Quality factor Q and Filters e Changing R changes the resonance width e Controlled by the energy loss per cycle called the damping factor e Define the Quality Factor Q as on —max energy stored energy lost per cycle e the Q measures how good a circuit is e the higher the Q, the sharper the peakQuality factor Q in Filters ( e Energy loss is in the resistor I2sR 2nt2,,R rms rms ele =~ @ e Max energy stored in the Inductor is 32) iL Wrmae =~ = Fynsk e Thus the Q factor is 2 5 tial Ob = 7 =— 2nlymsR R @ ¢ Similarly for the capacitor 1 ~ @CR c Lu + y cos (wt) {Normalized Filter Response (EC 14.2) e Filter equations can be expressed in Q consider the series RLC circuit 1 1 Z=+=R+jJor -—L Y rej Pa at the resonance frequency 1 Z,=R=— o=R Yo relative to the resonance values 2.7080 Yo Z L 1 1+ jJot - —— ilot @CR called the Normalized ResponseQuality factor Q & Filters e Since the Quality Factor is QoL 1 ~ R-— @pCR e thus e this same equation works for parallel RLC circuit or any other simple resonance circuit only Q’s and @p changeBandwidth and Q in Filters e Want to measure the Bandwidth e Bandwidth: frequency range between the 70% points ein the form e thus @ ® Figure 7.22 The normalized response of a series RLC circuit.Bandwidth and Q in Filters e Define 2 half power or 70% points frequencies © @, = lower frequency @ 1 % % @ and for ®, = upper frequency Sod @ @ "QBandwidth and Q in Filters Cont’d ( e Solving for these at the lower frequency 2, 2 0 1 1M Q e solving the quadratic gives es eae ae q12 _ & 1 = Oo 20 20 e similarly for the upper frequency 1/2 cae tne ee A eee 2 = Wo 20 20 e Define bandwidth from the 70% points as ®o Bandwidth = @) — @, = Oo Bandwidth =h-n=2Bandwidth and Q in Filters e thus bandwidth determined by the Quality Factor e One approximation useful e When Q 2 10 then with < 2% error bball e Thus can approximate 1 O, = oj - 5 @, = a + al e and the curve is symmetric about ®Example Bandwidth and Q in Filters e Design a parallel RLC circuit to select the 1000 KHz frequency of AM radio, with a bandwidth of 5 KHz. Find the C & R needed for the circuit when eL=20 pH e Since for the parallel RLC r=6+Joc | e thus a 0° ALC c= 1 = 1.27x10- = 1.27 nF OBL — (2n10%)x2x 10°Example Bandwidth and Q in Filters Cont’d , to get the desired resistance note Bandwidth = f,— f= “2 fo 106 =~ -% -200 2 fo-fi 5x108 e Since for the parallel RLC 1 Q =—— LG R = QoL = 200x6.14x 10% 2x 10-5 = 25.1 KohmsPhasors: Peak and RMS values (EC 10.) e NOTE: with phasors there are two used values e work with Peak V or I (best for where plotting is needed) e work with RMS V or I (best for power calculations) e either are correct e Do not mix the two types in one problem e example V = 10 cos(wr + 45°) e In peak value phasor form: V = 10/45° e In RMS value phasor form: 10 = —=/10° = 7.07/45° 2 — aoePower Calculation in AC e Recall Power is always given by v2 P=PZ= e NOTE: for this must use RMS phasors e For AC waves the L and C produce only imaginary e For Inductor i(t) = Igcos(@t) = a V(t) =1jol = = 90° Took | vp (t)= B sin(@f—m) e thus the instantaneous power is 21g ol P=ilt)(t)= sin(@t )cos(@t ) where sin(r )cos(@r) = 2sin(2@r ) Energy stored in magnetic field Energy returned to the circuitReactive Power Calculation in AC e since a sin wave averaged over two periods is ' TargeL 0 oe = J 7 sin(@r )cos(ar)dt = 0 e Thus the average power is zero e However the reactive power stored is Ig al Pye = p= aX Where Tins = 5 X =a = reactive impedance © Reactive power must be supplied © but is returned over the cycleAC Power Factor e Real AC Power is affected by the V phase angle P(t) = Vong V2c08 (Ot + ®) TpmsV2cos (cot) = Wms lms COS (@t + 8)cos(ct ) = Vis lms COS (8) + Vims Tims COS (@t + 8) because 2cos (A )cos(B) = cos(A — B) cos(A +B) e Since the average over time T [Vins trims COS (ot + B)dt = 0 0 e Thus the time averaged power is Pavg = Vimstrms 605 (8) v 1 wv \x voz R T —_I (a) Circuit