2012-09-15：【技術專題】RLC - Basic Components for Electric Circuits【技術專題】

RLC - Basic Components for Electric Circuirs
808- Sept.15, 2012
808
DSP/FPGA
Lab-808: Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan

http://pemclab.cn.nctu.edu.tw/
Resistor, Capacitor, and Inductor Characteristics
VR VC
iL
iR iC
iR vR vc vL
Q i
RLC - Basic Components for Electric Circuits
(a) (b) (c)
2012915 1
V RI V Q LI
C
Lab808:
LAB8 08
Power Electronic Systems & Chips, NCTU, TAIWAN R A Representation of Loss

C A Representation of Electric Field
NCTU
File nam e: \A01 ()\PE- 02 1 (Te n Pri nci pl es for PE).ppt 1/144 L A Representation of Magnetic Field 2/144
RLC Static Characteristics Can be Nonlinear! Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan
Small-signal frequency
response at the specified
operating point!
vR vC Why do we need to know the detailed characteristics of

iL
iR iC these basic components?
iR vR vc vL
Q i
You may do experiment by try and error, or
you can do experiment intuitively to compare
with design-oriented analysis, modeling and
(a) (b) (c) simulation!
Practical RLC components can be nonlinear

Dynamic behaviors around different operating points can be quite Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab.
different
Dynamic behavior is a function of operating point & frequency
3/144 4/144
Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan Characterization of Practical Resistors
Resistivity [1.724 x 10 -6 (cm)]

Linearity [<0.1%]
Resistor and Resistance Tolerance [5%]
Temperature Coefficient [+0.4%/C]
Rated Power (Thermal Capacity)
High Frequency Characteristics

Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab.

5/144 6/144
808
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808- Sept.15, 2012
Ohm's Law Resistivity: Electric Field inside a Conductor
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) formulated the relationships among V: voltage difference
voltage, current, and resistance as follows:
The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and E: electric field A: cross sectional area
inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. l: length of the wire
V: voltage difference V
The longitudinal electric field inside the wire is E [volts/m]
l
Consider a free electron of charge q and mass m inside the wire.
I: electric current R: resistance The electric field in the wire exerts a force f = qE on the electron, causing it to
accelerate with an acceleration a = qE/m along the direction of the wire.
V (current)
I
R
7/144 8/144
Resistivity: Average Velocity of Free Electrons (Drift Resistivity: Average Velocity of Free Electrons (Drift
Velocity) Velocity)
However, the electron does not accelerate for ever. Eventually, it crashes into one Suppose that there are N free electrons per unit volume in the wire. All of these
of the atoms in the wire. Since atoms are far more massive than electrons, the electrons drift along the wire with the drift velocity vd. Thus, the total charge
electron loses all forward momentum every time it hits an atom. which passes any particular point on the wire in a time interval is Q.
If the average time interval between collisions is defined as T. Q qNAvd T

1 qE V: voltage difference
The average velocity of free electrons are: vd T
2 m
In fact, on average the electron acts as Copper wire I: electric current

Micros copic
though it drifts along the wire with the view
constant velocity: this velocity is The electric current flowing in the wire is given by
therefore called the drift velocity. Electric
field
Q 1 qE N Tq 2 A
I qNAv d qNA T V
Vd
drift
velo city
T 2 m 2m l
9/144 10/144
Ohms Law Resistor No Dynamics, Only Losses
V: voltage difference V V
Ohms law: R I 1
SW
2
I R
w here:
R = Resistance (ohms) VB IR R
I: electric current R: resistance V = Voltage (volts)
I = Current (am peres)
Q N Tq 2 A V dQ Q
I V (current) I 1
VB
T 2m l R dT t 0
w here: VB
2m l l 2
R (Resistance) I = Current (am peres) 0
N Tq 2 A A t = Tim e (seconds)
VB/R
IR
Q = Charge (coulom bs)
2m 1 0
(Resistivity and conductivity) Resistor is the only component represents loss!
N Tq 2
11/144 12/144
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808- Sept.15, 2012
Power Dissipated in a Resistor RMS Current and Power Loss on a Wire
1 t 0 T 1 t0 T
R
i(t)
PR
T t0
p ( t ) dt
T
t0
v ( t )i ( t )dt
2
1 t 0 T 1 t0 T V RMS
R Ri ( t )i ( t )dt R [ i ( t )] 2 dt RI RMS
2
v(t)
T t0 T t0 R IRMS
PR(loss) [I(RMS ] 2 R
Resistance and Resistivity for Selected Common Metals
10-ga wire Resistance Resistivity 10-6
R Ohms ft ohm cm In an electric circuit, only the resistance will result loss!
Silver 0.000944 1.269
All losses of a power converter can be modeled as a combination of
Copper 0.000999 1.724
resistor network with specified branch current!
IRMS
Gold 0.00114 2.44
Aluminum 0.00164 2.828 For loss analysis, we must first model the resistance, and then
Iridium 0.00306 5.29 calculate the RMS current pass through the resistance!
l
R [Ohm] Brass 0.00406 7.00
A Iron 0.00579 10.0
Platinum 0.00579 10.0
PR(loss) [I(RMS ]2 R Steel 0.00684 11.8
22 13/144 14/144
Lead 0.0127
Functions of Resistors within a Circuit Resistivity of Common Used Metals
To bias the circuit at a specified operating point! R is the resistance of the conductor in Ohms
l A is the cross sectional area in m 2
Voltage divider R [Ohm] l is the length of the wire in meters
A
Current sensing is the resistivity of the material in Ohm (meters)
Resistor always dissipate power Resistance and Resistivity for Selected Common Metals
10-ga wire Resistance Resistivity 10-6
A high value resistor results a low value of pass-by current Ohms ft ohm cm
and be sensitive to noise, while a low value resistor results Silver 0.000944 1.269
high power dissipation. Copper 0.000999 1.724 copper 1 .724 cm

Gold 0.00114 2.44
Resistors are generally sensitive to temperature Aluminum 0.00164 2.828
Iridium 0.00306 5.29
In a power converter circuit, one should always try to Brass 0.00406 7.00
reach a minimum resistance. Iron 0.00579 10.0
Platinum 0.00579 10.0
Steel 0.00684 11.8 At room temperature C=25C.
Lead 0.0127 22
15/144 16/144
Resistivity (cm) for Common Metals at Room

Temperature (25C) Temperature Coefficient of Copper +0.4%/C
Silver 1.269 x 10-6 ( cm) The Temperature Coefficient of Copper (near room temperature) is +0.393
percent per degree C. This means if the temperature increases 1C the resistance
Copper 1.724 x 10-6 ( cm) will increase 0.393% (0.4%).
Gold 2.440 x 10-6 ( cm) Example 1:
Aluminum 2.828 x 10-6 ( cm) You have 100 feet of 20 gauge wire and its resistance is 1.015 ohms at 20 C (room temp).
Tungsten 5.510 x 10-6 ( cm) If the temperature of the wire goes up 10C the resistance will change by 0.0399 ohms (10
degrees * 0.00393 per degree * 1.015 ohms = 0.0399 ohms).
For example, a 10 Gauge wire is 2.989mm in diameter. The resistance per cm of copper wire T he wire resistance will now be 1.015 ohms + 0.0399 ohms = 1.0549 ohms.
that thick is 3.186 x 10 -5/cm. A 1000 feet of this wire has a resistance of 1 . A mile (5280
feet) of this wire has a resistance of 5.28 . Its dc resistance is about 3.28 m/m. Example 2:
You have 1 foot of ribbon cable with a resistance of 0.0649 ohms at 20 degrees C. You plug
the wire into your cable tester and keep your hands on the wire while it tests. T he wire
10AW G 3mm temperature goes up 10C because of your body heat. T he wire resistance will go up
0.00255 ohms (10 degrees * 0.00393 per degree * 0.0649 ohms = 0.00255 ohms) .
1.0 m
While the wire resistance changes about 4 percent, the total change is only 2.6 milliohms
R = 3.28 m /m which is a very minor change.
17/144 18/144
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808- Sept.15, 2012
Standard EIA Resistor Color Code (EIA-RS-279) Resistor Color Code
Norm alized Values

E6 1.00 1.50 2.20 3.30 4.70 6.80 Be Careful when reading 5 and 6 Band Resistors
E12 1.00 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.20 2.70 3.30 3.90 4.70 5.60 6.80 8.20 Note: the 3rd Digit is not used when reading the 4 band resistor
19/144 20/144
Derating Curve of a Resistor
100
(wire-wound resistor)
Rated load (%)
80

60
(metal film resistor) 40
20
(alloy film resistor) 0

-55 20 40 70 155 Aluminum Housed Metal Clad
Braking Resistors
(metal-oxide resistor) Ambient temperature C

(carbon film resistor)
(carbon composition resistor)
Type CER

(cement resistor)
IC & PCB Layout Power Resistor in TO- Aluminum Housed Chassis
220 Package Mounted Wire Wound Cement Resistor
Resistors
21/144 22/144
Fusible Wire Sound Resistor Fusible Wire Sound Resistor
Features

