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Calculus Lesson 3
Calculus Lesson 3
Lesson 3
3.1 Ellipses
An ellipse is defined as the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the
plane have a constant sum. In this section, we derive equations for ellipses in the coordinate
plane and show how to find ellipses dimensions and foci directly from these
these equations. We also
introduce a quantity called the eccentricity of an ellipse, which measures the extent to which the
ellipse is out of round.
Fig. 3.1: The ellipse defined by the relation PF1 + PF2 = 2a leads to the co-ordinate
co equation
x 2 a 2 + y 2 b2 = 1 .
If the two points, called foci,, are taken at F1 (c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) (as
as in Fig. 3.1) and the sum of
the distances PF1 + PF2 is denoted by 2a , then, the coordinates of a point P ( x, y ) on the ellipse
satisfy the equation (show this as an exercise)
( x + c)2 + y 2 + ( x c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a
x2 y2
+ = 1 . (3.1
3.1)
a2 a2 c2
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Of the triangle F1F2 P , the sum of two sides PF1 + PF2 is greater than the third side F1F2 = 2c ,
the term a 2 c 2 in Eq. (2.4) is positive and has a real positive square root, which we denote by
b . Then, Eq. (4.4) takes a more compact form
x2 y2
+ = 1 (3.2)
a2 b2
Eq. (3.2) reveals that the curve is symmetric about both axes and lies inside the rectangle
bounded by the lines x = a , x = a , y = b and y = b . The intercepts of the curve are ( a, 0)
and (0, b) . The curve intersects each axis at an angle 90o , since the slope
3.1.2 Axes
In Eq. (3.2), b2 = a 2 c 2 is less than a 2 . The major axis of the ellipse is the segment of length
2a between the x-intercepts ( a , 0) . The minor axis is the line segment of length 2b between the
y-intercepts (0, b) . The quantity a is called the semi-major axis and the quantity b is called the
semi-minor axis.
x2 y2
Suppose in the equation + = 1 .. (3.2) of an ellipse the coordinates x and y are
a2 b2
interchanged so that the equation of the ellipse becomes
x2 y2
+ = 1 . (3.3).
b2 a2
Then, this equation represents an ellipse with its major axis vertical rather than horizontal,
because, the major axis is the longer of the two axes. Therefore, when analyzing an equation of
an ellipse to find out which way the major axis is oriented, we simply find the intercepts on the
axes of symmetry and then, we know which way the major axis runs.
57
The center of an ellipse is the point of intersection of its axes. The standard equations for the
ellipses whose axes are parallel to the coordinate axes and whose centers lie at the point ( h, k )
are listed in the box given below.
Equations (3.4) and (3.5) have been derived by applying the translation x = x h , y = y k
and observing that the resulting equations in primed coordinates are
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
+ =1 and + = 1.
a2 b2 b2 a2
Solution By collecting x and y terms separately and completing the square, we obtain
( x + 2) 2 ( y 1) 2
+ =1
4 9
Since 9 > 4, this is in the form of Eq. 2.8 with a = 3, b = 2, h = 2 and k = 1.
The center of the ellipse is the point ( h, k ) = (2, 1) //.
( 2, 1 + 5) and ( 2, 1 5) //
Now consider the equation of an ellipse in its reduced form x 2 a 2 + y 2 b2 = 1 , a > b > 0 .
The distance c from the center of the ellipse to either focus is determined by the equation
c= a 2 b 2 . If we keep a fixed and vary the focal distance c over the interval 0 c a ,
resulting ellipses will vary in shape. They are circular when c = 0 (so that a = b ) and become
flatter as c increases until in the extreme case c = a , the ellipse becomes the line segment F1F2 .
The ratio
c a 2 b2
e = = (3.6)
a a
called the eccentricity of the ellipse, varies from 0 to 1 and indicates the degree of departure
from circularity.
The quantity eccentricity is used to describe the shapes of the elliptical orbits of the comets and
planets that revolve around the sun and the satellites that orbit the earth. The planets in the solar
system revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with sun at one focus. Most of the planets,
including the earth, have orbits that are nearly circular as can be seen from their eccentricity
values that lie between 0.01 and 0.09. However, the planets Mercury and Pluto have fairly
eccentric orbits with relatively large eccentricity values 0.21 and 0.25 respectively.
