Sharpetal GSA00

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Wednesday Aug 02 2000 03:07 PM gsab 112 1004 Mp 60

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Fault-propagation folding in extensional settings: Examples of

structural style and synrift sedimentary response from the Suez rift,
Sinai, Egypt
Ian R. Sharp*
Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester
M13 9PL, UK
Rob L. Gawthorpe
Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester
M13 9PL, UK
John R. Underhill
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Edinburgh, Grant Institute, The Kings Buildings, West Mains Road,
Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK
Sanjeev Gupta*
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Edinburgh, Grant Institute, The Kings Buildings, West Mains Road,
Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK
ABSTRACT formational unconformities toward the 1987b; Mandl, 1987; Davidson, 1989). These
growth monoclines and buried faults, data point to uplift of the footwall, commonly
Field data from the OligoceneMiocene whereas they diverge into broadly synclinal associated with the development of a subaerial
Gulf of Suez rift demonstrate that coeval expanded sections away from the growth unconformity, and coeval subsidence of the
growth faults, folds, and transfer zones ex- monocline. Continued movement across hanging wall; uplift and subsidence decrease
erted a major control on synrift strati- buried faults resulted in the progressive ro- perpendicular to the fault scarp. Subsidence
graphic sequence development. Growth tation of the monoclinal limb and associat- and uplift also vary along strike and are as-
folds in the Suez rift are related to steeply ed synrift sediments, each successively sociated with variation in fault displacement,
dipping normal faults that propagated up- younger sequence dipping basinward at a from maxima at fault segment centers to min-
ward, resulting in broad, upward-widening shallower angle than the previous one. The ima at fault tips. The resulting basin configu-
monoclines in overlying strata. Folding resulting synrift geometries differ signifi- ration is that of an asymmetric half-graben
during fault propagation was accommodat- cantly from stratal geometries normally an- (Fig. 1).
ed by layer-parallel slip and detachment ticipated adjacent to normal faults. Along- Several authors (e.g., Leeder and Gawthor-
along mudstone horizons as well as by nor- strike variations in facies stacking patterns pe, 1987; Roberts and Jackson, 1991; Barr,
mal and rare reverse secondary faults that are also commonly associated with decreas- 1991; Prosser, 1993; Roberts et al., 1993;
propagated away from the master fault. ing displacement across faults and associ- Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Gawthorpe et al.,
The eventual propagation of the master ated folds toward low-relief transfer zones. 1994; Collier and Gawthorpe, 1995) recog-
fault through to the surface left the steep Data from other rift basins indicate that nized the profound effect that the evolving
limb of the monocline and most of the sec- fault-propagation folds are not unique to half-graben model has upon geomorphology,
ondary faults in the hanging wall. the Gulf of Suez. sediment-transfer mechanisms, and synrift
This evolving structural style exerted a sedimentation. Typically, synrift sediments fill
marked control on the geometry and stack- INTRODUCTION the half-graben with a divergent sediment
ing patterns of coeval synrift sediments. wedge characterized by aggradational foot-
Synrift sediments display onlap and intra- Our current understanding of extensional wall-derived fans and talus in the immediate
faulting in rift basins is largely based on geo- hanging wall of the normal fault, and offlap-
*Present address: Norsk Hydro Research Centre, San- detic data from modern fault zones (e.g., Stein ping divergent fans on the hanging-wall dip
dsliveien 90, N-5020, Bergen, Norway; E-mail: ian. and Barrientos, 1985; King et al., 1988; Stein slope (Fig. 1A). Incremental fault movement
sharp@hydro.com.

Present address: T.H. Huxley School of Environment,
et al., 1988; Jackson et al., 1988) and the ro- results in downward rotation of the footwall-
Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College of Sci- tating-domino model for planar normal faults derived fans and in uplift, incision, and pro-
ence, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP, UK. (e.g., Morton and Black, 1975; Barr, 1987a, gressive offlap and progradation of hanging-
GSA Bulletin; October 2000; v. 112; no. 10; p. 000000; 17 figures.
.. Due to facing page requirements, begin article on a left-hand page. ..

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS
structural style of fault-propagation folds in

extensional settings and examine their control
on synrift sediment dispersal, stacking pat-
terns, and stratigraphy. The study is based pri-
marily on spectacular field exposures from the
eastern side of the Suez rift (Fig. 2), where
uplift of the rift shoulder and footwall exhu-
mation without contractional reactivation of
faults allow the original geometrical relation-
ships between block-bounding faults, folds,
and coeval sediments to be studied in detail.
In particular, the semiarid nature of the study
area and the network of crosscutting Wadi sys-
tems allow unique three-dimensional control
for the tracing of structures and related synrift
sediments in continuous strike and dip sec-
tions.
REGIONAL CONTEXT
The Suez rift is the northern continuation of

the Red Sea rift, which developed during sep-
aration of the African plate from the Arabian
plate in the late Oligocene (Fig. 2A). The rift
trends northwest-southeast and is 300 km long
and as wide as 80 km. Normal faults strike
parallel to the length of the modern gulf and
are linked by shorter, slightly oblique, transfer
faults. The combined fault trends result in a
classic extensional zigzag fault pattern in plan
view. In cross section the rift is characterized
by large tilted fault blocks 1020 km across,
the dips of which subdivide the rift into three
asymmetric dip provinces along strike (Fig. 3)
Figure 1. (A) Schematic cross section of half-graben physiography and synrift fill. Incre-
(Moustafa, 1976; Colleta et al., 1988). This
mental fault movement results in downward rotation and aggradation of footwall- derived
fault-block geometry probably developed
fans in the immediate hanging wall and, above the point of zero displacement (fulcrum)
above detachment surfaces in the upper part
on the hanging-wall dip slope, results in uplift, incision, and progressive offlap and pro-
of the mid-crust (Perry and Schamel, 1990) or
gradation. (B) Folding during the vertical and lateral propagation of a normal fault. Fault
middle part of the lower crust (Cochran and
tips are associated with the development of a monoclinal fold above the blind, upward-
Martinez, 1988; Voggenreiter et al., 1988).
and laterally propagating normal fault. Propagation of the fault tip to the surface results
However, brittle deformation of upper crustal
in breaching of the fold and a faulted monoclinal configuration. Redrawn from Walsh
fault blocks above a ductile lower crust and
and Watterson (1987), and Schlische (1995). No scale is implied.
mantle without the presence of detachments is
also feasible (Bosworth, 1995).
wallderived sediments. Axial drainage also pression, typically in the form of a broad flex- This study concentrates on the eastern on-
undergoes tilt-induced migration toward the ure. Although such fault-propagation folds are shore (Sinai) exposures of the central dip
fault scarp. Strike variation in displacement commonly depicted at the tips of surface- province, including the Hammam Faraun fault
dictates that the synrift wedge also thins par- breaking normal faults (Fig. 1B; Walsh and block to the north and the El Qaa block to the
allel to the fault trace, from a maximum at a Watterson, 1987; Schlische, 1995), their ef- south (Fig. 2). The structure and stratigraphy
fault segment center to minima at fault tips. fects on surface geomorphology, sediment of this region were first fully described by
That graben-bounding faults form topo- transport, and stratigraphy have received little Robson (1971) and Garfunkel and Bartov
graphic features at the surface throughout ex- attention (Jackson and Leeder, 1994; Gaw- (1977), although Moustafa (1987, 1992a,
tension is fundamental to facies models for thorpe et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 1999; Dawers 1992b, 1993, 1996), Patton et al. (1995), and
evolving half-graben. None of the published and Underhill, 2000; Corfield and Sharp, Krebs et al. (1996) updated this work.
models take into account the fact that the fault 2000). Bearing in mind the profound effect
trace might have propagated upward from that fault-tip folds have on basin fill and stra- STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
depth and may not have formed a surface tigraphy in other structural settings (e.g., fore-
break until some time after extension started. land basins, Puigdefabregas et al., 1986; Der- The stratigraphy of the eastern side of the
Such blind, upward-propagating normal faults amond et al., 1993), this is surprising. Suez rift can be divided into three sedimentary
would be expected to have some surface ex- The aim of this paper is to document the megasequences that unconformably overlie
Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
placement Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid fault