.( 300ppm/)

(surge)

23/144 http://www.tyohm.com.tw/ 24/144
808
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808- Sept.15, 2012
Practical Resistors Practical Resistors
Type CER
Variable Resistor Power Resistor in TO- Aluminum Housed Chassis Cement Resistor
Carbon Film Resistors Multi-Turn Resistor
220 Package Mounted Wire Wound
Resistors
Aluminum Housed Metal Clad Thick film power resistor

Metal Film Resistors Chip Resistor Braking Resistors printed on stainless steel
25/144 26/144
Practical Resistors Power Resistor Rheostats: Variable Wire-Bound Resistors
Rotary Rheostats
Coiled Wire Resistors Toroidal Power High Power Slim-Type

Rheostats Aluminum Housed Resistor
Solenoidal Rheostats
Silicon Coated Wire Wound Slide-Type Wire-Wound High Power Wire Grid
Resistors Power Resistors Resistors 27/144 28/144
Potentiometers: Variable Carbon Resistors Equivalent Circuit Model of Resistor
chip resistor
Resistance
Slider position
|Z |
Res istor
f
29/144 30/144
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DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
10- 13
HF Characteristics of Carbon Resistor Noise in Resistors 5
VOLTAGE PER UNIT BANDWIDTH

3
2
MEAN SQUARE NOSIE

5MA
Resistor Equivalent Circuit for a Resistor Effect of frequency and current on noise 10- 14
voltage for a 1-k composition resistor. 5

|Z | 3
2 1MA
10- 15
f 5
Impedance 3
Frequency Impedance of a 1-M, 0.5W carbon resistor 2
(kHz) Magnitude Phase Angle 10- 16 THERM AL NOISE LEVEL

(k) (degrees) measured at various frequencies. 1.0 2 3 5 10 2 3 5 100 2 3 5 1,000 2 3 5 10,00 0
FREQUENCY (KILO HERTZ)

1 1000 0
9 1000 -3 REF: p. 147 of H. W. Ott, All resistors, regardless of their construction, generate a noise voltage. This voltage
10 990 -3 Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems, results from thermal noise, and other noise sources, such as shot noise and contact
50 920 -11 Second Edition New Y ork: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
noise.
100 860 -16
200 750 -23
Thermal noise can never be avoided, but the other sources can be minimized or
300 670 -28 eliminated.
400 610 -32 Wirebound resistor generates largest noises.
500 560 -34
Composition resistor generates largest noises.
31/144 32/144
Resistance of a Wire Wire Gauge
Wire gauge is the resistance per unit length in decibels, w here 10 AWG w ire has 1
ohm per thousand feet resistance. Therefore, every increase of 3 AWG ( = 10 log10 2)
increases the resistance per unit length by a factor of tw o.
What is the resistance of a copper wire with 3mm
diameter (10 AWG) and a length of 300 meters? ( 1 ) The general for mula for the gauge of w ire given the resistance per thousand feet R is
What is the resistance of a 10m 12 AWG wire? (43.2 m )

AWG 10 log10 R 10
What is the rated current for a specified wire gauge?
AWG 10
What is the allowable temperature rise for a wire? R 10 10 ohms per thousand feet.
Does the wire present characteristics of inductance?
Note: 1 mile = 5280 ft
10 AWG wire has 1 ohm per 1000 feet.

33/144 34/144
AWG Stranded Wire Resistance and Voltage Drop AWG Copper Wire Table
AWG stranded w ire resistance and v oltage drop
AWG Diam. (mils) Circular mils Ohms/1000ft Curr ent Carr ying Fusing Curr ent Feet per Pound
size diameter Resistance @77F Resistance Voltage
12 80.8 6529 1.619 9.33 235 50.59
for length drop
AWG Metric Circular inch mm Ohm/1000 Ohm/km 13 72.0 5184 2.042 7.40 197 63.80
mils (Ohms) (Volts)
mm2
14 64.1 4109 2.575 5.87 166 80.44
20 0.518 1,362 0.0369 0.938 10.360 34.000 0.0340 0.034 15 57.1 3260 3.247 4.65 140 101.4
18 0.823 2,162 0.0465 1.182 6.520 21.400 0.0214 0.0214 16 50.8 2581 4.094 3.69 117 127.9
16 1.309 3,446 0.0587 1.491 4.080 13.400 0.0134 0.0134 17 45.3 2052 5.163 2.93 98.4 161.3
14 2.081 5,476 0.0740 1.880 2.580 8.450 0.0085 0.0085 18 40.3 1624 6.510 2.32 82.9 203.4
12 3.309 8,705 0.0933 2.371 1.620 5.320 0.0053 0.0053 19 35.9 1289 8.210 1.84 69.7 256.5
10 5.261 13,853 0.1177 2.989 1.020 3.340 0.0033 0.0033 20 32.0 1024 10.35 1.46 58.4 323.4
8 8.366 22,023 0.1484 3.770 0.640 2.100 0.0021 0.0021 21 28.5 812 13.05 1.16 - 407.8
6 13.302 35,006 0.1871 4.753 0.402 1.320 0.0013 0.0013 22 25.3 640 16.46 .918 41.2 514.12
4 21.151 55,696 0.2360 5.994 0.253 0.831 0.0008 0.0008 23 22.6 511 20.76 .728 - 648.4
24 20.1 404 26.17 .577 29.2 817.7
2 33.631 88,566 0.2976 7.558 0.159 0.523 0.0005 0.0005
25 17.9 320 33.0 .458 - 1031
1 42.408 116,623 0.3341 8.487 0.126 0.415 0.0004 0.0004
26 15.9 253 41.62 .363 20.5 1300
0 53.475 140,775 0.3752 9.530 0.100 0.329 0.0003 0.0003
27 14.2 202 52.48 .288 - 1639
Enter length in feet 3.2808 or meters 1 Amps 1 [Calculate] 35/144 36/144
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808- Sept.15, 2012
Diam. Circular Ohms/1000 Current Feet per

AWG (mils) mils ft Carrying Pound
12 80.8 6529 1.619 9.33 50.59
Definition of Circular mils 13 72.0 5184 2.042 7.40 63.80 Milli Ohm Wire Resistor (Shunt) for Current Sensing
14 64.1 4109 2.575 5.87 80.44
15 57.1 3260 3.247 4.65 101.4
16 50.8 2581 4.094 3.69 127.9
Area = 0.7854 square mils Area = 1 square mil
Area = 1 circular mil Area = 1.273 circular mils
17 45.3 2052 5.163 2.93 161.3 Electrical Specifications
18 40.3 1624 6.510 2.32 203.4
19 35.9 1289 8.210 1.84 256.5
20 32.0 1024 10.35 1.46 323.4
21 28.5 812 13.05 1.16 407.8
22 25.3 640 16.46 .918 514.12
23 22.6 511 20.76 .728 648.4
1 mil 1 mil
24 20.1 404 26.17 .577 817.7
mils = thousandths-of-an-inch (1 mil = 1/1000 in)

Features
1 circular mil = define the Area of a circular w ire w ith a diameter of 1 mil
1 square mil = define the Area of a square w ire w ith w idth of a mil Low inductance
Current Notes: Milli ohm
The current shown per wire size listed above is based on 1 amp/700 Circular mils, other tables provide High stability
different current per wire size, and di fferent current for open air ~ check your local elect rical code for the custom -m ade
correct current capacity [Ampacity]. The 1 amp/ 700 Circular mils seems to be the most conservative,
other sites provide/allow for 1 amp per 200 or 300 Circular mil. For shot wire lengths use 1A/200 Circular
mil, for longer wire runs use 300 Circular mil, and for very long wire runs use the table above, 1 amp / 700
Circular mil. 37/144 38/144
Thermal Resistance of PCB Copper Trace Area Thermal Resistance of PCB Copper Trace Area
l
70 w l
w
Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement
PCB heat sink thermal resistance (C/W)
Power Power
60 lead Rs lead Power Power
lead R lead
50
Kelvin leads
40
Kelvin leads
1000 I MAX
30 w wR
TRISE SA l
20 s (T )
s (T )
w here l = resistor length (mils)
10
w = minimum copper resistor trace width (mils) w = resistor width (mils)
0 lMAX = maximum current for allowed T RISE (A) R = desired resistance ( )
0 2000 4000 6000 T RISE = allowed temperature rise (C) s(T) = sheet resistance at elevated temp. ( /)
PCB heat sink area (mm 2)
SA = resistor thermal resistance (C in2 /W)
Fig. Thermal Resistance of Copper Trace Area s(T) = sheet resistance at elevated temp. ( /)
Note: SA 55C in2/W (see Fig. 3) 39/144
REF: Lessons in Electric Circuits Volume I - DC (Fifth Edition, last update October 18, 2006)
40/144
Kelvin (4-wire) Resistance Measurement Current Sensing Resistor with PCB Trace
R wire Ammeter R wire Ammeter R wire 0.1 F 3.3 F