EXAMPLE 2 The orbit of the comet Kohoutek is an ellipse 44 AU wide by 3600 AU long and
the orbit of Halleys comet is an ellipse 9.12 AU wide by 36.18 AU long. Find the
eccentricity of the two orbits. (1 AU or 1 astronomical unit is the semimajor axis
of the earths orbit and is about 149,597,871 km.)
a2 b2 18002 222
Solution For the comet Kohoutek, e = = = 0.9999 1
a 1800
a 2 b2 18.092 4.562
For the Halleys comet, e = = = 0.97
a 18.09
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While a parabola has one focus and one directrix, each ellipse has two foci and two directrices.
The directrices are the lines perpendicular to the major axes of the ellipse at distances a e
from its center (see Fig 2.10).. The parabola has the property that PF = 1 PD for any point P on
it, where F is the focus and D is the point nearest P on the directrix. For an ellipse, it is possible
to show that the relations that equivalent to the above are PF1 = e PD1 and PF2 = e PD2 .
3.1.5 Applications
Although there are many applications of ellipses found in both man
man-made
made components and in the
natural environment, here we mention only a few important ones. Ellipses appear in airplane
wings and sometimes in gears designed for racing bicycles. Stereo syst
systems
ems often have elliptical
styli and water pipes are sometimes designed with elliptical cross sections to allow the pipe to
expand without breaking when freezing. Triggering mechanisms in some lasers are elliptical and
stones on a beach become more and more elliptical as they ground down by waters.
3.2 Hyperbolas
A hyperbola is defined as the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in
the plane have a constant difference. In this section, we derive equations for hyperbolas in the
coordinate
rdinate plane and show how to find the foci and asymptotes of the hyperbolas directly from
their equations.
Fig. 3.3:: A hyperbola has two branches. For points on the right hand branch, PF1 PF2 = 2a .
right-hand
If we take two fixed points called foci, at F1 (c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , and the constant equal to 2a
(see Fig. 3.3) then, a point P ( x, y ) lies on the hyperbola if and only if PF1 PF2 = 2a (on
( x + c) 2 + y 2 ( x c) 2 + y 2 = 2 a
or
( x c)2 + y 2 ( x + c) 2 + y 2 = 2 a
The second equation is like the first, with 2a replaced by 2a . Therefore, we write the first one
with 2a and simplify to obtain (do this as an exercise)
x2 y2
+ = 1 . (3.7)
a2 a2 c2
Unlike in the equation for an ellipse, a 2 c 2 is negative because the difference, PF1 PF2 in
two sides of the triangle F1F2 P is less than the third side F1F2 = 2c .
So, the term c 2 a 2 is positive and has a real positive square root which we call b .
b= c2 a 2 b2 = c2 a 2
x2 y2
= 1 .. (3.8)
a2 b2
which is analogous to the equation of an ellipse except for the facts that there is a minus sign
before the second term on the left side and the new relation among a, b and c. The point of
intersection of its axes of symmetry is the center of the hyperbola.
The hyperbola, like the ellipse, is symmetric with respect to both axes and the origin, but it has
no real y-intercept. In fact, no portion of the curve lies between the lines x = a and x = a .
62
If we consider a point P ( x, y ) whose coordinates satisfy Eq. 3.11, the distances PF1 and PF2
will be given by
c c
PF1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2 = a + x and PF2 = ( x c) 2 + y 2 = a x
a a
Since c > a and P ( x, y ) lies either to the right of the line x = a (i.e. x > a ) or else to the left
of the line x = a (i.e. x < a ), the absolute sign in the above results can be removed to get
c c
PF1 = a + x PF1 = a + x
a a
if x > a and if x < a .
c c
PF2 = x a PF2 = a x
a a
As we see, when P lies in the right of the line x = a on the curve, PF1 PF2 = 2a , while P lies
in the left of the line x = a on the curve, PF2 PF1 = 2a . These results show that, when any
point satisfies Eq. 3.8, then the geometric conditions are satisfied. This is the converse of what
we had earlier.
