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JL-80-July-August Construction Techniques For Segmental Concrete Bridges PDF
JL-80-July-August Construction Techniques For Segmental Concrete Bridges PDF
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.i.
James M. Barker
.i. Associate
Z H. W. Lochner, Inc.
Consulting Engineers
Chicago, Illinois
O
ne of the primary advantages of struction or in design in the United
segmental concrete bridge con- States, few have been or will be con-
struction is the economics. In a large structed in exactly the same manner.
majority of cases, segmental construc- The multitude of choices available to
tion has been the winner where alternate contractors allows them to tailor each
construction methods have been avail- project to their manpower and equip-
able to contractors at the time of bidding. ment in the interest of maximizing effi-
There are many reasons for this rela- ciency and optimizing cost.
tively new method of bridge construction Segmental bridge construction is also
in the United States competing so well in revising the basic thinking of design en-
the 10 years since the European transfer gineers. Until recently, designers have
technology was started. I believe, how- concerned themselves mainly on how to
ever, that the principle reason for the build the project after preparing compu-
success of segmental concrete con- tations and plans. Segmental construc-
struction is the number of construction tion has revised this thinking. The first
techniques available to build these question asked about a project now is
bridges. Of approximately 35 to 40 such "What is the best and most economical
bridges either completed, under con- way to build this project?" Once this
question has been satisfactorily an-
swered, the designer can proceed with a
NOTE: This article is based on a presentation given design based on the most efficient con-
at the Long Span Concrete Bridge Conference in
Hartford, Connecticut, March 18-19, 1980. The struction method.
conference was sponsored by the Federal Highway In order to make intelligent decisions,
Administration, Portland Cement Association, Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute, Post-Tensioning Insti- both designers and contractors need to
tute, and Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. become familiar with the available
66
0FFIT
ARRIAGE
CCC e ^ ^
^^1^i1i1^o
oo oo o O
Fig. 1. Schematic of short line match casting system. The usual rate of
production is four segments per week per set of forms.
With this system, the rate of segment When the workers arrive at the pre-
production will approach one segment casting yard on Wednesday morning,
per line of forms per day. A good aver- the side forms are closed, the inside
age to use for a project is four segments form is rolled forward, Tuesday's seg-
per line every 5 days. ment is in the new segment position and
For the sake of explaining the casting Monday's segment is in the old segment
procedure, assume today is Wednes- position. The first operation is to deter-
day. The older segment was cast on mine the relative position as the seg-
Monday and is now cured and ready for ments actually were cast. This is done
the storage yard. The old segment was by shooting elevations and centerline
cast yesterday or Tuesday and was with an accurate survey instrument.
match cast against Monday's segment. These shots are called "early morning
Today a new segment will be cast shots." (Geometry control will be dis-
against Tuesday's segment. cussed in greater detail later.) Once the
Fig. 2 shows the form arrangement early morning shots are taken, the forms
for short line match casting. The French are released and Monday's segment is
call these forms casting machines. taken to the storage yard. Tuesday's
The appropriateness of this name will segment is then moved from the new
soon become apparent for they really segment position to the old segment po-
are machines. The length of the side sition.
forms is equal to the length of the seg- All of the geometry of the bridge (hori-
ment being cast plus 1 or 2 in. (25 or 51 zontal or vertical curves and super-
mm) to seal around the match cast elevation or transitions) is cast in by ad-
joint. The side forms have the capability justing the old segment. The forms are
of being folded back away from the never adjusted for geometry. Therefore,
segment to permit removal of the seg- once Tuesday's segment is in the old
ment. This is done either with screw segment position, its attitude is adjusted
jacks or hydraulic rams. The collapsible by screw jacks between the carriage and
inside formwork which forms the void of the soffit to provide the proper bridge
the box girder rolls on rails to allow re- geometry. A prefabricated reinforcing
moval of the form, enabling the segment bar cage is then set in the new segment
to be lifted vertically. position. Once the side forms are closed
68
Fig. 3. Casting machine. Proper geometry is obtained by adjusting the alignment of
the cast-against (concrete) segment with screw jacks under the supporting soffit.
