DAC Y R2R Ladder

DAC Y R2R LADDER.

Ilbay Vicua Alexis Fernando
e-mail: alejoj.95@hotmail.com

SUMARY: The following document will describe

the types of digital signal converters to analog signals,
their implementation, specifications and utilities. In
addition, R2R ladder, its concept, its operation, circuits
representing these types of conversions and their
advantages and disadvantages.
KEY-WORDS: Converter, signals, digital, analog.
1 INTRODUCTION
WEIGHTED CURRENTS
Each key d symbolizes a switch, which can be
implemented by JFET transistors and in whose gate, is
electrically related to the output of a bit of a digital circuit.
The highest weighted bit (MSB) and LSB being the least
weighted weight bit. The greater the bit weighting, the
higher the current flowing through the branch. These
occur in a single node and according to Kirchhoff current
law, the sums of these converge in the non-inverting
input, so the output voltage is:

In the real world, analog signals vary constantly,

they can vary slowly as temperature or very quickly as
an audio signal. What happens with analog signals is
that they are very difficult to manipulate, save and then
retrieve accurately.
If this analog information is converted to digital
information, it could be manipulated without problem.
The manipulated information can be taken back to its
analog value if desired with a DAC (Digital to Analog Equation 1.- Weighted currents
Converter).
STAIR NETWORKS
Ladder networks reduce the range of resistance
2 DIGITAL CONVERTER - ANALOG values. An example is shown in figure 1, although we will
not delve into this type of circuits as they are currently
(DAC) overtaken by the R-2R networks.

A DAC usually contains a resistive voltage divider

network, which has a stable and fixed reference voltage
as input. It is necessary to define how exact the
conversion between the analogue and the digital signal
will be, for which the resolution will be defined.
The main parameters that define an analog digital
converter are, firstly, its resolution, which depends on the
number of input bits of the converter. Another basic
feature is the possibility of unipolar or bipolar conversion.
A third is the code used in the input information
generally, the analog digital converters operate with the
natural binary code or with the binary coded decimal
(BCD).
The conversion time is another particularity that defines
the converter required for a given application. It is the
time you need to make the maximum change of your
voltage with a minimum error in its resolution. Other
aspects of the converter are: its reference voltage, which
can be internal or external (if it is external can be varied
between certain margins); The output voltage will be
affected by this factor, this being constituted through a
multiplier converter; Also, the supply voltage, the
temperature range and its internal technology must be
taken into account.
IMPLEMENTATION
The way to implement a DAC is through resistive
networks, either ladder network or R-2R network.
Figure 1.- Red ladder
R-2R NETWORKS
A resistive network, such as that shown in Figure 1,
has the peculiarity that whatever the number of sections
the resistance seen (except at the end) is R. This circuit
can be used as shown in Figure 6 to obtain a digital
converter Very efficient analog.
An implementation of the current R-2R network is as
shown in Figure 2. The virtual mass at the inverting input
of the operational amplifier ensures that the property of
the R-2R network is met. That the regime is equal to that
of the original ladder network is guaranteed by the fact
that whether the key is in one or another position, the
bottom terminal of each resistor is at potential 0 (either
actual or virtual mass). Since the current supplied by the
reference potential is i = Vref / R, the way in which these
currents are distributed shows that