3.2.2 Asymptotes
As a point P on any one of the two hyperbolic curves moves farther and farther away from the
origin, the distance between P and some fixed line tends to zero and this line is an asymptote of
x2 y2 x y x y x y ab
=1 + =1 =
a2 b2 a b a b a b bx + a y
As the point P moves away from the origin on the branch of the curve that lies in the first
quadrant, x and y become infinite and hence, the r.h.s. tends to zero.
lim
x y
x , = 0
a b
y
63
x y b
The line = 0 or y = x may be an asymptote of the curve. To verify this
a b a
b
fact, we can investigate the vertical distance between the line y = x and the curve
a
b 2 lim b b 2
y = x a 2 in the limit x . We see that x x a2 = 0 .
a x a a
Since the vertical distance between the line and the hyperbola approaches zero as x 0 , the
perpendicular distance from points on the hyperbola to the line also approaches zero. Therefore
y = (b a) x is an asymptote of the hyperbola.
b
By symmetry, the line y = x is also an asymptote to the branch of the curve that lies in the
a
fourth quadrant. By following the same procedure it is possible to prove that the same two lines
are also asymptotes to the left-hand branch of the hyperbola.
The fact that the gradients of the two asymptotes are b a and b a , can be made useful in
plotting a hyperbola. For this, we mark the points a on the x-axis and b on the y-axis and
draw a rectangle whose sides pass through these points parallel to the coordinate axes. The
extended diagonals of the rectangle are the asymptotes of the hyperbola. The semi-diagonal
c= a 2 + b 2 can also be used as the radius of a circle that will cut the x-axis at the foci
Now consider the Equation (3.8) of the hyperbola. If we interchange x and y, the new equation
y2 x2
= 1 (3.9)
a2 b2
represents a hyperbola with foci on the y-axis (see Fig 3.4(b)).
64
(
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.4: (a) The hyperbola ( x 2 a 2 ) ( y 2 b 2 ) = 1 . (b) The hyperbola ( y 2 a 2 ) ( x 2 b 2 ) = 1 .
The standard equations for hyperbolas whose axes are parallel to the coordinate axes and whose
centers lie at the point ( h, k ) are listed in the following box.
Equations (3.10) and (3.11)) are derived by applying the translation x = x h and y = y k , and
observing that the resulting equations in primed coordinates are
65
x 2 y 2 y 2 x 2
=1 and =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
EXAMPLE 3 Find the center, vertices, foci and asymptotes of the hyperbola
4 x2 y 2 + 8x + 2 y 1 = 0 .
Solution By completing the squares in x and y terms separately and writing the equation in
standard form
( x + 1) 2 ( y 1)2
+ =1
12 4
By comparing the above equation with Eq. (3.10), we find that a = 1 , b = 2 ,
h = 1 , and k = 1 . Then,
Center: ( h, k ) = (1, 1) //
Foci: ( h a 2 + b 2 , k ) = (1 1 + 4, 1) ( 1 + 5, 1) and ( 1 5, 1) //
3.2.3 Eccentricity
There is no restriction a > b for the hyperbola as there is for the ellipse. The direction in which
the hyperbola opens is controlled by the signs rather than by the relative sizes of the coefficients
of the quadratic terms.
x2 y2
Consider the hyperbola given by the equation = 1.
a2 b2
Then, b= c2 a 2 c 2 = a 2 + b2
We define the eccentricity e of the hyperbola to be e = c a . Since c > a , for a hyperbola e > 1 .
For a hyperbola,, it is possible to verify that the relations PF1 = e PD1 and PF2 = e PD2 . Here
D2 (a e , y ) are the points nearest P on the directrices. This can be done as follows.
As we have shown earlier,
c a c a
PF1 = x + a= e x + and PF2 = x a= e x
a e a e
a a
As we see from Fig 3.5 PD1 = x + and PD2 = x .
e e
From the above results, we can establish the focus-directrix relations
PF1 = e PD1 and PF2 = e PD2 .
When the point P lies on the left branch, by following the same method,
method the focus-directrix
relations can be verified.