and the inside form is rolled forward, the screw jacks for adjusting the attitude of
casting machine is ready for casting to- the old segment.
day's (Wednesday's) segment. Fig. 4 is a schematic of the geometry
Fig. 3 shows a casting machine for a control layout for a short line casting
short line match cast system. Note the method. The survey instrument is
PERMANENT
PERMANENT
TARGET
INSTRUMENT
^ I
STEEL
I
BULKHEAD
H NEW
SEGMENT
7/'7',177/77/77/ 77777/77?/
PERMANENT
SOFFIT
Fig. 4. Geometry control layout for short line system. The instrument support and
target should be stationary and permanent.
ERECTED CANTILEVER
FINAL PROFILE
\ a
THEORETICAL
CASTING
CURVE
PIER
LOCATION
Fig. 6. Theoretical casting curve is drawn from data provided by the design engineer.
70
been finished. The theoretical centerline by the erected cantilever curve in Fig. 6.
is established by notching these wires Therefore, it is obvious the segments
with a hammer and chisel during the must be cast with -a downward deflection
early morning shots. of A so when the camber occurs the
The designer of the bridge will provide proper alignment will be achieved. A
information to develop a theoretical curve depicting this downward deflection
casting curve. The theoretical casting is the theoretical casting curve. In reality,
curve is a curve along which the seg- when all the deformations are consid-
ments should be cast so the final de- ered, the theoretical casting curve usu-
sired alignment will be achieved after all ally bends upward rather than down-
deformations. The computation of these ward.
deformations is quite intricate since most Fig. 7 (top) shows the theoretical
are time dependent and interdependent. casting curve developed previously.
Thus, a good computer program is Since segments cannot be cast curved,
needed for maximum accuracy. Among the curve is approximated by casting
the causes of deformations are self segments on the chords. This is the pro-
weight of the structure, camber due to cedure followed whether the curve is
prestress, prestress losses, creep and horizontal or vertical. Therefore, chords
shrinkage of the concrete and tempera- equal to the length of the segments are
ture variations. laid out on the theoretical casting curve
For the sake of simplifying this discus- so a tangent to the curve can be drawn
sion, let us consider the deformation of at the points of intersection of the
camber due to prestressing. Fig. 6 chords. Angles B, and B 2 can then be
shows a crest vertical curve as a final measured from the local tangent defin-
desired alignment. Assuming balanced ing the desired relative position of the
cantilever erection, the erected can- segments as they are match cast and
tilever would deflect upward an amount erected. This must then be related to the
A due to the prestressing as represented position of the casting machine.
B,
B2
THEORETICAL CASTING
CURVE
CASTING 8 E RECTI ON
DIRECTION
^HORIZONT^^ R +R
VERTICAL Z
i 0
NEW SEGMENT
tnmininrnm
Fig. 7. General method for determining relative position of segments to obtain the
desired geometry.
Lt
JB,+B2+C
THEORETICAL
CASTING CURVE
C A ST ING a ERECTION _ \ \ J
DIRECTION
HORIZONTAL
B1+BZ+C
I--
--
VERTICAL
NEW SEGMENT OLD SEGMENT
2 O
177/77/77 ,77,7 rirrim
Two assumptions relative to the cast- is always vertical and the soffit is always
ing machines must be madethe first horizontal, one must adjust the attitude
can be controlled, the second cannot. of Segment 1 to duplicate the segment
The first assumption is that the steel relationship found in Fig. 7 (top). This is
bulkhead at the opposite end of the new done simply by rotating Segment 1 by
segment from the cast-against segment an angle equal to the summation of B,
is established and maintained absolutely and B2.
vertical with the top being completely The procedure just described is
horizontal. In addition, the bottom soffit theoretical and idealized. Now let's get
is established and remains absolutely practical. When we remember the seg-
horizontal. The second assumption is ments weigh 40 to 50 tons or more and
that the segment being cast is perfect. the concrete is steam cured, raising the
While this second assumption is not too temperature of the concrete and steel
important to this explanation, it is very casting machine to 150 F (65 C), things
significant when performing actual are likely to move. In fact, they always
geometry control procedures. do!