segments (Fig. 5). The monocline is defined
by horizontal to increasingly westward in-
clined strata in the footwall/rift shoulder, a rel-
atively wide faulted zone of steeply dipping
to locally overturned strata (the Thal, Baba-
Sidri, and Hadahid faults), and a strongly
asymmetric hanging-wall syncline with a
steeply dipping eastern limb and a long, gent-
ly dipping western limb (Fig. 5, EE9, GG9).
The steeply dipping eastern limb is locally as-
sociated with reverse faults and folds. When
traced along strike the faulted monocline is
locally unbroken and located immediately
above a normal fault tip (e.g., the Hadahid
monocline, Fig. 5, II9, JJ9).
The nature of this faulted monocline is dis-
Figure 3. Cross sections of the Suez rift showing the three main dip provinces (redrawn cussed in detail in the following sections,
from Patton et al., 1995). See Figure 2A for cross-section locations. Arrows indicate the starting with deformation in the footwalls of
present Gulf of Suez coastline. the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid fault seg-
ments, followed by the structural style of the
fault segments, and deformation in the hang-
Precambrian Pan-African metamorphic base- recognized; from north to south, the Thal, ing wall.
ment (Fig. 4). Megasequence 1 comprises the Baba-Sidri, Gebah, and Hadahid fault seg-
predominantly nonmarine Nubian sandstones ments (Fig. 2). The large-displacement (.1.5 Footwall Deformation
of Cambrian to Early Cretaceous age. Mega- km) Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid fault seg-
sequence 2 is of uniform thickness throughout ments bound the downfaulted Hammam Far-
the study area (;850 m) and comprises a aun and El Qaa blocks and form the focus of Bedding in the footwall and main rift shoul-
mixed carbonate and clastic marine-dominated this study, and the relatively small displace- der is typically horizontal to very gently dip-
succession of Mesozoic to early Tertiary age. ment (,500 m) Gebah fault segment defines ping (,58 toward the west); however, ap-
Of major importance for the structural evolu- a zone of moderate extension between the proaching the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid
tion of the region is the competence contrast main rift shoulder and the Baba-SidriHada- fault segments, bedding shows a marked west-
represented by the mudstone to massive lime- hid fault segments (Fig. 2). In detail, these erly increase in dip (108208). This relation is
stone transition between both the Raha and four large segments are composed of smaller particularly well exposed north of Wadi Sidri
Wata Formations and the Esna Shale and fault strands (sensu Roberts and Gawthorpe, as far as Wadi Baba (the Budra tilt blocks,
Thebes Formations of megasequence 2 (Fig. 1995), which are typically 48 km long. The Figs. 2 and 5, FF9, GG9). In this area the
4). Megasequence 3 includes the synrift and Thal fault segment, for example, is made up increase in dip is accommodated by several
postrift sediments that unconformably overlie of the Abu Ideimat, Sarbut El Gamal, and Nu- 200400-m-displacement, down-to-the-east,
the prerift strata. This megasequence has tra- khul fault strands, while the fault segment domino-style normal faults that tilt bedding
ditionally been divided into two groups: (1) comprises the Baba and Sifri fault strands. In- toward the west. Immediately adjacent to the
the basal, clastic-dominated Gharandal Group, dividual fault segments and strands link or die Baba-Sidri fault, bedding in the Nubian and
and (2) the overlying, predominantly postrift, out at regions of decreasing displacement overlying MesozoicTertiary strata steepen to
evaporitic Ras Malaab Group. This study fo- along strike in a classic extensional dogleg dip as much as 308 toward the west. Bedding-
cuses on the Nukhul and Rudeis Formations pattern. The western limits of the Hammam parallel slip and shearing along weak mud-
of the Gharandal Group, which were deposited Faraun and El Qaa blocks are marked by the stone horizons, typically within the Raha,
during rift initiation and rift climax, respec- large-displacement (to 5 km) Hammam Far- Wata, and Esna Shale Formations, but also
tively (Patton et al., 1995). aun and Nezzazat fault segments, respectively, within the Qiseib Formation, are particularly
and the east-weststriking Markha-Baba trans- apparent in this zone. An almost identical pat-
STRUCTURAL STYLE fer fault divides the two blocks (Fig. 2). tern is developed south of Wadi Feiran (Figs.
Structural transects (after Garfunkel and 2 and 5, JJ9). In this region, a set of east-
This paper concentrates on the sinuous fault Bartov, 1977; Moustafa, 1992a, 1993) across dipping, moderate-throw (300600 m), planar
system that defines the eastern edge of the the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa blocks sys- normal faults (the Feiran tilt blocks) are pre-
Hammam Faraun and El Qaa blocks. Four ma- tematically reveal the presence of a faulted sent, and tilt bedding toward the west. Dips
jor fault segments 2550 km in length can be monocline associated with the three large-dis- locally reach 258 toward the west in this re-
Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa region (modified after Moustafa, 1993). Location of cross sections
in Figure 5 and detailed map of Wadi Baba region (Fig. 6) are indicated. (A) The regional plate tectonic setting of the Gulf of Suez
region; the onshore parts of the Suez and Red Sea rifts are shaded. Lines XX9, YY9, and ZZ9 refer to cross sections in Figure 3.


GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
gion, especially in the immediate vicinity of

the Hadahid monoclinal and fault.
In the Hammam Faraun block the extended
zone in the footwall/rift shoulder is consider-
ably narrower. For example, in the Gebel Mu-
saba Salaama section (Figs. 2 and 5, BB9)
three down-to-the-west, 50-m-displacement
normal faults downfault stratigraphy toward
the Thal fault. There is minimal tilting of bed-
ding between these faults. Immediately to the
west, however, two down-to-the-east planar
normal faults tilt bedding as much as 208 to-
ward the Thal fault and have throws in excess
of 100 m. This zone of footwall extension is
;2 km wide. Our outcrop data show that the
majority of faults affecting the footwall are
planar domino-style normal faults. Very lo-
cally, however, slightly curved fault-plane
profiles are present. Such listric fault surfaces
are exclusively associated with the detachment
of faults along mechanically weak mudstone
horizons and are not through-going structures.
In addition to the predominantly planar nor-
mal faults that dip to the east, the immediate
footwalls of the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hada-
hid faults are locally characterized by steep,
west-dipping (.708), small-displacement
(,50 m) normal faults. As one approaches the
main faults, the throw across these normal
faults increases, as does the amount of tilt of
the bedding between them. This pattern is par-
ticularly well developed in the Wadi Baba re-
gion, where the planar basementNubian
sandstone unconformity steps down and is tilt-
ed toward the Baba fault between small-dis-
placement west-dipping normal faults (Figs. 5
and 6, CC9, DD9).
Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid Fault Figure 4. Composite stratigraphic section of the Hammam Faraun2El Qaa region, west-
Segments ern Sinai. Note the mud-rich Qiseib, Raha, and Esna Shale Formations, which form dis-
tinct decollement horizons (after Robson, 1971; Moustafa, 1987). T and S in synrift refer
Throughout the study area the faults that to terrace and sequence nomenclature of Krebs et al. (1996).
bound the eastern edge of the Hammam Far-
aun and El Qaa blocks compose a zone, ,250
m wide, containing several closely spaced, and north-northeastsouth-southweststriking Shale Formations are commonly highly
steep (608808), down-to-the-west normal faults relayed extension between the dip-slip sheared, attenuated, or completely cut out.
faults. These faults generally dip more steeply northwest-southeaststriking faults. Pervasively sheared phacoidal textures and
in the basement and Nubian sandstone than in In outcrops, the easternmost fault is typi- duplexes are developed within the more duc-
the more ductile strata of megasequence 2. cally the large-displacement master fault, tile mud-rich horizons, whereas brecciation
Slickenside data indicate almost pure dip-slip whereas the associated faults to the west are typifies deformation of the more massive
movement (maximum 88 obliquity from dip smaller displacement structures associated limestone and sandstone units. When the Thal,
slip) across the rift-parallel, northwest-south- with intensely deformed rider blocks of Me- Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid fault segments are
eaststriking faults, and dip slip to oblique sozoicTertiary strata (megasequence 2). Bed- traced along strike from south Wadi Feiran
slip across north-south and north-northeast ding between these normal faults is typically northward as far as Gebel Musaba Salaama,
south-southweststriking faults (maximum very steeply dipping (.608) and locally over- secondary faults commonly splay off the mas-
308 obliquity from dip slip). Similar results turned (Fig. 7). Evidence for layer-parallel slip ter faults, and individual faults tip out and link
have been widely reported from the study area is common in the steeply dipping beds, par- laterally. This tipping, splaying, and joining of
and the Suez rift (Moustafa, 1993; Patton et ticularly along mudstone breaks between more the block-bounding faults along strike char-
al., 1994; McClay and Kalil, 1998), and are competent units. In particular, the mud-rich acterizes the fault zone; extension is relayed
interpreted to indicate that the north-south2 units of the Raha, Wata, Matulla, and Esna and transferred between individual fault seg-

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Figure 5. Cross sections of the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks (based on Garfunkel and Bartov, 1977; Moustafa, 1993). See
Figure 2 for location of cross sections.
ments and strands. Only rarely is a single fault regions. In contrast, in the Wadi Feiran region, monocline. This monocline can be observed
present. both the Hadahid and Gebah faults have rel- immediately above the Hadahid fault tip in
Displacement along the Thal, Baba-Sidri, atively small local displacements of ,200 m Wadi sections north and south of Wadi Feiran
and Hadahid fault segments varies consider- of throw. The Hadahid fault is also locally (Fig. 5, II9, JJ9, KK9). Extension in the re-
ably along strike, but typically exceeds 1.5 km blind and represented at the surface by the gion between the southern tip of the Baba-
in the Gebel Musaba Salaama and Baba-Sidri steeply dipping (to 408), west-facing Hadahid Sidri fault segment and where the Hadahid

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SHARP et al.

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Figure 6. Detailed map of the Wadi Baba region, northern El Qaa block (see Fig. 2 for location). Based on 1:10 000-scale field mapping on to air photos. Cross section
and figure localities marked.