3.2.5 Applications
Hyperbolic paths arise in Einsteins theory of relativity.
lativity. They form the basis for long range
navigation (LORAN).. A comet that does not return to its sun follows
follows a hyperbolic path. Some
reflecting
eflecting telescopes use small hyperbolic mirrors in combination with their larger parabolic ones
and smaller elliptical mirrors..
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x = 2, x =0 and x = 2.
At these x-values (points) f ( 2) = f (2) = 0
Then, according to the Rolles theorem, there must be at least one point between
2 and 2, at which the derivative of the polynomial is zero. To check this, set
y = 3x 2 4 = 0 x = 2 3 and x=2 3.
We see that, these two points are located between 2 and 2, satisfying the Rolles
theorem.
If y = f ( x) is continuous at every point of the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable at every
point of its interior (a, b), then there is at least a point with x = c between a and b at which
f (b) f (a )
= f (c ) . (3.12)
ba
Fig. 3.6: Geometrically, the mean value theorem says that somewhere between A and B the curve
has at least one tangent parallel to the chord AB.
As shown in Fig. 3.6, the mean value theorem is the Rolles theorem for a chord instead of an
interval. On the graph of the differentiable function f ( x) defined on an interval a x b ,
there is a point where the tangent is parallel to the chord AB. In Rolles theorem, the line AB is
the x-axis and f (c) = 0 . In this case, the line AB is a chord joining the endpoints of the curve
above a and b, and f (c ) = ( f (b) f ( a )) (b a ) . As the gradient of the tangent at the point
x = c is equal to the gradient of the chord AB, the two lines are parallel to each other.
If f ( x ) is continuous on [a, b], then it has a maximum value ( max f ) and a minimum value
( min f ) on [a, b]. Since f (c ) should lie between these two limits, min f f (c) max f
f (b) f (a )
min f max f (3.13)
ba
If we interpret y = f ( x) as distance travelled from time a up to time x, the inequality (3.13) says
that, the average speed from time a to time b lies between minimum and maximum speeds. Also,
Eq. (3.13) says that at some instant c during the trip, the speed was exactly equal to the average
speed for the trip.
69
Solution f ( x) = x3 f ( x) = 3x 2 f (c) = 3c 2
f ( x) = x3 f (b) = f (2) = 23 = 8
There are two values of the point x = c between a = 2 and b = + 2 where the
EXAMPLE 6 Show that the mean value theorem does not apply to the function f ( x) = x 2 3 on
the interval [ 8, 8] .
Solution f ( x) = x 2 3 f ( x) = (2 3) x 1 3
f (b ) f ( a ) 82 3 ( 8) 2 3 44
= = = 0
ba 8 ( 8) 16
But that f (c) = (2 3)c 1 3 is not zero in the interval [ 8, 8] for any value of c.
The reason being that f ( x ) does not exist at x = 0 , and hence, f ( x) is not
differentiable at every point in the intervals interior as required by the mean
value theorem.
where the min and max of f ( x ) in the interval [0, 1] occur when x = 0 and
x = 1 respectively.
1 f (1) 2 1
2.2 f (1) 2.25 //
50 1 0 5 1
1. C (0, 0), F (0, 2), a=4 2. C (0, 2), F (0, 0), a=3
In Problems 3 10, find the centers, vertices and foci of the ellipses.
( x 7) 2 ( y 5) 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( y + 4) 2
3. + =1 4. + =1
4 25 9 25
7. x 2 + 16 y 2 + 96 y + 128 = 0 8. 4 x 2 + y 2 32 x + 16 y + 124 = 0
9. 9 x 2 + 16 y 2 + 18 x 96 y + 9 = 0 10. x2 + 4 y2 + 2x + 8 y + 1 = 0
11. Find an equation for the ellipse that passes through the origin and has foci at (1, 1) and
(1, 1).
12. The end points of the major axes of an ellipse are (1, 1), (3, 4), (1, 7) and (1, 4). Give an
equation for the ellipse and find its foci.
13. Find an equation for the ellipse of eccentricity 2 3 that has the line x = 9 as a directrix and
the point (4, 0) as the corresponding focus.
