16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 6: Heat Conduction: Thermal Stresses

Effect of Solid or Liquid Particles in Nozzle Flow

An issue in highly aluminized solid rocket motors.

3
2Al + O2 → Al2O3
2

m.p. 2072 C , b.p. 2980 C

In modern formulations, with ∼ 20% Al by mass, the Al2O3 mass fraction of the
exhaust can be 35-40%. This material does not expand, so there must be a loss in
exit velocity, hence in Isp.
i i
Assume mass flows mg (gas) ms (solids), non-converting.

The momentum equation is

i i
mg dug + ms dus + Adp = 0

Call ρs the (mass of solids)/(volume) (not the density of the solid, theory)

ρg ug dug + ρs us dus + dp = 0

Define a mass flux function

i
ms ρsus
x= =
i i ρgug + ρsus
mg + ms

⎛ x ⎞
⇒ ρgug ⎜ dug + dus ⎟ + dp = 0
⎝ 1 − x ⎠

dp x
ugdug = − − ugdus
ρg 1−x

The energy equation is similarly,

(1 − x ) ( cpgdTg + ugdug ) + x ( csdTs + usdus ) = 0

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 10
Substitute here ugdug from above:

dp x x
cpgdTg −
ρg
−
1−x
ugdus +
1−x
( csdTs + usdus ) = 0

dp x ⎡
ρg
= cpgdTg +
1−x ⎣
( )
cs dTs + us − ug dus ⎤
⎦

γ
dp P ⎛ T ⎞ γ −1
with no particles (x=0), this gives R g T = cp dT → = ⎜⎜ ⎟
P P0 ⎝ T0 ⎟⎠

With particles, we need to know the history of the velocity slip us − ug and of the
temperature slip Ts − Tg . This is a difficult problem, requiring detailed modeling of
the motion and heating/cooling of the particle. But we can look at the extreme cases
easily.

(a) Very Small Particles → good contact. For sub-micro particles (not a bad
representation of reality), we can say that

us ug = u ,
Ts Tg = T . Then

dp ⎛ x ⎞
= ⎜ cpg + cs ⎟ dT
ρg ⎝ 1 − x ⎠

Note that the mean specific heat ( cpg and cs are per unit mass) is

cp = (1 − x ) cpg + xcs ⎫⎪
( )
⎬ R g = c p − c v = (1 − x ) cpg − cvg = (1 − x ) R g
and also c v = (1 − x ) cvg + xcs ⎪⎭

dp cp
So that = dT
ρg 1−x

dp cp dp cp dT
RgT = dT → =
P 1−x P Rg T

cp
and defining an effective γ by the usual γ = ,
cv

γ
P ⎛ T ⎞ γ −1
= ⎜⎜ ⎟
P0 ⎝ T0 ⎟⎠

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 10
 The equation of motion is now

( ρg + ρs ) udu + dp = 0

Or

ρg
udu + dp = 0
1−x

ρg P P
= =
1−x R g T (1 − x ) R g T

P
udu + dp = 0
RgT

From the two boxed equations we see that everything from here can proceed
as if the gas were simple, but with molecular mass

Mg
M=
1−x

(or R g = (1 − x ) R g ),

and with

c p = (1 − x ) cpg + x cs .

For example,

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ ⎢ ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎥
ue = 2 R g Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎥ Tc , Pc in chamber etc.
γ −1 ⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

For sensitivity analysis it may be of interest to linearize this for x 1 . The

algebra is tedious, but one gets,

ue 1 ⎪⎧ ⎡
≅ 1 − × ⎨1 − c ⎢1 +
(1 − η0 ) ln (1 − η0 ) ⎤ ⎪⎫
⎥⎬
ue0 2 ⎪ ⎢⎣ η0 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 10
 γ −1
cps ⎛P ⎞ γ
with c = , η0 = 1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
cpg ⎝ Pc ⎠

and, of course,

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ ⎢ ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎥
ue0 = 2 R g Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎥
γ −1 ⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

We see from this that if c < 1 ( cps < cpg , which is common), then ue < ue0 (and
∼ ∼
vice-versa).

For a numerical example, look at Problem 2 (attached)

(b) Very Large Particles Hard to quantify, but probably for diameter > 100 µm or
∼
so, the particles have too much inertia (and thermal inertia) to follow the gas
acceleration and cooling. We then have

dus dug ; Ts Tc ( ≅ Tg at chamber)

or dus 0; dTs 0

dp
Returning to the equation, it now looks as if there were no particles:
ρg
dp
= cpgdTg
ρg

(i.e. , particles just do not participate in the dynamics or in the thermal

γ γ −1
P ⎛ T ⎞
balances). So, we still have =⎜ ⎟ . This does not mean zero
P0 ⎜⎝ T0 ⎟⎠
performance effect, though. We do not get the full gas exit velocity

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ ⎢ ⎛ Pe ⎞ γ ⎥
ue = 2 R g Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
γ −1 ⎝ Pc ⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

but the particulates do not contribute to thrust, because they exit at

us ue :

i i
mg ue + ms us
g Isp = i i
= (1 − x ) g Isp0
mg + ms

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 10
 This is actually more loss than in the small particle case (about twice as much,
depending on c).

From the example, this is a serious loss in solid rockets.