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
Figure 7. Enlargement of cross-section EE9, south Wadi Baba (modified after Moustafa, 1987). The Baba fault comprises three fault
strands that separate basement and/or Nubian strata in the footwall from steeply dipping Mesozoic, Eocene, and Miocene strata in the
hanging wall. Hanging-wall strata are cut by two reverse faults that branch from the dip-slip Baba fault and overturn both prerift and
synrift strata. (See Fig. 8, A and B, and Figs. 2, 5, and 6 for cross-section location.)
and Gebah faults join to form the Sinai Massif Salaama and Gebel Abu Alaqa (Figs. 2 and Wata Formations over sheared and locally
fault is thus taken up by a series of smaller 5), and have been described in the immediate overturned sediments of the Sudr, Esna Shale,
faults rather than by one dominant master hanging walls of numerous mesoscale faults and Thebes Formations, as well as the Mio-
fault, and represents a zone of tectonic transfer throughout the study area (e.g., in the Feiran cene synrift strata. The syncline within the
(Wadi Feiran transfer zone, Fig. 2; Moustafa, tilt blocks area, Moustafa, 1992, 1993) and Miocene conglomerates most likely developed
1992b; Gupta et al., 1999). along the rift length (Garfunkel and Bartov, as a footwall syncline to this reverse fault.
1977). Where fully exposed, the axes of these Where this same reverse fault (fault 2) is
Hanging-Wall Deformation synclines plunge inward at the ends to form a traced to the west-northwest, a spectacularly
closed structural basin that reflects the maxi- exposed hanging-wall anticline is developed
Throughout the study area, strata in the im- mum throw in the center of a fault segment immediately above the reverse fault (evi-
mediate hanging wall of the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and decreasing displacement along the fault denced by distinctive brown limestone of the
and Hadahid faults display structures that are toward each tip (cf. Schlische, 1995). Matulla Formation, Figs. 6 and 10A). At this
not generally described in extensional fault Reverse faults and associated isoclinal folds locality, however, limestone of the Thebes
zones. These features include reverse faults occur in the immediate hanging wall of the Formation in the footwall of reverse fault 2 is
and steep (.608) to overturned and locally master normal faults and are parallel to and folded into a broad anticline and is in thrust
isoclinally folded beds. Bedding-parallel slip branch off the main fault segments. The re- contact on coarse Miocene clastic rocks of the
and shearing are common, particularly along verse faults are well exposed in the Wadi Baba Lower Rudeis Formation (Figs. 9 and 10, fault
weaker mudstone horizons within the Raha, region (Moustafa, 1987), where they typically 1). The clastics are folded into a syncline in
Wata, and Esna Shale Formations. This struc- dip 2082608 toward the northeast and have the footwall of the second reverse fault. The
turally complex zone in the immediate hang- throws of 20100 m. Immediately south of very low dip of the lower reverse fault (fault
ing wall is typically no more than 500 m wide. Wadi Baba, a reverse fault branches off the 1) and the gently inclined axis of the associ-
For example, moving westward away from the Baba fault and overturns bedding within both ated hanging-wall anticline indicate that this
Baba fault, the zone of faulted, folded, and prerift limestones and unconformably overly- fault and fold probably formed first and were
steep to overturned bedding in the immediate ing Miocene synrift strata, locally producing later tilted in the footwall of the structurally
hanging wall gradually diminishes. At a dis- a tight footwall syncline within the Miocene higher and younger reverse fault (fault 2),
tance of 200400 m away from the fault, bed- rocks. Where displacement across this reverse which dips at a steeper angle (408 to the north-
ding shallows to horizontal and starts to dip fault tips out to the west, it is replaced by a east) and has a more open hanging-wall anti-
back toward the east, thus defining a broad hanging-wall anticlinefootwall syncline pair cline. Similar relationships of reverse faults
hanging-wall syncline (the BabaEl Qaa syn- (Figs. 6, 7, and 8, A and B). Similar structures and associated folds tilted in the footwalls of
cline; Figs. 5 and 6, CC9, DD9, EE9, and are well exposed north of Wadi Baba, where younger reverse faults can also be observed
Fig. 7). The syncline is strongly asymmetric, a large, recumbent syncline is developed in south of Wadi Baba (Figs. 6, 7, and 8, A and
having a very short, steeply dipping eastern synrift conglomerate of the Miocene Lower B), in Wadi sections northeast of Gebel Ras
limb and a long, shallowly dipping western Rudeis Formation (Figs. 8C and 9A). Expo- Abu Ghazlan, and, less spectacularly, within
limb. Similar asymmetric hanging-wall syn- sures at a structurally higher level ;500 m to Miocene conglomerates that parallel the Baba-
clines are developed along most of the length the north reveal a low-angle reverse fault Sidri fault in the Wadi Sidri region (Gupta et
of the master faults between Gebel Musaba (fault 2, Fig. 9A) that places the Raha and al., 1999).

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Figure 8. (A) Field photograph of tight anticline-syncline pair associated with secondary reverse fault in immediate hanging wall to
Baba fault, south Wadi Baba (see Figs. 6 and 7). Note that the prerift-synrift contact is overturned in the hanging-wall anticline, and
that the reverse fault plane is subhorizontal, probably due to passive tilting in the footwall of a younger reverse fault. Pprerift, S
synrift Yyounging direction. (B) Detail of reverse fault (1) in south Wadi Baba. Displacement is ;50 m and places prerift Eocene
strata (Darat Formation, D) over synrift Miocene strata (M). A second, poorly exposed, reverse fault (2) strikes through the col and
places cherty limestone of the Thebes Formation over the more marly Darat Formation. View is to north. See also Figures 6 and 7. (C)
View north from Pipe Col, north Wadi Baba, approximately corresponding to section CC9 of Figure 5. See Figure 9 for a detailed
interpretation. (D) View south from summit of left (rotated fan) peak in C. Note reverse fault (fault 1) and incrementally tilted synrift
conglomerates. Subhorizontal Nubian sandstones are visible in the footwall to the Baba fault in the left background.
Field observations indicate that the reverse should be emphasized that the immediate fault segments linked by shorter, oblique
faults and associated folds either tip out along hanging walls of the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and transfer faults and unfaulted relay ramps (Fig.
strike with decreasing displacement (e.g., Fig. Hadahid faults in both the Hammam Faraun 2) (Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993). Throw
6, fault 1; north Wadi Baba tips out to the and El Qaa blocks are more typically zones of across individual fault segments and strands is
south), or terminate at transverse tear faults sheared and steeply westward dipping strata transferred from one fault to another across
orientated perpendicular to the strikes of the cut by steeply dipping (.608) normal faults these zones of displacement transfer; fault dis-
reverse faults or fold axis. The latter case is only. The reverse faults and folds therefore placement decreases from maximums in fault
well exposed south of Wadi Baba, where iso- represent subordinate structures. segment centers to minima at fault tips. Dis-
clinally folded and overturned synrift strata to placement transfer is also achieved by splay-
the north (Figs. 7 and 8, A and B) are sepa- Fault Linkage and Segmentation ing of a large displacement fault into several
rated from uniformly west-dipping prerift and smaller displacement faults along strike. The
synrift strata to the south along several north- In plan view the Thal, Baba-Sidri, Gebah, degree of tilting and deformation of strata in
west-southeaststriking faults (Fig. 6). Hadahid, and associated smaller faults are the immediate footwall and hanging wall of
While not underestimating the significance highly sinuous in nature, defining a classic en the faults is directly related to the along-strike
of the reverse faults, fractures, and folds, it echelon dogleg pattern of long, rift-parallel variation in fault displacement. For example,

