Professional Documents
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Interference and Diffraction
Interference and Diffraction
Module I - Syllabus
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Interference : Introduction, Interference in thin films due to reflected
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light, interference in wedge shaped film, Newtons rings, Michelsons interfer-
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of light and refractive index of liquids and thin transparent sheets, flatness of
surface, thickness of thinfilm coatings, antireflection coatings.
Module I - Part II - Diffraction: Introduction, Fraunhoffer diffraction
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Contents
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Syllabus 1
1 Introduction 7
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2 Interference 10
2.1 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CONTENTS 2
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6.4 Determination of thickness of the spacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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6.5 Number of dark fringes for an air wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.6 Salient features of the wedge shaped interference pattern . . . . . . 26
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7 Newtons Rings 26
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8 Michelson Interferometer 31
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9 Applications of Interference 35
9.1 Testing the flatness of a surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2 Testing of a lens surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.3 Thickness of a Thin film coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.4 Anti-reflection (AR) coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.4.1 Phase condition and minimum thickness of the AR coating . 38
10 Introduction to Diffraction 40
10.1 Dependence of diffraction on wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.2 Fresnels explanation of diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.3 Types of diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.3.1 Fresnel diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.3.2 Fraunhoffer diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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12.3.2 Formation of Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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12.3.3 Formation of secondary Maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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12.4 Intensity distribution - Quantitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
12.4.1 Principal Maxima . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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. . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.2 Diffraction maxima and minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.3 Interference maxima and minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
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List of Figures
1 Illustration of different characteristics of waves. . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Superposition of two waves y1 = 2 sin(kx wt) and y2 = 3 sin(kx
wt + /3) giving rise to the resultant wave y = y1 + y2 . . . . . . . . 9
3 Illustration of different types of interference fringes viz. Straight
bands (left), circular rings (center) and other complex types (right). 13
4 Youngs double slit experiment, (left) experimental set up and (right)
schematic diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 Variation of intensity as a function of i.e., the interference fringe
pattern for Youngs double slit experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6 Multiple reflections inside a thin film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7 Illustration of Stokes law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8 Interference from a parallel thin film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9 Interference from a wedge shaped film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
10 Calculation of fringe width and the height of the spacer for the
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wedge shaped film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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11 Experimental set up for formation of Newtons rings. . . . . . . . . 27
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1 Introduction
In 1678 Huygens (1629-1695) proposed wave theory of light. According to this
theory, light energy is transferred from one point to another point in the form
of waves. The first experimental evidence, of this theory, came in 1801 from
the interference experiments conducted by Thomas Young. Using the principle of
superposition and Huygens wave theory, he was able to explain interference effects
observed in various instances such as double slit experiment, colors in soap films,
Newtons rings etc.
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~ The electric field vector E ~ and the
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field by the vector of magnetic induction B.
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magnetic field vector B are of equal importance and are related to each other.
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Therefore, a light wave is often represented by the electric field vector E~ only.
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Displacement y :- The distance of any point in the wave from its mean
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Wavelength
Crest
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Amplitude
Trough
Undisturbed state
Direction of wave motion
Time period T :- The time required to complete one cycle of vibration start-
ing from any displacement of the wave is called the Time period of the
wave. It is denoted by symbol T .
Wavelength :- The distance travelled by the wave in one time period i.e., in
T seconds is called the wavelength of the wave. It is denoted by symbol .
Sometimes the wavelength is represented by the wave number k = 2/.
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called the velocity of the wave. We know that wavelength is the distance
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travelled by a wave in a time period of T seconds. Therefore velocity of the
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wave
2
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Wavelength w
v= = = T = . (2)
Time period T 2 k
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Phase angle :- The magnitude and direction of the displacement of the wave
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changes from point to point on the wave. The quantity which represents this
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state of the displacement of the wave is called the phase of the wave. It is
denoted by symbol . It may be expressed in terms of degrees or radians.
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Intensity I :- The energy carried by a wave per unit time through a unit area
perpendicular to its direction of propagation is known as the intensity of the
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Thus
I |A|2 , (3)
where A is the amplitude of the wave. Some of these properties of the waves
are demonstrated in figure 1.
y = y1 + y2
y2 y1
To understand this, let us consider two waves at any point in space at any
instant of time, whose displacements are y1 and y2 and they are in same direction.
According to principle of superposition, when these two waves overlap, the instan-
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taneous displacement of the resultant wave is y = y1 + y2 . This is illustrated in
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figure 2. As can be seen from the figure 2, the resultant wave not only depends on
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the value of the amplitudes of the individual waves but also the difference between
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the phases of the two waves (which is also called the phase difference between the
waves at that point in space).
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Phase difference is a measure of how much phase angle one wave has compared to
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the phase angle of the other wave at any point in the space. Thus when two waves
are passing through a point in space, the phase difference between the two waves
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is an indication of how much the two waves are out of phase. In figure 2, the two
waves y1 and y2 have a phase difference of = /3.
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When a wave travels a distance equal to its wavelength , it covers one cycle of
vibration. Thus the phase change is 2. This is equivalent to say that if two waves
having wavelength has a phase difference of 2, then the path difference between
the two waves is . Using these we can write the relation between path difference
corresponding to phase difference as
= . (4)
2
2 Interference
From figure 2, we can observe that when two waves superpose together their re-
sultant amplitude differs from the individual amplitudes. As the intensity of the
wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude; superposition leads
to modification of light intensity. This is an illustration of interference. Thus the
definition of interference can be written as :
The redistribution of light intensity due to superposition of two or more light
waves is called Interference of light.
Explanation :
When two or more waves superpose, then the resultant amplitude in the region of
superposition is different than the individual waves. Thus, the resultant intensity
will be higher or lower than the individual intensities i.e., positions of maximum
and minimum intensities are different from the individual waves. This modification
of the intensity is called interference. This can be explained using the principle
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of superposition.
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In order to understand this, let us consider two waves y1 and y2 given by
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y1 = y A1 sin(k1 x w1 t),
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(5)
y2 = y A2 sin(k2 x w2 t + ), (6)
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where A1 and A2 are the amplitudes of the waves y1 and y2 respectively and y
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y = y1 + y2 ,
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between the waves y1 and y2 to be a function of position x and time t and is given
by
= f (x, t) = (k2 x w2 t + ) (k1 x w1 t) = 4kx 4wt + . (8)
Then the resultant displacement
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and y2 respectively. Also from equations (10) we can determine the phase angle
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of the resultant wave as
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A2 sin
tan = . (13)
A1 + A2 cos
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Now since = 4kx 4wt + , the resultant intensity IR , as seen from equation
(12), at a particular position in space changes with time unless 4w = w2 w1 = 0.
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Since the velocity of light is a constant in free space, then for a particular frequency
i.e., w2 = w1 , it ensures that 4k = k2 k1 = 0. From these, we conclude that for
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and
3. the two waves maintain a constant phase difference.
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The waves which satisfy the above three conditions are called as coherent waves.
2.1 Coherence
Definition : If two (or more) waves maintain a constant phase difference over a long
distance and time, then the waves are said to be coherent waves. This constant
phase difference may be 0 or 2 or any value in between 0 and 2. The waves
of same frequency and wavelength may differ in amplitude, but they maintain a
constant phase relationship, hence they are coherent waves.
If the two waves are of different frequencies then they can never maintain a
constant phase difference. Such waves are said to be incoherent waves.
Thus, if the phase difference between the two interfering waves is an even multiple
of , then the amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the
individual waves. This is called constructive interference. In terms of intensity
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since IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 , we say that the resultant intensity, for constructive
interference, is greater than the sum of the individual intensities.