To transfer the segment relationship The purpose of the early morning
from Fig. 7 (top) to the casting machine, shots is to determine the magnitude and
one has to examine the direction of direction of movement or casting error.
casting and erection. In this case Seg- These data are plotted directly on the
ment 1 is cast and erected before Seg- theoretical casting curve as shown by
ment 2. Therefore, on the casting Point B on Fig. 8 (top). In this case, the
machine Segment 1 is in the old position actual relationship between the two
and Segment 2 is in the new segment segments previously cast results in the
position as shown by Fig. 7 (bottom). end of Segment 1 being above the
Remembering the steel bulkhead lo- theoretical casting curve. However, it
cated on the left side of Fig. 7 (bottom) could just as well have been below it.
72
Therefore, to get back to the theoretical centralized operation. Any geometry de-
casting curve when casting Segment 2, sired can be obtained by twisting the po-
assumed to be perfect, a correction sition of the cast-against segment. The
must be included in the attitude of Seg- primary disadvantage of the method is
ment 1 as it is placed in the old or cast- the accuracy at which the cast-against
against position. Therefore, as shown by segment must be set. Also, the casting
Fig. 8 (top and bottom) the proper angle machine must be flexible enough to
of rotation of the segment is B, plus B2 conform to the twisted cast-against
plus a correction C. segment but rigid enough to adequately
The curve generated by plotting all the support the loads. This is particularly so
early morning shot data is a curve which when casting segments for a superele-
wiggles on either side of the theoretical vation transition.
casting curve. This curve is known as Long line systemAn alternative to
the "as-cast curve." If the as-cast curve the previously discussed short line sys-
starts deviating away from the theoreti- tem is the long line system. The system
cal casting curve, the engineer knows he is similar except that a continuous soffit
has serious problems and can take cor- the length of a cantilever is built. Figs. 9
rective steps before the situation gets and 10 show such an example. All the
out of hand. The as-cast curve is also segments are cast in their correct rela-
valuable information for the field en- tive position with the side forms moving
gineer because it shows the actual re- down the line as each segment is cast.
lationship between the segments as they Geometry control is established by ad-
were cast. This relationship must be du- justing the side forms and soff it. Variable
plicated again when the segments are depth structures may be cast by varying
erected. the elevation of the soffit, i.e., curves are
It is strongly recommended that all of cast by curving the soffit.
the casting geometry control be set up A long line is easy to set up and to
graphically and drawn to the largest maintain control of the segments as they
possible scale. This not only includes are cast. Also, the strength of the con-
the two previously mentioned curves but crete is not as critical since the seg-
the determination of rod readings to set ments do not have to be moved im-
the proper attitude of the cast-against mediately.
segment. Also, a separate set of curves When considering a long line system
should be used for each line of control several things must be taken into ac-
points even though two of them may be count. First of all, substantial space is
theoretically symmetrical. Frequently, required. The minimum length of soffit
the early morning data will not be sym- required is generally a little more than
metrical. one-half the longest span of the struc-
Of course, mathematical equations ture. The foundation must be strong and
can be set up to calculate settings for all relatively settlement free because the
the points since all have a straight line segment weight to be supported can be
geometrical relationship. However, these 5 tons per lineal foot or more. Any curing
equations should only be used as an in- and handling equipment must be mobile
dependent check of the graphics. It is since the side forms travel along the
much more difficult to determine tenden- soffit. The contractor must set up a
cies and directions by examining sets of monitoring system and adjust the soffits
numbers than by examining graphical periodically to correct for any settlement.
plots. Fig. 11 shows the long line casting
The short line system does offer some system used to cast the segments of the
advantages. For example, the space re- Kentucky River Bridge near Frankfort,
quired for set up is minimal resulting in a Kentucky. This bridge was completed in
ELEVATION
PLAN
ELEVATION
PLAN
74
Fig. 11. Long line casting system used for Kentucky River Bridge, Frankfort,
Kentucky. (Photo courtesy: Construction Products, Inc., Lafayette, Indiana.)