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Figure 9. View north from Pipe Col, north Wadi Baba, approximately cor-

responding to section CC9 of Figure 5 (inset). The oldest synrift sediments
are tilted to vertical or overturned and folded into synclinal folds in the foot-
wall of reverse faults (1 and 2) that splay off the dip-slip Baba fault. Reverse
fault 1 appears to tip out to the south. Moving upsection and basinward (left
of sketch), successively younger packages of synrift strata reveal incremen-
tally less tilt; ultimately the youngest synrift sediments are horizontal (above
truncation surface T2). These data point to progressive tilt about horizontal
gsab 112
axis during deposition of the synrift sediments, resulting in the development

of progressive intraformational unconformities and large-scale slumped units
within the synrift sediments.
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Figure 10. View west-northwest from Cableway Col, north Wadi Baba, showing two reverse faults (1 and 2) that splay off the dip-slip Baba fault. The sketch corresponds
gsab 112
to section CC9, Figures 2, 5, 6, and 15A. Note that reverse fault 1 and associated limestones of the Thebes Formation are overturned in the footwall of reverse fault 2,
which is the younger fault. Synrift conglomerates deposited above these reverse faults and the upward-propagating dip-slip Baba fault and/or fold record incremental
basinward tilt, resulting in complex onlap-offlap relationships and intraformational truncations (T1 and T2).
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SHARP et al.
throw across the Baba-Sidri fault segment de-

creases toward a synthetic transfer zone (sensu
Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993) in the Wadi Feir-
an region, displacement being transferred to
the Gebah fault segment to the east and a se-
ries of smaller faults to the south (Fig. 2). The
southward decrease in displacement across the
Baba-Sidri fault is associated with reduction
of deformation and tilting of adjacent strata in
the hanging wall and footwall (Gupta et al.,
1999). Similarly, the Hadahid fault gradually
decreases in displacement toward the Wadi
Feiran transfer zone to the north. In associa-
tion with the decrease in displacement, the
Hadahid fault becomes blind and at the sur-
face is replaced by the west-facing Hadahid
monoclinal (Figs. 2 and 5, KK9, JJ9, II9).
FAULT PROPAGATION AND

STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION
We interpret the eastern edge of the Ham-

mam Faraun and El Qaa blocks to be defined
by series of en echelon, steeply dipping
(.608), down-to-the-west normal faults. The
faults propagated upsection during rifting to
force broad rift-facing monoclinal folds in
overlying prerift sediments (Fig. 11). The gra-
nitic basement and Nubian sandstones (me-
gasequence 1) acted as a rigid forcing member
while the overlying MesozoicTertiary mixed
carbonate-clastic succession (megasequence
2) underwent ductile folding and draping into
upward-widening monoclines (Fig. 11B). In-
creasing displacement and fault propagation
resulted in accentuation of the fold structures
in the Mesozoic-Tertiary succession and the
initiation of layer-parallel shearing and decol-
lement of the more competent units along me-
chanically weak mudstones of the Wata, Raha,
and Esna Shale Formations, and locally the
Qiseib Formation (Fig. 11C). This shearing re-
sulted in attenuation and tightening of the
monocline over the steeply dipping normal
fault and in movement of material from the
upthrown footwall toward the hanging wall.
Extension in the footwall and accommodation
of the rift-facing monocline appear to have
been achieved by closely spaced, predomi-
nantly down-to-the-east, planar normal faults,
resulting in a series of west-dipping fault
blocks (e.g., the Feiran and Budra tilt blocks).
The presence of rare listric faults in the foot-
wall that sole out along mudstone horizons
may also be related to movement of the sed-
imentary cover toward the hanging wall (cf.
Withjack et al., 1990; Pascoe et al., 1999). A
decrease in the angle of dip of the master fault
(between 108 and 208) also occurs as the fault
propagates from the brittle basement and Nu-

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
trast, where the normal fault segments are

more planar (or convex) along their length, for
example, along the Thal, Wadi Sidri, and Had-
ahid faults, reverse faults and associated folds
are only locally developed. The secondary
structures are commonly most spectacularly
developed along northwest-southeaststriking
faults (e.g., north Wadi Baba region). Slick-
enside data from these faults indicate pure dip-
slip extension (maximum 88 obliquity), and
provide no evidence of later inversion (cf.
Knott et al., 1995). These relationships imply
an extensional origin for the structures.
Regardless of the secondary reverse struc-
tures, tilting of bedding in the monocline to-
ward parallelism with the master fault led to
pronounced bedding-parallel slip and faulting
along weaker horizons, typically mudstones of
the Raha, Wata, Matulla, and Esna Shale For-
mations. The resulting faulted zone is hence
relatively wide (to 250 m) and consists of sev-
eral steeply dipping, down-to-the-west, nor-
mal faults that cut steeply dipping strata.
Figure 12. Experimental clay model of extensional fault-propagation fold (forced or drape Eventually, the master normal fault propagat-
fold) associated with a 608 dipping, upward-propagating, normal fault involving a rigid ed to the surface, resulting in the cessation of
basement and a ductile sedimentary cover. Note the presence of high-angle to locally growth folding and the development of a sub-
reverse secondary faults and fractures in the immediate hanging wall. Continued fault aerial fault scarp (Fig. 11E). Our data from
propagation beyond stage D would lead to a more typical half-graben geometry, albeit Sinai show that the master normal fault every-
with a zone of steep-dipping strata and associated faults in the immediate hanging wall. where breached the overlying growth fold be-
Redrawn from Withjack et al. (1990). hind the monoclinal limb. As a result, the ma-
jority of secondary structures and the steeply
dipping limb are preserved in the immediate
bian sandstones into the overlying ductile sed- al growth and/or forced folding (Fig. 12) (Wi- hanging wall of the master fault. In contrast,
iments of megasequence 2 (Fig. 11D). thjack et al., 1990; Sanford, 1959). bedding in the footwall is typically horizontal
With continued propagation of the master The location, number, and net slip of the or slightly inclined toward the master fault.
fault, the monoclinal limb of the fold was tilt- secondary reverse faults and associated folds Once the fold was breached, continued dis-
ed to steeper angles (.408) in the immediate in the hanging wall are directly related to the placement across the fault resulted in uplift of
hanging wall and became dissected by sec- curvature of the individual normal fault seg- the footwall and subsidence of the hanging
ondary, upward-steepening, high-angle nor- ments in plan view: the greater the curvature wall, ultimately generating a more typical
mal to reverse faults that splay off, and are of the normal fault segment along strike, the half-graben structural style, albeit with a zone
subparallel to, the master fault (Fig. 11, C and greater the significance of secondary reverse of steeply dipping strata adjacent to the fault.
D). These secondary faults young upward fault and fold structures in the immediate This faulting was probably still associated
(e.g., north Wadi Baba, Figs. 9 and 10). This hanging wall. For example, in the Wadi Baba with bedding-parallel slip across steeply dip-
situation is directly comparable to secondary region (Figs. 2, 5, and 6), space problems as- ping mudstone horizons in the immediate
faults described by Stearns (1978) and Mat- sociated with vertical displacement across an hanging wall, accentuating the zone of sheared
thews and Work (1978) from growth and/or arcuate (concave) normal fault plane (map strata and clay smear in this region.
forced folds of the Rocky Mountain foreland view) were relieved by reverse faulting and The majority of growth folds in the study
and to experimental clay models of extension- folding of the immediate hanging wall. In con- area were obviously dissected by the through-
going master faults, resulting in a character-
istic faulted monoclinal configuration. How-
Figure 11. Fault-propagation fold model. Stages AE are based predominantly on outcrops ever, where propagation of the master faults
in the Wadi Baba region and represent the sequential two-dimensional evolution of the was insufficient to cause a surface rupture, for
Baba fault during Miocene extension. Note that all five stages of fault and fold growth example, toward fault tips, unbroken growth
would also be expected to occur coeval along strike from fault tips (A and B; e.g., Hadahid folds are preserved. This situation is spectac-
monocline and/or Wadi Feiran transfer zone) to fault-segment centers (E; e.g., Baba-Sidri ularly developed along the Hadahid mono-
fault in Wadi Sidri section). This is schematically represented in the inset. Secondary cline (Fig. 5, KK9, JJ9, II9). The five stages
structures in the immediate hanging wall are exaggerated for clarity and are not always presented in Figure 11 therefore not only rep-
developed. Note also that the main block-bounding normal faults become slightly shallow- resent the temporal evolution of the main
er dipping in megasequence 2. No scale is implied. See text for detailed discussion. faults, but also the spatial variation in struc-
tural style that occurs between fault segment