4-m current-sensing resistor (RS)
A A
Ohmmeter Voltmeter Voltmeter R wire 1 TA TRISE 20

R wire
R subject R wire V R subject 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 s T
V R wire R subject h
GND
FPAG
C2
C2
VCP
EA
5VFB
where
Ohmmeter indicates Rwire + Rsubject +Rwire Voltmeter indication R wire
R subject MIC5158BM s(T) = sheet resistance at elevated temp. (/ )
Ammeter indication = 0.0172 = copper resistivity at 20 C ( m)
C1
C1
VDD
EN
G
= 0.00393 = temperature coefficient of (per C)

The measured resistance will also includes the wire resistance. If the Rsubject is very small or 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
TA = ambient temperature (C)
the connected wire resistance R wire is relatively large, this error may be quite large. TRISE = allowed temperature rise (C)
0.1 F
This method of measurement which avoids errors caused by wire resistance is called the h = copper trace height ( m, see Table 1)
VIN 4m VOUT
Kelvin, or 4-wire method. Special connecting clips called Kelvin clips are made to facilitate this (3.5V min.) (3.3V, 5A
Rs Q1* COUT** R1 PCB weight Copper Trace height
kind of connection across a subject resistance. CIN (oz/ft 2) (mils) (m)
3.3 F IRLZ44 17.8k, 1%
Kelv in Clip Rs = 0.035V/ILimit R2 0.7 17.8
clip 10.7k, 1%
C * For VIN > 5V, use IRDZ44 1 1.4 35.6
P 4-wire cable ** Improves transient response to load changes 2 2.8 71.1
R subject 3 4.2 106.7
P
Schematics of a Vin=5V, Vout=3.3V, Io=5A, linear regulator.
Table 1. Copper trace heights
C
clip
41/144 REF: Minimum Size Copper Sense Resistors, Jerry Kmetz, Application Hint 25, Micrel 1997. 42/144
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DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Resistance of a PCB Trace

w ith 1 mm in w idth, 10 cm in length, 1 Ounce in thickness, at tem perature 25 C PCB Copper Thickness in mils (1/1000 inch)
A one ounce PCB has a trace thickness of Weight (oz) Thickness (mils) Weight (oz) Thickness (mil)
1/8 0.17 4 5.6
W PCB T W L copper
1/4 0.35 5 7.0
copper = relative weight ratio of copper 1/2 0.70 6 8.4
l: trace length 1 1.40 7 9.8
l 1.724 10 10 10 8 -2
2 2.80 10 14.0
R
A 0.03556 1 10 - 6 3 4.20 14 19.6
48.5 [mOhm]
PCB weight Copper Trace height
A T: trace thickness 1 (ounces) = 28.35 (grams) (oz/ft 2) (mils) (m)
0.7 17.8
1 (ounces) = 36 microns (thic kness)
W: trace width 1 1.4 35.6
2 2.8 71.1
A one ounce () PCB means the w eight of copper over a surface of 1 ft2 PCB
3 4.2 106.7
area is 1 ounce, w hich means 28.38 gm of w eight. 1 oz of copper trace is equivalent
to 0.0014 of thickness w hich is about 36 microm [0.03556 mm]. 1 mil is equivalent Table 1. Copper trace heights
to 0.001 [0.0254 mm]. 43/144 44/144
Resistance of a PCB Trace PCB Conductor Thickness and Width
The PCB conductor thickness and width will determine the current carrying capacity
of the track. The IPC standard for the conductor thickness and width of the common 1
oz/square-feet PCB is as shown below.
However, it is always advisable to use a bigger value due to the tolerance and
variation of the PCB processes. If higher current carrying capacity is required, a 2
What is the resistance of a PCB trace with copper thickness of 2oz/ft2, oz/square-feet or 3 oz/square-feet type of PCB is preferred.
width of 4 mil, and length of 10 cm? IPC Recommended Track Width for 11 oz copper
PCB and 10C Temperature Rise
The traces and copper pours carrying current from one power component to the next should be made
Current/A Trace W idth Trace W idth
adequately wide. (mil) (mm)
An approximate formula for the minimum trace width required to carry a given current which is accurate over a 1 10 0.25
current range of 1 to 20A is 2 30 0.76
3 50 1.27
4 80 2.03
P I RMS
2
R [Watts]
5 110 2.79

( t to )

6 150 3.81
T T J T A PD JA 1 e th
where T = trace width in mils; I = current in Amperes, and CuWt = copper weight in ounces. 7 180 4.57

8 220 5.59
The formula assumes that the current causes a temperature rise of 10 degrees Centigrade in the traces.
9 260 6.60 Tss PD JA
REF: Layout Practices for Switching Power Supplies (NS Power Designer 114) 45/144 46/144
10 300 7.62
Temperature Rise of PCB Trace Wire and PCB Trace Width for Power Supply Design
Tss = steady-state temperature Using this formula, the minimum trace width for a current of 1A with 1
Tamb = ambient temperature oz copper is 12 mils; for 5A, 1/2 oz copper it is 240 mils; and for 20A,
1/2 oz copper it is 1275 mils.
Tth = thermal time constant
A 0.5 cm wide Cu trace of thickness 1.4 mil has a resistance of 1 m
T = temperature rise per cm length (at 20 C).
Ploss = power losses If space allows, and especially where switching currents flow, these
th = thermal resistance widths should be increased.
-t
Design goals of 30 mils per amp for 1 oz copper and 60 mils per amp
Tss Tambient T(1 - e Tth ) [ C] for 1/2 oz copper should be striven for.
Copper pours or floods should be used to connect the high current
T Ploss th paths. Pours on multiple layers connected together with vias should be
used for currents in excess of 10A.
For transformer winding: 1A with 500 circular mils is a suggested
A current flows through a PCB trace will result loss due to the PCB value.
resistance. This loss will result temperature rise of the trace and may
eventually damage the PCB.
47/144 48/144
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Skin Effect AC Resistance of a Conducting Wire
At high frequencies there is one thing to consider on wire resistance besides the DC When AC current flows in a wire that is a good conductor, we think that the energy flow is
resistance: skin effect. due to the electromagnetic field surrounding the wire. The field drives the current in the wire
(and the current radiates the field) but the field penetrates only about one skin depth into the
Skin effect is the tendency for high-frequency currents to flow on the surface of a wire. The current is not uniformly distributed across the wire but confined to a thickness
conductor. near the surface (assuming the radius a is greater than the skin depth).
Skin depth is due to the circulating eddy currents (arising from a changing H field)
cancelling the current flow in the center of a conductor and reinforcing it in the skin. 2
(Skin depth)
f
= resistivity of the conductor
= angular frequency of current = 2 frequency
2
(Skin depth) = absolute magnetic permeability of the conductor
f

So if the good conductor condition is satisfied, as the frequency increases the area of cross
= resistivity of the conductor section used by the current gets smaller. The wire could be hollowed out except for a skin
= angular frequency of current = 2 frequency depth near the surface and the current would be none the wiser. Thus the resistance of the
= absolute magnetic permeability of the conductor wire will increase with frequency.
49/144 50/144
Skin Depth vs. Frequency for Some Materials AC Resistance per Unit Length (of a Wire)
2
Energy dissipated per unit area: dP H o
dA 2
Ho is is the field amplitude.

Mn-Zn - magnetically soft ferrite
Let R be the resistance per unit length (so the resistance of a length dz is R dz).
Al - metallic aluminium If the radius a is much greater than the skin depth , the ohmic losses when a
Cu - metallic copper
steel 410 - magnetic stainless steel
current of (angular) frequency passes along it can be calculated as the losses in a
Fe-Si - grain-oriented electrical steel `rolled out' flat conducting sheet of dimensions 2a.
Fe-Ni - high-permeability permalloy (80%Ni-20%Fe) Use Amperes Law as previously to relate the current amplitude Io to Ho.
Frequency Skin depth of copper (m) The rate of energy dissipation per unit length can be written:
60 Hz 8470
10 kHz 660 dP 1
100 kHz 210
RI o2
dz 2
1 MHz 66
AC resistance per unit length is R
1 1
10 MHz 21
50 Hz 100 MHz 6.6 2 2 2
51/144 52/144
Absorption Loss and Skin Depth Proximity Effect
Conducting Material Can Provide Magnetic Shielding

Proximity effect is the tendency for current to flow in other undesirable patterns---
Incident Field Distance fr om Remaining Field Str ength loops or concentrated distributions---due to the presence of magnetic fields
Str ength, E0 edge Ed generated by nearby conductors.
d
Opposing filed
Permeability In transformers and inductors, proximity-effect losses typically dominate over skin-
Conductivity effect losses. In litz-wire windings, proximity effect may be further divided into
internal proximity effect (the effect of other currents within the bundle) and external
Incident Medium
Magnetic field Induced current proximity effect (the effect of current in other bundles).
in conductor
Remaining Field Str ength, E(d)
d
Proximity Effect Proximity Effect
2 The currents in the two conductors The currents in the two conductors
Skin Depths of Various Materials E0 E (d ) E0e