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On the other side, the minimum value of cos = 1 which occurs for =
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AR = A1 A2 . (16)
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It shows that if the phase difference between the two interfering waves is an odd
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multiple of , then the amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference between
the amplitudes of the individual waves.This is called destructive interference. In
terms of intensity since IR = I1 + I2 2 I1 I2 , we say that the resultant intensity,
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for destructive interference, is always less than the sum of the individual intensities.
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3 Youngs Double Slit Experiment
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light waves are made to pass through two slits S1 and S2 placed at an equal
distance from S (For an illustration see figure 4). The wavelets from the source
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S on entering the slits S1 and S2 , behave as if like they are two sources. These
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generated waves moving away from their sources will superimpose on each other
and provide dark and bright fringes. Dark fringes are the points where crests
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Figure 4: Youngs double slit experiment, (left) experimental set up and (right)
schematic diagram.
Intensity
5 4 3 2 0 2 3 4 5
fall on troughs (destructive interference) and bright fringes are the points where
crests fall on crests or troughs fall on troughs (constructive interference). Thus
on the screen alternate dark and bright regions, called as interference fringes are
observed.
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Let us calculate the resultant intensity of light at a point P on the screen GG0
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which is at a distance x from the centre point C. Let A be the amplitude of the
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waves generates from sources S1 and S2 ; and the phase difference between the
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two waves reaching at point P at any instant of time is . If y1 and y2 are the
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y1 = A sin wt
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y2 = A sin(wt + ). (18)
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Now as per the principle of superposition the displacement of the resultant wave
at P is
y = y1 + y2 = AR sin(wt + ). (19)
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where
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A2R = A2 + A2 + 2A2 cos = 2 A2 (1 + cos ) = 4A2 cos2 (20)
2
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For details of this derivation look for the equations (11) and (13). In the above
equation we have used 1 + cos = 2 cos2 (/2) to obtain the final expression of the
amplitude. As the intensity of individual waves I0 A2 , we can write down the
resultant intensity
IR = 4 I0 cos2 . (22)
2
The nature of this interference intensity is illustrated in figure 5.
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3.2 Determination of path difference
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From the schematic diagram of Youngs double slit experiment we have
sN
s 2 s 2
d d
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= S2 P S1 P = 2
D + x+ D + x2
2 2
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(
2 1/2
) ( 2 )1/2
x + d/2 x d/2
= D 1+ 1+
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D D
"( 2 ) ( 2 )#
1 x + d/2 1 x d/2
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D 1+ 1+
2 D 2 D
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(1/2) 4 x (d/2) xd
= D 2
= = d sin , (23)
D D
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where sin = Dx , being the angle at which the interference fringe occurs with
respect to the centre of the sources S1 and S2 . Thus, if d sin = n then we
obtain constructive interference and if d sin = (2n + 1)/2 we obtain destructive
interference.
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contrast of the interference fringes.
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From the above analysis we can safely say that if the interfering waves satisfy the
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1. The interfering waves should have same wavelength and same frequency.
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2. The interfering waves maintain a constant phase difference among each other.
3. For a good contrast of the interference fringes, the amplitude of the waves
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should be same and the interfering sources should be very close to each other.
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Inc
ide I0 0 I0 03 I0 05 I0
nt rI 0 0
tt
r
ttr
0
ttr
0
Ra
y
0
0
tr 03I
tr 05I
tr I 0
tr I 0
tr I 0
tr 0I
tI 0
Thin Film
02
04
06
tt 0 tt 0 tt 0 tt 0
I0 r 02 r 04 r 06
I0 I0 I0
each reflection the intensity and hence the amplitude of the light wave is divided
into a reflected component and a refracted component. These components travel
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along different paths and subsequently overlap to produce interference fringes.
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Therefore, the interference from thin films is called interference due to division
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of amplitude. Newton and Robert Hooke first observed the thin film interference
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pattern but Thomas Young gave the correct explanation of the phenomena.
Lets assume that r is the reflectance, which is a measure of the proportion of
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light energy getting reflected and t is the transmittance of the thin film medium.
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reflected, when a light of intensity I0 is incident into the medium is rI0 . Assuming
no absorption in the medium the amount of light energy transmitted into the
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thin film is tI0 = (1 r)I0 . Again if we assume r0 and t0 as the reflectance and
transmittance inside the thin film then the intensity of light getting transmitted
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from the lower surface is tt0 I0 while the rest amount gets reflected into the medium
whose intensity is tr0 I0 = t(1t0 )I0 . In this way we can calculate that the intensity
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of light rays that gets reflected are tt0 r0 I0 , tt0 r03 I0 , tt0 r05 I0 , . . . and the intensity of
light rays that gets transmitted are ttI0 , tt0 r02 I0 , tt0 r04 I0 , . . . etc. Adding all the
intensities of the reflected beams provides the total intensity of the reflected light
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which is
r + r0
where R = is the total reflectance of the medium. Similarly the total
1 + r0
intensity of the transmitted lights is
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reflected light is complementary to the amount of the transmitted light.
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amplitude of the incident ray is A, the amplitudes of the reflected and refracted
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beam would be A r and A t respectively. Here r and t are the reflection and
transmission coefficients of the medium 1 respectively.
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between the two cases. (a reversal of sign means a displacement in the opposite
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sense). The results will often be made use of in interference discussions.
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AC into the film making an angle of refraction r at A. The ray AC again partly
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reflected at C back into the film along CD and partly transmitted into air. The
ray CD is transmitted at the upper surface and travels along DE.
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After these two reflections the intensities of the recflected rays drop to a negli-
gible strength. So, we consider only these two reflected rays only for the analysis
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of intereference in thin films. These two rays are derived from the same incident
ray LA. Therefore the light rays AB and DE are coherent and travel along par-
allel paths to interfere at infinity. The condition for maxima and minima can be
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deduced by calculating the optical path difference between these two rays at the
point of their meeting.
In order to calculate the path difference between the reflected rays AB and
ACDE, lets draw perpendicular lines from C to the line P Q and from D to ray
AB. Let these points be G and F respectively. As DF is normal to AB, from
points F and D onwards the light rays F B and DE travel equal path. Therefore
the geometrical path difference between the rays is AC + CD AF . But the path
AF is travelled in air having refractive index = 1; while path ACD is travelled in
the film of refractive index . Hence the optical path difference between the rays
before they meet is
= (AC + CD) AF. (30)
L B E
Inc
ide F 90o
nt
R ay i
G i Q
P A D
r
t Thin Film
rr
R S
C
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cos r = AC = .
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AC cos r
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Furthermore as ACG = DCG = r, we have AC = CD. Using this we can
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write
2t
AC + CD = . (31)
cos r
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as
AF
Now from 4AF D ADF = i, so sin i = AF = AD sin i. Also because
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AD
AG = GD, where AG = GC tan r = t tan r, and AD = AG + GD, we get
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sin r
sin2 r
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2t sin2 r
= 2 t
cos r cos r
2 t
1 sin2 r
=
cos r
= 2 t cos r. (33)
As the ray AF is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium, using
Stokes law, there is a phase change of between the incident and the reflected
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2
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Minima occurs when the path difference o = (2n 1) /2 where n =
Pr
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .. In this case destructive interference takes place and the film
sN
2 t cos r = (2n 1) (36)
2 2
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2 t cos r = (2n 1)
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2 2
or 2 t cos r = n . (37)
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1. The conditions for thin fim interference depends on three parameters namely
t, and r. For a constant thickness film t is constant. Thus if the
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wavelength of the source remains constant then the nature of fringes depends
on the angle r, which also means it depends on the angle of incident i only.
Consequently when the inclination of the film with respect to the light beam
is changed we find alternate dark and bright fringes. Thus, these type of
fringes are called fringes of equal inclination.
2. Along with constant thickness if the angle of incident is also constant, then
the nature of fringes solely depends on the wavelength of the incident beam.
