Semiconductors Semiconductors

Conductors Energy Diagrams for Forward and Reverse

Semiconductors
Biases
Generation and Recombination
PN Junctions
Voltage and Current
Biasing the PN Junction
Current-Voltage Characteristics of a PN
Junction Breakdown
Junction

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Conductors Stable Orbits

materials that easily conducts electrical current
copper, gold, silver and aluminum are the best conductors
characterized by atoms with a single valence electron that is
very loosely bound to the atom
loosely bound valence electrons easily break away from
their atoms and become free electrons
a conductive material with many free electrons moving in
the same direction makes up the current
positive nucleus attracts the electrons
centrifugal force (outward force) created by their circular
motion does not pull electrons into the nucleus
centrifugal force is equal to the inward pull of the nucleus
attraction of the nucleus is smaller when the orbit of an
electron is larger

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 Core
valence orbit (outer orbit) is all that matters when dealing
with electronics
defined as the nucleus and all the inner orbits to emphasize
the relevance of the valence orbit
core for a copper atom is the nucleus (+29) and the first
three orbits (-28)
Free Electrons
outside force easily dislodges an electron from the copper
atom when the attraction between the core and the valence
electron is very weak
flow from one atom to the next due to the slightest applied
voltage

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Semiconductors
material that is between conductors and insulators and has
the ability of electrical current conduction
a pure or intrinsic semiconductor can be a good
conductor or a good insulator
Silicon, germanium and carbon are the most common
single-element semiconductors
Gallium arsenide is commonly used as a compound
semiconductor

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 Silicon and Germanium Atom

Copper Atom

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P-Type N-Type

consists of silicon atoms and trivalent impurity atoms such consists of silicon atoms and pentavalent impurity atoms
as boron such as antimony
boron atom adds a hole when it bonds with the silicon impurity atom releases an electron when it bonds with four
atoms silicon atoms

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 Basic pn structure at the instant of junction
formation showing only the majority and minority Formation of the Depletion region
carriers
free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all
directions

at the instant of the pn junction formation, the free

electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse
across the junction into the p region where they combine
with holes near the junction

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Formation of the Depletion region

Formation of the Depletion region
before the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free
electrons as they diffuse across the junction
a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) is formed near
the junction
as the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses
holes as the electrons and holes combine
a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) is formed near
the junction.
these two layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region

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 At the instant of junction formation, free electrons in Barrier Potential
the n region near the pn junction begin to diffuse
across the junction and fall into holes near the any time there is a positive charge and negative charge near
junction in the p region each other, there is a force acting on the charges

the forces between the opposite charges form a field of

forces called an electric field between the positive charges
and the negative charges

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Barrier Potential Energy Diagrams of the PN Junction and Depletion

Region
electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
region and the energy must be expended to move an
electron through the electric field

the potential difference (Barrier Potential, volts) of the

electric field across the depletion region is the amount of
energy required to move electrons through the electric field

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 Forward Bias Forward Bias

conduction that allows current through a pn junction Since like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-
voltage source pushes the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, toward the pn junction
(Electron Current)
Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-
voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the left
end of the p region
The holes in the p region provide the medium or pathway
for these valence electrons to move through the p region.
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Forward Bias A forward-biased pn junction showing the flow of

majority carriers
electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left
The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region,
effectively move to the right toward the junction (Hole
Current)
As the electrons flow out of the p region through the
external connection and to the positive side of the bias-
voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region

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 As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the The depletion region narrows and a voltage drop is
number of positive ions is reduced. produced across a pn junction when it is forward-
As more holes flow into the depletion region on the other biased
side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions is
reduced.
Reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias
cause the depletion region to narrow.
When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are
provided with enough energy from the bias-voltage source
to overcome the barrier potential and effectively climb the
energy hill and cross the depletion region.

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Reverse Bias
Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-
condition that prevents current through the pn junction voltage source pulls the free electrons away from the pn
junction.
As electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage
source, additional positive ions are created.
This results in widening of the depletion region and a
depletion of majority carriers.
As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases.

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 The pn junction during the short transition time
immediately after reverse-bias voltage is applied.
small number of free minority electrons in the p region is
pushed toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage
When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they
fall down the energy hill and combine with the minority
holes in the n region
conduction band in the p region is at higher energy level
than the conduction band in the n region
minority electrons easily pass through the depletion region
because they require no additional energy

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The extremely small reverse current in a reverse- Junction Breakdown

biased pn is due to the minority carriers from
thermally generated electron-hole pairs reverse current is so small which can be neglected

if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value

called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase

high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free

minority carriers so that they speed through the p region

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 Junction Breakdown Equilibrium

If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence

orbit during its travel through the p region, the numbers
quickly multiply.

As high-energy electrons go through the depletion region,

they have enough energy to go through the n region as
conduction electrons rather than combining with holes.

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Forward Bias Reverse Bias

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 Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal
Hole
a vacancy formed when an electron jumps to the conduction
band

Electron Hole Pair

a hole left in the valence band for every electron raised to
the conduction band by external energy

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Voltage
Current
cost in energy required moving a unit of positive charge
from the more negative point (lower potential) to the more rate of flow of electric charge past a point
positive point (higher potential)
unit is in Ampere or amp (A)
energy released when a unit charge moves downhill from
current in a circuit is considered to flow from a more
the higher potential to the lower
positive point to a more negative point, even though the
potential difference or electromotive force (EMF) actual electron flow is in the opposite direction
unit is Volts (V)

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 Oscilloscope
an electronic instrument used to measure and observe
voltages and currents
allows you to look at voltages (or occasionally currents) in
a circuit as a function of time
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0V across the pn
junction: No forward
current
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Simple Rules
The sum of the currents into a point in a circuit is equal to
the sum of the currents out (conservation of charge). This is
sometimes called Kirchoffs Current Law.
Things hooked in parallel have the same voltage across
them. Restated, the sum of the voltage drops around any
closed circuit is zero. This is Kirchhoffs Voltage Law.
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Gradually increase the
bias voltage: Forward
current and voltage
across the pn junction
gradually increase
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Continue increase the
bias voltage: Current
continues to increase
rapidly: Voltage across
the pn Junction increase
very gradually
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Continue to increase the
bias voltage: Current
continues to increase
very rapidly: Voltage
across the pn junction
increases very little
above VBR
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I-V Characteristic Curve for Forward Bias
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I-V Characteristic Curve for a Reverse-Bias
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 The Complete I-V characteristic Curve for a pn
Junction

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