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Drip Irrigation Manual 2005 Israel PDF
Drip Irrigation Manual 2005 Israel PDF
MASHAV CINADCO
MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
COOPERATION COOPERATION
DRIP IRRIGATION
SECOND EDITION
By
Moshe Sne
Irrigation Consultant and Former Director,
Irrigation and Soil Field Service
2005
CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page
List of Tables II
List of Figures III
Foreword to The First Edition VIII
Foreword to the Second Edition IX
Acknowledgments X
1. Introduction 1
The History of Drip Irrigation 1
2. Principles of Drip Irrigation 4
Advantages and Limitations 5
3. The Distribution of Water in The Soil 8
4. The Drip System 14
5. Flow Rate Pressure Relationship 18
6. Pipes and Tubes for Drip Irrigation 28
7. Dripper Types, Structure, Function and Properties 32
8. Accessories 40
9. Filtration 46
10. Fertigation 58
11. Water Quality 64
12. Monitoring and Control 71
13. Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) 74
14. Family Drip Irrigation 80
15. Water Distribution Uniformity 82
16. Drip Irrigation of Crops 84
17. Basics of Drip System Design 93
18. Drip Irrigation Scheduling 106
19. Maintenance 112
20. References and Bibliography 116
Conversion factors 120
I
LIST OF TABLES
No. Page
1. Pressure Units 18
2. The Friction Coefficient ( C ) of Pipes 20
3. The Effect of Dripper Exponent on Head-Loss Flow- 22
Rate Relationship
4. Head losses in Acuanet automatic valve 23
5. Plastro Hydrodrip II Integral Drip Laterals Technical 24
Data
6. PE Pipes for Agriculture 29
7. Internal Diameter and Wall Thickness of LDPE Pipes 29
8. Internal Diameter and Wall Thickness of HDPE Pipes 30
9. PVC Pipes for Agriculture 30
10. Internal Diameter and Wall Thickness of PVC Pipes 31
11. Flow-Rate of Spring Actuated Pressure Regulators 42
12. Characteristics of Water Passageways in Drippers 46
(example)
13. Screen Perforation - examples 47
14. Sand particle size and mesh equivalent 48
15. Nominal Filter Capacity examples 50
16. Relative Clogging Potential of Irrigation Water in Drip 65
Irrigation Systems
17. Threshold and Slope of Salinity Impact on Yield 67
18. Yield Increase and Water Saving in Conversion From 84
Surface to Drip Irrigation
19. Manufacturer Data about the Allowed Lateral Length in 96
the Examined Alternatives
20 Allowed lateral length of Ram 16 PC drippers 97
21. Calculation Form: Head losses in pipes 101
22. Head Loss Calculation Form Pressure Compensated 103
(PC) Drippers
23. Head Loss Calculation 105
24. Irrigation Scheduling Calculation Form (example) 106
25. Irrigation Scheduling Form for Annuals 109
26. Operative Irrigation Schedule 111
II
LIST OF FIGURES
No. Page
1. Clay pot 1
2. Early patents issued for drip irrigation 2
3. Wetting pattern of drip irrigation in different soil textures 4
4. Water distribution in the soil along time 8
5. Water distribution from a single dripper in loamy and sandy soil 9
6. Salt distribution in the wetted volume 10
7. Leaching of salt into the active root-zone by rain 10
8. Diverse root systems 12
9. Typical root systems of field crops 13
10. Root system in drip irrigation vs. root system in sprinkler irrigation 13
11. Simplified scheme of drip system 14
12. Typical layout of drip irrigation system 15
13. Components of drip irrigation system 16
14. Control Head 17
15. Relationship between the dripper exponent and lateral length 22
16. Pressure Compensated dripper flow-pressure relationship 23
17. Non-pressure compensated flow-pressure relationship 23
18. Acuanet automatic valve 24
19. Head loss nomogram, based on Hazen-Williams formula 25
20. Nomogram for calculation of head losses in HDPE pipes 26
21. Nomogram for calculation of head losses in LDPE pipes 27
22. Evolution of the passageway style 32
23. Turbulent flow 33
24. Orifice dripper 33
25. Vortex dripper 33
26. Labyrinth button dripper 33
27. Tape dripper lateral: empty and filled with water 33
28. Point-source and line-source wetting by drippers 34
29. In-line laminar dripper and turbulent dripper 35
30. On-line drippers 35
31. Button drippers insert design 36
III
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
IV
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
62. Hydro-cyclone sand separator head losses and optimal flow rates 49
63. Self-flushing screen filter 52
64. Automatic flushing of disk filters 52
65. High capacity media filters array 53
66. Back-flushing of media filters 53
67. High capcity automatic filter 53
68. Compact automatic filter 54
69. Slow sand filter 55
70. Slow sand filter scheme 56
71. Treflan impregnated disk stack 57
72. Fertilizer tank 58
73. Venturi injector 59
74. Piston and diaphragm hydraulic pumps 59
75. No-drain hydraulic pump 59
76. Mixer 60
77. Electric pump 60
78. Check valve 63
79. Tandem backflow preventer - exploded 63
80. Tandem backflow preventer 63
81. Installed backflow preventer 63
82. Chlorine- distribution below and between drippers 68
83. Salt level in relation to distance from dripper 68
84. Water quality for irrigation 68
85. Tensiometers 71
86. Soil moisture capacitance sensor 71
87. Multi-factor simultaneous phytomonitoring 72
88. Scheme of SDI system 74
89. Wetting pattern in SDI 77
90. Burying SDI lateral 78
91. Three-shank SDI lateral burying machine 79
92. Bucket kit 80
V
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
VI
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
VII
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
The need for a comprehensive and updated book on Drip Irrigation has long been felt
as reflected by the intensive scheduling of international irrigation courses in
CINADCOs yearly training program. The booklet on Drip Irrigation written by
Elimelech Sapir, and the late Micha Shani, in 1976 was updated in the early 1990s
and is used extensively in CINADCOs irrigation training courses, in Israel and
abroad. However, with the rapid expansion and technological advances of Israeli
irrigation equipment, it became apparent that more detailed and systematic literature
was needed.
Moshe Sne, the former Director of the Irrigation and Soil Field Service of the Israeli
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Extension Service, has been greatly
involved in the subject of irrigation systems and techniques in general, and drip
irrigation in particular, for many years. He has also served as the chief irrigation
course adviser for CINADCO. On the eve of his retirement from government service,
he committed himself to the worthy task of preparing a book on Drip Irrigation in
Israel.
We wish to thank the author for the great amount of work and effort he put into the
writing and compilation of the drip irrigation subject matter presented here. He was
greatly assisted by the leading irrigation companies in Israel who allowed the use of
pictures, charts, diagrams and figures. We wish to thank them and the many
professionals who assisted Mr. Sne in this project and are credited throughout the
book.
We are happy to share the professional material presented here with irrigation
experts, agriculturalists and others in the field, in countries throughout the world that
participate in Israels international cooperation programs. The contents have been
formulated particularly for the physical conditions prevailing in Israel. These are
recommendations only and should not take the place of local detailed irrigation
planning.
This is the first edition of Drip Irrigation printed in a limited number of copies. We
would appreciate your comments and suggestions for the coming editions.
May 2004
VIII
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION
A year has passed since the publication of the First Edition of Drip Irrigation written
by Moshe Sne. At the time of the first printing, we requested from the irrigation
experts, irrigation course participants and others who would be reading the book to
give us their comments and suggestions.
This was done and the author incorporated the comments and suggestions received,
as well as his own changes and corrections into this publication.
We are pleased to bring to print in May 2005 the second edition of Drip Irrigation. We
are greatly appreciative of the efforts made by Moshe Sne to improve upon and
correct the already comprehensive material he compiled previously.
As we mentioned in the Foreword to the First Edition, we are happy to share this
professional material with irrigation experts, agriculturalists and other interested
parties in countries throughout the world that participate in Israel's international
agricultural development programs. In order to facilitate this purpose, the book is
currently being translated into Spanish and Russian. The content has been
formulated particularly for the physical conditions prevailing in Israel. These are
recommendations only and should not take the place of local detailed irrigation
planning.
May 2005
IX
ACKNOWLEGMENTS
I would like to thank my colleagues and friends, as well as the Irrigation course 2004
participants for proofreading the preliminary first edition and for the helpful remarks
and corrections. Their valuable contribution had been embedded in the current
Second Edition of the publication being printed in 2005.
I am deeply grateful to the authors of the books and papers cited in the Reference
List and the Bibliography. The vast material on drip irrigation inspired me and filled
me with admiration for the enthusiastic and hard-working people in the forefront of
irrigation technology. I would also like to thank the manufacturers for the wealth of
information embodied in their brochures and professional guides. I am particularly
grateful to Mr. Nachman Karu and Mr. Dubi Segal for their contribution of impressive
and useful graphic material.
Last but not least, thanks to Ms. Shirley Oren and Ms. Bernice Keren for their patient
editing and elaboration of the Second Edition of Drip Irrigation.
Moshe Sne
May 2005
AUTHOR'S NOTE
In the first version, uploaded to Scribd on September 19, some mishaps occurred
during the conversion from the print to the electronic version, mostly in matching
between the table of contents, and the actual document layout. These discrepancies
had been adjusted. Additionally, replacement of some outdated figures and minor
corrections and adjustments had been done in this version of the document.
The author
November 2009
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Drip irrigation, by definition, is an irrigation technology. However, during the last four
decades, since the start of its world-wide dissemination during the early sixties, it
appeared not only as an irrigation technology but as a comprehensive agro
technology that changed crop growing practices and widened modern agricultural
horizons. Drip irrigation facilitated increased efficiency of water use in irrigation and
triggered the introduction and development of fertigation the integrated application
of water and nutrients. It raised the upper threshold of brackish water use in irrigation
and simplified the harmonization of irrigation with other farming activities. Drip
irrigation facilitated optimal spoon-feeding of water and nutrients to crops, attuned
to the changing requirements along the growing season. Drip irrigation enabled the
accurate supply of water and nutrients to the active root-zone with minimal losses. In
protected cropping, it facilitated the combination of the advantages of hydroponics
with improved plant support by solid detached media. Drip irrigation has promoted
the sophistication of monitoring, automation and control of irrigation, as well as the
diversification of filtration technology. Drip irrigation has gained momentum during the
last two decades. The world-wide area under drip irrigation is estimated at 3 million
ha., out of a total area of 25-30 million ha. irrigated with pressurized irrigation
technologies. The area of surface irrigation is estimated at 270-280 million ha.
THE HISTORY OF DRIP IRRIGATION
From the early days of irrigated agriculture, farmers and irrigation professionals
looked after concepts and technologies to improve water utilization in agriculture.
One of these concepts was the localized application of water directly to the root zone.
Another concept was subsurface water application to avoid evaporation from the soil
surface.
Such technology was used by the ancient
Persians and is still applied in some countries in
Asia and Africa. Clay pots made of unglazed
indigenous earth-ware have many micro-pores in
their walls. These micro-pores do not allow water
to flow freely from the pot, but slowly release the
water in the direction in which suction develops by
the tension gradient. The pots are buried neck-
deep into the ground, filled with water and the Fig. 1. Clay pot
plants are planted next to them.
In south-east Asia, bamboo drip irrigation has been in use for more than 200 years.
Stream and spring water was tapped into bamboo pipes in order to irrigate
plantations. About 18-20 l/min of water that enters the bamboo pipe system flows
along several hundred meters and is finally distributed to each plant at a rate of 20-
80 drops per minute. This traditional system is still in use by tribal farmers to drip-
irrigate their black pepper plots.
The concept of water saving was further elaborated during the nineteenth century.
People involved with irrigation were dissatisfied with the wasteful surface irrigation
technologies. There is evidence that in 1860, subsurface tile pipes were used
experimentally for irrigation in Europe. Patents for water saving irrigation
technologies were registered in Europe and the United States. Patent # US146,572
dated January 20, 1874 by Nehemiah Clark of Sacramento, California, describes a
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DRIP IRRIGATION
pipe with a "non-clogging" leaking connection. In the year 1888, Mr. Haines of
Nashville, Iowa, registered a patent of the direct application of water to the root
system of orchard trees. In 1917, Dr. Lester Kellar introduced an agricultural drip
system in a symposium at Riverside, CA., but further development of drip irrigation in
the United States was delayed for another 40 years.
Perforated pipes for subsurface irrigation were used experimentally in Germany in
1920 and in the USSR in 1923. In 1926, Mr. Nelson of Tekoa, Washington, had
registered a patent for a subsurface irrigation system. Another subsurface irrigation
system was examined in 1934 at the New Jersey and Indiana Agricultural
Experiment Stations. After WWII, micro-tubes were used for greenhouse irrigation in
England and France. In 1954, Mr. Richard Chapin developed in the USA, drippers for
irrigation of potted plants in greenhouse. Mr. Hansen, of Denmark, developed a small
plastic tube for the irrigation of potted plants in greenhouses.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
3
DRIP IRRIGATION
The lateral movement of the water beneath the surface of a medium or heavy
textured soil is more pronounced than in sandy soils. Whenever the dripper's flow
rate exceeds the soil intake (infiltration) rate and its hydraulic conductivity, the water
ponds on the soil surface and wets larger soil volume.
The vertical cross section of the wetted volume in sandy soils resembles a carrot. In
medium textured soil, the dimensions of the wetting depth and wetted diameter are
4
DRIP IRRIGATION
similar, while in heavy soils the horizontal dimension of the wetted volume is greater
than that of the wetted depth.
Indicative values for the wetted diameter by a single dripper may be 30 cm in a light
soil, 60 cm in a medium soil and 120 cm in a fine textured soil.
Due to the partial wetting of the soil in drip irrigation, water has to be applied more
frequently than with other irrigation methods that wet the entire area such as sprinkler
and flood irrigation.
The capacity to apply water to each plant separately in small, frequent and accurate
dosing enables high application efficiency. Water is delivered from the emitter
continuously in drops at one point, infiltrates into the soil and wets the root zone
vertically by gravity and horizontally due to capillarity.