(m)
are flowing in opposite directions. are flowing in same directions.
Copper Aluminum Steel Metal
Frequency (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
60 Hz 0.335 0.429 0.034 0.014
100 Hz 0.260 0.333 0.026 0.011 0.37E 0
1 kHz 0.082 0.105 0.008 0.003
10 kHz 0.026 0.033 0.003 -
100 kHz 0.008 0.011 0.0008 - 0 Distance fr om edge, d
1 MHz 0.003 0.003 0.0003 -
10 MHz 0.0008 0.001 0.0001 - Electromagnetic wave passing through an absorbing
100 MHz 0.00026 0.0003 0.00008 -
1000 MHz 0.00008 0.0001 0.00004 - medium is attenuated exponentially.
53/144 54/144
808
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Magnitude of current density in the windings of a

20kHz transformer Resistivity of a Cylindric Conductor
4
Skin Depth
DC: rBF [ / m]
Dw2
Dw
1
AC: Skin depth ( = conductivity)
f
= absolute magnetic permeability of the conductor
1
rAF f [ / m]
Dw
55/144 56/144
Internal and External Inductances Impedance per Unit Length
Two conductors AWG20 (26x34) at 2 mm distance

rw 1 1 (copper): L e 567 nH/m, rBF 26 m /m
Li [H/m]
4 rw f z(f)
[dB] rBF
rw
40
r(f)
S 20 rBF
0
s
Le a cosh [H/m]
2rw 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10[MHz]
57/144 58/144
Litz Wires Litz Wires
The term litz wire is derived from the German word litzendraht meaning The effective alternating-current resistance of a conductor can he made to approach
woven wire. Generally defined, it is a wire constructed of individual film the direct-current resistance at Ion and moderate radio frequencies, by forming the
insulated wires bunched or braided together in a uniform pattern of twists and conductor from a number of strands of small enameled wires connected in parallel
length of lay. at their ends, but insulated throughout the rest of their length, and thoroughly intern-
oven. if the stranding is properly dine, each wire gill, on the average, link with the
same number of flue line; as every other wire, and the current will divide evenly
among the strands.
If at the same time each strand is of small diameter, it will have relatively little skin
effect over its cross section, so all of the material is equally effective in carrying the
current. Such a stranded cable is called a Litz conductor.
Practical litz conductors are very effective at frequencies below about 1000 kz, but
its the frequency becomes higher the benefits disappear. This is because
irregularities of stranding and capacitance between the strands, cause a failure to
realize the ideal condition at very high frequencies.
59/144 60/144
808
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Litz Wires .. Current Distribution in Wires
Spiral Inductor
In reality, the real advantage of litz wire is NOT reduced resistance per unit length
for a given diameter. The advantage is less slope in resistance with frequency and
reduced eddy current when the conductor is in a multi-layer coil or transformer. The
individual strands are like laminations in a transformer core, and below a certain
frequency they greatly reduce eddy currents by decreasing the "short circuit" path
distance for magnetic flux induced currents that are not in the normal current flow
direction.
Current distribution on the microstrip lines for 12 GHz.
REF: 2008 CST - Computer Simulation Technology.
The term litz wire is derived from the German word litzendraht meaning
woven wire. Generally defined, it is a wire constructed of individual film
insulated wires bunched or braided together in a uniform pattern of twists
and length of lay.
61/144 Calculated electrical field distribution around the wire trace of a triplate (stripline). 62/144
PCB Design Electrical Clearance Compact Equivalent Circuit Model for the Skin Effect
Many safety standards call for a minimum of 8mm clearance between 240V mains and R4
other isolated signal tracks.
These safety standards are to ensure that the users that are using the products will L3 R3
be protected from any electrical hazards.
4
8mm Clearance 3
L2 R2
IPC Recommended Electrical Clearance
2 L1
Uncoated (up to Uncoated (over R1
Voltage Coated board 1
10,000ft) 10,000ft)
0-50 0.13mm 0.64mm 0.64mm
51-100 0.13mm 0.64mm 1.50mm
101-150 0.40mm 0.64mm 3.18mm
151-250 0.40mm 1.27mm 3.18mm
251-500 0.75mm 2.54mm 12.7mm
>500 0.00305mm/V 0.005mm/V 0.0254mm/V
S. Kim and D. P. Neikirk, Compact Equivalent Circuit Model for the Skin Effect, IEEE International
Microwave Symposium, editor: R. G. Ranson, Vol. 3, San Francisco, California, June 17-21, 1996, pp.
1815-1818.
63/144 64/144
Modeling of a Coaxial Cable Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan
Model a coaxial line including skin effect in both the center and shield conductors.
The exact solution for the series impedance per unit length, including skin effect is
[REF],
Z total Z inside Z ootside j Lext

Capacitor and Capacitance
T 1 J 0 ( T a ) 1 J 1 (T c ) Y 0 ( T b ) J 0 ( T b )Y1 ( Tc ) b
j 0 ln
2 a J 0 ( T a ) b J 1 ( T b ) Y1 ( T c ) J 1 ( T c )Y 1 ( T b ) 2 a

[1] H. A. Wheeler, Formulas for the skin-effect, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol.
30, pp. 412-424, 1942.
[2] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, and T. V. Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 2nd
ed. New York: Wiley, 1984, p. 181.
65/144 66/144
808
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What is a Capacitor? Unit of Capacitance: Farads
A capacitor consists of two conductive metal plates separated by an insulating

dielectric. The dielectric can be made of glass, ceramic, Tantalum oxide, or plastics (Q)(Columbs)(1736~1806)
such as polyethylene or polycarbonate. Even air can be used as the dielectric. When 6.24 10+18
the capacitor holds some energy in the form of extra electrons on one plate and = ()
electron holes on the other we say that the capacitor is charged.
Capacitance (C) is the amount of charge per volt of potential that a capacitor holds.
Parallel Plate Capacitor (C =Q/V where Q = coulombs (the unit of charge) and V = Volts)
A
d
C [Farad] Capacitance is measured in farads, but most often a small fraction of a farad thus:
+ A d
V _
micro-farads F millionths (10-6) farads
Q
V [volts] pico-farads pF (10-12) farads (sometimes called 'puffs' in engineering slang)
: per mittivity of the dielectric mater ial C
The energy stored in a capacitor is E = CV2/2 ; E is in joules.
C = capacitance [Farads] Thus, the average power in watts is Pav = CV2/2T where T = time in seconds.
A = cross sectional area of the electrical plates The maximum voltage rating and its capacitance determine the amount of energy a
d = distance between the electrical plates capacitor holds. The voltage rating increases with increasing dielectric strength and the
thickness of the dielectric. The capacitance increases with the area of the plates and
= permittivity of the dielectric material 67/144 decreases with the thickness of the dielectric. 68/144
Physical Characteristics of Capacitor Linear Capacitor: Ideal Capacitor
V Linear Capacitor:
iC V
dv vc Q
i C V V [volts]
dt Energy C
q Energy
Q1
Q
Q1
The current through the capacitor (measure with reference direction) is given by as
Energy Stored in a Capacitor: Q2 1 2
dvc W CV
i (t ) C 2C 2
dt p ( t ) vc ( t ) i ( t )
dq dv t t Q2
i (t )
dt
C
dt
W (t ) p ( )d v
0 0
c ( ) i ( ) d
Q1
v c ( q )dq
V2 C 2 C Q2 1 1
1 t