3. The colours exhibited in reflection by thin films of oil, mica, soap bubbles,
colours of some insects and oxide coatings on hot metal surface etc are due to
interference of light from an extended source such as sky. When white light
is incident on thin film, it suffers reflection from top and bottom surfaces of
the film. The reflected rays interfere. Since white light consists of a range of
wavelengths, those waves for which the path difference is n will be absent
in the reflected light. The other colours will be reflected. Therefore, the film
will appear coloured corresponding to the reflected colours.
4. Since the reflectance and the transmittance values are complementary to each
other the condition for constructive interference and destructive interference
gets reversed for the transmitted light. Thus if the condition of constructive
interference is satisfied for the reflected beam then the same condition will
provide a destructive interference in the transmitted beam and vice versa.
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having zero thickness at one end and gradually increasing to a particular thickness
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at the other end. Thus a thin wedge of air film is formed when two glass slides
are separated by a spacer at one end while the other end are in contact with each
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Let us consider a wedge shaped film formed between two glass plates P Q and P R
by placing a thin wire spacer between the two glass plates at one end. Let be
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the small wedge angle formed between the two plates and be the refractive index
of the film medium.
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B E
L R
Inci
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den F D
tR i i
ay A t2 t1
Spacer
I
+r
t1 t2
r
P Q
G C H
When the light from the monochromatic source L is incident on the wedge at
an angle of incidence i at point A, a part of it gets reflected at the top of the film
as AB ray. A part of the light gets transmitted inside the wedge shaped film and
gets partly reflected at the bottom of the wedge shaped film from point C as ray
CDE. These two rays AB and ACDE interfere producing dark and bright fringes
parallel to the contact edge of the two glass plates. The nature of interference can
be determined by calculating the optical path difference between the light rays
AB and ACDE.
In order to calculate the optical path difference let us assume that t1 is the
thickness of the film at A i.e., AG = t1 . Similarly let us assume that the thickness
of the wedge shaped film at D is t2 i.e., DH = t2 . Let us draw a perpendicular
line from point D onto the ray AB which intersecting it at F and another from
A onto line DH intersecting it at I. Then the optical path difference between the
light rays AB and ACDE is
= (AC + CD) AF. (38)
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The factor of has been multiplied to AC + CD because the path of the light
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ACD is traversed inside the film of refractive index while path AF is travelled
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in air.
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t1 t2 t1 + t2
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AC + CD = + = . (39)
cos( + r) cos( + r) cos( + r)
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t2 t1
AF = AD sin i = sin i
sin
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t2 t1 sin i
= sin r
sin sin r
(t2 t1 )
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0 sin i
= sin r using Snell s law = (40)
sin sin r
Substituting the values of AC + CD and AF from equations (39) and (40) into
equation (38), we have optical path difference
t1 + t2 (t2 t1 ) sin r
= (41)
cos( + r) sin
Now we assume that the light is falling normally onto the upper glass plate
P R i.e., i = 0o , then r = 0o sin r = 0. In this limit
(t1 + t2 )
= . (42)
cos
Classnotes by Dr. Manamohan Prusty
6.2 Conditions for dark and bright fringes 24
Further in the limit 0, the points A and D are very close together. So we can
safely assume that t1 t2 (= t) and cos 1. Substituting these values we have
= 2 t. By Stokes law there is an additional phase change of between the
reflection from a denser medium to a rarer medium which is equivalent to having
an additional path difference of /2. Taking into account this additional path
difference we get
= 2 t /2. (43)
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= (2n + 1) or 2 t = n . (45)
2
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Consider two successive dark fringes. Lets assume that the fringes are nth order
and (n + 1)th order and they occur at points K and L on the wedge shaped film
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as shown in figure 10. Further lets assume that the thickness of the film at K and
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2 t1 = n, (46)
and at L
an
2 t2 = (n + 1). (47)
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R
N
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Spacer
M
O h
t2
t1
P Q
x1 K l L
x2
Figure 10: Calculation of fringe width and the height of the spacer for the wedge
shaped film.
Subtracting we get
2 (t2 t1 ) = (t2 t1 ) = ON = . (48)
2
Now in 4M ON , we have
ON ON
tan = = , (49)
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where is the distance between two successive dark fringes and it also equal to
the separation between two successive bright fringes. Hence it is also called the
fringe width of the fringes. Substituting the value of ON we get the value of fringe
width
= . (50)
2 tan
For small value of wedge angle tan . This provides the value of fringe width
= = . (51)
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2 2
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This shows that an increase in wedge angle makes the fringes move closer.
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i.e., it is the length from the apex of the wedge to the initial position of the spacer.
Then from figure 10, tan = h/l. Therefore,
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l
= l = . (52)
2 2
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However, if there are N number of dark fringes between K and L which are at x1
and x2 distances from the apex of the wedge, then we can write the fringe width
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x2 x1
= . (53)
N
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Each fringe in the pattern is formed in the sections of the wedge having equal
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thickness. The locus of points having same thickness lie along lines parallel
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to the contact edge. Therefore the fringes are straight and since the fringe
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width is constant i.e., the fringes are at equidistant from each other, they
will be parallel.
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7 Newtons Rings
Newton first observed circular interference fringes by forming a very thin film of air
or some other transparent medium of varying thickness enclosed between a plane
glass plate and a planoconvex lens of large focal length. Such circular fringes were
called Newtons rings.
Microscope
G
45o
Source
Gl
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sP
lat
e
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P
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between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the plate. The
thickness of the air film (gap) is very small at the point of contact and gradually
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A monochromatic light from the source such as a sodium vapour lamp, falls on
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the glass plate G held at an angle of 45o with the vertical. The plate G reflects
a part of the incident light, normally towards the plane surface of the lens L. At
this plane surface light ray enters into the lens and a part of this light is reflected
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from the bottom surface of the plano-convex lens L at the glass air boundary. The
other part is refracted (or transmitted) through the air film and is further reflected
from the upper surface of glass plate P . By Stokes law this reflected ray has a
phase reversal of at the air-glass interface. These two rays reflected from the top
and the bottom part of the air film are derived from the same incident ray and
are therefore coherent. Since these two coherent rays are very close to each other,
they interfere to produce dark and bright concentric circular fringes around the
centre of the lens O. The condition of bright and dark fringes depend on the path
difference between the interfering rays which in turn depends on the thickness of
the air film at the point of incidence.
L rn
P
N
t
G
Q M
ty
es
us
Let t be the thickness of the air film at a point P on the plano-convex lens and Q
ot
on the glass plate, be the wavelength of the incident light and R be the radius
Pr
sN
of curvature of the plano convex lens. The optical path difference (see equation
33) between the two interfering waves is given by
an
as
= 2 t cos r. (56)
oh
Cl
If the incidence light is normal to the top surface of the plano convex lens then
i = 0 and so r = 0. In this case = 2 t. Now as one of the rays travel from
am
OP 2 = P N 2 + ON 2
R2 = rn2 + (R t)2 = rn2 + R2 + t2 2Rt
rn2 = 2Rt t2 2Rt ( R t)
r2 d2
2t = n = n , (59)
R 4R
where dn is the diameter of the nth ring. Substituting this value into the equations
for bright and dark fringes we obtain for nth order bright fringe
d2n
= (2n + 1)
4R 2
s
1 4R
dn = n+
2
ty
s
es
1
dn n+ (60)
us
ot
2
Pr
sN
=
4R
oh
Cl
s
n 4R
dn =
am
dn n (61)
an
Consider two dark rings nth order and mth order formed in an air film ( = 1),
then they satisfy the following equations
Dr
Subtracting we get
d2m d2n = 4 R (m n)
d2m d2n d2m d2n
= or R = . (63)
4 R (m n) 4 (m n)
Similar results can be obtained for the bright rings. In the experimental arrange-
ment of the Newtons rings, the diameters dm and dn of the mth and nth dark rings
B
d2mD
Diameter2
d2m d2n
d2n C
n m
mn
E F
A Number of rings
Figure 13: Variation of the square of the diameter with respect to the number of
fringes for a Newtons ring experiment.
are noted with a travelling microscope. The radius of curvature of the lens R can
ty
be measured using spherometer. Thus wavelength of the incident light can be
es
found out. In a similar way if we know the wavelength of the incident light, then
us
ot
the radius of curvature of the lens can also be determined.
d2 d2n
For accuracy the values of m
Pr
sN
in figure 13. From the graph we can measure the slope of the straight line AB
oh
Cl
which is
CD d2 d2n
= m
am
slope = . (64)
EF mn
This value can be used to determine either the wavelength of the source or the
an
is taken within a container and the light is made to incident on the lens. First
Newtons rings are formed when there is an air film between the lens and the plate.