Fig. 12. Form traveler used on a segmental project near Vail, Colorado. The usual
production rate for a form traveler is one segment every 3 to 5 days.
IL POSSIBLE TEMPORARY
II STRUT
76
Q
Fig. 14. As the length of the cantilever grows, the magnitude of moment at
the pier increases. Since the post-tensioning tendons are also installed
and stressed in increments as segments are attached, the top concrete
stresses are close to the design limits at all times.
78
Fig. 18. Launching gantries may be very simple depending on project
requirements. This gantry was used to erect high level viaducts in France.
Fig. 19. Low level segmental bridges maybe erected with gantry cranes similar to
the one shown by this photo. The crane may be either rail mounted or be on rubber
tires.
CART FOR
SEGMENT TR4
(0)
Fig. 20. A schematic of the progressive placing erection system. The system may
prove valuable when the area is restricted for substructure construction such as the
Linn Cove Viaduct in North Carolina (see Fig. 21 on opposite page).
begin. They may be equipped with two to the area beneath is not required ex-
lifting devices enabling simultaneous cept to build the substructure. New
attachment of segments minimizing re- bridges can be erected over existing
quired overturning moment provisions. traffic and/or buildings with minimal dis-
The various details of the launching turbance. This is a tremendous con-
gantry depend on the size of structure struction advantage in urban areas.
and the economics involved. Launching gantries can be used to erect
Launching gantries are particularly curved bridges as well as straight ones.
advantageous when accessibility to the Accessibility to the structure is generally
area beneath the structure is restricted the overriding consideration for balanced
by environmental consideration. By de- cantilever erection with a launching
livering segments across previously gantry.
completed portions of the bridge, access Gantry cranes similar to the one
80
Fig. 21. A computer generated photo of the Linn Cove Viaduct. The bridge is being
built from the top (including foundations) by the progressive placing concept.
(Photo courtesy: Figg and Muller Engineers, Inc.)
shown in Fig. 19 may also be used to lift of the bridge and swinging around and
the segments. The gantry crane, lowering the segment to be attached to
whether mounted on rubber tires or rails, the end of the cantilever. The crane
travels between the ends of the can- shown in Fig. 20 (top) is a swivel crane
tilevers to lift the segments. Obviously, available in Europe. A stiff leg derrick
the practicality of this type of equipment may also be used.
is limited to low level structures over As the cantilever extenas in one di-
land such as viaducts. But gantry cranes rection, the capacity of the section lo-
possess faster movement than track cated at the pier is soon exceeded.
mounted cranes and may eliminate the Therefore, a temporary support must be
need for a second large capacity crane provided to prevent overstress. The
on a project. method shown in Fig. 20 is a system of
Progressive placing Progressive temporary cable stays which are moved
placing is a modification of the balanced from pier to pier as construction pro-
cantilever concept. Fig. 20 shows the ceeds.
basic concepts of progressive placing. As shown in Fig. 20, hydraulic jacks
Instead of starting erection at a pier and can be attached to the stays to control
proceeding in two directions, progres- the stay stresses and orientation of the
sive placing erects cantilevers in only cantilever. An alternate and maybe sim-
one direction. pler method is to provide jacks beneath
The equipment required is a crane the legs of the vertical steel tower. Thus,
capable of lifting a segment delivered the stress in the stays can be varied by
along the previously completed portion raising or lowering the steel tower. The
82
are usually 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) in precast segmental construction erected
length. by balanced cantilevers with cranes. The
Incremental launching is best adopted contractor exercised an option to alter
to bridge lengths of 1000 to 2000 ft (305 the construction method with a reported
to 610 m) unless other considerations savings to the State of Indiana.