V2
v( t ) v( 0) i (t )dt v c Cdv c v (V 22 V 1 2 ) qdq ( Q 22 Q 12 )
C 0 V1 2 c V1
2 Q1 C 2C
69/144 70/144
Capacitor Dynamic Response with a Small ESR Capacitor DO NOT Switch ON a Capacitor with Voltage
VB vC ( 0)
1
SW
2 SW SW i C (max)
Q Q i C (t ) RESR
C V
V C IR R
VB VB vC (0 ) C VB C
C 3 vC (0 )
w here:
C = Capacitance (farads)
RESR C
Q = Charge (coulombs) VB
1
V = Voltage (volts)
0
if VB vC ( 0), Real capacitor always exists small resistance,
this prevents its current go to infinite,
Q I t 2
VB
the turn on of the switch will result however, a sharp spiky current will result!
0 an infinite current!
w here: VB/R
I = Current (amperes) IR 36.8% of initial value
t = Time (seconds) 0
VB
So: Voltage on a capacitor
cant change instantaneously! t= 0 63.2% of final value
3
0
t = = RC = time constant
Theoretically, if there is no resistor between a voltage source and a
capacitor, one can not apply a switch when the voltages are unequal!
Step Response of a First-Order System 71/144 72/144
808
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Generalized Capacitor Dielectric Constants
Generalized Capacitor: For a nonlinear capacitor, the voltage as a Dielectric constant (k) gets it's value by comparison of the charge holding ability of a
nonlinear function of stored charge. vacuum where k=1. Thus, k is the ratio of the capacitance with a volume of dielectric
compared to that of a vacuum dielectric.
Mater ial Dielectr ic Constant
V V=Q k = d/ 0
Vacuum 1.0000
V1
Co-Energy d is the permittivity of the dielectric Air 1.0006
0 is the permittivity of free space Paraffin paper 3.5
Q V
Energy Glass 5 to 10
Dielectric constants vary with temperature, Mica 3 to 6
C voltage, and frequency making capacitors messy
Q1 Q devices to characterize. Aluminum oxide 7
V Tantalum 11
C Dielectric strength
Q1 Q1 Wood 2.5 to 8
Dielectric strength is a property of the dielectric
Stored Energy: W(Q 1 ) v dq
0
( q )dq
0
that is usually expressed in volts per mil (V/.001")
or volts per centimeter (V/cm). If we exceed the
Rubber
Gly cerine (15C)
2.5 to 35
56
dielectric strength, an electric arc will flash over Petroleum 2
and often weld the plates of a capacitor together.
Pure Water 81
73/144 Ceramics 5 to 18000 + 74/144
ESR Equivalent Series Resistance Q Factor or Quality Factor
ESR is the sum of in-phase AC resistance. It includes resistance of the dielectric, The Q of a capacitor is important in tuned circuits because they are more damped and
plate material, electrolytic solution, and terminal leads at a particular frequency. ESR have a broader tuning point as the Q goes down.
acts like a resistor in series with a capacitor (thus the name Equivalent Series
Resistance). This resister can cause circuits to fail that look just fine on paper and is
Q = XC/R where XC is the capacitive reactance where XC = 1/(C) and R represents the
often the failure mode of capacitors. equivalent series resistance (ESR).
To charge the dielectric material current needs to flow down the leads, through the
lead plate junction, through the plates themselves - and even through the dielectric Q is proportional to the inverse of the amount of energy dissipated in the capacitor.
material. The dielectric losses can be thought of as friction of aligning dipoles and Thus, ESR rating of a capacitor is inversely related to its quality.
thus appear as an increase (or a reduction of the rate of decrease -- this increase is
what makes the resistance vs. frequency line to go flat.) of measured ESR as R
frequency increases. XC 1 / C 1
R Q
As the dielectric thickness increases so does the ESR. As the plate area increases, the R R RC
ESR will go down if the plate thickness remains the same.
C 1
DP tan CR
Q 1 XC
Source: http://xtronics.com/reference/esr.htm 75/144 C 76/144
Dissipation Factor (DF) Dissipation Factor (DF) and Q Factor
In physics, the dissipation factor (DF) is a measure of loss-rate of power of a mechanical The inverse of Q is the dissipation factor (DF).
mode, such as an oscillation, in a dissipative system.
1 R R
For example, electric power is lost in all dielectric materials, usually in the form of heat. DF
Q X C 1 / C
DF is expressed as the ratio of the resistive power loss to the capacitive power, and is
equal to the tangent of the loss angle.
The higher the ESR the more losses in the capacitor and the more power we
dissipate. If too much energy is dissipated in the capacitor, it heats up to the point
R 1 tan
DP tan CR R that values change (causing drift in operation) or failure of the capacitor.
R XC Q C
where R
C 1 / C
loss angle () Q
C R
tan dissipation factor ()
Qquality factor ()
What is the Frequency Response (Impedance) of the capacitor?
tan R What is the frequency of ?
77/144 78/144
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Dissipation Factor (DF) and Q Factor Capacitance and Capacitors
2 2 2 2
R I R I R I R I RMS R
DP 2RMS RMS RMS
R X C I RMS XC 1 I2X
A C
1 2 1
I A
1

V C C
2 1
Q CV
2 2 C 2 C
C
2 2
Capacitance of the isolated conducting body
I RMS R I R Energy Dissipated in the Resistor
DP RMS
1
VCC 2 1 1 CVC2 Energy Stored in the Capacitor Capacitor: two conductors separated by free space or a dielectric medium
2 C 2
1 Q
I RMS I C IC is the am plitude of the current C [Farads]
2 V
+Q -Q
Capacitance depends on:
1
IC X C IC VC Geometry of the conductors
C Permittivity of the medium between them
I C VCC V 12
79/144 80/144
Calculation of Capacitance Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor
y Dielectric Fringing field is neglected!

In calculation of capacitance, we can either (permittivity ) Area S
assume V12 is known then calculate Q, or Q is -Q d
known then calculate V12, then calculate their +Q
ratio to obtain C. E
For example, if Q is known: 0 x
V 12 1. Closed Surface: Rectangular Closed Surface (RCS)

1. Choose an appropriate closed surface 2. Put charge +Q and Q on the conductors Uniform surface charge density
2. Assume charge +Q and Q on the conductors
Q
3. Find E from Q s [Columbs/m 2 ]
4. Find V 12 by evaluating line integral of E from Q to Q S
5. Find C by taking the ratio Q/V 12 3. Find E from Q
D1n D2n s D2n 0 ( E 2 n 0, P 0 )
Q
D E s E y s y
dielectric conductor S
81/144 82/144
Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor .. Capacitance of a Cylindrical Capacitor
4. Find V 12 by evaluating line integral of E from Q to Q

Dielectric
Assuming D rDr
yd d Q Qd
V12 E dl ( )dy
y0 0 S S D d s Q Dr 2rL Q
S
a Q D Q
5. Find C by taking the ratio Q/V 12 Dr Er r
b 2rL 2 rL
Q Q S L
C
V12 Qd d
S
1. Closed Surface: Cylindrical Closed Surface (CCS)
2. Put charge +Q and Q on the conductors
3. Find E from Q
Find the E field by Gausss law
83/144 84/144
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Capacitance of a Cylindrical Capacitor .. Series and Parallel Connections of Capacitors
C1
4. Find V ab by evaluating line integral of E from Q to Q +Q -Q
C1 C2 Cn Csr
r a a Q Q b +Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q C2
Vab E d l ( r) rdr ln( ) C
r b b 2 Lr 2L a V V
+Q1 -Q2
+Q -Q
5. Find C by taking the ratio Q/V 12 Cn V

Series Connection +Qn -Qn
Q 2L
C V
Vab ln( b )
1 1 1 1
a
Csr C1 C 2 Cn Parallel Connection
C =C1+ C2++ Cn
85/144 86/144
Capacitances in Multiconductor Systems Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan
- More than two conducting bodies in an isolated system
Q1 c11V1 c12V2 c1NVN , 2

Q2 c21V1 c 22V2 c2 NVN , Practical Capacitors
3
1
QN cN 1V1 cN 2V2 c NNVN ,

N
cii: coefficients of capacitance = ratio of charge Qi on
and the potential Vi of the ith conduct with all other
conductors grounded.
cij= coefficients of induction

cii 0, cij 0 and cii cij
87/144 88/144
Considerations in Selection of Capacitors Classification of Capacitors
Polarity (Electrolytic)
Working Voltage Range (Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors)
(Fpcon Capacitors)
Frequency Response Requirement () Gold ( Electric Double Layer) Capacitors
Voltage Ripples and Current Ripple
Dissipation Factor, ESR, and Loss Estimation (Ceramic)
SMD Multilayer Ceramic Chip Capacitors
Stored Energy Y1, Y2 Y1, Y2 Safety Standard Recognized Capac itors
Holdup Time Multilayer Ceramic Chip Capacitors
Zinc Oxide Varistor
Bandwidth and Maximum Voltage Drop Due to Step Load
Change (Metallized Polyester Film)
Working Temperature Range X1, X2 (X1, X2 Safety Standard Recognized Capacitors)
(Film Capac itors)
Reliability Requirements (Capacitor for motor run applications in plastic case)
89/144 90/144
808
DSP/FPGA
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Types of Capacitors Gold (Electric Double Layer) Capacitors
2.3V, 120F
2200 F
250 V
85 C
2700F, 2.5V
Electrolytic
capacitor
Vina Technology manufactures hybrid supercapacitor w hose target market is focused
on Solar LED lighting industries such as solar LED light emitting tile, solar road
102 marker and solar ground flasher, solar traffic sign etc.
The hybrid supercapacitor is not a battery. The Vina Hybrid capacitors have tw ice
Ceramic more energy in the same size than existing supercapacitor and have much higher
capacitor MLCC pow er density than batteries as w ell. Hybrid capacitors ( Hy-cap TM) are of tens of
thousand cycle life and tolerant to severe temperature(-25C to +70C) w ith no
maintenance cost (10 years). Further more, Hy-caps have no tox ic materials contained
104/250V
like lead-acid/ Nicd batteries, w hose concept should be perfectly matched w ith your
nature-friendly policy.
Metalized
polyester http://www.vina.co.kr
Radial type Box type Axial type Motor starting
capacitor 91/144 92/144
Energy & Power Density of Supercapacitor Energy & Power Density of Supercapacitor
106
ns s
io le
Li-lon at ic ns ns
Batteries li c eh i o ti ng io
Varta p at at l it y
ap cV ic ar ic
Ni-Cd DOE s ctr
i
p pl y St pl ua
105 advanced 20 Ele a rg ap er Q
PS 1s ne 1s w
Pb U ybr id E 0. Po
DOE H or
s
Maxwell 23V near-term at
tu
/ 1150F Ac
Energy Density (J/kg)
104 rs
r te
ve
High energy High pow er ns on
tio c C
Supercapacitors Supercapacitors l ica oni
p tr
ap l ec
s E
103 PSI 3m wer
1V/ 2F Po
Siemens EIRO
Supercap YY 350V 47F Polymeric
60V / 6F Film (HEDC)
x
102 Capacitors
Panasonic EIRO
25V / 820F
101
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Power Density (W/kg) 93/144 94/144
Energy Storage Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Metal-Air Pumped A 2700 F capacitor like the one shown in Fig. 1.2. is
Hours
Flow Batteries
Batteries ZnBr VRB PSB Hydro
CAES
connected across a 120V dc source. How much
NaS Batteries
Discharge Time at Rated Power
Long Duration
High Energy energy does this capacitor store? How long will this
Fly Wheels
Super Capacitors
energy support a 60 W light bulb?
Lead-Acid Batteries
Ni-Cd The capacitor is the only device capable of direct electrical
Li-ion Ma Ene energy storage. The device here, rated at 2700 F at 375 V,
Other adv. Batteries Br na rg
id ge y can keep a 60 W light bulb burning for only 3.2 s.
Po gi ng me
Minutes
nt 375V 2700 F
we P
& r Q ow
High Power Fly Wheels UP uali er
S ty
Second
s
High Power Supercaps SMES