The diameters of the dark rings are formed by using travelling microscope. Then
d2m d2n
slopeair =
= 4 R. (65)
mn
Now the liquid whose refractive index is to be measured is poured into the
container slowly without disturbing the whole arrangement. Again the diameters
of the dark rings are measured and the slope is determined. Then
d02m d02n 4 R
slopemedium = = . (66)
mn
Using the above two equations we can determine the refractive index of the liquid
medium to be
slopeair
= . (67)
slopemedium
8 Michelson Interferometer
The Michelson interferometer is one of the best known examples of amplitude
splitting interferometers that utilise the arrangement of mirrors and beam splitters.
This is illustrated in figure 14. Light from the source S is incident at an angle of 45o
on a half-silvered rear-surface of the beam splitter P at point A. The beam splitter
divides the wave into two. The transmitted ray passes through the compensator
C, reflects from the stationary mirror M2 and returns through the compensator to
point A where it reflects to the observer O. Meanwhile, the reflected ray traverses
P , reflects from movable mirror M1 , passes through P and recombines with the
transmitted ray, as it goes to observer O. Note that the light reflected beam
ty
es
passes through the beam splitter three times, where as without the compensator
us
the transmitted beam traverses only once. Consequently, each beam will pass
ot
through equal thickness of glass only when the compensator C is inserted in the
Pr
sN
oh
Cl
am
an
.M
Dr
so that the beam splitter and the compensator are parallel to each other.
ty
2 d cos = n 2 d cos = (2n + 1) , (69)
es
2 2
us
ot
and the condition for destructive interference is
Pr
sN
2 d cos = (2n + 1) 2 d cos = m (70)
2 2
an
as
where m, n are integers. For a normal beam = 0 and the above condition changes
oh
Cl
to 2 d = m , for a dark fringe. Similarly for a normal beam the condition of bright
fringe is 2 d cos = (2n + 1) (/2). Thus the fringes formed are bright and dark
am
Case 1 : When d = 0
When both the mirrors M1 and M2 are at equal distance from point A i.e., they
are symmetrically placed then = 0 = 0 . Thus, the central fringe will be a dark
Dr
fringe.
Case 2 : When d =
4
If the mirror M1 is moved such that d = (/4), then for normal incidence =
2 (/4) = /2 which correspond to the condition of a bright fringe. Thus, the
central position will become a bright fringe. Further movement of the mirror M1
by a distance /4 will provide = 2 (/4 + /4) = corresponding to a dark
fringe at the centre. Thus we conclude that as the mirror M1 is moved parallel to
themselves then the centre point changes from dark to bright alternatively.
Case 3 : When 6= 0
When we observe the fringe pattern with an oblique incidence 6= 0, then =
2 d cos = constant
1
cos . (71)
d
So as d increases the fringes appear as they are expanding radially outward from
center.
ty
es
and the number of fringes, n crossing the field of view are counted, then
us
ot
2 d = m
Pr
sN
By subtraction, we obtain
an
as
2 4x = n
oh
Cl
2 4x
= . (74)
am
n
The above relation can be used to determine the wavelength of a monochromatic
an
light source.
.M
lying wavelengths e.g., sodium produces two wavelengths 5890A and 5896A. Let
the two wavelengths be 1 and 2 . When such a source is used the resulting
interference pattern is the combinations of two interference pattern corresponding
to the two wavelengths. Thus, minima is the point for which both the wavelengths
provides destructive interference simultaneously. From such a point if the mirror
M1 is moved then the intensity will increase and again become a minimum. This
is the situation when one fringe corresponding to wavelength 1 is more than the
fringe of 2 in the field of view. Thus
24x = m1 1
24x = m2 2 = (m1 1)2 (75)
From the first equation m1 = 24x/1 which can be substituted into the second
equation to obtain
1 1
24x = 1
1 1
2 1 1
=
1 2 24x
1 2
2 1 =
24x
2av
= , (76)
24x
where, = 2 1 and 2 1 = av . This relation can be used to measure
small differences in wavelengths.
ty
es
If a transparent sheet of thickness t and refractive index is inserted in one of
us
ot
the beams of the Michelson interferometer, then that beam travels an optical path
Pr
sN
is a shift in the number of fringes at the center of the interference pattern. Lets
oh
Cl
2t( 1) = m . (77)
It is difficult to measure the sudden shift in the number of fringes m which shifts,
an
when the transparent sheet is inserted in one of the beams. This difficulty is
.M
overcome with the help of white light. Initially white light is used to locate the
central dark fringe. The thin sheet is then inserted. As a result the nature of the
central fringe gets changed. The mirror M1 is then moved parallel till again a dark
Dr
fringe is at the centre. The distance x through which the mirror is moved is noted
down. The white light is now replaced with monochromatic light of wavelength
and the mirror M1 is moved back slowly while counting the number of fringes
shifted, m within the distance x. Then
x = 2t( 1) = m ,
m
t= . (78)
2( 1)
This method is used to measure the thickness of a thin transparent sheet using
Michelson interferometer.
9 Applications of Interference
The applications of interference is very wide. It can be used to measure wave-
lengths accurately up to eight significant digits. It also can be used for measuring
small displacements and to measure refractive indices of liquids and gases. In
addition to these the interference phenomena can be used for the following appli-
cations.
ty
es
smooth. The smoothness can be
quickly inspected visually by keep-
us
ot
straight then the air wedge formed Perfectly flat surface and (c) Convex surface.
oh
Cl
fringes are curved towards the contact edge the surface is concave and if the fringes
curve away from the apex, then the surface of the component is convex. This is
an
usually less than a light wavelength. If the lens is ground perfectly, Newton rings
of circular fringe patterns will be observed. However, if the grinding is not perfect,
then variation from circular shapes are observed (see figure 16) which provides an
indication of how the lens must be ground and polished to remove the imperfec-
tions.
ty
es
coated area to the region where the metallic film is present. The shift in fringes
us
is related to the change in path difference as we move from one region to another
ot
s = 2t t = . (79)
2
oh
Cl
So, by measuring the value of shift s in the formed fringes one can determine the
thickness of the thin film coating.
am
an
.M
Dr
Figure 17: (a)Setup for the determination of the thickness of a thin film coating.
(b) Nature of interference fringes formed using the setup.
reflection depends on the ratio of the refractive indices of the two media as well as
the angle of the surface to the beam of light. The exact value can be calculated
using the Fresnel equations.
When the light enters the interface at normal incidence, the intensity of light
reflected is given by the reflection coefficient or reflectance, R given by
2
1 2
R= . (80)
1 + 2
where 1 and 2 are the refractive indices of the first and second media respectively
(see figure 18 for an illustration). The value of the reflectance R varies from 0 (for
no reflection) to 1 (all light gets reflected). Complementary to R is the transmission
coefficient or transmittance, T . If absorption and scattering are neglected, then
the value T = 1R. So, when a beam of light with intensity I is incident on
the surface, a beam of intensity R I is reflected, and a beam with intensity T I is
transmitted into the medium.