Criterion for Slip

4 2
πRp3ρs
3

2 2
dup 2 Rp ρs dup 2 ρsRp
mp
dt
(
= 6πµgRp ug − up ) 9 µg dt
= ug − up τR =
9 µg

dup ug − up
= call ug − up = s up = ug − s
dt τR

dug ds s ds s dug
− = + =
dt dt τR dt τR dt

t
dug −
τR
Say τR and = ag are constant → s ag τR + C e
dt
s ( 0 ) = 0 → C = −ag τR

⎛ ε2 ⎞
1 − ⎜1 − ε + ....⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
= ⎝ ⎠ = 1 − ε + ...
ε 2

⎛ −
t ⎞
⎜
s = ag τR 1 − e τR ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

and ug = ag t

1 t
t τR 1− ...
2 τR
⎛ −
t ⎞
s τR ⎜ τR ⎟
= 1−e
ug t ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1
t τR
t τR

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 10
So, small slip for t τR

L
τR
u

2
L 2 ρs Rp
ug 9 µg

9 µgL
Rp
2 ρs ug

Say
µg ∼ 3 × 10−5 Kg / m / s
L ∼ 0.3 m 3 × 10−5 × 0.3
Rp 4.5 = 0.9 × 10−11 = 3 × 10−6 m = 3µm
ρs ∼ 3 × 103 Kg / m3 3 × 103 × 1.5 × 103
ug ∼ 1.5 × 103 m / s

Rp 3µm → no slip
So,
Rp 3µm → full lag

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 10
Problems

Problem 2

As noted in class, the effect of carrying a mass fraction x of fine solid particles in the
expanding gas in a rocket nozzle can be accounted for by using an average specific
heat ratio

(1 − x ) cpg + xcs
γ =
(1 − x ) cvg + xcs
and an average molecular mass

Mg
M =
1− x

For Al2O3 the high temperature specific heat is cs = 1260 J/Kg/K.

Consider a solid rocket with γ = 1.17 (1.25) , Pe Pc = 0.01, M g = 18 g / mol.
For a 20% aluminum loading in the propellant, x is of the order of 37%.
Calculate the matched specific impulse of the rocket and compare to what it would
be for the same Tc = 3300 K , but with no particles.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 10
Problem 2

Specific heat of clean gas

1.25
r R 1.17 8.314
cpg = = = 3180 J / Kg / K
r − 1 M 0.17 0.018 2309
0.25

2309
cpg 3180 1.25
cvg = = = 2718 J / Kg / K
r 1.17
1845

The specific heat of the solid (or liquid) Al2O3 is cs = 1260 J / Kg / K.

The average specific heat ratio is then

2309
(1 − x ) cpg + x cs (1 − 0.37) × 3180 + 0.37 × 1260
r= = = 1.1336
(1 − x ) cvg + x cs (1 − 0.37) × 2718 + 0.37 × 1260 1.1795
1845

And the average molecular mass ( Ms ∞ ) is

Mg 18
M= = = 28.57 g / mol
1−x 1 − 0.37

Pe
The exit speed for = 0.01 and Tc = 3300 K is then
Pc

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ ⎢ Q ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎥
ue = 2 Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 2613 m / sec
γ −1 M ⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥ 2521
⎣ ⎦

NOTE: Alternatively, and easier to do, you can use

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎥
ue = 2 Cp Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

with C p = (1 − 0 .3 7 ) 3 1 8 0 + 0 .3 7 × 1 2 6 0 = 2 4 6 9 J/Kg/K

(so M is not really needed)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 8 of 10
As a check,

γ R 1.1336 8.314
= = 2469 J/Kg/K
γ −1 M 0.1336 0.02857

as it should.

Under pressure-matched conditions, there is no exit pressure contribution to thrust

or Isp , and hence

2613
Isp = = 266.3 sec
9.81
257.3 s

Without particulate but with the same Pc , Pe and Tc , we would obtain

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
2γ Q ⎢ ⎛ Pe ⎞ γ ⎥
ue0 = Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 3199 m / sec
γ − 1 Mg ⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥ 3029
⎣ ⎦

3199
and Isp0 = = 326.1 sec
9.81 309.1

266.3 ⎞ 16.8%
⎛
There is therefore a loss of ⎜1 − × 100 = 18.3% in Igp
⎝ 326.1 ⎟⎠
257.3
1−
309.1

It is interesting to test the accuracy of the linear approximation given in class for
small x:

γ −1
ue x⎡
1 − ⎢1 −
c ⎛ (1 − η0 ) ln (1 − η0 ) ⎞ ⎥⎤ ; η = 1 − ⎜⎛ Pe ⎞
⎟
γ
⎜1 + ⎟
ue0 2⎢ cpg ⎜ η0 ⎟⎥ 0
⎜P ⎟
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎝ c ⎠

ue
We find η0 = 0.4878 , and then = 0.837 (16.3% loss)
ue0

(not too different, despite large x)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 9 of 10
NOTE: Alternatively, and easier to do, you can use

⎡ γ −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎛P ⎞ γ ⎥
ue = 2 Cp Tc ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ Pc ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

with C p = (1 − 0 .3 7 ) 3 1 8 0 + 0 .3 7 × 1 2 6 0 = 2 4 6 9 J/Kg/K

(So M is not really needed)

γ R 1.1336 8.314
As a check, = = 2469 J/Kg/K as it should.
γ −1 M 0.1336 0.02857

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 6

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 10 of 10