During the last three decades, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) has gained
momentum. The wetting pattern with SDI is somewhat different from that obtained
with on-surface emitters.
The localized and limited wetting pattern by drip systems requires the application of
fertilizers through the drip system, a technique named fertigation.
The great number of water emitters per unit area requires the minimization of the
single emitters flow-rate (discharge). The customary dripper flow-rate range is 0.1
8 liter per hour (l/h). The low emitter flow-rate is achieved by diverse designs: a tiny
orifice, large head losses within a long flow path, turbulent or vortex flow.
The narrow passageways in the emitters and the low flow rates lead to the
accumulation and precipitation of substances that may fully or partially clog the
system. Adequate filtration is a prerequisite for the implementation of drip irrigation.
Complementary chemical treatments are required when low quality water is used for
irrigation.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF DRIP IRRIGATION
Advantages
Drip irrigation technology has many advantages over other irrigation technologies.
Drip irrigation significantly increases the efficiency of water utilization and improves
the growing conditions of the irrigated crops.
Accurate localized water application: Water is applied precisely to a
restricted soil volume, corresponding with the distribution of the root system.
Appropriate water management can minimize water and nutrient losses
beneath the root-zone.
Minimization of evaporation losses: The reduced wetted upper surface area
decreases water losses by direct evaporation from soil surface.
Elimination of water losses at the plot's margins: with drip irrigation, water
does not flow beyond the limits of the irrigated plot as happens with sprinkler
irrigation. The drip system can actually fit any plot, regardless of shape, size or
topography.
Decrease in weed infestation: The limited wetted area decreases the
germination and development of weeds.
5
DRIP IRRIGATION
6
DRIP IRRIGATION
High initial cost: Due to the large amount of laterals and emitters, mobility of
drip systems during the cropping season is rarely feasible. Most systems are
solid-set arrays, resulting in high cost of equipment per area unit.
Salt accumulation on the soil's surface: Upward capillary movement of
water from the wetted soil volume and evaporation from the soil's-surface
leave behind a high concentration of salts in the upper soil layer. Light rains in
the beginning of the rainy season, leach the accumulated salts into the active
root zone and may cause salinity damage to the crop.
Vulnerability of on-surface laterals and drippers to damage by animals:
The laterals, particularly the thin-walled tapes and the tiny drippers are prone
to damage by rodents, rats, moles, wild pigs and woodpeckers. Subsurface
laterals and drippers may be also damaged by rodents.
Negligible influence on microclimate: Irrigation is occasionally used to
improve local climate conditions reducing temperature during heat spells
and rising the temperature during frost events. With sprinkler and sprayer
irrigation, a fraction of the sprinkled water evaporates, releasing energy to the
atmosphere in cold weather and absorbing heat in hot weather. Naturally, this
does not occur with drip irrigation
Restricted root volume: The frequent water applications to limited soil
volume lead to the development of restricted and sometimes shallow root
systems. As a consequence, the crop depends on frequent water applications
and increases its susceptibility to water stress during extremely hot weather.
High-velocity winds can uproot large trees with shallow root systems.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Fig. 4. Water distribution in the soil along time: (a) on-surface drip irrigation. (b) SDI
Two driving forces simultaneously affect the flow of water in the soil: gravity and
capillary force. Gravity drives the water downwards. Capillary forces drive the water
in all directions. The equilibrium between these two forces determines the distribution
pattern of water within the soil.
The water distribution pattern affects the spreading of the roots in the soil and also
the distribution and accumulation of the dissolved chemicals - nutrients and salts.
Soil Wetting Patterns
The main factors affecting the distribution pattern of water and solutes in the wetted
soil volume with drip irrigation are listed below:
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Soil Properties
Capillary forces are more pronounced in finer textured soils than gravity; hence the
horizontal width of the wetted soil volume is greater than the vertical depth. The
wetted volume shape resembles the shape of an onion. In medium textured soils, the
wetted volume is pear-shaped, and in soils with a coarse texture the vertical water
movement is more pronounced than the horizontal one so that the wetting volume
resembles a carrot.
Soil structure also influences water distribution. Compact layers and horizontal
stratification enhance the horizontal flow of water at the expense of vertical
percolation. On the other hand, vertical cracking in compacted soils enhances
preferential downward flow of water followed by incomplete wetting of the upper soil
layers.
Lateral Placement
The greatest wetting horizontal diameter by drippers of on-surface drip laterals
is near the soil surface, 10 30 cm deep.
The greatest wetting horizontal diameter by drippers of subsurface drip laterals
is at the depth of the lateral.
The vertical dimension of wetted soil above the emitter in SDI is about of the
wetted width in sandy soil and about of the wetted width in silty and clayey soils.
Emitter Flow Rate
For the same application
time-length and amount
of water applied:
A lower flow rate
renders a narrow
and deeper
wetting pattern.
A higher flow rate
renders a wider
and shallower
wetting pattern.
On-surface
drippers create
wider on-surface
ponds and the
horizontal wetted
diameter is bigger
than in lower flow
rates.
Fig. 5. Water distribution from a single dripper in loamy
Emitter Spacing
and sandy soil. 4 l/h and 16 l/h flow rates, 4, 8, 16 l dose
For the same application After Bressler 1977
time-length and volume of water applied:
Narrow spacing with overlapping renders narrower and deeper wetting pattern. The
wetted width by each dripper increases until adjacent circles overlap. After
overlapping, most of the flow is directed downwards
9
DRIP IRRIGATION
The lower surface tension increases the affect of gravity at the expense of the
capillary forces, resulting in a narrower and deeper wetting pattern.
Salt and Nutrient Distribution
Dissolved salts tend to accumulate at the perimeter of the wetted zone, particularly at
the soil surface where the water content of the soil is lower. A saline ring develops
around the wetted circles on the soil's surface, along with a zone of salt accumulation
at a depth which depends on the leaching efficiency. Good drip irrigation
management at an appropriate irrigation frequency, replenishes the water removed
by the crop, so that the soil water content in the soil remains high enough to maintain
a low concentration of soluble salts. The nutrients applied with the irrigation water
also follow the same distribution pattern.
Fig. 6. Salt distribution in the wetted volume Fig. 7. Leaching of salt into the active root-
Adapted from Kremmer & Kenig, 1996 zone by rain Adapted from Kremmer & Kenig, 1996
Salt accumulation at the soil's surface and in the uppermost soil layer requires
implementation of preventive measures with the first rains after a dry season.
Irrigation should be applied as long as the rain lasts as to avoid the accumulation of
the salts leached from the soil surface into the active root-zone.
Soil Properties that affect the Water Distribution Pattern
As mentioned before, soil properties affect the flow of water in the soil as well as the
pattern of the wetted volume.
10
DRIP IRRIGATION
The balance between the vertical and the horizontal movement is determined by soil
properties such as infiltration and percolation rates that are dependent on the soils
hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity is expressed in units of velocity
(length/time) per unit cross section (m/sec). A given soil does not have a constant
value of hydraulic conductivity. In one and the same soil the hydraulic conductivity is
higher in saturated soil than in unsaturated state. It also depends on the degree of
stratification - the presence of compact soil layers and the moisture content of the soil
before irrigation. Though different mathematical models have been developed for the
prediction of soil water distribution patterns, the use of empirical field techniques for
the estimation of the size and volume of the wetted soil is preferable.
While plants are not consuming water, as it happens at night, the volume of the soil
that is wetted depends on the volume of water applied by the dripper and the change
in water content in the wetted volume.
V = L X [100/(Mf-Mi)]
Where
V = Soil wetted volume, l'.
L = Amount of the applied water, l'
Mf is the average percentage of water content per unit volume in the wetted zone
after irrigation and Mi is the average percentage of soil water content per volume unit
before irrigation.
For example, if 100 l' of water were applied at night and the soil water content in the
wetted volume increased by 10% per volume, then the wetted volume would be 1000
l' (1 m3) of soil.
Mf Mi = 10%
V = 100l X (100/10) = 1000l
Wetting Width and Depth
Selection of the most suitable dripper and determination of the spacing between
laterals and between drippers on the lateral, commit a thorough estimation of the
wetting pattern of the soil by the drippers.
For a simple estimation of the width and depth of soil wetting, it is assumed that the
capillary forces drive the flow of water in the soil at the same rate in all directions and
gravity drives the water downward. For a given amount of applied water, the balance
between these two forces determines the dimensions of the soil wetted volume and
the ratio between the vertical and horizontal axis. During the wetting of a dry soil,
gravity initially drives the water downwards through the empty, non-capillary voids
much faster than the horizontally capillary movement. As the capillary voids are filled
with water, the horizontal flow becomes more pronounced. This happens earlier at
higher flow rates, therefore the horizontal diameter of the wetted volume by drippers
with higher flow rates is larger. The same happens with soils of fine texture. Vertical
gravity-driven percolation is slower and the capillary voids are filled earlier with water.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
The root system pattern and soil properties are important factors in determining
dripper spacing and the scheduling of the irrigation regime. Shallow and sparse root
systems require a close dripper spacing and frequent water applications, while deep
and branched root systems allow for wider spacing and larger intervals between
irrigations.
Frequent and small water applications
by drip irrigation lead to the
development of shallow and compact
root systems. This increases crop
sensitivity to heat spells and water
stress. Large plants with shallow root
systems are prone to uprooting by
strong storms.
On the other hand, because of the
improved aeration and nutrition in the
drip irrigated soil volume, the density of
the active fine roots is significantly Fig. 9 Typical root systems of field crops
higher than the density of root systems that grow under sprinkler irrigation.
grow under sprinkler irrigation.
Fig. 10. Root system in drip irrigation (left) vs. root system in sprinkler irrigation (right) Courtesy Netafim
The active root system and most root-hairs of drip-irrigated orchard trees, are
concentrated in the wetted volume. The highest density of the active roots is in the
aerated upper layers, provided there is no accumulation of salts. At the margins of
the wetted volume, where salt accumulates, active roots are sparse.
Evergreen fruit trees such as avocado and citrus develop shallower root systems
under drip irrigation than deciduous orchards and vineyards. This determines the
irrigation regime and necessitates the addition of a second drip lateral per row on
light textured soil.
With SDI, the root distribution pattern is different. Roots are mainly concentrated
under and beside the laterals. Very few roots develop above the laterals due to the
higher salinity in these soil layers.
13
DRIP IRRIGATION
14
DRIP IRRIGATION
Sub-mains
The sub-mains are installed under or above ground. Underground installed pipes can
be made of PVC or PE, while above-ground installed pipes can only be made of PE.
In the case of retrieveable drip systems for the irrigation of annual crops (the system
is layed out at the beginning and retrieved at the end of the growing season). Above-
ground pipes can be made of P.E., aluminum or vinyl lay-flat hose. The lay-flat hose
is durable and lays flat when not in use, so mechanic equipment can travel over it.
The lay-flat hose, connectors, and feeder tubes are retrieved after the growing
season to be used for the irrigation of another plot or stored until the following
season. Wide-diameter PE pipes are more rigid, and are not easily rolled up at the
end of the season.
Manifolds
In certain circumstances, when rows are very long or in harsh topographic conditions,
sub-division of the plot by sub-mains is insufficient. In these conditions, additional
division is accomplished by manifolds.
Drip Laterals
The drip laterals are connected to the sub-mains or the manifolds. The laterals are
made of LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene). There are different types of connectors
between the sub-mains/manifolds and the laterals. The connectors have to withstand
the working pressure as well as pressure spikes and water hammers. The lateral may
be laid on soil surface or underground (SDI). Shallow burying, 5 10 cm below soil
surface is common in vegetables grown under plastic mulch.
Two basic types of drip laterals are used: Thick-walled laterals with on-line or in-line
discrete drippers and thin-walled tapes with turbulent flow inherent water
passageway molded into the tape during the extrusion process. The tape shrinks
15
DRIP IRRIGATION
when it is not under water pressure. Thick-walled laterals have a PN of 1 2 bar (10
20 m), and tapes have a PN range from 0.4 to 1 bar (4 10 m).
Control and Monitoring Accessories
Valves and Gauges
Simultaneous irrigation of several plots, each one with different water requirements
from a single water source requires the sub-division of the irrigated area into sectors,
each controlled by its assigned valve. These valves can be operated manually or
automatically. Water-meters as well as automatic water-metering valves are used to
measure and control water supply to the various sectors.
Pressure regulators are used to prevent excessive pressure above the working
pressure of the system.
A backflow prevention/anti-siphon valve is required if the water is supplied from a
well or a municipal water source that distribute drinking water, when fertilizers or
other chemicals are injected into the irrigation system.
Air-release/relief valves have to be installed at the highest topographic points of the
system in order to avoid interference with water flow, excessive friction with pipe
walls and pipe burst as an outcome of the flow of a high volume of air in the system.
Vacuum breakers are used to avoid the collapse of pipes in steep slopes. In SDI
systems, they are installed to avoid suction of soil particles into the drippers after
shut-down of the water supply.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Chlorine is used to kill algae and microorganisms and for decomposition of organic
matter, while acids are used to modify water pH and dissolve precipitates.
The different types of injectors are described in the chapter on fertigation.
17
DRIP IRRIGATION
18
DRIP IRRIGATION
Velocity Head
Flowing water has kinetic energy (velocity energy) represented by V2/2g where V is
velocity which is measured in m/sec and g is the gravitational constant 9.81 m/sec2.
Squaring V by itself (V x V = V2) results in units of m2/sec2 which divided by g in m
/sec2 gives velocity head in m. units.
Conservation of Hydraulic Energy
Globally, energy is never perished, it only changes forms. Hydraulic energy may
change back and forth between the three forms; elevation energy, pressure energy
and velocity energy. Some of it may be lost from the system and dissipated as heat
due to friction, but it is still all there. If the sum of the three energy components does
not remain constant as water flows through the irrigation system, then energy must
either be added by a pump or booster, or be lost by friction. Between any two points,
point 1 and point 2, in a closed system, changes in energy are accounted with the
following formula:
P1 + V12/2g + Z1 + Energy Added (pump head) = P2 + V22/2g + Z2 + Head Losses
Initial Hydraulic Energy Final Hydraulic Energy
Pressure Head @1 + Velocity Head @1 + Elevation Head @1 + Pump Head Added
Equals
Pressure Head @2 + Velocity Head @2 + Elevation Head @ 2 + Friction Losses
The above expression is known as Bernoullis Equation which is used to solve
hydraulic problems in irrigation systems.