1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1 GW
System Pow er Ratings

Source: Energy storage.org 95/144 Electrolytic Capacitors, 400V 3900 F 96/144
808
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Parasitics and Impedance of a Real Capacitor Parasitics and Impedance of a Real Capacitor
Rp
L Rs C Z ( j ) Rs jL
L Rs C 1 jRpC
1
1 Rs // R p
C Q-factor Q
C L
Rs + Rp Rp
|Z(j )| Rs + Rp C
Rp 1
|Z(j)| 0' 0 1
1 Damping factor
Rs = series resistance (ESR) L 1 2 2Q
' 1
Rp = parallel resistance 0
L = series inductance (ESL)

L
RS
Rp
Z ( j) Rs jL 0
1
1 jR pC LC RS
1
0 0
97/144 LC 98/144
Impedance of a Real Decoupling Capacitor Impedance of Several Decoupling Capacitors
A real physical SMT Equivalent electrical 10000

decoupling capacitor circuit model of ideal
component circuit elements 1000
100nF Ceramic
Circuit Topology 100
10nF Ceramic
L R C Z f 10

1
Parasitic values
C = 0.67 nF 0.1
R = 0.5 1 F Tantale
L = 1.78 nH 0.01
The measured impedance, as circles, 1 10 4
1 10 5 1 10 6 1 10 7 1 10 8
and the simulated impedance, as the
Tw o point-of-view s of a component, in line, for a nominal 1-nF decoupling
this case a 1206 decoupling capacitor 1F Tantale 100nF Ceramic 10nF Ceramic
capacitor. The measurement w as
mounted to a circuit board and an performed w ith a netw ork analyzer R 0.08 0.1 0.15
equivalent circuit model composed of and a GigaTest Labs Probe Station. L (nH) 1.5 1.5 1.5
combinations of ideal circuit elements.
Fr (MHz) 2 7.1 29
99/144 100/144
Ceramic Capacitors for DC-DC Converters Parallel of Practical Capacitors

100
Need 1/2
Need same capacitance capacitance Need 1/5 capacitance
High-frequency
10000 10 C3
Capacitors
Tantalum 10 F imp C1
1000 CERAMIC 1 F
imp C2 C1
CERAMIC 4.7 F
1 Mid-frequency
100 CERAMIC 10 F imp C3
Impedance (ohm)
Capacitors Low-frequency
10 imp C4 Capacitors
0.1 C2
1
0.1
Parallel
0.01 Im pedance Of All
0.01 Capacitors
C4
0.001
10-3
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (kHz) C4 = C1 // C2 // C3
10-4
Chip Monolithic Ceramic Capacitors for DC-DC Converters (Murata) 101/144 103 104 105 106 107 108
102/144
f (i)
808
DSP/FPGA
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Decoupling Capacitors for Some Logic Families Capacitor Applicable Frequency Range
Current requirements
Mica, Glass, Low-Loss Ceramic
Logic dV = 20% of
family Gate Gate drive NIL dt = rise time Decoupling C Paper, Metalized Paper
switch fanout of 5
gates
High-K Ceramic
Impedance
CMOS 1mA 1mA 200mV 50nS 500pF
Al. Electrolytic
TTL 16mA 8mA 80mV 10nS 3000pF
Tantalum Electrolytic
STTL 30mA 20mA 60mV 3nS 2500pF
Mylar
LSTTL 8mA 11mA 60mV 8nS 2500pF
ECL-10K 1mA 6mA 20mV 2nS 700pF

Polystyrene
NIL: Noise Immunity Level 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Typical value of decoupling capacitor: 0.1F~470pF Frequency
103/144 104/144
Approximate Range Approximate Range

NAME of values and Characteristics Advantages / Advantages /
Disadvantages NAME of values and Char acteristics
tolerances Disadvantages
toler ances
1 pF -0.1F Lower voltage rating than other capacitors Stable over a wide range of 1 pF - 0.1F Lower voltage rating than other Stable over a wide range of
Mica +/-1%to +/-5% of the same size. temperatures and voltages. Mica
+/-1% to +/-5% capac itors of the same size. temperatures and voltages.
Low Dielectric K:
Low Dielectric K: 1 pF - 0.01F W ell suited for high
1 pF -0.01F Well suited for high Most popular small value capacitor due
+/-0.5% to +/- 10% Most popular small value capacitor due to frequency applications due +/-0.5% to +/- 10% frequency applic ations due
Ceramic High Dielectric K: lower cost than mica, and its ruggedness to low series inductance Cer amic to lower c ost than mica, and its
High Dielectric K: to low series inductance
1 pF -10F (ESL) ruggedness.
1 pF - 10F (ESL).
+/-10% to +/-80%
+/-10% to +/- 80%
1 pF -1F Has a large plate area and therefore large 1 pF - 1F Has a large plate area and therefore
Paper Old technology Paper Old technology
+/-10% capacitance for a small size. +/-10% large c apacitance for a small size.
0.0033F - 75F Tends to be self healing after it has 0.0033F - 75F Tends to be self healing after it has
Metal Film Metal Film
+/-10% experienced dielectric breakdown. +/-10% experienced dielec tric breakdown.
Has almost completely replaced paper
1 pF -10F Has almost completely replaced paper 1 pF - 10F capac itors; has large c apacitance
Plastic +/-5%to +/-10% capacitors; has large capacitance values Plastic
+/-5% to +/-10% values for small size and high voltage
for small size and high voltage ratings
ratings.
Cannot be used in AC-
Cannot be used in AC-circuits c ircuits as they are
as they are polarized; poor Most popular large value capacitor;
Most popular large value capacitor; large polarized; poor toleranc es;
tolerances; low leakage large c apacitance into small area, wide
capacitance into small area, wide range of resistance and high leakage low leakage resistance and
Electrolytic values. Only useful at low frequencies. Electrolytic range of values. Only useful at low
1F - 1F current. Tantalum 1F - 1F high leakage current.
(Aluminum and +/-10% to +/-50% Higher frequencies (as low as hundreds of adv antages ov er aluminum (Aluminum and frequenc ies. Higher frequenc ies (as
Tantalum) kilohertz) cause the capacitor to exhibit +/-10% to +/-50% Tantalum advantages over
include smaller size and Tantalum) low as hundreds of kilohertz) c ause the
high impedance due to equivalent series longer life. Disadv antage, aluminum include smaller
indu capac itor to exhibit high impedanc e due
tantalum is 4-5 times the size and longer life.
price. to equivalent series indu
Disadvantage, tantalum is 4-
106/144
5 times the pric e.
Selection of Capacitors ~ A Practical Example

Capacitors Used in a SPS REF: TL5001EVM-097 3.3V & 5-V Selectable Output, 2.5-A Buck Converter User's Guide (Rev. B) slvu002b
C9
OS-CON Capacitor ()
C2 C12
Y C5 Y
C10 DC
C1 C4 C8 C14
C11 OUTPUT
AC
X X C13
INPUT
C7
C3 C6 Y

Y
Part No.
C1 C4 X
X1~X3X22500V Ceramic Capacitor ()
C2 C3 C5 C6 Y KCKDMX

C7
Tantalum Capacitor ()
C8 (snubber) HR1~3kv
C9 C10 (snubber) HR1k500250V
500200100k
C11 100502516k
C12 C13 500v
C11 C14 502516V

107/144 108/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
OS-CON is a low ESR Capacitor () What is an OS-CON type capacitor?
OS-CON is an aluminum type capacitor with an organic