are involved. For instance, when the It is believed precast segments may
working area is severely restricted, also be launched although the author is
bridges up to 4000 ft (1220 m) in length not presently aware of any projects
may be achieved by launching from both using this method. Identical restrictions
ends. would probably apply but the basic prin-
When considering incremental ciples could be used to launch precast
launching, one must consider some re- segments to achieve a desired result.
strictions. The horizontal and vertical Span by SpanSpan by span erec-
alignment must either be straight or of a tion may be the most economical
constant radius of curvature; preferably technique for erecting segmental bridges
250 ft (76 m) or greater. In addition, the in the medium span range [less than
top slab must have a constant crown or 250 ft (76 m)]. This method utilizes an
constant superelevation without any assembly truss spanning between per-
transitions. manent piers to support precast seg-
The Wabash River Bridge near ments prior to installation and stressing
Covington, Indiana, was the first incre- of post-tensioning tendons. Segments
mentally launched bridge in the United are placed on the assembly truss by a
States. This project (see Fig. 23) was crane in approximately their final posi-
completed in 1977. The original design tion. After all segments comprising a
plans and specifications were based on span are assembled, the post-tensioning
Fig. 23. The Wabash River Bridge near Covington, Indiana, was the first
incrementally launched bridge in the United States. This photo shows the bridge
approaching the opposite side of the river.
tendons are installed and stressed. Fig. length. Fig. 25 shows the assembling of
24 shows the basic system. segments for one of the spans. The
Jean Muller developed the span by contractor has readily achieved an erec-
span concept in an effort to Americanize tion rate of three spans per week result-
segmental construction. The basic ob- ing in the essentially complete construc-
jectives were to simplify the system tion of 354 ft (108 m) of superstructure
thereby reducing the number of opera- per week. Only the casting of the barrier
tions required. Reduced labor require- curbs remains to complete the structure.
ments are not a significant factor be- The span by span erection technique
cause segmental construction in general allowed two other modifications of nor-
is not labor intensive. mal segmental construction procedures.
Span by span techniques allow addi- The Long Key Bridge is the first precast
tional modifications to the components segmental bridge to be constructed with
of the structure. Primarily, the post-ten- dry joints. Normal practice is to seal the
sioning tendons may all be continuous joints with epoxy. However, dry joints
for the total span length and may be lo- are not recommended for bridges which
cated in a draped manner providing may be subject to freeze-thaw condi-
most efficient use of post-tensioning tions and deicing chemicals. Also the
forces. Also, only one operation of in- post-tensioning tendons are located in
stalling and stressing tendons is re- the void of the box girder as opposed to
quired per span. locating the tendons in the concrete
The Long Key Bridge in Florida is the walls of the sections. The tendons are
first structure to be erected in this man- protected with plastic conduits and
ner. The spans are 118 ft (33 m) in grout. This tendon location simplifies the
84
ERECTED CLOSURE
SEGMENT /_ J01NT y_SEGMENT ASSEMBLY
PIER
ASSEMBLY TRUSS
Fig. 25. Assembly truss being used to erect the Long Key Bridge in Florida. This
photo shows the truss being installed between two piers. The contractor erected
three 118-ft spans per week. (Courtesy: Figg and Muller Engineers, Inc.)
casting of the segments and eliminates provide an even faster construction rate
any problems of tendon alignment at the than achieved at Long Key.
segment joints.
The Seven Mile Bridge located near
the Long Key Bridge in the Florida Keys Concluding Remarks
(see Fig. 26) will also be erected span The bottom line when choosing a con-
by span but the contractor has elected to struction technique for a particular seg-
assemble the segments on a barge and mental bridge is economicsand cor-
lift the entire 135 ft (41 m) span at one rectly so. The prospective contractor
time. A temporary post-tensioning sys- should thoroughly investigate all sys-
tem and support frame will hold the tems complying with specified parame-
segments together during the lift. The ters and choose the one which provides
contractor hopes this modification will the least cost. The casting method,
Fig. 26. Rendering of Seven Mile Bridge. (Courtesy: Figg & Muller Engineers, Inc.)
86