The two dynamic components in this expression are the pumps energy (added) and
the friction losses (subtracted).
Head losses are the consequence of friction between the pipe's walls and water as it
flows through the system and meets obstacles (turns, bends, expansions and
contractions) along its way.
The degree of head loss is a function of the following variables:
a. Pipe length
b. Pipe diameter
c. Pipe wall smoothness
d. Water flow-rate (discharge)
e. Water viscosity
Diverse theoretical and empirical equations have been developed to calculate these
losses.
Friction Losses
There are two types of friction losses: friction losses in water flow along straight
pipes, defined as major losses; and friction losses due to the turbulent flow at bends
and transitions, defined as minor (local) losses. If the flow velocities are high and
there are many bends and transitions in the system, minor losses can build-up and
be quite considerable. The most common equation used to compute friction losses
of water flow along a pipe is known as the Hazen-Williams formula.
J = 1.135 x 1012 (Q/C)1.852 X D-4.871
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Where:
J = head loss ( =m/1000 m)
D = inner pipe diameter (mm)
C = friction coefficient (indicates pipe wall smoothness, the higher the C
coefficient, the lower the friction head loss)
Q = flow-rate (m3/h)
Minor (local) Head Losses
Table 2. The friction coefficient ( C ) of pipes
Minor head losses are usually
defined as equivalent length Pipe material
factors which add a virtual C
length of straight pipe in the PVC and PE 140-150
accessory same diameter to Asbestos-cement 130-140
the length of the pipe under New steel 110-120
calculation. 5 year old steel 80-90
Total Dynamic Head Steel with internal concrete coating 110-120
Concrete 90-100
The total dynamic head
created by the pump is the
sum of the pumping suction lift (the difference between water surface height at the
source and pump height), the requested working pressure in the emitters, and friction
losses within the irrigation system.
The energy consumed per pumped unit of irrigation water depends on the total
dynamic head provided by the pump and the pumping system's efficiency. The total
dynamic head depends on:
Vertical distance that the water is lifted
Pressure required in drippers' inlets
Friction losses in the pipeline along the way from the water source through filters,
valves, pipelines and manifolds on the way to the emitters
Pumping system efficiency depends upon the pump efficiency, its power unit
efficiency, and the efficiency of power transmission of power between them.
The power output required by the pump is calculated with the formula below:
QxH
N= ----------
270 x
Where: N = required input HP
Q = pump discharge m3/h
H = total dynamic head m
= pump efficiency decimal fraction
Example: Q = 200m3;
H = 150 m;
= 0.75.
N = 200 X 150/(270 X 0.75) = 148 HP
When measuring pressure, it should be remembered that the pressure gauges are
calibrated to read 0 (zero) at atmospheric pressure (about 1 bar). It is important to
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DRIP IRRIGATION
remember this fact for the operation of devices such as Venturi suction injectors in
drip irrigation.
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the formal expression of total force per unit area. It is composed
of the pressure of the atmosphere, the pressure due to any external forces applied
on the fluid and the pressure resulting from the weight of the fluid itself.
Gauge Pressure
The gauge pressure is the absolute pressure minus the atmospheric pressure that
typically acts in all directions and on all objects in open air. Since atmospheric
pressure at sea level height is typically about 1 bar, an absolute pressure of 3 bars
would be equivalent to a gauge pressure of 2 bar (~20 m pressure head).
Working Pressure
The working pressure is the pressure required at the emitters to guarantee effective
performance and uniform water distribution. The range of the appropriate working
pressure of the emitter is defined and published by the manufacturer in the operating
guide. The type of the emitter chosen and its working pressure, have to be taken into
account in the design of the irrigation system and in the irrigation scheduling. The
distributing pipelines are designed to deliver the water to the emitters with such
pressure losses that guarantee the appropriate working pressure in the emitters, so
that water will be applied uniformly in the whole irrigated block.
Although there are a number of formulae for calculation of head losses, in daily life,
tables, nomograms and dedicated software are mostly used.
When calculating the head losses in a pipe network, a distinction is made between
the flow in pipes with a single outlet at their distal end and distributing pipes with
multiple outlets. In a non-distributing pipe, head loss values taken from a table or a
nomogram are expressed in % or units by its length in m. Multiplication by the pipe
length in m. length units renders the actual losses in m. head units.
Christiansen friction factor (F) is used also to calculate the head losses in pipes with
multiple outlets such as drip laterals, This factor accounts for the decrease in flow
along the lateral and depends upon the number of outlets or emitters (N) and the
exponent (m = 1.852) of (Q) in Hazen-Williams equation. The formula to calculate
this factor is as follows
F = 1/(m+1) + 1/(2N) +((m-1)0.5/(6N)2)
For a lateral with more than 10 emitters, F= 0.35 can be used regardless of which
friction loss calculation formula is used. The head loss due to friction in drip laterals is
then determined by Hl = F(Hlp), where Hl is the head loss due to friction in the drip
lateral and Hlp is the head loss due to friction of the same discharge in a pipe of the
same diameter and length but with a single outlet at the end. As mentioned above, Hl
= 0.35 Hlp can be used when there are more than 10 outlets on the pipe.
Hydraulic Characteristics of the Emitter
The flow-rate of emitters in micro-irrigation is affected variably by pressure
fluctuations. The performance of a given model depends on its design and
construction. The relationship between the emitter operating pressure and flow-rate
is calculated with the following equation:
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Q = kPe
Where: Q = dripper flow-rate l/h
k = dripper constant depends on the units of flow rate and pressure head.
P = Pressure at the dripper's inlet m
e = dripper discharge exponent (dripper exponent)
The dripper exponent indicates the specific relationships between the working
pressure and the flow-rate of the emitter. The range of emitter exponents is 0 1.0
Drippers with laminar flow pattern have high exponents, in the range of 0.7 1.0.
Drippers with turbulent flow pattern have exponents between 0.4 and 0.6.
Compensating drippers have exponents which approach zero in the regulated flow
range.
The larger the dripper exponent, the more sensitive the flow-rate is to pressure
variations. A value of 1 means that for each percent change in pressure there is an
identical percent change in flow rate. On the other side, an exponent value of 0 (zero)
means that the emitter flow-rate does not change at all as pressure changes.
Table 3. The effect of dripper exponent on pressure flow-rate relationships
Fig. 15. Relationship between the dripper exponent and lateral length Courtesy Netafim
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Whenever the laterals are laid out on the soil surface, the ambient temperature
affects dripper flow-rate. As water temperature increases, water viscosity decreases
and the discharge increases. Lateral heating is more pronounced at the distal end
due to decrease in flow velocity. As a result, the emitters in the lateral's end may
have a higher flow-rate than the emitters at the beginning of the laterals.
In pressure compensating
(PC) drippers, pressure
fluctuations above the
threshold of the regulating
pressure do not affect the
flow-rate. The regulating
pressure is that head
range in which regulation
of flow-rate takes place.
The graphs to the right
show that in Ram PC Fig. 16. Pressure Compensated dripper flow-pressure relationship
drippers, the regulating
pressure threshold is
about 4 m.
Calculation of the Head
Losses
As mentioned before, slide
rulers, tables, nomograms,
hand-held and on-line
calculators as well as
dedicated software can be
used for the calculation of Fig. 17. Non-pressure compensated flow-pressure relationship
head losses. Pipe and
accessories manufacturers publish tables and nomograms depicting the head losses
in their products. Valve producers use the Kv coefficient that designates the
discharge of the valve in m3/h at which 10 m head (1 bar) are lost by friction.
Table 4. Head losses in Acuanet automatic valve
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Technical Data
Dripper manufacturers provide detailed technical
data, in catalogues or on-line, about the flow-rate -
pressure relations of their products, such as the
dripper's coefficient and the dripper exponent. This
information should be utilized for the design of
lateral length and the pressure required at the
lateral's inlet. Low dripper exponents allow higher
pressure difference between drippers without
deviating from the rule allowing flow-rate difference
of 10%. (This rule is dealt with in the topic on Fig. 18. Acuanet automatic valve
system design).
Table 5. "Plastro" Hydrodrip II integral drip laterals technical data
EMITTER FLOW DIAMETER DRIPPER CONSTANTS DH=7.5% DH=10%
TYPE RATE mm
l/h
INTERNAL COEFFICIENT EXPONENT Pmin-m Pmax-m Pmin-m Pmax-m
NOMINAL
Fig. 20 Nomogram for calculation of head losses in HDPE pipes Adapted from "Plassim" brochure
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Fig. 21 Nomogram for calculation of head losses in LDPE pipes Adapted from "Plassim" brochure
The class designation relates to the working pressure (PN) in atm. 1atm = 10 m 1 bar
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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bars (atm). Some thin-wall laterals withstand much lower PN: 0.5 2 bar. The
tolerance to working pressure depends on pipe density and wall thickness. The
tolerance data given by the producers relates to temperature of 20 C0. In higher
temperatures, the tolerance decreases significantly, hence pipes are tested at twice
their designated working pressure.
Plastic pipes are defined according to their external diameter, in mm. In the USA and
some other countries, pipe diameter is defined by imperial inch units (). 1 = 25.4
mm. Pipe wall thickness is also defined in mm units (in the USA by mil units - 1/1000
of inch). 1 mil = 0.0254 mm.
Laterals are commonly made of LDPE (PE grade 32) while delivering and distributing
pipes with diameters greater than 32 mm are mostly made of HDPE.
HDPE pipes are further classified according the grade of the material: PE-63, PE-80,
PE-100. The higher the grade, the higher the pipe quality.
Table 6. PE (polyethylene) pipes for agriculture
PE type ND Applications PN - m
LDPE 6 mm Hydraulic command tubing 40 120
LDPE 6 10 mm Micro-emitters connection to laterals 40 60
LDPE 12 25 mm Thin-wall drip laterals 5 20
LDPE 12 25 mm Thick-wall drip laterals 25 40
LDPE 16 32 mm Micro and mini emitter laterals 40 60
HDPE 32 75 mm Sprinkler laterals 40 60
HDPE 40 140 mm Main lines and sub-mains 40 100
HDPE 75 450 mm Water supply networks 60 - 160
Table 7. Internal diameter and wall thickness of LDPE pipes
OD/PN 25 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
mm ID Wall ID Wall ID Wall ID Wall ID Wall
thickness thickness thickness thickness thickness
12 9.8 1.1 9.6 1.2 9.2 1.4 8.6 1.7 8.0 2.0
16 13.2 1.4 12.8 1.6 12.4 1.8 11.6 2.2 10.6 2.7
20 17.0 1.5 16.6 1.7 15.4 2.3 14.4 2.8 13.2 3.4
25 21.8 1.6 21.2 1.9 19.4 2.8 18.0 3.5 16.6 4.2
32 28.8 1.6 27.2 2.4 24.8 3.6 23.2 4.4 21.2 5.4
40 36.2 1.9 34.0 3.0 31.0 4.5 29.0 5.5 26.6 6.7
50 45.2 2.4 42.6 3.7 38.8 5.6 36.2 6.9 33.4 8.3
Adapted form "Plastro" brochure
ND = Nominal Diameter
OD = External (Outer) Diameter. In plastic pipes it is mostly equivalent to the ND.
ID = internal (inner) Diameter
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DRIP IRRIGATION
PVC Pipes
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) is a rigid polymer. To soften the material and enable its
shaping, it is common to add substantial amounts (up to 50%) of plasticizers. These
additives render flexibility to tubes made of soft PVC. PVC pipes are sensitive to UV
sun radiation. Soft flexible PVC pipes are used in a limited scale mainly in gardening
and landscape. Their life span is short. Rigid PVC pipes are used In agriculture
mainly for water delivery and distribution. PVC pipes are installed underground only,
to avoid UV radiation damage. In the last decade, UPVC (unplasticized PVC) pipes
are preferred because of their improved durability and ability to withstand pressure.
PVC pipes appear in discrete 4 8 m long segments and have to be jointed in the
field. The working pressure of rigid PVC pipes is 6 24 bars (60 240 m).
Table 9. PVC pipes for agriculture
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Fig. 27 Tape dripper lateral: empty (left) and filled with water (right) Adapted from "T-Tape" brochure
Dripper systems are classified according to various parameters:
Lateral Location
On-Surface Drip Irrigation
This is the prevalent drip technology. It enables convenient monitoring of dripper's
clogging and other disturbances during operation. On the other hand, this method is
susceptible to mechanical damage and degradation by solar radiation; it may
interfere with some farming activities and commits laying out and retrieving the
laterals when irrigating annual crops. In vineyards and some other deciduous
orchards (of apples and pears) grown at the palmeta pruning shape, laterals are
attached to trellises, improving the monitoring of drippers function and decreasing the
hazard of mechanical damage.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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Fig. 29 In-line barbed laminar dripper (left, "Netafim") and turbulent in-line integral dripper (right,
"Drip-In")
Labyrinth Path
The water flows through a labyrinth that abruptly changes its direction, causing
turbulence. The frequent change of direction within the labyrinth results in high-
energy losses reducing the flow-rate along a relatively wide flow path. This pattern is
more effective in pressure dissipation than the laminar passageway. It enables using
wider water passages and reduces chemical and particle precipitations. The flow-rate
is less affected by changes in pressure in comparison to laminar flow.
Zigzag (Toothed) Path
The shape of the passageway is similar to the labyrinth path. However, the zigzag
flow dissipates more pressure in a shorter path and decreases clogging hazard.
Vortex
The water enters tangentially into vortex drippers. The water stream hits the walls of
the circular chamber, spins and looses energy. This allows for a relatively short flow-
path and wide-outlet orifice.
Orifice
The emitter flow rate is determined by the diameter of the orifice. This requires a tiny
aperture that increases clogging hazard.
