dressed as

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