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
centers (Fig. 11E) and fault tips (Fig. 11A, see with and truncate the underlying synrift pack- faults within fault blocks; e.g., Wadi Nukhul,
inset). This continuum of stages of develop- age (Fig. 13B). The maximum stratigraphic Sharp et al., 1998).
ment of growth folds and associated faults al- thickness of the early synrift Nukhul Forma-
lows a good deal of confidence to be placed tion therefore occurs along the axis of the syn- Fold and Fault Amplification
in the growth fold model for the eastern side cline, and the formation progressively thins
of the Suez rift and supports the original work and onlaps toward the west and east in asso- With increasing fault displacement and
of Patton (1984), Moustafa (1987), and Wi- ciation with increasing angularity along the propagation, the monoclinal limb of the
thjack et al. (1990). In contrast, Knott et al. prerift-synrift contact. growth folds steepened and was tilted toward
(1995) attributed the apparently structurally Examination of the prerift-synrift contact the hanging wall (Fig. 11, C and D). The fold
complex nature of the main fault segments in and early synrift stratigraphy throughout the amplification was locally associated with the
western Sinai to a period of tectonic inversion. study area revealed similar low-angle onlap development of secondary high-angle normal
Structural data collected during the present relationships toward the Thal, Baba-Sidri, and and reverse faults that splayed off the master
study clearly favor fault-propagation folding Hadahid faults and on to the hanging-wall dip fault. There is clear evidence for this phase of
during a single phase of extension; there is no slope. For example, along the flanks of the fold and fault growth within coeval synrift
evidence of reactivation of fault planes. Knott Hadahid monocline south of Wadi Feiran, the sediments, where originally subhorizontal sur-
et al. (1995) also failed to address the growth basal synrift strata (Nukhul Formation) onlap faces (proven by geopetal data) have been tilt-
stratigraphy of the synrift sediments. As dis- the prerift middle Eocene Mokattam Forma- ed to vertical or even overturned in the im-
cussed in the next section, the geometries of tion (Fig. 14A). The angularity between the mediate hanging wall of the Thal and Baba-
these sedimentary strata allow a detailed tem- prerift and synrift sediments is 58108, and the Sidri faults and the Hadahid monocline.
poral and spatial reconstruction of the growing synrift sediments clearly thin and onlap to- The synrift contact between prerift Eocene
structures. These data indicate a single phase ward the east (i.e., toward the buried Hadahid carbonates and synrift clastic rocks (rift cli-
of extensional fault-propagation folding and fault) and expand toward the west (i.e., bas- max, Lower Rudeis Formation) is well ex-
show no evidence of later inversion. inward). However, subsequent fault propaga- posed north of Wadi Baba in the hanging wall
tion and tightening of the monocline tilted the of the Baba fault (Figs. 6, 8C, and 9). Primary
SEDIMENTARY RESPONSE onlap surface so that it now dips 308408 bedding and geopetal data from both prerift
west. When traced along strike north of Wadi and synrift strata, as well as abundant primary
Fold and Fault Initiation Feiran toward an area of decreasing fault dis- sedimentary structures from the synrift strata,
placement and fold development (Figs. 2 and confirm that the prerift-synrift contact was
Prerift-synrift onlap relationships and an- 14, B and C), the prerift-synrift contact has subhorizontal to very gently west dipping at
gular unconformities in the Wadi Baba region undergone minimal tilting since deposition the time of deposition. Bedding discordance
indicate that rift topography must have been and the original low-angle onlap relationship between the Eocene carbonates and overlying
relatively subdued during the initial stages of of the Nukhul Formation on Eocene prerift synrift Miocene clastics points to a dip dis-
rifting. For example, along the axis of the El strata is preserved. cordance of no more than 208 between the two
Qaa syncline south of Wadi Baba, bedding We suggest that the driving mechanism for units. However, this contact now dips very
within prerift and synrift strata is virtually par- the low-angle onlap and truncation surfaces steeply (.808) toward the southwest and is
allel. However, the prerift strata are truncated that characterize the prerift-synrift contact and locally overturned (Figs. 6, 9, 10, 8D, and 15,
and onlapped by synrift strata toward the west the early synrift strata throughout the study A and B). Moving westward away from the
and east, away from the axis of the syncline area was the initiation of upward-propagating Baba fault, the contact gradually decreases in
(Fig. 13). Offshore marls grading into shore- normal faults. This produced broad low-relief dip and angularity until the prerift-synrift con-
face sandstones of the early synrift Nukhul monoclinal growth folds immediately above tact is preserved as a horizontal, subparallel
Formation thin and coalesce eastward toward the faults, whereas broad growth synclines contact (Fig. 9A). Moving up the hanging-
the Baba fault and expand into the El Qaa syn- were created in the adjacent hanging wall wall dip slope farther to the west this contact
cline toward the west (Fig. 13, B and C). This (Fig. 13A). The accommodation space gener- was found to dip back slightly (,108) toward
westward expansion is associated with pinch- ated in the growth synclines was filled by ear- the northeast. The geometry defines a growth
out of shoreface sandstones into basinal marls, ly synrift sediments (Nukhul Formation). Ver- syncline similar to that described from south
whereas the thinning toward the Baba fault is tical and lateral fault propagation resulted in Wadi Baba, albeit with a shorter, steeper east-
associated with increasingly erosive and sharp accentuation of the monoclines and synclines. ern limb.
bases under forced regressive shoreface sand- The region above and immediately to the west Moving stratigraphically and structurally
stones (Gawthorpe et al., 1997). The lowest of the propagating faults underwent slight up- upsection in north Wadi Baba, however, the
package of synrift strata in the immediate lift, rotation, and erosion to produce low-angle dip of the synrift sediments gradually decreas-
hanging wall of the Baba fault was truncated truncation surfaces within synrift sediments es, defining a clear upward-widening syncline,
and tilted slightly (,2858) toward the west (Fig. 13, B and C). In contrast, the central part the uppermost exposures of which are virtu-
prior to progradation of the next forced re- of the synclines subsided to preserve a con- ally horizontal. Within this growth syncline,
gressive shoreface sandstone (Fig. 13C). formable and expanded synrift succession. the coarse-grained deltaic synrift sediments
When traced basinward (westward) into the El This situation contrasts markedly with the converge and amalgamate to the east toward
Qaa syncline, this truncation surface between thickening of early synrift sediments toward the Baba fault, and diverge toward the west
the two synrift packages becomes conform- border faults that would be expected if major (Figs. 6, 9, 10, 8D, and 15, A and B). Intra-
able and virtually parallel. To the west of the subaerial fault scarps and half-graben devel- formational unconformities, stratal truncation,
El Qaa syncline (i.e., up the hanging-wall dip oped during the early stages of rifting (al- and onlap within individual packages are also
slope), this surface again begins to converge though this can locally be demonstrated on evident toward the Baba fault (east), whereas