Location on Lateral
Drippers can be installed externally on the lateral or inserted in-line.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
On-Line
On-line drippers are inserted into the lateral through punched holes. Drippers can be
added along time according to changes in crop growth and water requirements. The
dripper protrudes from the lateral, making it
sensitive to damage in delivery, installation
and retrieval (when applicable). The
dripper has a barbed or threaded joint that
is inserted or screwed into thick-wall
laterals.
In-Line
Thread Barb
In-line drippers keep the outer face of the
Fig. 31. Button drippers conector design
lateral smooth. There are two versions:
In-line built-in drippers are fused into the lateral during the extrusion process.
Barbed In-line drippers are installed by cutting the lateral and inserting the barbs
into the cut ends of the lateral.
Distinctive Properties
Adjustable Drippers
The flow-rate of these drippers can be
adjusted according to the changing
requirements along the growing season.
Fig. 32. Adjustable
Flag Emitters dripper (above) and flag
These drippers have a twist opening locker dripper (right)
that eases the cleaning of fully or partially
clogged drippers during irrigation.
Pressure Compensated (PC) Drippers
The flow-rate of compensated emitters remains uniform provided the available
pressure is above a given minimum regulation pressure. There are several
compensating mechanisms that narrow or lengthen the internal water passageway
when the pressure rises, increasing head losses and keeping the flow rate constant.
Flexible Membrane above Water Path
The compensating mechanism is a
flexible diaphragm. As the pressure on
top of the diaphragm increases it narrows
the water passageway below the
diaphragm, increasing the head losses
and decreasing the flow-rate.
Fig. 33. Flexible diaphragm under pressure Fig. 34. Button and inline PC drippers
Courtesy "Netafim"
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Fig. 36. Change of water passageway length under high pressure - Mezerplas ADI PC Dripper
Non-Leakage (No Drain) Drippers
Drainage of drip laterals after water shutdown promotes accumulation of precipitates
at the bottom of the laterals and in the water passageways within the drippers. It lasts
some time after the beginning of irrigation until the laterals are full with water and the
required working pressure builds-up. During this time interval, the discharge of the
drippers in the initial part of the lateral is significantly higher than that of the drippers
at the distal end of the lateral. Frequent small water applications, as in vegetables
cropping, makes this time segment a significant fraction of the irrigation time length.
Bug cover Woodpecker
This results in significant difference in
water dosage between the initial and the
distal ends of the laterals and in the plot as
a whole.
The non-leakage drippers keep the lateral
full of water after shutdown by sealing the
dripper's outlet as the pressure drops. It
also facilitates fast pressure build-up in the
laterals at the start of the next irrigation.
Woodpecker Drippers
These drippers are designed for use in
plots prone to woodpeckers damage. The
woodpeckers drill holes in the LDPE
laterals in search of water. Preventive
Fig. 37. Woodpecker drippers
action is taken by burying the laterals with
the woodpecker drippers underground and connecting thin micro-tubes to the dripper
outlet. The distal end of the micro-tube is laid on the soil surface.
Woodpecker damage can also be reduced by distributing water-filled cans in the plot
to satisfy the woodpeckers thirst.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Fig. 39. Arrow dripper for greenhouses, nurseries and pot plants Courtesy "Netafim"
Arrow Drippers
Arrow dippers are used for the irrigation of potted plants. The stick-like dripper is
inserted into the bed inside the pot. A high capacity built-in filter and efficient zigzag
turbulent water passageway keep the tiny dripper clean and reliable in long-term use.
Multi-Outlet Drippers
Each dripper has 2 12 outlets onto which small diameter micro-
tubes are connected. These drippers are used mostly in
landscaping and potted plants irrigation.
Fig. 40 Six outlets
Ultra Low-Volume Drippers
Extremely low water application rates, in the range of 0.1 0.3 l/h per dripper,
change the water distribution pattern in the soil and the water-to-air ratio in the
wetted soil volume. The horizontal movement is more pronounced than with drippers
of conventional flow-rate range. Therefore, water can be applied to shallow root
systems with minimized drainage beneath the root-zone.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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Chapter 8. ACCESSORIES
In addition to drippers and pipes, drip irrigation systems are comprised of diverse
accessories. Wise selection of these components can guarantee optimal long-term
performance of the system.
These accessories can be classified in four categories:
Connectors: connecting pipelines and laterals to the regulating and control
devices, interconnecting pipes of different types and diameters, laterals to
manifolds and drippers to laterals.
Control, monitoring and regulation devices: valves, filters, water meters,
pressure gauges, etc.
Chemicals injectors and safety devices.
Soil moisture measuring and monitoring instrumentation.
Connectors
Connectors are made of metal or plastic materials. They may be two-sided straight-
through or angular units, T or Y pattern triple outlets, four-sided crosses or multi-
outlet splitters.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Fig. 45. Lateral start, plugs and lateral end Fig. 46. Reinforced connectors
Control Devices
Valves are basic control devices. There are
different types of valves, each of which
performs a different task.
Gate valves are used for on-off tasks.
They are not suitable for gradual opening
and closing tasks.
Ball valves are also used for on-off tasks.
They have low head losses but are not
suitable for flow regulation.
Globe valves have higher head losses but
they are efficient and precise for flow
regulation.
Angular and Y shaped valves have lower
head losses than globe valves and they Fig. 47. Drip laterals connectors and splitters
can also be used for flow regulation.
Butterfly valves have modest head losses and certain throttling capability.
Hydraulic valves appear in most of the before mentioned designs. They have a
control chamber in which water pressure from the command line actuates a piston or
diaphragm that regulate the flow through the valve by narrowing or expanding the
water passageway.
Hydraulic valves are of two types: normally open (N.O.) and normally closed (N.C.).
Normally open (N.O.) valves remain open until the control chamber is filled with water
under the systems pressure, to close it
Normally closed (N.C.) valves remain closed by the water pressure in the main-line.
The closure is secured by a spring, in case of a rupture in the command line. In order
to open the hydraulic valve, the controller opens a small valve at the top of the
control chamber, releasing the pressure exerted on the diaphragm.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Fig. 50. Spring actuated pressure regulator Fig. 51. Hydraulic pressure regulator
Metering Valves
The metering valve is a combination of a water meter with a hydraulic valve. The
desired volume of water to be applied is dialed in. The valve opens and closes
automatically only after the assigned volume has been delivered.
Metering valves are used extensively in drip irrigation. They facilitate also the gradual
opening and closing of water, which is important to avoid the collapse of thin-walled
laterals. They are handily compatible with automation.
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Automatic valve: releases small volumes of air during ordinary operating conditions.
Kinetic valve: releases large volumes of air while the system is filled with water and
allows a great volume of air to enter the system at shutdown.
Combination valves: Automatic and kinetic valves mounted together in one
assembly.
Atmospheric vacuum breakers are
small devices, 1 in diameter that
break the vacuum at water shutdown
and do not allow air to escape from the
system when water drains from the
irrigation system and the pressure in the
pipelines falls below the atmospheric
pressure.
Air relief valves introduce air into the Fig. 55. Atmospheric vacuum breakers
irrigation system when its pressure equals or falls below the atmospheric pressure
and function as vacuum breakers.
Check-Valves and Backflow Preventers
These valves are used to prevent backflow from the irrigation network to the water
supply network, when that network supplies potable water to consumers. These
devices are described in the chapter on fertigation.
Lateral-End Flush Devices
In drip irrigation, a vast amount of precipitates is accumulated in the lateral distal end.
The automatic lateral end flush device releases water at the start of irrigation, before
working pressure builds-up in the system. This performs routine flushing of the
laterals, eliminating the need to do it manually.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Chapter 9. FILTRATION
Due to the narrow water passageways and low water-flow velocity in the drippers,
drip systems are sensitive to clogging. Clogging prevention requires high-level
filtration and complimentary chemical and physical water treatments.
Table 12. Characteristics of water passages in drippers (example)
Non- Flow Water passageway Compensated Flow Water passageway
compensated Rate* Length Width Depth Cross drippers rate Length Width Depth Cross
section section
drippers
l/h mm mm mm .mm2 L/h mm mm mm mm2
Inline 8.0 220 1.95 1.84 2.80 PC button 8.0 13 1.39 1.45 2.00
Button 8.0 48 1.39 1.45 2.02 4.0 60 1.39 1.49 2.07
Inline 4.1 258 1.35 1.45 1.95 2.0 60 1.25 1.09 1.38
Button 3.8 50 1.15 1.05 1.22 Ram PC 3.5 15 1.22 1.22 1.46
Tiran 4.0 95 1.38 1.38 1.90 2.3 15 1.04 1.04 1.08
Typhoon 2.8 17 0.81 0.81 0.65 1.6 19 1.00 1.00 1.00
Tiran 2.0 135 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.2 19 0.91 0.91 0.83
Inline 2.0 280 1.10 1.18 1.30 Midi button 4.0 30 1.20 1.25 1.50
PC
Button 2.0 53 0.90 0.80 0.72 2.0 32 0.98 1.00 0.98
Typhoon 1.75 20 0.71 0.71 0.5
* In non-compensated drippers nominal flow rate at 1 bar (10 m) pressure head. Courtesy Netafim
Impurities in water can be classified in four categories:
Inorganic suspended solids: sand, silt, clay and gravel.
Dissolved chemicals that precipitate from the water in certain
circumstances. The most prevalent chemical precipitates are calcium carbonate,
calcium phosphates and calcium sulfate (gypsum). Dissolved iron and hydrogen
sulfide enhance development of bacteria population that clogs drippers, filtering
media and command micro-tubes.
Live organic material: zooplankton and phytoplankton - algae, protozoa,
bacteria and fungi. Live organisms can propagate rapidly in suitable conditions
and excrete sticky mucus material with enormous clogging potency.
Organic debris
The most contaminated waters are raw sewage and low-quality reclaimed water.
Water pumped from ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, canals and dam reservoirs, also
contains a high load of impurities. Water pumped from sand aquifers contains a
relatively high amount of suspended sand.
There are diverse filtering methods using different filtering media: screens, grooved
discs, gravel and sand. Sand and silt separation is often performed as a pre-
treatment in settling ponds and tanks or by means of centrifugal separators. In
greenhouses with detached growing media, in which drainage water is recycled for
reuse in irrigation, slow sand filter systems are used to eliminate water-borne
pathogens.
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Fig. 58. Head losses in clean screen filters Adapted from "Odis" brochure
One of the main disadvantages of screen filters is the fast accumulation of dirt on the
screen's surface. The accumulated dirt increases the head losses and may cause the
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Fig. 62. Hydro-cyclone sand separator head losses and optimal flow rates From "Odis" brochure
Filter Characteristics
Reliability
Disc filters are regarded as highly reliable. Collapse of the filtration element is rare
compared to screen filters. In screen filters, the screens are prone to tear and
collapse by corrosion and pressure fluctuations. The screen-supporting skeleton has
to withstand pressure surges.
Capacity and Head Losses
Water loses pressure as it flows through a filter. The extent of the head loss depends
on the filter's design, filtering degree, flow rate and the degree of dirt accumulation.
Normally, for a specific type and size of filter, the finer the filtration degree, the lower
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DRIP IRRIGATION
is the nominal discharge. This is due to higher head losses and faster dirt
accumulation.
Key filter properties:
Diameter: Designates the water inlet and outlet diameter.
Filtration area: The total surface area of the filtration element. The required filtration
area for moderately dirty water is 10 - 30 cm2 for each 1 m3/h of discharge for
sprinkler irrigation, 25 - 60 cm2 for micro-jets and 60 - 150 cm2 for drip irrigation.
Perforation area: The total open area of the perforations.
Effective filtration ratio: The ratio between the perforation area and the filtration
area.
Filter ratio: The ratio between the perforation area and the inlet cross-section area.
The higher the above mentioned parameters, the higher the filter capacity. The
nominal capacity of other types of filters is defined according to the allowed head
losses.
Table 15. Nominal filter capacity examples
The direction of flow through the filtration element is an important feature. In disc
filters, water flows from the perimeter inwards. This pattern exposes the greater
external surface area of the discs stack that is able to retain a much greater quantity
of coarse particles than the smaller inner surface area could possibly do. However, in
screen filters, flow from the inside - out, is more suitable for self-cleaning
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Fig. 64. Automatic flushing of disk filters Adapted from "Arkal" Brochure
Media filters are fllushed automatically by back-flow from the bottom that floats the
accumulated dirt out through the drain valve. The reverse flow begins automatically
when the preset pressure differential has been attained.
Automatic flushing of media and disc filters requires the back-flow of filtered water.
To meet this requirement these filters are operated in arrays and the flushing of the
filters is sequential, one after another.
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Fig. 65. High capacity media filters array Fig. 66. Back-flushing of media filters
Fig. 67. High capcity automatic filter Adapted from "Netafim" brochure
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Filter Location
When surface water with a high load of impurities is pumped from rivers, streams,
canals or other open reservoirs, the pump site and depth of the suction pipe are
crucial. The suction port should be as far upwind as possible, since floating debris
and vegetation are blown downwind. The optimal pumping depth is beneath the
upper layer of floating vegetation (plankton) and other debris, but not too deep, in
order to verify an adequate concentration of dissolved oxygen in the pumped water.
When applicable, it is recommended to pump from a pumping chamber sheltered by
a coarse screen to protect the pump and avoid clogging of the suction inlet.
When the pumped water contains sand or other suspended solids, a settling tank
should be installed just ahead of the pump, or a sand separator just beyond the
pump, in order to prevent solid particles from entering the supply network.
In highly contaminated water, multi-stage filtration is required. An automatic screen,
disc, media filter or a filtration array should be installed at the pumping site, and
backup control screens or disc filters should be installed at the control valve at each
of the irrigated sectors.
With moderately contaminated deep-well water, one filtration stage at each sectorial
valve may be sufficient.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Fig 69. Slow sand filter Adapted from Htinik and Krause (1999).