( C)
temperature range
120Hz/20 C (%)
Tolerance
(tan )
120Hz/20 C
(A) ESR
(m max.,
semiconductive type electrolyte.
100KHz/20 C)
Some of the superior features of the OS-CON type capacitor:
-50C ~ +105 C M: 20% <=8~15 <=0.1CV 30~70 Very low ESR
ESR is stable over a wide temperature range
Wide temperature range -55 degrees C to 105 degrees C
CDDVDD/A
Wide frequency range
High ripple current capability
The OS-CON is an aluminum solid capacitor with organic semiconductive electrolyte Long life
used as cathode conductive materials. The OS-CON is the first product using organic
semiconductiv e electrolyte as a practical industrial material.
Because of the properties of the OS-CON, a much smaller value of capacitance can be
1st Generation: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor with Liquid electrolyte (Al CAP) used as compared to a normal aluminum electrolytic capacitor. Inductors can be
dev eloped by G.E. in 1908. reduced or eliminated. Also small bypass type capacitors can often be eliminated in an
2nd Generation: Solid electrolyte capacitor with Manganese dioxide (Ta Cap) developed application circuit and the noise will be reduced by the OS-CON.
by W.E. and Sprague in 1953. The OS-CON can be cost effective when designed into the circuit from the beginning in
3rd Generation: Aluminum solid capacitor with Organic semiconductiv e electrolyte (OS- order to best utilize the unique properties.
CON) developed by Sanyo in 1982. 109/144 110/144

Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor
(
)ESLESR

id An alum inum electrolytic capacitor w ith a rating of
D1 D3
is
250V, 680F is used as the dc-link capacitor of a
bridge rectifier as shown in the left figure. The
C vd input is connected to a line voltage of 110V, 60Hz
R
and the load is a resistor of 200 . What is the
average stored energy in the capacitor? Make a
110V, 60Hz
D4 D2 com puter sim ulation to verify your estim ation.

111/144
Selection of Capacitors for Switching Regulators

Step-Down DC/DC Converter Input Ripple
Capacitors are key to SPS design
and Noise, Application Note AN-112, (TR-SP60, 808-PowerLab, NCTU) Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan
Analogic Tech, 2006.
Capacitors for Switching Power Supplies, Comparison of Ceramic and Tantalum

Ray Ridley, Power Systems Desig n Capacitors, John D. Prymak, Kemet
Europe, May 2007. Co. 2004.
6.8F tantalum capacitors

0.1F ceramic capacitors
Inductor and Inductance

Comparison of Multilayer Ceramic and Understanding the Output Current
Capability of DC-DC Buck Converters, Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab.
Tantalum Capacitors, Jeffrey Cain, AVX
Corporation. Upal Sengupta,
AND8117, ON Semiconductor
Compensatin g DC-DC Converters with
Ceramic Output Capacitors (slup233), Rais Output Capacitor Selection for the AAT115X
Miftakhutdinov, TI (Unitrode) Power Supply Series Buck Converter, Application Note AN-
Design Seminar Topics, 2005. 106, Analogic Tech, 2005. 114/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Physical Characteristics of Inductor Linear Inductor: Ideal Inductor

Linear Inductor:
iL
di
vL iL vL
dt Energy LI [Weber]
Coenergy
I
The voltage across the inductor (measure with reference direction) is given by I1
Faraday's induction law as
Energy Stored in an Inductor: 2 1
d W LI 2
v( t ) 2L 2
dt p ( t ) v L ( t )i ( t )
t t
di v(t ) d / dt v(t)dt d
v(t ) L
dt
W (t ) p ( ) d
0
v
0 L
( )i ( ) d
2 2 1 1
i ()
i (t ) i (0 )
1 t
L 0
v (t )dt 1
i( ) d 1 L
d
2L
( 22 21 ) L
115/144 116/144
Inductor Dynamic Response with a Small ESR Inductor DO NOT Switch OFF an Inductor with Current
di L
V SW SW SW i L ( 0) iL (t ) vL(max) L
dt
L 1 2
dI / dt rate of change of current R
IR R
IS L VB
VB 3 vL
w here: L
L
L = Inductance (henries) L

I = Current (am peres) RESR
t = Tim e (seconds) VB the turn off of an inductor with I
1 VB VSW I L R L L
dI/dt = I/t, of I is constant 0 current will result an infinite voltage! T
VB I L
2 Current flows through wire always results VSW VB I L R L
0 T
dI V equivalent inductance!
VB/R
R is small and the current change sign is
dt L IR 63.2% of final value
negative:
0
t= 0 t= = L/R
Current in an inductor cant change VB I L
instantaneously! (unless V is infinite or L is 3
= RC = time constant VSW VB L
zero OR there are multiple windings or taps)! 36.8% of initial value T
0
117/144 Note: A small R does not means a small time constant! 118/144
Generalized Inductor Magnetic Reluctance and Permeance
Cross-sectional
Generalized Inductor: Mean path length l area Ac H d l Hl Ni
i Ni
T 1 H
Energy l
Energy
W( T ) ivdt id N
Ni
0 0 H B
l Ac
Coenergy d Permeability
i
Coenergy v A c Ni Ni
I1 dt
l l
Magnetic- motive force (mmf) Ni A
c
I1 I2 I i l
Reluctance
Ac
1 1 Ni
1
Stored Energy: W( 1 ) i d i ( )d
0 0
Per meance

119/144 120/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Inductance of Toroidal Core Energy Density in Electric and Magnetic Fields
Cross-sectional Weber-turns (=N)

Mean path length l area Ac Both electric fields and magnetic fields store energy. For the electric field the energy
density is
i
energy 1
N E E 2
volume 2
L
i
Permeability
Amp (I) This energy density can be used to calculate the energy stored in a capacitor.
For a magnetic circuit that has a linear relationship between and i because of material of For the magnetic field the energy density is
constant permeability or a dominating air gap, we can define the -i relationship by the the
self-inductance (or inductance) L as
energy 1 1 2
B B
volume 2

N A Ni
N Ac Ni A
L c L N 2 c
i i l i i l l
which is used to calculate the energy stored in an inductor.
where =N, the flux linkage, is in weber-turns. Inductance is measured in henrys or weber-
turns per amp. 121/144 122/144
Energy Stored in a Capacitor Energy Stored in an Inductor
A When a electric current is flowing in an inductor, there is energy stored in the

Cparallel plate k 0 magnetic field. Considering a pure inductor L, the instantaneous power which
Q d
Area = A 1
must be supplied to initiate the current in the inductor is
V Capacitor energy CV 2
2

The energy input to build-up a final current I is
V di
d Electric field E P iv Li given by the integral
Q d dt
C Core area A t t 1 2
V N energy stored Pdt Li ' di ' LI
B I 0 0 2
energy 1 l
The energy stored on a capacitor is in the form of E E 2 the energy density (energy/volume) is
volume 2
energy density in an electric field is given by
1
1
LI 2
1 1 N 2 A B 2l 2 B 2
energy V E 2 Ad I B 2
2 N 2 2
2 l Al Al 2 l
This can be shown to be consistent with the
energy stored in a charged parallel plate capacitor 1 V2
2 Ad so the energy density stored in the magnetic field is
2 d
1 1 1 2 1 A 2 1
E C CV 2
Q V CV
2 B induced B2
2 2C 2 d 2 energy density
2
123/144 124/144
Energy Stored in an Inductor Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
For electromagnetic waves, both the electric and magnetic fields play a role in the
Mean path length l Cross-sectional
area A transport of energy. This power is expressed in terms of the Poynting vector.
i Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through empty space. There is an
energy density associated with both the electric and magnetic fields. The rate of
N
energy transport per unit area is described by the vector
1
S EB
Permeability 0
which is called the Poynting vector. This expression is a vector product, and
since the magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric field, the magnitude can
The energy input to build-up a final current I is given by the integral be written
1
S EB
0
t t 1
energy stored Pdt Li ' di ' LI 2 A condition of the wave solution for a plane wave is Bm = Em/c so that the
0 0 2
average intensity for a plane wave can be written
1 1 E m2
S E m2 sin 2 (kx t )
125/144 c 0 c 0 2 126/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan Parasitic Elements of an Inductor
R L
C
Practical Inductors
R = series resistance
C = parallel capacitance
R j L
Z( j )
1 j RC 2LC


127/144 128/144
Parasitic Elements and Equivalent Circuit of an

Impedance of a Real Inductor Inductor
R L RESR L |Z(j)|
R jL
Z( j)
1 jRC 2LC C C
L
|Z(j)| RESR = series resistance
C = parallel capacitance
L
R jL
Z( j ) R
1 jRC 2LC
1 L 0
1
Q Factor =
R R ESR LC
C
The Q-factor of a capacitor is XL/RESR
1 where XL=1/C and RESR is the equivalent serial resistance that represents
0 the core and winding losses, is the frequency of interest.
LC 129/144 130/144
TDK Equivalent Circuit Model Library