diagram ——_(b) Phasor diagram () Time variationAC Power Factor e The apparent power is in Volt-Amperes P apparent = Vins trms e VI related to the real power by the Power Factor pf avg Vesgegly rms*rms Pf = cos(®) = e NOTE: the power angle is that of the impedance pave = 87 e Inductive power (most common): Lagging power factor I lags V in time, but Z angle is positive L u; a ° rz sr ‘t Energy stored in magnetic field Energy returned to the circuit ¢ Capacitive Power: Leading power factor I leads V in time: but Z angle is negative Energy stored in x electric field -90° ee viTz Energy returned to the circuitAC Reactive Power e Reactive Power: Power must be supplied but will be returned in part of the cycle Py = Q =WngX = LynsZSi0@) = Vins lyms Si @) e units: Volts-Amperes Reactive (VAR) e Power just like other complex unites > p= S=Prt+jQ= Wms lms Ve e Often draw the Power Triangle: Px plotted against PR VI 2 Be IX P. = IRExample AC Power e Example: AC electric motor has R = 4 ohms coils Inductance of 10 mH, what is power factor at 60 Hz, 120 V e Impedance is Z=R + joL =4 + j377x0.01 = 44j3.77 = 5.50/43.3° 6= arn| 227] = 43,3° e power factor is Pf = c0s(43.3°) = 0.728 e Current required is « NOTE: this is the I that a current meter would read Rtn 602 L:l0nH l@ovExample AC Power continued e Thus for AC power: Volt-Amps is: VA = Vimslrms = 120x 21.8 = 2618 VA e Average Power consumed is Pavg = VimslrmsPf = 2618x0.729 = 1.905 KW KW = KiloWatts = 1.905/43,3° Pavg e Reactive power is © = VynslrnsSin(0) = 2618x sin(43.3° ) = 2618x0.689 = 1795 VARPower Factor compensation © Most heavy devices (motors, heater coils) inductive thus tendency is to get lagging power factor e But large users charged extra for low power factor reason: © generators must supply the I(t): thus larger generators also power lines mostly resistive: Thus VARS create higher real losses in the delivery lines That loss is the Utilities cost, not the users! e thus users must often build capacitor banks to minimize their power factor charges Supely WePower Factor Compensation cont’d . e To compensate want only real power 1 O0=X, +X¢ =j/oL-j— L ca J Oc e Thus actually often rate the capacitor in its reactive VAR’s erated for specific frequency e thus compensation is generally not perfect average power is the only thing that does real work e thus compensation increases work that can be doneExample compensating for power factor e What C compensation must be supplied for the motor e of the previous example: R = 4 ohms coils Inductance of 10 mH, what is power factor at 60 Hz, 120 V e Impedance is Z=R + joLl = 4+j3.77 = 5.50/43.3° © power factor is pf = cos(43.3°) = 0.728 Pave = VimstrmsPf = 2618x0.729 = 1.905 KW To compensate 1 1 1 C == = —— = = 704 OL 377x001 1421 - e note that adding C reduces the Z of device e this makes more current available at given V would increase the real power e thus increases the real work that can be doneExample compensating for power factor e In practice would reduce the applied V e and keep work done constant. @ eg. What C compensation must be supplied for the motor e In terms of VAR’s need Q = Vins trms Sin(®) = 2618x sin(43.3° ) = 2618x 0.689 = -1.795 KVAR ¢ Typical commercial unit 1.5 Kvar thus compensation Qcomp = 1795-1500 = 295 var ¢ if keep work done by motor constant then real power remains constant. Thus as before P P, ‘avg uncomp = Vims!rms Pf uncomp avg :comp = = 2618x0.729 = 1.905 KW Qcomp 295 é 8 comp = acm] = arctan 1905 | = arctan (0.154) = 8.77' avg thus the new power factor is PF comp = COS comp) = COS (8.77?) = 0.988Problem with power meters | ~ e Getting real power meters is difficult e older moving coil meters average VI two coils let IV interact Mechanical effects of needle average signal Problem with frequency effects new electronic meters: e "True RMS" measure IV instantaneously convert to digital, do numerical integral and time average Power meten rw V cena