The best cost effective solution is Slow Sand Filtration (SSF), first developed during
the late eighties at the State Research Station at Geisenheim, Germany. Today,
there are in use filtration systems with capacities as high as 50 m3/h. The effective
flow rate is up to 100 200 l/h per 1 m2 of bed surface area. The efficiency of SSF
depends upon the particle size distribution of the sand, the ratio of the filters surface
area to its depth and the flow-rate of water through the filter. Fine-grade sand
fractions and granulated rock-wool have been shown to be most efficient in
controlling diseases such as Phytophthora, Pythium and Fusarium oxysporum, the
most widespread greenhouse diseases.
The SSF completely eliminates Pythiaceous fungi such as Phytophthora and
Pythium. Efficiency against bacteria and fungi with small spores is high; however
some propagation spores may pass the filter bed. Viruses and nematodes are not
satisfactorily eliminated by slow sand filtration.
Filters may be constructed in tanks with non-reactive surfaces such as plastic or
fiberglass, metallic galvanized tanks or concrete tanks of various capacities, from 200
liter up to 100,000 liter.
Before the water enters the SSF system, silt and organic matter should be removed
by sedimentation or centrifugation and chlorination. The pre-treated water is filtered
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very slowly through a deep bed of sand. The maximum flow rate depends upon the
size of the microorganisms that have to be removed. A slow flow rate of 100 l/h per
m2 of surface area has been found to be preferable in high risk situations such as the
control of Fusarium or viruses in tomatoes. Rates of 200 or 300 l/h per m2 are
recommended for control of Pythium and Phytophthora when the risk of infestation is
low to medium. The grain size of the sand is 0.15 0.30 mm. (100 50 mesh
equivalent).
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Fertilizer Tank
A pressure differential is created by partial throttling of
water flow with a valve and diverting a fraction of the flow
through a tank that contains the fertilizer solution. A
gradient of 0.1 0.2 bar (1 2 m) is required to divert an
adequate stream of water through a 9 12 mm diameter
tube. The tank, made of corrosion resistant enamel-
coated or galvanized cast iron, stainless steel or
fiberglass, has to withstand the working pressure of the
network. Solid soluble fertilizers or liquid fertilizers are
mixed with the flowing water. When using solid fertilizers,
the nutrient concentration remains more or less constant,
as long as a portion of the solid fertilizer remains in the
tank. After the full dissolution of the solid fertilizer, the
concentration of the injected solution decreases
gradually due to continuous dilution by the water. The
system is relatively simple and cheap. There is no need Fig. 72 Fertilizer tank From
"Odis" brochure
for an external energy source and a wide dilution ratio
can be obtained. However, there are some drawbacks.
The fertilizer injection rate and nutrient concentration in
the irrigation water cannot be precisely regulated. The
tank has to be refilled with fertilizer before each
application. Valve throttling generates pressure losses
and the system is not easily compatible with automation.
Venturi
When water flows through a constricted passageway,
suction is created. The high flow velocity of water in the
constriction reduces the water pressure below the
atmospheric pressure so that fertilizer solution from an
open tank is suctioned into the constriction through a
small diameter tube. Fig. 73. Venturi injector
Venturi devices are made of corrosion-resistant
materials, such as copper, brass, plastic and stainless steel. The injection rate of the
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Venturi device depends upon the pressure loss, which ranges from 10% - 75% of the
system's pressure and is determined by the injector type and operating conditions.
Operation of Venturi devices requires excess pressure to allow for the necessary
pressure loss. Maintaining a constant pressure in the irrigation system guarantees
uniform nutrient concentration over time. Common head losses are above 33% of the
inlet pressure. Use of double stage Venturi injectors decreases the pressure loss to
10%. The suction rate depends on the inlet pressure, pressure loss and diameter of
the water pipe. It may be adjusted by valves and regulators. The suction rate varies
from 0.1 l/h to 2000 l/h. Venturi injectors are installed in-line or on a by-pass. In
greenhouses, the water flow in the bypass can be boosted by an auxiliary pump.
The advantages of a Venturi system are: no external energy source is required;
cheap open tanks may be used; wide range of suction rates; simple operation and
low wear; easy installation and mobility; compatibility with automation; uniform
nutrient concentration; corrosion resistance. Limitations of the system are: significant
pressure losses; injection rates affected by pressure fluctuations.
Injection Pumps
Fig. 74. Piston (left) and diaphragm (right) hydraulic pumps From Fig. 75. No-drain hydraulic
"Amiad" Brochure pump From "Dosatron" brichure
Fertilizer injection pumps can be driven by electricity, internal combustion engines,
tractor PTO or hydraulically by the irrigation systems inherent water pressure.
Hydraulic pumps are versatile, reliable and have low operation and maintenance
costs. Diaphragm and piston hydraulic pumps are driven by the pressure of the
irrigation system. Some types cast a fraction of the propelling water after its energy
has been dissipated. Centrifugal pumps are used when high capacity is needed or
the fertilizer solution is turbid. Roller pumps are used for the precise injection of small
amounts of nutrient solution but have a short life span due to corrosion by the
chemicals. Water driven diaphragm and piston pumps combine precision, reliability
and low maintenance costs.
Pumps used in fertigation are mostly automatically controlled. A pulse transmitter is
mounted on the pump. The movement of the piston or the diaphragm sends electrical
signals to the controller and indicate amount of water delivered. Measurement of the
injected solution volume can also be performed by small fertilizer-meters installed on
the injection tube. The controller allocates the volume of fertilizer solution according
to preset program. Dosing is proportional or quantitative. With proportional dosing,
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fertilizer is injected into the irrigation water at a constant ratio. In the quantitative
mode, a preset amount of fertilizer solution is injected in short pulses during the
irrigation period.
In glasshouses, simultaneous
application of a multi-nutrient solution
is routine. When the distinct chemical
compounds in the fertilizers are
incompatible and cannot be mixed
together in a concentrated solution,
due to risk of decomposition or
precipitation, two or three injectors are
installed in-line in the control head. The
application ratio between the different
injectors is coordinated and monitored
by the irrigation controller. Fig. 76. Mixer
More sophisticated device used in glasshouses of high-income crops grown on
detached media and irrigated by circulating drainage water. In these circumstances,
the irrigation water is mixed with fertilizers in a mixing chamber (mixer). The mixture
is pumped into the irrigation system as it.
Electric Pumps
Electric pumps are inexpensive and reliable, operation costs
are low and they are readily integrated into automatic
systems. A wide range of pumps is available, from small,
low-capacity pumps to massive, high-capacity pumps. Some
pumps are based on an alternating displacement diaphragm.
Others employ a positive-displacement piston unit, with a
single-phase AC motor as the primary power source. The
working pressure is 1 - 10 bars. As a standard fitting,
diaphragm pumps have a separation chamber and seal that Fig. 77. Electric pump
prevent the nutrient solution from flooding the motor and the electromagnetic drive if
the diaphragm ruptures.
Electric piston pumps are highly precise. They are suitable for accurate mixing in
constant proportions of different stock solutions. Variable speed motors as well as
variable stroke length allow a wide range of dosing. Capacities are 0.5 to 300 L/h and
working pressure is 2 - 10 bars.
Fertigation Management
The timing of fertilizer application should be attuned to the irrigation schedule. Dosing
is determined according to experimental and analytical results. The inherent
concentration of nutrients in the irrigation water should be taken into account.
Injection Site
The fertilizer solution can be injected into the irrigation system at the control head of
each plot. Such an assembly requires an injection device for each plot, and the total
cost may be higher than that for a single central injection site. Another option for
fertilizer injection is at the head of a sub-main and this is a common practice for field
crops. The most convenient, and in many cases the cheapest alternative is fertilizer
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injection at the main control head. This saves labor and is more compatible with
automation.
Control and Automation
With quantitative dosing, a measured amount of fertilizer is injected into the irrigation
system during each water application. Injection may be initiated and controlled
automatically or manually. Proportional dosing is based on a predetermined ratio
between the irrigation water and the fertilizer solution. This is common with soil-less
cultures. It can be applied in a pulsating pattern. Pulses are regulated by
synchronization of signals delivered by pulse transmitters mounted on the injectors
those mounted on the metering valve. The fertilizer solution meter is a combination of
a small metering chamber and a magnetic affinity interrupter. Constant proportional
fertilization is essential with sandy soils and soil-less cultures.
Injection Timing
Fertigation may be applied during only one segment of an irrigation shift. In this case,
fertilizer is not applied at the beginning nor towards the end of the shift. This
procedure ensures build-up of the proper pressure before irrigation commences, and
flushing out of nutrient residues from the irrigation system towards the end of
irrigation. Fertilizer is injected quantitatively or proportionally.
Automatic Control
Automation facilitates the implementation of diverse fertigation regimes in one and
the same system without manual intervention. The main components of automation
hardware are:
(i) Solenoid: a command valve that converts electric pulses sent from an irrigation
controller or a field unit into mechanical motion. The mechanical motion activates
hydraulic valves. Some solenoids are AC and others DC. Common solenoids have 2
wires while latching solenoids may have 2 or 3 wires.
(ii) Controller: the controller unit coordinates and controls the fertigation process. For
proportional injection, the fertilizer solution is separated into small portions that are
injected at a predetermined ratio in coordination with the pulses sent from the water
meter. The controllers can be operated as stand-alone units or connected to a central
computer.
(iii) Normally closed hydraulic valve: a corrosion-resistant valve that controls the flow
of the fertilizer solution into the irrigation system. The valve should be of the normally
closed type in order to cut-off the fertilizer solution flow instantly if the control tube
gets damaged.
Avoiding Corrosion Damage
Most fertilizer solutions are corrosive and may seriously damage metallic
components. Those accessories that are exposed to the injected solution should be
made of corrosion-resistant materials. Furthermore, the injection device and the
irrigation system should be thoroughly flushed after each fertilizer injection.
Backflow Prevention
Whenever the irrigation network is connected to a potable water supply, strict
precautions should be taken to avoid backflow of irrigation water containing fertilizers
into the potable water network. Backflow occurs when the water supply fails. There
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Fig. 78. Check valve Fig. 79. Tandem backflow preventer - exploded
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Installation of Backflow
Preventers
The backflow preventer
should be installed
upstream, before the
fertilizer injection system.
It should be accessible to Fig. 80. Tandem backflow preventer
inspection and at least 30 cm above ground.
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Chemical Precipitates
Chemical clogging of emitters frequently results from precipitation of one or more of
the following minerals: calcium, iron, magnesium and manganese. These minerals
may precipitate from solution and form scales that partially or fully clog emitters.
Precipitation can be triggered by changes in pH, temperature, pressure and reaction
with ions injected into the irrigation water by fertigation, as well as from exposure to
atmospheric oxygen.
Table 16. Relative clogging potential of drip irrigation systems by contaminants in water
Water characteristic Minor Moderate Severe
Suspended solids (ppm) <50 50-100 >100
pH <7.0 7.0-8.0 >8.0
Total dissolved solids (ppm) <500 500-2000 >2000
Manganese (ppm) <0.1 0.1-1.5 >1.5
Iron (ppm) <0.2 0.2-1.5 >1.5
Hydrogen sulfide (ppm) <0.2 0.2-2.0 >2.0
Bacteria population (per ml) <10,000 10,000-50,000 >50,000
After Blaine Hanson. 1997
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Chloride
The chloride anion Cl- is one of the most detrimental ions when its concentration in
irrigation water is above 150 mg/l, for sensitive crops, and up to 400 mg/l for tolerant
crops. Over 400 mg/l, the water is regarded as brackish, which decreases the yields
of most agricultural crops.
Sodium
High sodium concentrations in irrigation water have a destructive effect on soil
structure as it disperses soil aggregates. Calcium and magnesium cations in the
cation exchange complex moderate the destructive capacity of sodium. Hence, the
destructive nature is determined by the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) -
the ratio between Sodium and the sum of the four cation species: Ca++, Mg++, Na+,
K+.
ESP = % [Na]/([Ca]+[Mg]+[Na]+[K]) in meq/l units
There is a similar relation: SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio.
[Na]
SAR = meq/l
[Ca + Mg]
2
ESP and SAR numerical values are close but not the same. When the value is below
4, agricultural crops are not damaged. In the range between 4 and 8, moderatly
tolerant species are grown, and above 8 only tolerant crops can be profitably grown.
Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Crop sensitivity to total dissolved salts expressed in EC values was defined by Maas
& Hoffman by two parameters: the threshold level above which the yield decreases,
and the slope (%) of yield decrease for increase of one dS/m unit.
The data in table 17 was Table 17. Threshold and slope of salinity impact on yield
derived from experimental Crop Threshold Slope -
work with diverse irrigation dS/m %/dS/m
technologies but not with drip Bean 1.0 19.0
irrigation. Later it was found Corn 1.7 12.0
that salinity has a lower impact
Soybean 5.0 20.0
on yield with drip irrigation
Red beet 4.0 9.0
than depicted in the table.
Strawberry 1.0 33.0
Many drip-irrigated crops can Eggplant 1.1 6.9
tolerate higher salinity with Pepper 1.5 14.0
smaller impact on yield. Potato 1.7 12.0
The explanation for this Cucumber 2.5 13.0
phenomenon is that when the Tomato 2.5 9.9
same volume of water that is
applied over the full-area by conventional irrigation technologies is applies with drip
irrigation, in a smaller wetted volume, the salt is leached more effectively, because of
the relatively high amount of water per volume unit. The frequent wetting events
maintain the EC of the soil solution closer to that of the irrigation water.
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The drawing below demonstrates the variance in salt concentration and the leaching
efficiency of relatively small volume of water applied by drip irrigation.
Fig. 82. Cl- distribution below and between drippers (in Fig. 83. Salt level in relation to
ppm) distance from dripper*
Adapted from Hoffman et al. 1980 Adapted from Bresler, 1975
The salt concentration values in Fig. 83. are relative according to the formula (Cfin C0 )/Cini , when:
Cini = Initial salt concentration in soil solution.
C0 Salt concentration in irrigation water.
Cfin = Salt concentration in soil solution after application of 12 l water from the dripper.
The Salinity Laboratory in
Riverside, California published
a nomogram in which salinity
and alkalinity hazards to crops
are shown as a function of the
total salt level, expressed as
EC values in the irrigation
water, and the sodium level,
expressed as SAR values,
also in the irrigation water.