A More Detailed Equivalent Circuit of Inductor Ferrite Beads MMZ0402 Series
L1 Part No. R1[ohm] L1[uH] C1[pF] R2[ohm]

RAC R1 R2 MMZ0402S100C 19 0.03 0.3 0.05
1 2 1 2
MMZ0402S700C 125 0.21 0.5 0.32
RDC C1 MMZ0402S121C 230 0.3 0.25 0.5
C
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Circuit parameters
RC L
(a) Examples of inductor
(b) Equivalent circuit
131/144 132/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Applications of Magnetics to Switching Converters Samples of Transformers and Inductors
Product Parame te rs
Product Type Description
Flyback Transform ers Output power from 0.4 to 100W, ferrite core sizes
optimized with in-house gapping
Forward Converter Output power to 1 kVA 10W Flyback 35W Switching EFD Surface ETD Switching 20 kVA Switching
Transformers Switching Transformer Mount Transformer Transformer Transformer
Transformer
Push-Pull Transformers Output power to 5 kVA
Full Bridge Transformers Output power to 20 kVA
Common Mode/Differential Up to 20A
Mode Filter Inductors
PFC Inductors Up to 5 kW
Current Transformers Switch protection and current feedback High Isolation Potted CMMR Powdered Iron RM Switching Small CMMR
Output Filter Inductors Up to 500A Switching Inductor Output Inductor Transformer Inductor PCB
Transformer Mount
Magnetic Regulators Up to 50A Assembly
133/144 134/144
Output Inductor of a Buck Converter in CCM Operation Average Current of the Output Inductor
I
IOUT IL I L
Inductor Current IOUT
IL
IOUT
DT
Diode Current IOUT

IAVE = (1- D) IOUT
T Powdered Iron
Output Inductor
Switch Current The average inductor current is the
IOUT
average output current!
135/144 136/144
Current Ripple of the Output Inductor CCM Buck Inductor and its B-H Trajectory
IOUT IL CCM Buck Converter

I L B Lo
1 Minor B-H loop of the Bsat
I L,max I L ,avg I L filter inductor
IL 2
IOUT
L ,max I L,max L H c
iL
i L H co H
Hc NiL
B-H loop for large
excitation
0 t
Filter inductor @ CCM: Copper loss is a major concern.
A larger inductor current results a larger
Inductor Selection Rules:
fluxlinkage, and this requires a larger inductor
1. iL 0.15 iL(AVG)
to prevent it from saturation!
2. iL + iL(AVG) iL(SAT) B SAT/Lo (Note: Lo is the inductance at the operating point)
137/144 138/144
808
DSP/FPGA
808- Sept.15, 2012
Modeling of the PFC Inductor

Single-Phase Boost PFC Circuit DCM ig v dc
io
Co
io Cin vg vo
ig vdc
BCM
Co Inductor core used in a 1kW, 100KHz PFC circuit. The core is
Cin vg vo 77083A core from Magnetics Corporation with two cores
ig v dc
PFC stacked together. The 49-turn winding employs AWG16 wire.
vg
Controller v *dc
CCM
ig v dc
PFC
vg
Controller v *dc
Peak Average
Comparison level to turn off the Transistor
IQ
ID
Inductor
Comparison level to turn on the Transistor
MOSFET Liyu Yang, Modeling and Characterization of a PFC Converter in the Medium and High Frequency Ranges for
139/144 Predicting the Conducted EMI, Master Thesis VPI & SU, September 8, 2003.
EMI Reduction Using Ferrites

Magnetic Components Used in a SPS
Signal source Receptor TOROIDAL CHOKE CORES

High Saturation
High Permeability Cores PFC CHOKE Induction
High Initial Permeability Low Core Loss Low Core Loss
High Attenuation Minimum Weight L Excellent DC Bias
Characteristics
Low Core Loss Minimum Volume
DMC PFC
CMC
Inverter SQUA RE LOOP CORES
AC Input Circuit SR L
High Squareness
Ratio
Low Coercive
Low Core Loss
142/144
Choosing the optimum switching Selecting Inductors for Buck Converters Chris Likely, "Guide to Selecting Inductors
frequency of your DC/DC converter, (AN-1197 NS)
Richard Nowakowskiand Brian King,
for Switching Regula tors," Power Ele ctronics
Technolo gy, pp. 26-30, July 2003.
Reading Guide
Texas Instruments Inc., Planet
Analog, April 25, 2006. Stresses ni Wide Input DC-DC Converters,
S. Miniktala, AN-1246 National Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan
Semiconductor, Sept. 2002.
Estimate Inductor Losses Easily in Power Supply

Designs, Travis Eichhorn, Applicatio ns Engin eer,
Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, Calif., Power
Any Questions ???
Electronics Technology, pp. 41-47, April 2005.
Questions inspire effective learning!

SMT Power Inductors DO3308P Serie s
K. W. E. Cheng, "Storage energy for classical

switched mode power converters," IEE
Proceedings - Electric Power Applications, vol.
Inductors and Transformers for Power Electronics, 150, no. 4, pp. 439-446, July 2003.
Alex Van den Bossche and VencislavCekov
Valchev, CRC 1 Ed., March 24, 2005. Output Inductor Selection for the AAT115X
Series Buck Converter, Application Note AN-
Magnetic Components for Power Ele ctronics, Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab.
108, Analogic Tech, 2005.
Alex Goldman, Sprin ger; 1st Ed., Jan. 15, 2002.
Chap 9: Selecting inductors for dc-dc
Principles of Electronic Transformer Design, convertersfrom Switching Power Supply
Design & Optimization,
Alfred Still, Merchant Books, Aug. 8, 2006.
Sanjaya Maniktala , McGraw Hill, May 2004. 144/144
808
DSP/FPGA

2012-09-15：【技術專題】RLC - Basic Components for Electric Circuits【技術專題】

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RLC - Basic Components for Electric Circuirs

808- Sept.15, 2012

Lab-808: Power Electronic Systems & Chips Lab., NCTU, Taiwan

vR vC Why do we need to know the detailed characteristics of

Practical RLC components can be nonlinear

Resistivity [1.724 x 10 -6 (cm)]

Ohm's Law Resistivity: Electric Field inside a Conductor

If the average time interval between collisions is defined as T. Q qNAvd T

In fact, on average the electron acts as Copper wire I: electric current

Ohms Law Resistor No Dynamics, Only Losses

I = Current (am peres)

Power Dissipated in a Resistor RMS Current and Power Loss on a Wire

Functions of Resistors within a Circuit Resistivity of Common Used Metals

high power dissipation. Copper 0.000999 1.724 copper 1 .724 cm

Resistivity (cm) for Common Metals at Room

Standard EIA Resistor Color Code (EIA-RS-279) Resistor Color Code

Norm alized Values

Derating Curve of a Resistor

(alloy film resistor) 0

Fusible Wire Sound Resistor Fusible Wire Sound Resistor

23/144 http://www.tyohm.com.tw/ 24/144

Practical Resistors Practical Resistors

Aluminum Housed Metal Clad Thick film power resistor

Practical Resistors Power Resistor Rheostats: Variable Wire-Bound Resistors

Coiled Wire Resistors Toroidal Power High Power Slim-Type

Potentiometers: Variable Carbon Resistors Equivalent Circuit Model of Resistor

HF Characteristics of Carbon Resistor Noise in Resistors 5

VOLTAGE PER UNIT BANDWIDTH

MEAN SQUARE NOSIE

voltage for a 1-k composition resistor. 5

(kHz) Magnitude Phase Angle 10- 16 THERM AL NOISE LEVEL

FREQUENCY (KILO HERTZ)

Resistance of a Wire Wire Gauge

What is the resistance of a 10m 12 AWG wire? (43.2 m )

10 AWG wire has 1 ohm per 1000 feet.

Diam. Circular Ohms/1000 Current Feet per

mils = thousandths-of-an-inch (1 mil = 1/1000 in)

R wire Ammeter R wire Ammeter R wire 0.1 F 3.3 F

= 0.00393 = temperature coefficient of (per C)

Resistance of a PCB Trace

Resistance of a PCB Trace PCB Conductor Thickness and Width

Skin Effect AC Resistance of a Conducting Wire

Ho is is the field amplitude.

Absorption Loss and Skin Depth Proximity Effect

Conducting Material Can Provide Magnetic Shielding

Magnitude of current density in the windings of a

Internal and External Inductances Impedance per Unit Length

Two conductors AWG20 (26x34) at 2 mm distance

Litz Wires Litz Wires

Litz Wires .. Current Distribution in Wires

Z total Z inside Z ootside j Lext

What is a Capacitor? Unit of Capacitance: Farads

A capacitor consists of two conductive metal plates separated by an insulating

Physical Characteristics of Capacitor Linear Capacitor: Ideal Capacitor

Generalized Capacitor Dielectric Constants

ESR Equivalent Series Resistance Q Factor or Quality Factor

Dissipation Factor (DF) Dissipation Factor (DF) and Q Factor

Dissipation Factor (DF) and Q Factor Capacitance and Capacitors

Calculation of Capacitance Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor