Analysis of Mechanisms:

Mathematical Tools:
We would like to model is the representation of physical systems in 2D and 3D space
Representing Physical Systems:
2D 3D

We need to choose a number system field first. What number systems are possible?
Number systems:

- Natural Numbers
= {1,2, }
- Integers
= {0, 1, 2, }
- Rational Numbers

= {, | , 0}

(For all n and m in the set of integers, n divides m forms a rational number where n is not zero)
- Real numbers
(The formal definition involves the definition of an equivalence relation between two Cauchy
sequences (out of scope of this class). For our purposes think of this set as the set of all
rational numbers merged with all the irrational numbers, i.e. 2, , ,)
- Complex Numbers

We introduce the complex number = 1, and say that a complex number is defined by
2 = 1
= +
Where and are real numbers.
- Quaternions

We introduce the complex numbers = 1 and = 1, and say that a quaternion is

defined by
= = =
= = =
2 = 2 = 2 = = 1
= + + +
Where , , , and are real numbers
(We can go higher to define octonions, etc. but this is beyond our scope.)
We can also represent each number in dimensions (creating vectors composed of numbers in
their respective systems)
Vector Dimension:
A vector containing elements.
, 2 , 3 , ,
, 2 , 3 , ,
, 2 , 3 , ,
, 2 , 3 , ,
, 2 , 3 , ,
, 2 , 3 , ,

You may see something like

 or 1
=5
Which means is a real numbered scalar (or (1x1) vector)
2
(means the number is a (2x1) vector of rational numbers)
4
= [2]
3
3
(means the number is a (3x1) vector of complex numbers)
We return to our question. Lets look at 2D then. What number system/vector dimension can we
use?
The best choices are
2 and 1
In this book we will plot these systems like this:
2D in 2 2D in 1

= () = +

Natural numbers, Integers, and rational numbers are out. They do not form what is called a
complete set. (There are no holes in the set.)
(Number line example)
(Representing circles and , etc.)
What about 3D?
While it is not as straightforward as 2D the best choices are
3 and 1
We will discuss 3D very briefly in this class and only to familiarize you for more advanced
classes (Robotics, Mechanics, )
2D system Representation in 2 :
Rectangular form:

= ( )


Polar form:
cos
=( )
sin

Where, = 2 + 2 and = tan1

2D system Representation in 1 : ()
Rectangular form:

= +

Polar form:


= (cos + sin )
()
=

Where, = 2 + 2 and = tan1

Trigonometric definitions show us the conversion between rectangular and polar forms:

cos = = cos


sin = = sin

+ = ( cos ) + ( sin ) = (cos + sin )
How about = (cos + sin )?
Use MacLaurin Series Expansion:
Prove: = (cos + sin )

(1) 2+1 3 5 7
sin = = + +
(2 + 1)! 3! 5! 7!
=0

(1) 2 2 4 6
cos = = 1 + +
(2)! 2! 4! 6!
=0


2 3
= =1++ + +
! 2! 3!
=0

Now let =


() ()2 ()3
= = 1 + + + +
! 2! 3!
=0
2 4 6 3 5 7
= (1 + + ) + ( + +)
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

(1) 2 (1) 2+1
= + = cos + sin
(2)! (2 + 1)!
=0 =0

This is Eulers formula, and its definition is one reason why we consider complex polar
representation for analysis of mechanisms.
Modelling Desired Motion:
What mechanism components we are interested in modelling? How do they move?
Servo (rotates)
DC motor (rotates)
Linear actuator (increases magnitude (length))
Linkages (constant dimension, can be rotated and translated)
Rack& pinion (rotate and translate)
Sliders (Prismatic Joints) (translate)
Gears (rotate)
Cams (rotate and translate)
Parts tend to rotate, increase in length, and translate relative to one another. How do we model
this motion?
Translation:
2D system Representation in 2 :
Cartesian Form:

2
2 = ( ) = 1 + 2
2
1 2
1 () = ( ) + ( )
1 = ( ) 1 2
1
= () +
() = (1 + 2 )
1 2

Polar Form:
2 cos 2
2 = ( ) = 1 + 2
2 sin 1
cos cos 1 cos 2
1 cos 1 ( )=(1 )+( 2 )
1 = ( ) sin 1 sin 1 2 sin 1
1 sin 1
= ( cos )
sin cos cos 1 + 2 cos 2
( )=(1 )
sin 1 sin 1 + 2 sin 1

2D system Representation in 1 :
Cartesian Form:

2 = 2 + 2
= 1 + 2

+ = (1 + 1 ) + (2 + 2 )
1 = 1 + 1
= + + = (1 + 2 ) + (1 + 2 )

Polar Form: = 1 + 2

2 = 2 2 = 1 1 + 2 2
(cos + sin )
= 1 (cos 1 + sin 1 )
1 = 1 1
+ 2 (cos 2 + sin 2 )
=
cos + sin
= (1 cos 1 + 2 cos 2 )
+ (1 sin 1 + 2 sin 2 )
Translation in both 2 and 1 is performed by the addition of two vectors.
Rotation:
2D system Representation in 2 :

cos( + )
= ( ) = ( )
sin( + )

cos
= () = ( )
sin

cos( + ) (cos cos sin sin )

= ( ) = ( )=( )
sin( + ) (sin cos + sin cos )
( cos ) cos ( sin ) sin cos sin
( ) = ( )=( )
( sin ) cos + sin ( cos ) cos + sin
cos sin ] ( )
( ) = [
sin cos
cos sin
Where = [ ] is known as a rotation matrix
sin cos
2D system Representation in 1 :

= + = cos( + ) + sin( + )

= + = (cos + sin )

= + = (cos( + ) + sin( + ))

= ((cos cos sin sin ) + (sin cos + sin cos ))

= (( cos ) cos ( sin ) sin ) + (( sin ) cos + sin ( cos ))

= cos + cos + sin sin

= ( + ) cos + ( + ) sin
 + = ( + )(cos + sin ) = = (+)
Rather than matrix multiplication (as in 2 ) rotation by some angle in 1 is equivalent to multiplication
by
Amplification:

2D system Representation in 2 :

cos
= ( ) = ( )
sin

cos
= () = ( )
sin

cos cos
=( )=( )= ( )
sin sin

( ) = () , =

2D system Representation in 1 :

= + = (cos + sin )

= + = (cos + sin )

= + = (cos + sin ) = ((cos + sin ))


+ = ( + ), =

Amplification of a vector in both 2 and 1 is equivalent to multiplication by a scalar where
the new length =
Combined Motion (General Motion):
2D system Representation in 2

1
( )
1

cos sin 1
( ) = [ ] () + ( )
sin cos 1

2D system Representation in 1

1 + 1

+ = ( + )(cos + sin ) + (1 + 1 ) = + 1 1 = (+) + 1 1

Systems of Equations:
Linear Systems of equations
=
x is the representation of the vector y in terms of the basis A
Example:
1 = 21 + 32
2 = 11 + 42
1 2 + 32
( ) = ( 1 )
2 11 + 42
1 2 3 1
( ) = [ ]( )
2 1 4 2
The identity Matrix:
1 0 0
0 1 0
=[ ]

0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0 2
()=[ ]( )

0 0 1
Analogy to = (1)
Matrix Addition/Subtraction:
Ex.
2 3 1 1 3 4
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]
1 4 5 4 6 0
Ex.
2 3 1 1 3 4
[1 4] + [5 4] = [6 0]
1 2 4 2 5 4

Matrix Multiplication:
Ex.
2 3 1 1 17 10
[ ][ ]=[ ]
1 4 5 4 21 15
Ex.
1 1
2 1 3 19 4
[ ] [5 4] = [ ]
1 2 4 27 1
4 2
Matrix determinant:
(must be square)
Define
+ +
[ + ]
+ +


det [ ] = det [
] det [ ] + det [ ]


= ( ) ( ) + ( )
Matrix Inversion:
Square matrices only (full rank)
For a 2x2 matrix:

1 1
[ ] = [ ]

det [ ]

For general take the matrix and augment it with what is called the identity matrix of the
same size
1 0 0
[ 0 1 0]
0 0 1
reduced row echelon form
1 0 0
[0 1 0 ]
0 0 1

[ ] [ ]

Matrix Transpose:

2 3 2 1
[ ] =[ ]
1 4 3 4
 2 1
2 1 3
[ ] = [1 2]
1 2 4
3 4