This nomogram is extensively
used worldwide, but it does not
relate to the different response
of crops irrigated by drip
irrigation, which can tolerate
higher concentrations of salt.
Sodium affects soil structure
and in this aspect, drip
irrigation has a lower impact
on damage elimination.
Boron
A small amount of boron is
essential for plant growth, Fig. 84. Water quality for irrigation Adapted from US salinity lab guide
however, a concentration only
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slightly above the optimum in the soil solution is toxic to plants. Some plants are
more sensitive to boron excess than others.
Iron and Manganese
As mentioned before, iron is another cause of precipitates that can clog emitters. Iron
is often dissolved in groundwater as ferrous bi-carbonate. When exposed to air, the
iron oxidizes and precipitates.
Manganese is sometimes also present in irrigation water, but at lower concentrations.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Organic matter in the water is decomposed by microorganisms that consume oxygen
in this process. The amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms in breaking
down the waste is known as the Biochemical Oxygen Demand or BOD. BOD is a
good indicator for dripper clogging hazard by organic matter contained in the water.
A BOD test measures the amount of oxygen consumed by organisms along a
specified period of time (usually 5 days at 20o C). The rate of oxygen consumption is
affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain species
of microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic materials in the water. BOD
directly reflects the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The greater the BOD,
the higher the organic material content and its clogging potential.
BOD analysis requires taking two samples simultaneously at each site. One sample
is tested immediately for dissolved oxygen content, and the second is incubated in
the dark at 20oC for 5 days and then tested for the remaining amount of dissolved
oxygen. The difference in oxygen levels between the first test and the second test, in
milligrams per liter (mg/l), is the BOD value. This represents the amount of oxygen
required by microorganisms to break down the organic matter present in the sample
bottle during the incubation period. Because of the 5-day incubation, the tests are
conducted in a laboratory. An innovative procedure that shortened the BOD analysis
to 24 hours was developed and approved by the American Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists (AOAC).
Complementary Water Treatments
In order to prevent clogging of drip irrigation systems, complementary chemical
treatments should be performed on irrigation water, In addition to filtration. Oxidation
and acidification are the most prevalent complementary treatments. Oxidation is
used for the decomposition of organic matter and the prevention of slime formation
by sulfur and iron bacteria, as well as for the elimination of pathogens infestation.
Chlorination
The common oxidizing agent is chlorine. Chlorine can be added to the water as solid
tablets containing 90% chlorine, as liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) containing
10% chlorine or as gaseous chlorine. The gaseous form is cheap and efficient but is
hazardous in application. When ferrous iron is present in the water, one ppm (part
per million) of chlorine is required per each ppm of iron to kill the iron bacteria and
precipitate the iron from the water. When hydrogen sulfide is present, 9 ppm of
chlorine are needed per each ppm of sulfur to kill the sulfur bacteria, prevent slime
growth and precipitate the sulfur. The precipitates have to be retained by the filtration
system in order to prevent the clogging of the emitters by these particles.
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The main chlorinating agent is liquid sodium hypochlorite. When sodium hypochlorite
is injected into the irrigation water it dissociates into hypochlorous acid and sodium
hydroxide:
NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH
Equilibrium between the hypochlorous acid HOCl and the hypochlorite ion OCL- is
maintained in the water:
HOCl H+ + OCl - .
The hypochlorous acid is 80 times more potent than the hypochlorite ion as an
oxidizing agent.
Effective chlorinating decomposes organic material and blocks the development of
algae and plankton present in the laterals and the emitters. 1 - 2 ppm of residual
chlorine detected at the distal ends of the laterals guarantee adequate chlorination.
To maintain these residual levels, chlorine concentrations at the point of injection
should be in the range of 3 15 ppm, depending on the load of impurities and the
duration of injection. Levels higher than 15 ppm are not recommended since they can
harm the diaphragms in pressure-compensated drippers and hydraulic valves. Since
the injected chlorine concentrations are very low, the use of metering pumps is
preferred. When applied in extremely small amount, the chlorine should be diluted to
facilitate precise and even application by the pump.
Acidification
Acidification of water is required when "hard" water containing a high concentration of
bi-carbonates is used for irrigation. The common acidifying agents are sulfuric, nitric
and phosphoric acids. Chlorination of acidified water is considerably more effective
than chlorination of alkaline water, and reduces the chlorine requirement. As
mentioned before, after injecting chlorine into the irrigation water, equilibrium is
created between the active form HOCl and the less active form OCl-:
HOCl H+ + OCl-. At low pH values, the active form percentage is higher: 90% at
pH = 6.5; 50% at pH = 7.5 and only 20% at pH = 8.0.
It is highly recommended to implement the chemical treatments upstream from the
filtration system, in order to reduce the load of impurities and trap the decomposed
material in the filters. The narrower the water passages in the emitters, the greater
the requirement for chemical treatments. Acidification should be performed before
chlorination. Mixing both chemical agents of the two processes together results in a
dangerous chemical reaction.
Acid is injected to fulfill two objectives. For the continuous neutralization of the
transient hardness, the concentration of acid in the irrigation water is calculated
according to the bi-carbonate concentration. One meq/l (61 mg/) of bi-carbonate
should be left in the acidified water.
The second objective is to remove calcium carbonate precipitates. For this purpose,
the final concentration of 33 % hydrochloric acid, 60% nitric acid and 85% phosphoric
acid in the irrigation water should be 0.6% 0.8%. For moderate clogging, an
application time of 10 minutes is recommended, and for severe cases 20 minutes.
Acid can be applied with regular fertigation equipment or by a dedicated metering
pump.
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tension). Water budgeting depends on soil moisture, the water status of the plant and
prevailing climate.
Phyto-monitoring
At the highest level of management, Soil moisture, ambient temperature and evapo-
transpiration, plant water status, nutrient and salt content in irrigation water, water
and soil reaction are monitored simultaneously. The monitoring instruments are
connected to controllers that are activated according to pre-set programs.
Phyto-monitoring is the comprehensive monitoring of soil, plant and climate
parameters. Large-scale field tests using the phyto-monitoring method and
instrumentation were carried out from the year 1998. Experimental phytomonitoring
systems were installed in apple, plum, grapes, peach, kiwi, mango, citrus, avocado
and persimmon orchards. The
parameters of interest are
environmental factors
(temperature, radiation,
relative humidity); plant factors
(daily trunk, shoot and fruit
growth rates) and soil factors
(moisture content, EC and
pH). Three indicators were
used for analysis: diameter
maximum daily trend (DMT),
daily contraction amplitude
(DCA) and the midday stem
water potential (WP). The
DCA is defined as the
difference between predawn
maximum and daytime
minimum trunk diameters.
Fruit tree's trunk, shoot and
fruit were found to be highly
sensitive to soil water deficit.
This makes them good
indicators for irrigation
scheduling With an optimal
irrigation regime, there is a
good correlation between stem
WP, trunk/shoot DCA and
vapor pressure deficit (VPD).
There is no good correlation
however under deficit irrigation
or wherever nighttime air
relative humidity is low, since Fig. 87. Multi-factor simultaneous phytomonitoring
the plants water reserves are
not completely replenished at night, resulting in a depression of the predawn
maximum. When low humidity prevails over night, the DCA is calculated with a
potential maximum diameter baseline (PMDB) instead of actual predawn maximum.
The ratio of the modified DCA and VPD (DCA/VPD) is a good indicator of plant water
status, both in properly watered and in deficit irrigated crops.
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The DMT is a good indicator of soil water availability because of its close relationship
to predawn water potential.
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Since water is applied underground, it is difficult to monitor and evaluate the systems
performance and application uniformity. Impaired uniformity can lead to under-
irrigation, resulting in reduced yield and quality or over-irrigation, resulting in poor soil
aeration and losses of water and nutrients due to deep percolation.
Within SDI, drippers may be clogged by root intrusion and by soil particles being
sucked into the drippers by the vacuum created in the system when it drains after
water shutdown. In heavy soils, the emitter flow-rate may exceed the soil capability to
redistribute the water in a normal pattern. In such cases, water pressure around the
dripper exceeds atmospheric pressure. The counter-pressure may reduce the emitter
flow-rate.
In cracking soils, water applied from drippers underground may have preferential flow
to depth in the cracks and lost without notice, leaving considerable soil volume dry.
Water Surfacing
Water may inadvertently surface (directing a part of the emitter flow to the soil
surface), causing undesired wetting of the soil surface. Due to surfacing events, fine
soil particles may be carried upward with the water, causing a chimney effect, that
creates a preferential flow path. The chimney may be difficult to obliterate
permanently, since a portion of the chimney remains above the drip line even after
tillage.
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reducing or cutting-off water flow. The drip laterals should be flushed periodically to
remove silt and precipitates.
Since there are only few visual indicators of system performance and its application
uniformity, frequent monitoring of the systems water-meters and pressure gauges is
required to find out whether the system is operating properly.
SDI Design
Design of an efficient SDI system requires careful consideration, since once the
system is installed underground and covered with soil, major modification and repairs
are not economically feasible. When used for irrigating annual crops in rotation,
compromises are required regarding dripper and lateral spacing, as well as the
spacing between rows and plants in the rotating crops.
Spacing
Lateral spacing in heavy soils can be wider than in sandy soils. The common range
of lateral spacing is from 1 m in sandy soil to 2 m in heavy soil. Spacing between
emitters on the lateral depends mainly on the crops plant density, and vary from 10
to 100 cm.
Lateral and Dripper Type
The drippers of choice are those that are less sensitive to clogging and root intrusion.
Compensated drippers are less prone to flow-rate decrease by build-up of counter-
pressure around the dripper. Trifluraline (Treflan) impregnated drippers and those
equipped with a flap that closes over the outlet after water shutdown, prevent root
intrusion. Drippers with anti-siphonage capabilities are less prone to suction of soil
particles.
Laterals may be made of thick or thin walled PE tubing. In the past, after installation
of thin-wall tapes, the loosened upper soil layer sometimes dried around the flat tape
after water drain and prevented inflation of the tape in the next irrigation. This
problem has been solved by installation of vacuum breakers and the anti-siphonage
capabilities of the new types of drippers.
Lateral Depth
Deep installation, 50
60 cm, below soil
surface, enables
regular soil tillage.
This is common in
crops with deep active
root systems, such as
cotton. Irrigation for
germination should be
applied by other
irrigation systems,
such as mechanized
or hand-move
sprinkler laterals. Sand Clay
Shallow installation, 5
15 cm deep, is Fig. 89. Wetting pattern in SDI
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80
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Where: Q25% is the average flow rate of 25% of the emitters with the lowest flow rate,
and Qn is the average flow rate of all the sampled emitters. DU values above 87%
indicate excellent distribution uniformity; 75% - 87% - good uniformity; 62% - 75%
acceptable and below 62% the uniformity is unacceptable.
Variation in the flow rate depends on the pressure regime, partial emitter clogging
and the manufacturing variance of the drippers.
In addition to variation of the flow-rate between emitters due to pressure differences,
flow rate variation also occurs because of manufacturing variation. No two emitters
can be identically manufactured; there will be some variation among emitters. The
flow rate uniformity of new drippers is evaluated with the Manufacturing Coefficient of
Variation (Cvm).
The flow-rate variation due to manufacturing variance is determined statistically.
Randomly-selected emitter samples or a lateral section are tested under constant
pressure. The Cvm is defined as the standard deviation divided by the average flow
rate of a sample of emitters. It is expressed as a decimal fraction or percentage. 0.01
= 1%. According to the formula:
Cvm = Sdm/Xm (as decimal fraction). Multiplication by 100 gives the % expression.
Where: Cvm = manufacturing coefficient of variation,
Sdm = standard deviation,
Xm = mean flow rate.
A Cvm of 0.1 (10%) means, assuming a normal distribution (a bell shaped curve),
where 68 %of all dripper flow rates are plus or minus within 10% of the mean flow
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rate. The emitter's design, material used in its production, and manufacturing
precision determines the variation for any particular emitter type. A Cvm of 0.05 or
less is considered excellent, 0.05 - 0.10 is good, 0.10 - 0.15 is marginal, and higher
than 0.15 is poor. With the recent improvements in manufacturing tolerances, most
emitters have Cvm < 0.10. Pressure compensating drippers have a somewhat greater
Cvm than non-compensating labyrinth path emitters.
Another expression used for the evaluation and design of drip systems is the emitter
flow variation in the lateral. This compares maximum and minimum emitter flow rates.
qvar=(qmax - qmin)/qmax
or
qvar= 1-(qmin/qmax)
Where qmax is the maximum emitter flow rate, qmin is the minimum emitter flow rate,
and qvar is the emitter flow rate variation. It is assumed that the manufacturer's emitter
flow variation follows a normal distribution so that the mean value plus two standard
deviations is considered as the maximum flow rate and the mean value minus two
standard deviations is considered as the minimum emitter flow rate. This range
covers over 95% of the emitter flow-rates measured in the tests.
Relating test results to the manufacturers Cvm indicates that with a manufacturing
Cvm of 0.05 = 5%, the difference between maximum and minimum flow rates may
reach 15%.
Emission Uniformity (EU) combines variation due to emitter-manufacturer variance
and variation due to pressure. This is a design parameter. In new installations or
when there is no emitter clogging, EU (design) is approximately equal to DU.
EU is given as:
EU = [(1 -1.27(Cvm)) X (Qmin/Qavg) X100]
Where,
Cvm = manufacturers coefficient of variation
Qmin = minimum emitter pressure dependent discharge.
Qavg = mean emitter pressure dependent discharge.
The actual uniformity of discharge from drippers decreases along time due to partial
clogging of the water passageways, deformation of drippers and compensating
membranes, as well as mechanical damage to laterals. Routine periodical inspection
and corrective measures are requested to guarantee uniform water distribution within
an irrigated plot for the long run.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip Irrigation in Orchards Fig. 97. Apple root system in well aerated soil
The introduction of drip irrigation to
orchards, significantly changed the water
and nutrient application regime. Prior to
drip irrigation, the irrigation policy in
orchards was to stretch the intervals
between irrigations as much as possible.