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Figure 13. Sketch sections and interpretation of deposition of the rift initiation Nukhul Formation, south Wadi Baba. See text for detailed
discussion. Location of section is shown in Figure 6.
to the west divergent and expanded sections clearly indicating progressive tilting during the paleohorizontal within each depositional
are evident, associated with a change from deposition of the synrift sediments. sequence to be identified. The oldest synrift
coarse deltaic facies to basinal marls, silt- This pattern is spectacularly developed sediments in this region dip very steeply to-
stones, and redeposited sandstones. Succes- north of Cableway Col (Figs. 6 and 10), where ward the west and are locally overturned and
sively younger deltaic units dip at shallower geopetal data from in situ patch reefs, coupled folded into a syncline in the footwall of a re-
angles (Figs. 6, 9, 10, 8D, and 15, A and C), with large-scale clinoform geometries, allow verse fault (reverse fault 1, Figs. 10 and 15A).

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
The reverse fault tips to the west and is as-

sociated with a gradual loss of the footwall
syncline in the Miocene rocks such that the
rocks dip uniformly, but steeply (508608), to-
ward the west. The next overlying Miocene
conglomerate package dips westward at a
shallower angle (408508) and onlaps and
truncates both the underlying conglomerates
and the structurally overlying Thebes lime-
stones (onlapping contact onto karst surface,
Fig. 10). Geopetal data from this unit indicate
3582408 of basinward (westward) tilt since
the time of deposition. Overlying this con-
glomerate is a spectacular cliff section through
the foresets and toesets of a Gilbert-type fan
delta (Figs. 9, 10, and 15C). The foresets and
toesets downlap and pinch out on to a discrete
surface along the top of the underlying pack-
age. The foresets exposed in the upper part of
the cliff section now dip to as much as 508,
which suggests that at least 308 of tilt occurred
since deposition (assuming an angle of repose
of 138208, Prior and Bornhold, 1988; Postma
et al., 1988; Nemec and Steel, 1988). The del-
taic body is clearly truncated and onlapped by
an overlying conglomerate package (T1, Figs.
9, 10, and 15C), which is in turn truncated
(T2) and onlapped by the stratigraphically
highest and most gently dipping (58108) con-
glomerate package.
Similar geometric relationships within syn-
rift conglomerates are apparent adjacent to the
Thal fault in the Gebel Musaba Salaama re-
gion and the Baba-Sidri fault segment as far
south as Wadi Feiran (Fig. 2). For example,
Gilbert-type fan deltas exposed north and
south of Wadi Sidri in the immediate hanging
wall of the Sidri fault are tilted by as much as
408 toward the west (Figs. 15D and 16) (Gaw-
thorpe et al., 1990). Within successively youn-
ger conglomerate packages the tilt of the top-
sets gradually decreases until fans with hori-
zontal topsets are encountered. As with the ex-
posures north of Wadi Baba, individual
conglomerate packages thin and onlap the un- Figure 14. Sketch sections and block diagram of onlap relations of the synrift Nukhul
derlying package toward the east and expand Formation onto prerift Eocene limestones, Hadahid monocline, north and south Wadi
toward the west. In addition, the contacts be- Feiran. A systematic decrease in the amount of tilt of both the prerift and synrift strata
tween individual fan delta sequences locally is evident moving from a maximum near the fault and/or fold segment center (A, south
show evidence of submarine erosion prior to of Wadi Feiran) to a minimum at fault and/or fold tips (C, north of Wadi Feiran). S.L.
being overlain by fanglomerates of the next is sea level.
sequence. Exposures west of Wadi Sidri also
display evidence of subaerial exposure be-
tween individual fans, including reddening are evident at the topset-foreset transition in relate with slump sheets, chaotic conglomer-
and dissolution and/or karstification of car- the Wadi Sidri outcrops (Gupta et al., 1999), ates, and amalgamated turbidites. This relation
bonate clasts and intervals in the lower, steep- and are typically picked out by west-facing is particularly well exposed in south Wadi
er dipping, fans (Gupta et al., 1999). concave and scalloped-shaped depressions Baba, where a large (to 20 m thick) slump
Large-scale slope failure, slump, and scour filled by more steeply dipping chaotic beds or sheet and overlying olistostromal horizon can
features are also preserved within individual foresets of the overlying sequence (Fig. 15D). be traced north of Wadi Baba to large-scale
fan delta packages from both the Wadi Baba When traced westward (i.e., basinward), the scour features and chaotic slumped horizons
and Wadi Sidri sections. The scour features scour and collapse horizons commonly cor- within fan deltas adjacent to the Wadi Baba