(b) About how close does the comet come to the sun in astronomical units? In kilometers?
(c) What is the farthest the comet gets from the sun in astronomical units? In kilometers?
15. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in the ellipse
x 2 + 4 y 2 = 4 with its sides parallel to the coordinate axes. What is the area of the rectangle?
16. Find the center of mass of a thin homogeneous plate that is bounded below by the x-axis and
17. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region enclosed by the ellipse
x 2 4 + y 2 9 = 1 about (a) the x-axis (b) the y-axis. [You will be able to do this problem
once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]
In Problems 2, 3 and 4, find the vertices, foci and eccentricity and asymptotes of the given
hyperbolas.
x2 y2 y2 x2 x2 y2
2. =1 3. =1 4. = 1
9 16 9 16 9 16
In Problems 4 10, find the centers, vertices and foci of the hyperbolas.
5. 9( x 2) 2 4( y + 3) 2 = 36 6. x 2 9( y 1)2 = 9
72
7. y 2 ( x + 2)2 = 8 8. 5 x 2 4 y 2 + 20 x + 8 y = 4
9. 4 y2 = x2 4 x 10. 4 x 2 5 y 2 16 x + 10 y + 31 = 0
11. Find an equation for the hyperbola with foci at (0, 0) and (0, 4) that passes through the point
(12, 9).
12. One focus of a hyperbola is located at the point (1, 3) and the corresponding directrix is the
line y = 2 . Find an equation of the hyperbola if its eccentricity is 3 2 .
13. LORAN. A radio signal was sent simultaneously from towers A and B located several
hundred miles apart on a coast. A ship offshore received a signal from A, 1400 microseconds
before it received the signal from B. Assuming that the radio signals travelled at
3 108 m s 1 find the approximate location of the ship relative to the two towers.
14. Find the volume of the solid generated when the region bounded by the line x = 5 and the
right-hand branch of the hyperbola x 2 y 2 = 9 is revolved (a) about the x-axis, (b) about
the y-axis. [You will be able to do this problem once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]
15. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region enclosed by the hyperbola
x 2 y 2 = 1 and the lines y = 3 and y = 3 (a) about the x-axis, (b) about the y-axis. [You
will be able to do this problem once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]
16. Find the center of mass of a thin homogeneous plate bounded on the left and right by the
hyperbola x 2 y 2 = 9 , below by the x-axis and above by the line y = 4 . [You will be able
to do this problem once Lesson 4 on integration is completed.]
17. The reflective property of hyperbolas. Show that a ray of light directed toward one focus of a
18. Show that an ellipse and a hyperbola that have the same foci A and B (on the x-axis, say)
cross at right angles at their points of intersection (Hint: A ray of light emerging from the
focus A that met the hyperbola at P would be reflected from the hyperbola as if it came
directly from B (Problem 17). The same light ray would be reflected off the ellipse to pass
through B. Thus, BPC is a straight line, where C is a point on the light ray reflected off the
hyperbola at point P.)
1. x 4 + 3 x + 1 = 0, [ 2, 1] 2. x 4 + 2 x 3 2 = 0, [0, 1]
3. 2 x3 3x 2 12 x 6 = 0, [1, 0]
In Problems 4, 5 and 6, apply the mean value theorem with the given f ( x), a and b , and, find c.
4. f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x 1, a = 0, b = 1 5. f ( x ) = x 2 3 , a = 0, b = 1
1
6. f ( x) = x + , a =1 2, b = 2
x
7. Suppose that a function y = f ( x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Show
that if f is never zero on (a, b), then f ( a ) f (b ) .
9. Suppose that y = f ( x) is continuous on [0, 1] and differentiable on (0, 1) and that f (0) = 0 ,
f (1) = 1 . Show that the derivative of f must equal 1 at some point between x = 0 and x = 1 .
10. A motorist drove 30 kilometers during a one-hour trip. Show that the cars speed was equal
to 30 kmph at least once during the trip.
11. Suppose that f ( x)1 (1 + cos x) for 0 x 2 and that f (0) = 3 . Estimate f ( 2) .