When more surfaces are there,
ty
es
the number of reflections will also
us
be more thus reducing the amount
ot
electrical energy. Such losses can be reduced by coating the surface with a thin
transparent film of suitable thickness and refractive index. Such coatings are called
Dr
ty
es
The two additional path differences of /2 are because there is a phase change
us
ot
for the ray 1 at the top surface of the film and another phase change at the
Pr
interface of film and the second medium of refractive index 2 . An additional path
sN
difference of does not change the original phase relation. Thus for destructive
interference between rays 1 and 2, requires
an
as
4 = 2 1 t = (2n + 1) .
oh
(82)
Cl
2
am
2 4 1
This says that the optical thickness of the AR coating should be of one-quarter
.M
This shows that the refractive index of the anti-reflection film 1 should be less
than the refractive index of the transmitted medium.
Normally the transmitted medium is glass having refractive index 2 = 1.5.
This gives the refractive index of the AR coating to be 1 = 1.5 = 1.22. Materials
having refractive index closer to his value are magnesium fluoride M gF2 ( = 1.38),
cryolite, 3N aF.AIF3 ( = 1.36). Apart from this refractive index requirement the
materials should be durable, should adhere well with the transmitted medium,
scratch proof and insoluble in ordinary solvents. M gF2 and cryolite satisfy these
conditions. However M gF2 is cheaper and hence widely used as AR coating.
Furthermore the conditions for AR coating is satisfied for a particular wave-
length. Normally the wavelength chosen is 550 nm, which is more sensitive to eye
and is located in the yellow-green region of the visible spectrum. So, when a white
ty
light is incident onto such a film, the reflection of red and violet will be larger.
es
This provides a purple hue when the component is observed in reflected light.
us
ot
Pr
sN
an
as
oh
Cl
am
an
.M
Dr
10 Introduction to Diffraction
Some people believe it was Leonardo da Vinci who first observed diffraction. How-
ever around 1660 it was Grimaldi who discovered diffraction of light and gave it the
name diffraction which means breaking up. He interpreted diffraction on his own
way, but could not explain successfully the phenomenon. It was again Huygens
wave theory which provides a ready explanation of diffraction. Augustin-Jean Fres-
nel, a French physicist who believed in the wave theory of light, submitted a paper
in 1818 to the French Academy of sciences describing his experiments explaining
the wave-theory of diffraction. For this he received the prize of the Academie
des sciences at Paris. Later in 1823 Joseph von Fraunhoffer published his theory
of diffraction and demonstrated the accurate measurement of the wavelength of
light.
It is common experience that light travels in a straight line. However, if a
beam of light passes through a small opening it spreads to some extent to the
geometrical shadow regions. So if light is propagated as a wave then, just like
ty
es
sound waves, it bends around the edges of an opaque obstacle and illuminates
us
the geometrical shadow regions. This phenomenon is called diffraction os light.
ot
use short waves (few metres), which do not diffract significantly around natural
barriers such as hills, buildings and cliffs. Thus receiving aerials must be aligned
an
to the transmitters. On the oher hand. long-wave radio signals (around 1km)
as
diffract around must of the objects and so can be received at places that lie within
oh
Cl
the corners of obstacle placed in its path and their spreading into the regions
of geometrical shadow. Diffraction phenomenon becomes prominent when the
an
of the primary wavefront, which are allowed to pass through the aperture. So, just
like interference, it also produces light and dark fringes.
Dr
Figure 19: Dependence of the diffraction phenomenon on wavelength and the size
of the obstacle.
plane wave does not bend at the opening when d >> . Bending is considerable
when d and when >> d, the bending takes place to such an extent that
light can be perceived in a direction normal to the direction of propagation such
that the opening acts as a point source.
ty
Since the wavelength of light is very small compared to any physical obstacle,
es
it provides us the impression that light travels in a straight line. However, careful
us
ot
observations show that when light passing through tiny holes produce alternate
Pr
sN
regions of brightness and darkness beyond the region of the geometrical shadow.
Such pattern of alternate light and dark bands are called as diffraction pattern.
The bright central portion is called the central maxima and it is bounded by a
an
as
series of secondary maximas separated by dark band minimas. The alternate light
oh
Cl
and dark regions are formed due to interference of diffracted light waves. just like
interference, diffraction phenomenon is a fundamental concept demonstrating the
am
ty
In this type of diffraction, the source of light and the screen are effectively at
es
finite distances from the obstacle as shown in figure 21(a). It does not require any
us
ot
lenses to make the rays of light parallel or convergent. Thus the incident and the
Pr
sN
diffracted wavefronts are not parallel. As a result the phases of secondary wavelets
are not the same at all points in the plane of the obstacle. It is experimentally
simple but the analysis proves to be very complex. The important points about
an
as
(i) The source of the screen or both are at finite distance from the diffracting
am
(iii) The incident wavefront is not plane but it is either cylindrical (for a line
.M
(iv) The phase of the secondary waves is not the same at all the points in the
Dr
(v) The resultant amplitude at any point on the screen is obtained by mutual
interference of secondary waves from different elements of exposed part of
wavefronts.
(vi) In this type of diffraction, distances are important that the angular inclina-
tions.
(vii) The analysis of this type of diffractions can be carried out with approxima-
tions only.
Figure 21: Conditions for (a) Fresnel diffraction and (b) Fraunhoffer diffraction.
ty
es
In this type of diffraction, the source of the light and the screen are effectively
us
ot
at infinite distances from the obstacle. The conditions required for this type of
Pr
sN
diffraction is achieved by using two convex lenses, one to make the light beam
parallel from the source and other to focus the light onto the screen as shown in
figure 21(b). As such, the incident wavefront and the secondary wavelets, which
an
as
originated from the unblocked positions of the wavefront, are in the same phase
oh
Cl
at every point in the plane of the obstacle. The diffraction is produced due to
interference of parallel secondary wavefronts which are focused onto the screen by a
am
convex lens. Since the rays are parallel, therefore, the mathematics involved in the
analysis of this type of diffraction is simple. The important points of Fraunhoffer
an
diffraction are
.M
(i) The source and the screen are effectively at infinite distance from the diffract-
ing element (aperture or obstacle).
Dr
(ii) The arrangement of two convex lenses makes the source and the screen at
infinity fro teh obstacle. One of the convex lens is used to make the light
from the source parallel before it falls on the aperture and the other convex
lens is used to focus the light after diffraction on the screen.
(iii) The incident wavefront is plane and the secondary waves originating from
the exposed part of the wavefront are in the same phase at every point in the
plane of the aperture.
(iv) The diffraction is produced by interference between parallel waves which are
brought to focus with a convex lens.
(v) In Fraunhoffer diffraction, angular inclinations are important than the dis-
tances.