The prevalent concept was that
stretched intervals induce the
development of a deep root-system and
the trees would better withstand water Fig. 98. Apple root system in compacted soil
stress without damage to yield and fruit Adapted from Tamasi 1986
quality. Intervals of 20-30 days between irrigations were common and large volume
of water had been applied at each application.
After the introduction of drip irrigation, it was found that most fruit trees respond
positively to frequent applications of small amounts of water. Root exposure
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DRIP IRRIGATION
revealed that contradicting the traditional perception, in certain soil conditions, like
shallow topsoil, stratified soil, poor soil aeration and high water tables the crop
benefits from frequent irrigations because of the shallow root system is shallow.
There are different types of
drippers' layout in orchards. For
heavy and medium textured
soils, one drip lateral along the
row is usually sufficient. On
sandy and shallow soils, two
laterals, 20 60 cm apart on
each side of the row, perform
better. There are additional
layouts such as loops and half
circles around the trunk, star
layout, meander, snake and
fishbone layouts as shown in the
figure.
The most pronounced water
savings in orchards with drip
irrigation is during the early
years, prior to fruit bearing. Some
types of laterals allow for opening Fig. 99. Drip irrigation Layouts in orchards
only the water emitters adjacent to the tree in the early years of the orchard
establishment. The plugged outlets between the trees are gradually unplugged,
matched to the expansion of the root system.
Some fruit crops particularly benefit
from drip irrigation, while others are
better compatible with spray and micro-
sprinkler irrigation.
The shift from surface to drip irrigation
of bananas led to water savings in the
order of 50% - 70%. One lateral per
row is sufficient.
Drip irrigation and fertigation of table
and wine grapes improved yield and
quality, followed by impressive water
savings. To avoid the damage to on- Fig. 100. Drip laterals in vineyard, hung on the trellis wire
surface laterals, it is common to hang
the laterals 30 cm above ground by fastening them with a clip to the lowest wire on
the trellis.
The introduction of mechanized harvesting and pruning machinery triggered the shift
to SDI. Burying the laterals avoids damage by the machinary.
For wide-spaced orchards, such as pecan plantations that are planted 10 by 10 to 15
by 15 m spacing, one lateral per row is mostly insufficient to satisfy the tree's water
requirements. Two laterals per row or loops around the trunks are the recommended
layouts.
When considering implementation of drip irrigation in citrus and other evergreen sub-
tropical crops such as avocado and mango, it should be taken into account that drip
irrigation is not suitable to modify the micro-climate in the plot while sprinkler and
sprayer systems can reduce or avoid the effect of extreme weather conditions, such
as heat spells or frost by decreasing or increasing the ambient temperature.
In deciduous fruits orchards, such as peaches, prunes, apples, pears and vineyards,
drip irrigation facilitates implementation of the innovative RDI and PRD water-saving
regimes.
RDI (Regulated Deficit Irrigation) is based on the fact that some of the phenological
growth stages during the plants life cycle are less sensitive to stress due to water
deficit.
Fig. 102. Typical shoot and fruit growth curves for peach (left) and pear (right)
For example, fruit growth of peaches is slow during the pit hardening stage that lasts
45 60 days. Full deficit replenishment of the transpired water during this period only
slightly affects the final fruit size at harvest and does not reduce yield. Water saving
of up to 20% of the annual application may be obtained. The less insensitive stage of
pears is shorter and water saving of some 10% - 15% of the annual consumption is
common with RDI. Similar results were achieved in prunes, table and wine grapes
and almonds.
Water deficit is deliberately created in wine grapes during the post-set period of berry
development, to restrict vegetative growth. This practice has resulted in significant
improvement of wine quality.
RDI can be applied also with other micro-irrigation methods, such as sprayers and
micro-sprinklers; however water savings will be less significant.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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Fig. 107. Laterals on top of hillocks in potatoes Fig. 108. Lateral between hillocks After Kremmer & Kenig
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contamination of the crop with pathogens. The deep root system of alfalfa allows for
a spacing of 1 1.2 m between laterals, without any decrease in yield.
Drip Irrigation of Vegetables
Most vegetables grown both in the open field and within protecting structures
respond positively to drip irrigation and fertigation. Consumption curves of water and
nutrients were elaborated for many species. Drip irrigation facilitates supply of water
and nutrient following these curves. The predominant technology for open field
culture is on-surface seasonally-retrievable drip irrigation. SDI is seldom installed. In
California, the pioneer of SDI for vegetables, there has been recently return to
traditional drip irrigation with the drip laterals on the soil surface; due to problems
during the germination and emergence of the crops grown with SDI. Yield decrease
in long-term SDI irrigation in some vegetable species had been reported.
Drip Irrigation of Open-Field Tomatoes, Pepper and Eggplants
Drip irrigation of the main species of the Solanaceae family (in addition to the before
mentioned potatoes and tomatoes for processing), has greatly increased worldwide
during the last three decades. Water saving and decrease in fungal disease
occurrence, compared with sprinkler irrigation; improved nutrient supply, compared
with furrow irrigation; and increased yields, convinced farmers to expand the drip
irrigated area of these crops. The prevalent layout is one lateral per row. The soil
type determines the spacing between drippers on the lateral, ranging from 10 cm with
thin-wall tapes and in sandy soils to 50 cm on heavy soils.
Drip Irrigation of Strawberry
Strawberries are usually grown on four-row raised beds with plastic mulch in open
fields. The spacing between the rows is 20 30, and between plants in the rows 15
30 cm. The common layout is one lateral between each pair of rows and spacing of
10 30 cm between drippers along the lateral. The laterals are installed beneath the
plastic mulch in order to decrease incidence of Botrytis, which is enhanced by direct
contact of the berries with wet soil.
Drip Irrigation of Cucumbers, Melons and Watermelons
The wide spacing between rows (1 2 m) of crops of the Cucurbitaceae family,
results in enormous water saving during the early growth stages before the foliage
fully covers the soil surface between rows. The common layout of one lateral per row
renders a relatively cheap system.
Drip Irrigation of Celery
Celery is grown on 4 row beds, 1.5 2 wide. Laterals are laid in the middle of each
pair of rows. Drippers are spaced 20 30 cm apart along the lateral.
Drip Irrigation of Cabbage and Lettuce
Cabbage and lettuce are grown on 4 row beds, 1.5 2 m wide. Laterals are laid in
the middle of each row pair with drippers spaced 20 cm along the lateral.
Drip Irrigation of Cauliflower
Cauliflower is grown on a double-row bed, 1.2 -1.8 wide. On heavy and medium
textured soils, the layout is one lateral per bed, in the middle, between the two rows.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
On sandy soils, one lateral per row is the preferred layout. Dripper spacing along the
lateral is 20 30 cm.
Drip Irrigation in Protected Crops
Protected crops are grown at diverse levels of environmental protection. The highest
level is a glasshouse structure, with full environmental, irrigation and nutritional
regulation. The second degree of protection consists of plastic covered greenhouses
and walk-in tunnels. The greenhouse sector can be divided into those growing the
crop on the native soil and those using diverse types of detached media. In some of
these structures, full environmental control is also maintained. However, in most of
them, only irrigation and nutrition are automatically controlled. A lower degree of
control is maintained in low tunnels that provide only partial environmental control,
however irrigation and plant nutrition may be fully controlled. The lowest degree of
protection is plastic mulch that covers the soil to preserve water, reduce temperature
fluctuations within the root-zone and eliminate direct contact of the fruit and foliage
with the soil and with the irrigation water.
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injected into the irrigation system. In some mixers the nutrient mixture is diluted with
water up to the desirable final nutrient concentration and pumped into the irrigation
system as it.
Environmentally controlled
greenhouses are expensive. Therefore,
in order to maximize income, the
available space is filled to the
maximum: potted plants, propagation
beds, grafts and trays for germinating
transplants are arranged in several
horizontal layers, on separate stories,
one above another. Multi-outlet
drippers are the most economical
irrigation solution for this arrangement. Fig. 111. Drip irrigation of potted plants in
Greenhouses that recycle drainage greenhouse Courtesy "Netafim"
water for reuse in irrigation require a sterilization system like ultra violet (UV)
irradiation; heating the recycled water to high temperature or slow sand filters (SSF).
These means are required to prevent infestation by pests such as fungi, bacteria,
nematodes and viruses that may exist in the recycled drainage water.
All these systems are monitored with and controlled by diverse sensors and
computerized controllers.
Drip Irrigation in Landscaping
Drip irrigation has been extended to the
irrigation of private and public
landscaping. Small-scale private
landscape installations may use
adjustable drippers to facilitate
concurrent irrigation of plants with
different water requirements.
Adjustable drippers are also useful
when water requirements of the plants
change during the irrigation season.
Fig. 112. Roadside drip irrigation Courtesy "Netafim"
SDI is used extensively on turf and golf
courses as well as in sports facilities such as football fields and tennis courts. Dripper
density in turf grounds is much higher than for agriculture. Spacing of 40 50 cm
between laterals is prevalent in sandy turf and sport grounds with coarse aggregates
volcanic tuff, pumice, gravel and perlite infrastructure.
Drip irrigation provides the optimal solution for roadside irrigation, along pavements
and at interchanges. In addition to substantial saving in irrigation water, it eliminates
the danger to traffic stemming from wet roads and walking lanes.
Frequently, the water supply to gardens is connected to the drinking-water supply
system. This obliges the installation of backflow preventers. In many countries,
installation and management of backflow preventers are enforced by state or local
authority regulations.
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Soil Properties
1. Soil depth
2. Soil texture and structure
3. Specific gravity
4. Bulk density
5. Saturation Percentage, Field Capacity, Wilting Point
6. Presence of stratified layers
7. Infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity data, if available
8. Soil salinity
Topography
Topographic maps
Water Supply Capacity
1. Water source properties (river, dam, pond, well, public/commercial supply)
2. Hours of supply (if by external supplier or limitations in the electricity supply)
3. Maximum hourly flow-rate (discharge)
4. Pressure at supply connection (if by external supplier)
5. Water quality (physical contamination, salinity)
Existing Equipment
Existence of pumping equipment, delivery and distribution pipelines, emitters,
accessories, etc.
Preliminary Considerations
Preliminary considerations include the selection of dripper type and flow-rate and the
recommended working pressure. This has to conform to the crop's spacing and with
soil properties.
The pattern of the wetted soil volume by
a single dripper is an important factor in
these considerations.
The wetting pattern is determined by
the dripper discharge, infiltration rate of
the soil (expressed in mm/h) and its
hydraulic conductivity (expressed as
mm/s). The difficulty with the last two
parameters is that the first decreases
along time during the irrigation and the
second is measured in saturated soil, Fig. 113. Wetted volume in different soil types
while in drip irrigation, there is water
movement also in unsaturated soil.
Models for estimating the wetting pattern were developed by Schwarzman and Zur
(1986) and Shani (1987).
In the first model, the wetted-volume diameter depends on the dripper flow rate.
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95
DRIP IRRIGATION
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DRIP IRRIGATION
Ram 16 PC (OD 16 mm), Flow-rate 2.3 l/h, allowed lateral length (m), distal head = 10 m
Head in Dripper spacing - m
Inlet (m) 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.2
15 38 50 61 72 93 113 132 168 201 235
20 44 57 70 83 107 130 152 193 231 275
25 48 63 77 91 118 143 168 214 255 305
30 52 68 83 99 128 155 181 230 276 325
35 55 72 89 105 136 165 193 246 294 351
40 58 76 94 111 143 174 203 259 310 376
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System Layout
Fig. 116. Drip system layout scheme Adapted from Watermatics brochure
The drip irrigation layout presents the different components. Each of them creates
head losses when the water flows through it. In the absence of detailed data about
head losses in these accessories, a total head loss in the control head of 5 10 m is
assumed.
Pressure regulators are essential components of drip irrigation systems.
Whenever non-compensated drippers are in use, pressure regulators can be
installed on sub-mains and manifolds in order to control the pressure in each sub-plot.
Using one lateral per row (with row spacing of 4 m) and drippers spaced 1 m apart
along the lateral indicates spacing of 4 m2 per dripper.
7.68 Ha. = 76800 m2 divided by this spacing gives: 76800/4=19200. There are 19200
drippers in the plot. More accurate calculation can be done by multiplying row length:
4 X 80 m = 320 m, by the number of rows 320 m X 61 rows = 19520 m = 19520
drippers.
Since the drippers are not compensated, a higher flow rate than the nominal flow rate
with 10 m head should be taken into account for calculation.
Flow rate of 122/162 drippers: 2.1 l/h at 10 m, 2.57 l/h at 15 m and 3 l/h at 20 m
head.
To be on the safe side, the highest flow rate is used in the calculation and multiplied
by the number of drippers: 3 l/h X 19520 = 58.5 m3/h.
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Since the total flow-rate in the plot is lower than the available maximum hourly
supply, the whole plot could be irrigated in one shift. Since the spacing between the
trees is square (4 X 4 m), two lateral orientation can be checked. The above drawing
presents four different layouts. Various considerations determine selection of the best
layout. Since the plot is divided vertically, on the map, into four blocks, horizontal
orientation of on-surface laterals is to be preferred. Therefore the upper left
alternative is rejected. Of the other three alternatives, the lower left one allows
irrigation of the plot in 4 separate shifts. This allows reducing the diameter of the
distributing pipe and provides more operation flexibility.
The entire plot can be irrigated in one shift by selecting a mainline with a wider
diameter than that required for separate four shifts.
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The design starts with the most problematic segments, where the water flows uphill:
D-E, E-F, G-H and H-I segments (in Fig. 118).
The head losses in each of the four segments are checked. The alternatives that will
enable irrigation in one shift are examined.
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inlet has to be higher than the regulating head that activates the compensating
mechanism, which in the case of the Ram dripper is 4-5 m.
Basic calculation:
320 m row length X 61 rows = 19520 m =
19520 drippers
Total flow rate for a single shift: 19520
drippers X 2.3 l/h = 44.9 m3/h
Since with a 20 m head at the lateral's
inlet, the maximum allowed lateral length
(on flat terrain) is 231 m, the manifold is
positioned along the N-S midline of the
plot. The plot will be irrigated in one shift, Fig. 120. One manifold layout
but two valves will be installed on the
manifold to enable irrigation in two shifts.