1
 DAC Y R2R Ladder
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Equation 2.- R-2R Ladder
DAC SPECIFICATIONS
There is a wide variety of DACs as integrated circuits
or as encapsulated packages. You must know the most
important specifications of the manufacturers in order to
evaluate a DAC in a certain application.
Resolution: The percentage resolution of a DAC
depends solely and exclusively on the number of bits.
For this reason, the datasheets are detailed in this way. A
10-bit DAC has a more sensitive resolution (greater
accuracy) than an 8-bit DAC. This data is extrapolable to
the specifications of CD players or integrated equipment.
Accuracy: DAC manufacturers have several ways to
establish accuracy or accuracy. The two most common
are called Full Scale Error and Linearity Error (or
sometimes linearity directly), which are usually
expressed as a percentage of the full-scale output of the
drive (% FS).
The full-scale error is the maximum deviation of the
DAC output from its estimated (theoretical) value. The
linearity error is the maximum deviation in the theoretical
stage size. Some of the less economical DACs have full
scale and linearity errors in the range of 0.01% - 0.1%.
Response time: The operating speed of a DAC is
explained as response time, which is the period required
for the output to go from zero to full scale when the
binary input changes from all zeros to all ones. The
common response time values will vary from 50 ns to 10
ms. In general, ACDs with current output will have
shorter response times than those with a voltage. For
example, a DAC can operate as either a current output
or a voltage output. Its response time at its output is
lower when using current output than when the voltage is
used.
Balance Voltage: In theory, the output of a DAC will
be zero volts when in the binary input are all zeros. In
practice, there will be a small output voltage produced by
the DAC amplifier balance error. This displacement is
commonly 0.05% FS. Almost all DACs with voltage will
have an external balance adjustment capability that
eliminates the imbalance.
Although the manufacturers' instructions often do not
conform to reality, at least we already know what it is for
and how an analog digital converter works. The
objective, as we always do in CEC, is for the reader to
have his or her own criteria to face the search or
purchase of a DAC.
APPLICATIONS
DACs can be used in several ways the most common
applications are described below.
Control: The digital output of a computer can be
converted into an analogue control signal to adjust the
speed of an engine or to control almost any physical
variable.
2
Automatic analysis: Personal computers can be
programmed to generate the analog signals (through a
DAC) that are needed to analyze analog circuits. The
analog output response of the test circuit will normally be
converted to digital value by an ADC.
Digital amplitude control: A multiplicative DAC can be
used to digitally adjust the amplitude of an analog signal.
3 R-2R LADDER
R2R LADDER is a skillfully arranged set of resistors
that provides the unique action of converting binary
signals into an analog output voltage. It works by the
superposition principle, where switching on the binary
inputs adds more voltage to the output.
Figure 2.- Circuit diagram R2R.
One of the main advantages of these circuits is that
they can be extended depending on the value that is
necessary.
Using a ladder network is a common way of
creating an 8-bit DAC (Digital to Analog), as each control
bit contributes to a binary weighted output voltage.
However, for a high accuracy DAC, the resistors are
trimmed and laser found inside a chip.
The ladder is still a useful construction to use as
you can create a very cheap 8 bit DAC if you are not too
concerned about accuracy (using resistances of 1% will
allow quite good output).
Functioning
The law of Kirchhoff is used that establishes that
the sum of the currents that enter a node must be equal
to the sum of the currents that leave a node. In the
ladder, at each node, the current is divided in half. By
changing the currents at each node of the current flowing
current is weighted binary.
Figure 3.- Kirchhoff's Law in R2R LADDER
Using the superposition principle when more
current is added in a resistor the total voltage that
appears is the sum of the voltages caused by all the
individual currents, ie, as each bit is activated so that the
voltage at the output increases.
 DAC Y R2R Ladder
.

Another smart thing about the R-2R ladder, and the
reason it works is that if you look to the left you always
see the same impedance:
The application of the DAC can be given in
everything that is digital signals that are necessary to be
perceived by the man like for example audio video
recording, among other things.
R-2R is a skillfully arranged set of resistors that
provides the unique action of converting binary signals
into an analog output voltage.
R-2R works by the superposition principle, where
switching at the binary inputs adds more voltage to the
output.

5 REFERENCES
[1] Mikel Etxebarria Isuskiza, Microcontroladores PIC: Teoria y
Practica 2011, Creaciones copyright.
[2]http://www.rosaspage.com/art/como_se_fabrica_un_micropro
Figure 4.- Overlap in R2R cesador.html

Thvenin of the equivalent circuit

Using the Thvenin theorem, the contribution of
each voltage bit can be calculated. A Thvenin circuit is
the equivalent of a network of resistors and voltage
sources (and current sources). It can replace the network
with an equivalent Thvenin circuit and it will function in
exactly the same way as the original network.

Figure 5.- Thvenin equivalent.

Advantages and disadvantages

ADVANTAGE
High conversion speed.
Simple operation.
The circuit is indefinitely extensible for binary
numbers. Therefore, if we use binary inputs
instead of BCD, we can simply duplicate the
length of the network.
DISADVANTAGES
The values of the resistors must be precise,
especially those of the resistors of the MSB
(Most Significant Bit)
Many resistances are required

4 CONCLUSIONS

A DAC is formed by a resistive voltage divider

network, which has a fixed and fixed reference voltage
as input.
The parameters involved in a DAC are resolution,
precision, scale error, response time, and balance
voltage.a