(vi) This type of diffractions can be analysed with more accuracy in analytical
terms.
ty
es
etc. To determine the resultant amplitude R and phase
us
, let us resolve the individual amplitudes along BC and Figure 22: Resultant of
ot
along BC is
R cos = A [1 + cos + cos 2 + cos 3 + . . . + cos (n 1)] (87)
an
as
and
oh
Cl
2 R cos sin = A [2 sin + 2 cos sin + . . . + 2 cos (n 1) sin ]
2 2 2 2
an
which leads to
.M
3
2 R cos sin = A 2 sin + sin sin
2 2 2 2
Dr
(2n 1) (2 n 3)
+ ... + sin sin
2 2
resulting in
(2 n 1)
2 R cos sin = A sin + sin .
2 2 2
Further simplification gives
n (n 1)
2 R cos sin = 2 A sin cos
2 2 2
sin (n/2) (n 1)
R cos = A cos . (89)
sin (/2) 2
Multiplying equation (88) by 2 sin(/2) and going through the same simplification
process, we will obtain
sin (n/2) (n 1)
R sin = A sin . (90)
sin (/2) 2
Squaring equations (89) and (90) and adding, we have the value of resultant am-
plitude R to be
2
2 2 sin (n/2) sin (n/2)
R =A R=A . (91)
sin (/2) sin (/2)
Now dividing equation (90) by equation (89), we obtain
(n 1)
tan = tan ,
2
providing the resultant phase angle = (n1)/2. In the limit of n becoming very
ty
large and the amplitudes A and the phase difference extremely small quantities,
es
we can further simplify the expressions for the resultant amplitude R and the net
us
ot
phase difference to
Pr
sN
(n 1) n
and = = , (93)
oh
Cl
2 2
where we have assumed = n /2 and A0 = n A.
am
The same results can be obtained by using complex numbers. For this we note
that equation (87) can be written as
an
n1
X 1 ei n
= A Real ei k = A Real (94)
k=0
1 e
Dr
R sin = A Im ei + ei 2 + ei 3 + . . . + ei (n1)
sin (n/2) i (n1) /2 sin (n/2) (n 1)
= A Im e 1 = sin .
sin (/2) sin (/2) 2
ty
onto the screen as shown in figure 23.
es
In this arrangement,slit AB of width d
us
ot
is illuminated by using a parallel beam
of monochromatic light of wavelength
Pr
sN
lenx L2 .
As per the geometrical optics we
oh
Cl
should get a sharp image of the slit Figure 23: Schematic arrangement for
on the screen. However, a diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction from a single slit.
am
12.2 Theory
Dr
ty
es
the direction of the diffracted ray BCP . Now the wave BC travels farther than
the wave ED. Using simple geometry, we can calculate that the path difference
us
ot
between these two waves is ED = (d/2) sin . If ED = /2, the two waves will
Pr
sN
interfere destructively and will produce a dark spot. For every point in AE, there
is a corresponding point in EB for which the path difference will be /2. Hence
an
the waves from the upper half of the slit AE interfere destructively with waves
as
d
sin = d sin = . (96)
am
2 2
This produces zero intensity at point P called the first order minimum of the
an
diffraction pattern. We can divide the slit into four parts, six parts, eight parts
and so on. Similar arguments as above will then produce dark bands whenever
.M
These are known as second, third, fourth etc order minima respectively. These
minimas are symmetric about the central maxima i.e., there will be minimas at
an angle in the opposite side of the central maxima. So, in general we can say
that nth order minima occurs if the following condition is satisfied
Figure 24: Conditions for (a) first order minimum and (b) first order maximum in
Fraunhoffer single slit diffraction pattern
ty
es
us
ot
waves generated from the upper two parts cancel each other due to destructive
Pr
interference. However, the waves generated form the third region interfere to
sN
produce a maxima at point P . Thus, if (d/3) sin = /2 then it produces the first
order maxima. This is explained using figure 24(b). This means the condition for
an
as
d 3
sin = d sin = . (99)
3 2 2
am
Similarly we can divide the slit into five, seven,. . . etc parts to produce second,
third,. . . etc orders of secondary maximas respectively for
an
5 7
d sin = , , . . . , etc. (100)
.M
2 2
In general the condition for nth order secondary maxima is
Dr
(2 n + 1)
d sin = . (101)
2
As the order of secondary maxima increases its intensity decreases rapidly.
To summarize, the Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern from a single slit consists
of a central maximum at O surrounded alternatively by secondary maximas and
minimas on both the sides.
on the slit of width d. According to Huygens principle each point inside the slit
acts as a source of secondary wavelets. So, let us imagine that this slit is divided
into N equal parts each of width 4x = d/N . Let the amplitude of wave originating
from each part be A. The path difference originating from any two consecutive
parts is 4x sin which is equivalent to having a phase difference of
2 4x sin 2 d sin
= = . (102)
N
Thus the disturbances reaching at point P from the first, second, third,. . . , nth part
of the slit are A cos t, A cos (t + ), A cos (t + 2 ), . . . , A cos (t + (n 1) )
respectively. By the principle of superposition, the total disturbance at point
P is the sum of the individual disturbances reaching at point P . Following the
procedure given in section (11), we can find that the resultant amplitude of the
superposed wave is
sin d sin
sin (n/2)
R=A =A .
ty
sin(/2) sin dNsin
es
us
Let us assume that = d sin /, then the above equation simplifies to
ot
R=A
A =NA = A0 . (103)
sin N N
an
as
where, we have assumed N to be very large such that A, /N are very small and the
product N A = A0 always remains finite. Now since the intensity is proportional
oh
Cl
2
sin2
2 sin
I R = A0 I = I0 , (104)
2
an
ty
es
Between any two consecutive minimas there is a secondary maxima. The condition
us
ot
for the secondary maxima can be obtained from the intensity distribution
2
Pr
sN
sin
I = I0 .
an
as
dI
Differentiation with respect to leads to = 0, at the position of minima and
d
oh
Cl
y = Intensity, I()
sin2
I()
2
(b)
y=
y = tan
5 3 1 1 3 5
2 2 2 2 2 2
ty
es
us
ot
Pr
sN
Figure 25: (a) Variation of intensity in single slit diffraction pattern as a function
of . (b) Plots of y = and y = tan which determines the positions of secondary
an
as
am
which are in good agreement with the qualitative analysis showing that the nth
order secondary maxima occur at positions n = (2 n + 1)/2. More exact values
an
Note that = 0 is the condition for central maxima. Furthermore, it shows that
Dr
the secondary maxima do not fall exactly at the midway between two minima, but
they are displaced slightly towards the centre of the pattern. Now substituting
these values of into the expression of intensity distribution for the secondary
maxima provides
sin2 1.430
I1 = I0 = 0.0472 I0 ,
(1.430 )2
sin2 2.462
I2 = I0 = 0.0165 I0 ,
(2.462 )2
sin2 3.471
I3 = I0 = 0.0083 I0 , (112)
(3.471 )2
for intensities of the first, second and third order secondary maxima respectively.
Further we can see that the intensity of the first, second and third order maxima
are 4.72%, 1.65%, and 0.83% of the central maxima intensity respectively. It shows
that the intensities decreases rapidly and most of the incident light energy is con-
centrated at the principal maxima. Generally the secondary maxima are too faint
to be visible ordinarily.
ty
D
es
1
d sin = = sin , (113)
d
us
ot
(usually its the focal length of the lens), then width of the central maxima for
tan = x/D. Since, is small tan sin . single slit diffraction pattern.
am
This gives
x D
an
= x= . (114)
D d d
Hence the linear width W of the central maximum is given by
.M
2D
W = 2x = . (115)
Dr
d
Note that when the slit width d >> we see, on the screen, uniform illumination in
the shape of the slit. As the slit width is reduced, the illumination starts to spread
out and dark bands become visible. Further, the width of the central maximum
increases as the slit gets narrower.
The position of the nth (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) order secondary maxima on either side
of the central maxima is given by d sin n = (2 n+1) /2. Therefore, in these cases
xn (2 n + 1) (2 n + 1) D
= width W = 2 xn = . (116)
D 2d d
ty
the result of combination of two parts (a) the
es
Fraunhoffer diffraction from a
diffraction pattern due to secondary wavelets
us
ot
double slit.
emanating from individual slits and (b) inter-
Pr
sN
ference phenomenon due to secondary wavelets generated from both the slits.