As demonstrated in the form below, the maximum friction head loss (A-B + C-d) is
11.7 m, plus 2.5 m topographic elevation. In order to maintain an adequate head at
the last and highest dripper's inlet, the head at the outlet from control head should be
at least 20 + 14.2 m = 34.2 m.
Table 22. Head loss calculation form Pressure Compensated (PC) drippers
Segment Description Topographic Flow Length Friction Friction Topographic Total
height initial rate m Head Head head head
distal - m Loss % Loss m change m loss m
A-B 90 mm 58.5-58 45 160 4 6.4 -0.5 5.9
HDPE PN 6
B-C 63 mm 58-59 22.5 120 6X0.35 2.5 +1 3.5
HDPE PN 6
C-D 16 mm 59-60.5 0.37 160 6X0.35 3.3 +1.5 4.8
lateral
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Fig. 121. Pressure compensated Ram 2.3 l/h dripper, one shift design
Irrigation Design for Field Crops and Vegetables in the Open Field
For annual field crops, the recommended method is retrievable drip irrigation. The
laterals are laid out on-surface at the beginning of the irrigation season and collected
before harvest. Distribution and retrieval of the laterals are mechanized and the level
of damage to drippers and laterals is significantly reduced by new technologies.
Example
Crop: melon
Area: 1.08 ha 120 X 90 m
Topography: flat
Spacing: 1.80 m, between rows
30 cm between plants in the row
Peak season demand: 8 mm/day
Soil: sandy-loam
Bulk density: 1.6
Field capacity: 20% v/v
Wilting point: 9% v/v
Allowable deficit 40%
Active root system depth: 60 cm Fig. 122. 1.08 Ha. Of melons
Water supply limit 30 m3/h
Supply hours limit: 14 h a day
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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Remarks
A (General): The irrigation-scheduling process is purely mathematical. Some of the
data are not measured but estimated, such as dripper wetted volume, readily
available water percentage and crop coefficients. Hence the result of the calculations
is an estimate and should be validated in the field. Validation aids are soil moisture
and soil tension measurements, as well as physiological indicators such as shoot
growth rate, fruit growth rate, trunk expansion and midday water tension of the shoot.
C: The lower the rainfall the less its efficiency in replenishing soil moisture. Rainfall of
less than 10 mm per event is not taken into account.
F: The monthly precipitation deficit is the monthly evaporation (ET0) minus the
effective rainfall.
G, I, K: For simplification, data is given in volume per volume values. If soil moisture
data is available as weight per weight value, it is converted to volume per volume
value by multiplication by the bulk density value.
L: Readily available water is
the percentage of the available
water that can be depleted
without damaging the crop's
yield or development.
N: There are a number of ways Clay Loam Sand
to estimate wetted soil volume Fig. 124. Schematic wetting pattern in different textured soils
by a dripper. Semi-empirical formulae were applied by Schwarzmann & Zur and
Shani. When the active root-zone depth and the maximum wetting diameter are
known, a good approximation can be achieved, by relating to the wetted volume as
an ellipsoid and calculating its volume with the formula:
Vw = 4/3 (
r1r2r3)
Where: r1 = half of the root-zone depth
r2 = half of the maximum wetted volume diameter
r3 = the average of the two above values
T: The crop coefficient, as well as the readily available water percentage, change
along the growing season according to the crops sensitivity to water stress at the
different phenological stages.
X: Irrigation efficiency of drip irrigation is in the range of 80% - 90%.
Irrigation Shifts and Timetable
Once the net and the gross water applications have been calculated, a detailed
operative schedule should be elaborated.
The application per area unit (e.g. m3/ha.) should be multiplied by the area of the plot
and compared with the water supply capacity.
For example: in the above table, the calculated water applications are in the range of
50 100 m3/ha.
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Fig. 125. Different schedules of drip irrigation operation Adapted from Benami & Ofen, 1993
Assuming a plot area of 10 ha. And a water supply limited to 30 m3/h, 14 hours/day.
The drippers are Ram pressure compensated drippers 2.3 l/h, spaced 4 X 1 m.
Number of drippers per ha,: 10000 m2 / 4 m2 = 2500 drippers/ha
Application rate: 2500 drippers/ha X 2.3 l/h/dripper = 5.75 m3/h/ha
Maximum concurrently irrigated area = 30 m3/h / 5.75 m3/h/ha. = 5.2 ha. The 10 ha.
area should be irrigated in two shifts.
The maximum volume that can be applied during the 14 hours of water supply is:
5.75 m3/h/ha X 14/h = 80.5 m3/ha
This result means that during the months of June and November not enough time is
available to complete the irrigation application during a single day, and irrigation
should be continued on the following day or the irrigation interval should be reduced.
Irrigation Scheduling for Annuals
In annual crops, irrigation scheduling is related to phenological stages:
establishment, vegetative development, flowering, fruit growth and harvest.
During the first stage of establishment, only a small fraction of the surface area is
covered by foliage and the water demand is very small. On the other hand, the root
system at this stage is shallow and application frequency has to be high.
During the vegetative development stage, controlled water stress is applied to some
crops to restrict the vegetative growth in order to achieve a favorable ratio between
vegetative and reproductive development. The flowering stage is highly sensitive to
water stress. The allowed water depletion percentage in this stage is lower than at
the vegetative growth stage. The fruit development stage is less sensitive than the
flowering stage to water stress, but an adequate water regime has to be maintained
as to guarantee optimal fruit development and avoid physiological disorders.
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DRIP IRRIGATION
The fraction of the soil surface area covered by the foliage of annual crops during the
establishment stage is very small. Hence, drip irrigation contributes to substantial
water savings.
Operation Timetable
After the scheduling of the irrigation intervals and water applications, a timetable
should be prepared. Water supply limitations and the topography should be
considered when elaborating this timetable.
Example
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DRIP IRRIGATION
To reduce friction head-losses, each block will be irrigated in two shifts. Those sub-
plots irrigating simultaneously will be distributed along the mainline in order to
decrease head-losses.
The maximum flow rate per Table 26. Operative Irrigation Schedule
shift is 242 m3/h. The mainline
should be of 200 mm Shift Valves Flow rate Flow rate
diameter/ 60 m PN. m3 per shift
Due to the 7 m descending 1 1 64
slope, the friction head loss in 5 50
the main pipeline is 11 49
compensated by the
17 66 229
topographic difference gain.
2 2 64
The direction of the rows and
6 50
the laterals was adjusted
according to the topography 12 49
for convenience of 18 66 229
mechanized harvest. 3 3 60
7 60
9 72
13 50 242
4 4 60
8 60
10 72
14 50 242
5 15 61
16 61
19 48 170
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DRIP IRRIGATION
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The water flushing out from the filters should be inspected visually and by touch while
a tank is back-flushing, using a 100-mesh nylon screen or by hand, to validate that
only a very small amount of media sand is being discharged from the tank.
Sometimes channelization creates sectors in the tank that are not being properly
fluidized during back flushing. Clay balls or silt stratifications are the indicators of
such a condition.
In water containing organic matter, iron, sulfur and manganese bacteria, routine
oxidation by chlorine is essential. Chlorination can be accomplished continuously
with 2 5 ppm of active chlorine or intermittently as a shock treatment when there
is a high build-up of slime in the system. A shock treatment with 15 30 ppm
chlorine is given for 20 30 minutes. As mentioned before, some dripper
manufacturers suggest 15 ppm as upper threshold. Higher concentrations may
damage the diaphragms in pressure compensating drippers and hydraulic valves.
Periodic flushing of the mainline, manifolds and drip laterals is an essential
maintenance practice. The best form of manually flushing is to release the lateral end
stoppers one after another and let the dirty water exit until clean water appears.
Automatic line flushing valves can be installed at lateral ends. These valves
automatically flush the laterals at the beginning of each irrigation cycle.
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Research-Extension Center, Kansas State University, Colby, Kansas. flamm@oznet.ksu.edu.
Luke, G. And T. Calder. (2000). Blockages in Irrigation Lines. Division of Resource Management,
South Perth, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia.
Maas, E. V. (1984). Salt Tolerance in Plants. In: The Handbook of Plant Science in Agriculture.
B.R. Christie (ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Mahbub A., P. T. Todd, F. R. Lamm and D. H. Rogers. (1992). Filtration and Maintenance
Considerations for Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) Systems. Kansas State University
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CONVERSION FACTORS
Col.1
Col.2 Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Unit Col.2
Col.1
multiply by multiply by
Length
0.621 kilometer, km (103 m) mile, mi 1.609
1.094 meter, m yard, yd 0.914
3.28 meter, m foot, ft 0.304
1.0 micrometer, m (10-6 m) micron, 1.0
3.94 x 10-2 millimeter, mm (10-3 m) inch, in 25.4
39.4 millimeter, mm (10-3 m) mil (1/1000 inch) 0.0254
10 nanometer, nm (10-9 m) Angstrom, A 0.1
Area
2.47 hectare, ha acre 0.405
247 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 acre 4.05 x 10-3
0.386 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 square mile, mi2 2.590
2.47 x 10-4 square meter, m2 acre 4.05 x 103
10.76 square meter, m 2 square foot, ft2 9.29 x 10-2
1.55 X 10-3 square millimeter, mm (10 m) square inch, in2
2 -3 2 645
Volume
9.73 X 10-3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch 102.8
35.3 cubic meter, m3 cubic foot, ft3 2.83 x 10-2
6.10 x 104 cubic meter, m3 cubic inch, in3 1.64 x IO-5
2.84 x 10-2 liter, L (10-3 m3) bushel, bu 35.24
1.057 liter, L (10-3 m3) quart (liquid), qt 0.946
3.53 X 10-2 liter, L (10-3 m3) cubic foot, ft3 28.3
0.265 liter, L (10-3 m3) gallon 3.78
33.78 liter, L (10-3 m3) ounce (fluid), oz 2.96 x 10-2
2.11 liter, L (10-3 m3) pint (fluid), pt 0.473
Mass
2.20 x 10-3 gram, g (10-3 kg) pound, lb 454
3.52 x 10-2 gram, g (10-3 kg) ounce, oz 28.4
2.205 kilogram, kg pound, lb 0.454
0.01 kilogram, kg quintal (metric), q 100
1.10 x 10-3 kilogram, kg ton (2000 lb), ton 907
1.102 megagram, Mg (tonne) ton (U.S.), ton 0.907
1.102 tonne, t ton (U.S.), ton 0.907
Yield and Rate
0.893 kilogram per hectare, kg ha-1 pound per acre, lb acre-1 1.12
7.77 X 10-2 kilogram per cubic meter, kg m-3 pound per bushel, bu-1 12.87
1.49 X 10-2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha-1 bushel per acre, 60 lb 67.19
1.59 X 10-2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha-1 bushel per acre, 56 lb 62.71
1.86 X 10-2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha-1 bushel per acre, 48 lb 53.75
0.107 liter per hectare, L ha-1 gallon per acre 9.35
893 tonnes per hectare, t ha -1 pound per acre, lb acre-1 1.12 x 10-3
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893 megagram per hectare, Mg ha-1 pound per acre, lb acre-1 1.12 x 10-3
0.446 megagram per hectare, Mg ha-1 ton (2000 lb) per acre, ton acre-1 2.24
2.24 meter per second, m s-1 mile per hour 0.447
Specific Surface
10 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg-1 square centimeter
2
per gram, cm g -1 0.1
1000 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg-1 square millimeter
per gram, mm2 g-1 0.001
Pressure / Head
10 Meter, m - water head atmosphere 0.1
9.90 6
mega pascal, MPa (10 Pa) atmosphere 0.101
10 megapascal, MPa (106 Pa) bar 0.1
1.00 megagram per cubic meter, Mg m-3 gram per cubic
centimeter, g cm-3 . 1.00
2.09x 10-2 pascal, Pa pound per square foot, lb ft-2 47.9
1.45X 10-4 pascai, Pa pound per square inch, lb in-2 6.90 x 103
Temperature
1.00 (K - 273) Kelvin, K Celsius, 0C 1.00 (0C +
273)
(9/5 0C) + 32 Celsius, 0C Fahrenheit, 0F 5/9 (0F - 32)
Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat
9.52 x 10-4 joule, J British thermal unit, Btu 1.05 x 103
0.239 joule, J calorie, cal 4.19
107 joule, J erg 10-7
0.735 joule, J foot-pound 1.36
2.387x 10-5 joule per square meter, J m-2 calorie per cm2 (langley) 4.19 x 104
105 Newton, N dyne 10-5
1.43 x 10-3 watt per square meter, W m-2 calorie per cm2 minute, cal cm-2 min-1 698
Plane Angle
57.3 radian, rad degrees
(angle), 0 1.75 x 10-2
Electrical Conductivity, Electricity, and Magnetism
1.0 decisiemen per meter, dS m-1 millimho per centimeter, mmho cm-1 1.0
104 tesla, T gauss, G 10-4
Water Measurement
9.73 x 10-3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inches, acre-in 102.8
9.81 X 10-3 cubic meter per hour, m3 h-1 cubic feet per second, ft3 s-1 101.9
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4.40 cubic meter per hour, m3 h-1 U.S. gallons per minute, gal min-1
0.227
8.11 hectare-meters, ha-m acre-feet, acre-ft 0.123
97.28 hectare-meters, ha-m acre-inches, acre-in 1.03 x 10-2
8.1 x 10-2 hectare-centimeters, ha-cm acre-feet, acre-ft 12.33
Concentration
1 centimole per kilogram, cmol kg-1 milliequivalents per
100 grams, meq 100 g-1 1
0.1 gram per kilogram, g kg-1 percent, % 10
1 milligram per kilogram, mg kg-1 parts per million, ppm 1
Plant Nutrient Conversion
Elemental Oxide
2.29 P P2O5 0.437
1.20 K K2 0 0.830
1.39 Ca CaO 0.715
1.66 Mg MgO 0.602
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