Thus, on the screen we obtain a diffraction pattern on which a system of interfer-
ence fringes are superposed. For calculation of positions of maxima and minima,
an
as
the angle is taken between the direction of the incident beam and the direction
oh
Cl
d sin = n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (117)
provides the values of for which diffraction minima occurs. In between any
two minimas there will be diffraction minima. However, the nature of diffraction
maxima depends on the interference of the diffraction patterns emanating from
the individual slits.
ty
2n
es
CN = (b + d) sin 0 = = n , (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) (119)
us
2
ot
(2 n + 3) (2 n + 1)
sin n+1 sin n n+1 n = = . (120)
oh
Cl
2 (b + d) 2 (b + d) b+d
am
0 (n + 1) n
sin n+1 sin n0 n+1
0
n0 = = . (121)
an
(b + d) (b + d) b+d
.M
Thus, the angular seperation between any two consecutive minima (maxima) is
/(b + d), which shows that the angular separation is inversely proportional to the
central distance between the two slits.
Dr
The intensity distribution of the Fraunhoffer diffraction from two slits is shown
in figure 29(c). The shaded regions are the equally spaced interference maxima and
minima while the dotted curve is the curve due to diffraction only. We observe that,
the regions of diffraction maxima there are equally spaced interference maxima and
minima with decreasing intensity. In order to understand these let us determine
the intensity distribution of the double slit diffraction pattern mathematically.
We know, from the diffraction of single slit, that the resultant amplitude R1 of the
diffracted wavelet travelling in a direction from the incident beam is
sin d sin
R1 = A0 , where = . (122)
These wavelets, from both the slits, travelling
in the direction interfere and meet at point
P to produce the double slit diffraction pattern. R R2
The path difference between these two diffracted
wavelets is CM = (d + b) sin . The correspond-
ing phase difference is R1
2 (d + b) sin
= . (123) Figure 28: Vector addition of
two vectors having amplitudes
To find the resultant amplitude at P we use vec- R1 , R2 and a phase difference
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tor addition in which the two sides of a triangle between them.
es
are represented by equal amplitudes R1 = R2 =
us
ot
A0 sin / with a phase angle between them (refer to figure 28). Using the law
Pr
sN
of vector addition
2 2 2
sin sin sin
= A0 + A0 + 2 A0 cos
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Cl
sin2 2
2 sin
am
sin2 (d + b) sin
= 4 A20 2
cos2 , where = = . (124)
2
.M
So, the resultant intensity Id for the double slit Fraunhoffer diffraction becomes
Dr
sin2
Id = 4 I0 cos2 , (125)
2
where I0 is the peak intensity of the single slit diffraction pattern. We can observe
that this expression is the product of two factors
(a) I0 sin2 /2 represents the intensity distribution of the single slit diffraction
pattern, and
Intensity
Intensity I()
2
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es
2 1
us
0 1 2
ot
Pr
sN
Figure 29: (a) Intensity distribution of only the single slit diffraction pattern,
(b) Intensity distribution of only the double slit interference pattern and (c) Com-
an
bined effect of interference and diffraction providing the intensity distribution of
as
the Fraunhoffer double slit diffraction pattern. The envelope of the double slit
oh
Cl
As discussed, the diffraction term sin2 /2 gives the position of central maxima at
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the centre of the screen with alternate minima and maxima of decreasing intensities
on either side of it. Since = d sin /, we know that for = 0 we obtain the
central maxima. For sin = 0 d sin = n with n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we obtain
Dr
When both the diffraction and interference effects gets combined, we get the
resultant distribution of the double slit diffraction pattern as shown in figure 29.
It is found that the resultant intensities at the minima are not exactly equal to
zero due to interference effects. The resultant pattern contains the interference
spectrum within the envelope of the single slit diffraction pattern.
d sin = n , (126)
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es
and the positions of interference maxima occurring in the same direction satisfy
us
ot
(d + b) sin = m . (127)
Pr
sN
d n d+b
= m= n. (128)
oh
Cl
d+b m d
am
This is the condition for the mth order maxima to be missing in the double slit
diffraction pattern. Now consider certain cases
an
Case 1: when d = b
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Case 2: when d = 2 b
Case 3: when d + b = d
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es
Sl. No. Interference Diffraction
us
ot
of light waves coming from two different light waves coming from different parts
coherent sources. of the same wave front.
an
2. Interference fringes may or may not be The diffraction fringes are never of same
as
5 The maxima occur when the path dif- The minima occurs at path difference of
ferences between the two waves is n n and the maxima at the path differ-
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and the minima at path differences of ence of (2n + 1) /2 between the waves
(2n + 1) /2. from the ends of the slit.
Dr
ty
Now let us consider the secondary waves
es
travelling in a direction which makes an an- Figure 30: Fraunhoffer diffraction of
us
ot
gle with respect to the incident beam. The a plane wave incident normally on a
secondary waves originating from each point multiple slit.
Pr
sN
the path difference bettween secondary waves generated from the corresponding
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Cl
points of two neighbouring slits. The path difference between any two correspond-
ing points of two neighbouring slits is (d + b) sin = a sin . Corresponding phase
am
a sin = n . (129)
Between any two consecutive maxima there will be a minima on the screen. Thus
Dr
the point at P will be a minima if the path difference satisfies the condition
a sin = (2 n + 1) /2 . (130)
R = A cos w t+A cos[w t+]+A cos[w t+2 ]+. . .+A cos[w t+(N 1) ]. (131)
Expressing the amplitude terms as real parts of a complex number, we can write
the resultant complex amplitude in terms of the sum of a geometric series
1 eiN
R = A ei w t 1 + ei + ei2 + ei3 + . . . + ei(N 1) = A ei w t
. (132)
1 ei
To obtain the intensity we multiply this with its complex conjugate, giving
(1 eiN )(1 eiN ) 1 cos N
I = R2 = A2 i i
= A2
(1 e )(1 e ) 1 cos
2
2 2
2 sin (N /2) sin sin N
= A = I0 , (133)
sin2 (/2) 2 sin2
where, as in the double slit, I0 = A20 , = /2 = (d + b) sin / and =
d sin /. We can observe, upon substitution of N = 2 in this formula, that it
readily reduces to the intensity distribution of the double slit.
ty
The expression for the intensity distribution consist of two terms
es
(a) The first term I0 sin2 /2 is the intensity distribution of a single slit diffrac-
us
ot
tion. So, this term is due to the contribution of diffraction occurring at each
Pr
sN
slit.
(b) The second term sin2 N / sin2 is the distribution of intensity due to inter-
an
as
sin N
lim = N, (134)
m sin
Dr
Such maxima are called as principal maxima. Physically, at these maxima the
fields produced by each of the slits are in phase, and therefore, they add providing
the resultant field to be N times the field produced by each of the slits. For n = 0
we have = 0. In this direction we get the zero order principal maxima. If we
substitute n = 1, 2, 3 . . . then we obtain the first, second, third, . . . order principal
maxima respectively.
which corresponds to the minima of the single slit diffraction pattern or when
(d + b) sin
sin N = 0 N = N = m
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es
N (d + b) sin = m . (139)
us
ot
Here m can take all integer values except 0, N, 2N, 3N, . . .. This is because these
Pr
sN
2 (N 1) (N + 1)
(d + b) sin = , ,..., , ,
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Cl
N N N N
(N + 2) (2N 1) (2N + 1)
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two such consecutive minima, the intensity has to be maximum. These maxima
are called as secondary maxima. As the number of slits become very large,
the intensity of the secondary maxima diminishes and therefore are not visible
in the grating spectra. As there are N 1 minima between adjacent principal
maxima, there must be N 2 secondary maxima between two principal maxima.
The positions of the secondary maxima are given by
(2 m + 1) (2 m + 1)
N = or N (d + b) sin = . (142)
2 2
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15.1.4 Highest possible order
es
us
Since | sin | 1 we can observe from equation (135) that n cannot be greater
ot
than (d + b)/. Thus, there will only be a finite number of principal maxima in
Pr
sN
nmax = . (145)
N
oh
Cl
where N = 1/(d + b) is the number of lines ruled per unit width of the grating.
am
We have seen that in the diffraction pattern produced by N slits, the mth -order
principal maximum occurs at
.M
.Further the minima occurs at the angles given by the equation (140). Thus, if
m + 1m and m 2m are the angles of diffraction corresponding to the first
minimum on either side of the mth order principal maximum, then the angular
halfwidth of the mth order principal maximum is given by
1
4m = (1m + 2m ) (147)
2
For a larger value of N we have 1m 2m = 4m . Clearly
a sin (m + 4m ) = m . (148)
N
But
The above equation shows that the angular width of the principal maxima de-
creases with increase in N i.e., as the number of slits increases the principal max-
ima become sharper.
ty
es
As already mentioned in the previous section, an arrangement consisting of a large
us
number of equidistant slits is known as a diffraction grating and the correspond-
ot
Fraunhoffer in 1821, first invented the grating by winding a fine wire round
two screws placed in parallel. These gratings had from 40 to 340 lines per inch.
an
Using these Fraunhoffer managed to measure the wavelength of the sodium D-line.
as
Later he started to rule the lines on a thin gold film deposited on a glass plate.
oh
Cl
Finally he mastered ruling the lines on a glass surface using diamond as a ruling
point. The best grating manufactured by him was half an inch wide and had an
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interval of 3m i.e., 8000 lines per inch grating. Now a days gratings are prepared
by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass surface with a fine diamond tip. The
an
ruled lines scatter light and are effectively opaque to light while the space between
any two lines is transparent and acts as slit. R. W. Wood showed that pyrex glass
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lines will correspond to different angles of diffraction. Thus the grating spec-
trum provides us with an easily obtainable experimental setup for determination
of wavelengths. We also know that for narrow principal maxima i.e., sharper spec-
tral lines, a large value of N is required. A good-quality grating, therefore, requires
a large number of slits (typically about 15,000 per inch). This is achieved by rul-
ing grooves with a diamond point on an optically transparent sheet of material;
the grooves act as opaque spaces. After each groove is ruled, the machine lifts
the diamond point and moves the sheet forward for the ruling of the next groove.
Since the distance between two consecutive grooves is extremely small, the move-
ment of the sheet is obtained with the help of the rotation of a screw which drives
the carriage carrying it. Further, one of the important requirements of a good-
quality grating is that the lines be as equally spaced as possible; consequently, the
pitch of the screw must be constant, and it was not until the manufacture of a
nearly perfect screw (which was achieved by Rowland in 1882) that the problem
of construction of gratings was successfully solved.
Because of the expenses involved in preparation of a grating, commercial grat-
ings are produced by pouring in cellulose acetate on the ruled surface of the origi-
nal grating and the solution is allowed to harden to form a strong thin film. This
replica grating is then detached from the parent grating and mounted between
two grass plated to form a plane transmission grating. However, if the cellulose
acetate dried film is placed on a plane silvered surface, the grating formed is called
a reflection grating. Usually the number of lines on such a grating can range
from 12000 lines per inch to 30000 lines per inch.
ty
The direction in which principal maxima occurs in a grating is given by the grating
es
equation
us
ot
n
sin = = n N , (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) (150)
Pr
sN
d+b
where N = 1/(d + b) is the number of lines ruled per unit width of the grating.
an
The length (d + b) is called the grating element. [Note : If N is the number of
as
lined per inch on the grating then N (b + d) = 1 inch = 2.54 cm. Accordingly the
oh
Cl
value of N will be N = 2.54/(b + d).] The above equation can be used to study
the dependence of the angle of diffraction on the wavelength . For n = 0, we get
am
central maxima is of the same color as the source itself. However, for n 6= 0,
the angles of diffraction are different for different wavelengths, so various spectral
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lines appear at different positions. Hence by measuring the angles of diffraction for
various colors one can calculate the values of the wavelengths by knowing the order
of the spectrum. Differentiating the grating equation with respect to wavelength
Dr
we have
d nN
= . (151)
d cos
If is very small, we can assume that cos 1, so d n for a given d. It shows
that for a given m, the ratio d/d is just a constant value. Such a spectrum is
known as a normal spectrum. In this the difference in angle for two spectral
lines is directly proportional to the difference in wavelengths. Also since d N ,
therefore if the number of lines per width of the grating is large then the angular
dispersion of the grating spectra will also be large.
1. Maxima appears as sharp, bright parallel lines and is termed as spectral line.
2. The wavelength of a spectral line can be determined using the grating equa-
tion (152).
ty
3. For a particular wavelength , the angle of diffraction is different for prin-
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cipal maxima of different orders.
us
ot
Pr
4. For any polychromatic light, at the centre i.e., at = 0 all the wavelengths
sN
provide their zeroth order maximum and hence the zeroth order maximum
is of the same color as the source color.
an
as
7. Most of the intensity is concentrated at the zeroth order and the rest is
an
directly proportional to the number of lines ruled per unit width of the
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es
grating, N ,
us
ot
inversely proportional to cos .
Pr
sN
If the diffraction angle is very small then cos 1. So for small diffraction angle
the third factor can be neglected. Then it is clear that d d. A spectrum of
an
as
of the objective of the telescope, then dx = f d, where f is the focal length of the
objective. Using this we can determine the linear dispersion dx/d as
am
dx d f nN
= f =
an
d d cos
f nN
.M
dx = d. (154)
cos
This linear dispersion is used to study photographs of a spectrum.
Dr
Figure 31: (b) Schematic representation of Rayleighs criterion for the resolving
power of a grating. Note the separation of maxima in (a) and close overlapping of
the spectrum in (c).
ty
diffraction patterns can be distinguished from each other. To measure the resolving
es
power of an instrument Rayleigh proposed that, two point objects lying close
us
ot
diffraction pattern of one of them falls on the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of the other. This is called as the Rayleigh criterion for the resolution
and is also known as Rayleighs limit of resolution.
an
as
oh
Cl
The ability of a grating to form two separate diffraction maxima for two very
close wavelengths, thereby resolving them, is called the resolving power of the
grating. Using Rayleighs criterion we can say that, two spectral lines formed in
an
a grating, are resolvable if the central maxima of the diffraction pattern of one of
.M
the wavelengths falls over the first minimum due to the other wavelength, or vice
versa as shown in in figure 31(b).
In order to determine the resolving power of a grating, let us assume that
Dr
and + d are the wavelengths of the two coherent sources. Then the resolving
power Rp of the grating is given by /d. In order to detrmine this, we know that
the nth order principal maxima of the wavelength in the direction n satisfies
(d + b) sin n = n , (155)
while the minimas are obtained in the direction , for the condition
As there are N 1 minima in between two adjacent principal maxima, the first
minimum adjacent to the nth order principal maxima in the direction n + dn
occurs for
N (d + b) sin (n + dn ) = (nN + 1) . (157)
If this direction corresponds to the principal maxima of the other wavelength
+ d, then
(d + b) sin (n + dn ) = n ( + d)
N (d + b) sin (n + dn ) = N n ( + d). (158)
Now applying Rayleigh criterion to the equations (157) and (158), we have
(n N + 1) = n N, ( + d) = n N d. (159)
Rp = = n N. (160)
d
ty
es
This shows that the resolving power of the grating depends on the number of lines
us
ot
ruled per unit length N on the grating and the order of the diffraction pattern n.
Pr
sN
an
as
oh
Cl
am
an
.M
Dr