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Figure 15. (A) Field photograph from Cableway Col. See Figure 10 for a detailed interpretation. (B) Field photograph, looking south
from Cableway Col, of tilted synrift conglomerates in the immediate hanging wall to the Baba fault. Note that the oldest conglomerates
have been tilted to vertical (left of photograph), whereas successively younger conglomerates have undergone incrementally smaller
degrees of tilt. Individual conglomerate packages onlap and amalgamate toward the fault and/or fold (left), often associated with
intraformational truncation surfaces, and expand away from the fault toward the west (right). (C) Spectacular dip section through tilted
synrift conglomerates in north Wadi Baba. Note that oldest conglomerates (right of photograph) are steeper dipping than progressively
younger conglomerates, and the youngest sediments at the top of the section are horizontal to gently west dipping. Also note rotated
foresets and bottomsets (F and B), two major intraformational truncation surfaces (T1 and T2), and large slump fold (S). Pylon is 15 m
high. See also Figures 9 and 10. (D) View south over rotated synrift fan deltas in Wadi Sidri. Note topsets, foresets, and bottomsets of
Gilbert-type delta in upper part of photograph. Topsets have been tilted as much as 408 since deposition. Also note prominent cut-and-
fill scour feature (arrowed) filled by coarse reefal debris and the foresets of the overlying fan. Gilbert delta is ;25 m high.
fault (Sharp et al., 1998). This olistostrome is growth fold and associated synrift sediments, presence or absence of secondary structures.
particularly rich in clasts (to 100 m long) of resulting in the oldest synrift sediments un- Where normal fault propagation was not ac-
angular prerift blocks derived from the Thebes dergoing greater rotation, whereas successive- companied by secondary high-angle normal to
and Sudr Formations (Fig. 6). ly younger deposited packages dip at shallow- reverse faults, tilting of coeval synrift sedi-
In summary, the geometries and facies as- er angles owing to less tilting. Each sequence ments never exceeded 408508. The resulting
sociations described from the Wadi Baba and onlaps the next older one; the contacts locally stratal configurations are relatively simple and
Wadi Sidri outcrops strongly support the in- display evidence for submarine and subaerial predictable, consisting of incrementally tilted
terpretation that sedimentation occurred in erosion, nondeposition, and reworking of the depositional packages (e.g., Wadi Sidri fan
growth synclines adjacent to broad fold struc- underlying sediments. The contrast in amount deltas, Fig. 17A; Gupta et al., 1999). In con-
tures above upward-propagating blind normal of tilt and in stacking patterns of synrift sed- trast, where upward-propagating normal faults
faults (Figs. 11 and 17). Fault propagation led iments from the Wadi Baba and Wadi Sidri were accompanied by secondary high-angle
to the progressive tilting of the overlying outcrops appears to be directly related to the normal to reverse faults as in the north Wadi

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
Figure 16. Schematic cross section of synrift fans in the immediate hanging wall of the Wadi Sidri fault, based on exposures north and
south of Wadi Sidri and modified after Gawthorpe et al. (1990). Topsets of the stratigraphically oldest fans dip basinward as much as
408, whereas successively younger fans show progressively smaller topset dips. Individual fans onlap and truncate underlying fans toward
the Sidri fault.
Baba examples, synrift sediment geometries Strike Variability and the Role of horizontal. Spectacular exposures in this re-
are considerably more complex and sediments Transfer Zones gion are of stacked progradational to aggra-
were tilted to vertical or overturned and tight- dational, subhorizontal Gilbert-type fan deltas
ly folded into footwall synclines (Fig. 17B). Previous studies of rift-basin structure and (Gupta et al., 1999). Although minor tilting,
The concave scour features (Wadi Sidri) drainage development (e.g., Leeder and Gaw- growth faulting, and folding are still evident
and the spectacular slump sheet and/or olis- thorpe, 1987; Leeder and Jackson, 1993; Gaw- within the fans, there is no evidence for
tostromes of Wadi Baba may also be related thorpe et al., 1994; Collier and Gawthorpe, wholesale tilting of individual fan deltas. The
to synsedimentary tilt. For example, fault 1995) have highlighted the importance of dip of topsets within the fan deltas is essen-
propagation and associated basinward rotation along-strike displacement variation and fault tially the same throughout the section. Only
of the overlying fold would lead to the over- linkage in determining sediment transport where the fan deltas are traced toward the edg-
steepening of depositional slopes within syn- pathways and stacking patterns. In particular, es of the transfer zone, where displacement
rift clastic sediments deposited above, and transfer zones at tip points of individual fault across faults and growth folds starts to in-
ahead of, the fold. This would in turn trigger segments may act as major low-relief sedi- crease, does evidence of significant synrift tilt
gravity collapse of the semiconsolidated syn- ment input points of footwall-derived detritus appear.
rift fan deltas, and possibly sliding and deg- into hanging-wall basins. Moreover, folding Along-strike comparison of the gross stack-
above upward-propagating normal faults ing patterns and stratal geometries of synrift
radation of part of the prerift stratigraphy.
would be expected to decrease gradually in sediments deposited ahead of growth folds
Such collapse and redeposited horizons may
amplitude toward and beyond fault tips at thus reveals a close relationship between dis-
record individual seismic events related to
transfer zones, accompanied by a correspond- placement and degree of bedding tilt. During
propagation of the faults. In particular, the
ing decrease in tilting of synrift sediments de- the blind phase of fold and/or fault growth,
massive olistostromal and/or slump unit that
posited in the region. minimal tilt and aggradational to prograda-
is rich in Thebes Formation limestone clasts
Structural data from the Wadi Sidri and tional sequences characterize areas beyond
and is exposed north and south of Wadi Baba
Wadi Feiran region indicate the presence of a fold tips and transfer zones, whereas progres-
was likely the result of seismic shock associ- sively more tilted sequences are evident mov-
major synthetic transfer zone (sensu Morley et
ated with movement on the Baba-Sidri fault al., 1990; Moustafa, 1992b; Gawthorpe and ing toward areas of maximum displacement
segment. Similar seismically triggered mass- Hurst, 1993) developed between the southern and fold/fault growth. These markedly differ-
flow deposits have been widely described as tip of the Baba-Sidri fault and the northern tip ent stacking patterns developed contempora-
resulting from modern earthquakes, for ex- of the Hadahid fault and/or monocline (Figs. neously and in close proximity along the
ample, in the Gulf of Corinth (Perissoratis et 2 and 5). The progressively tilted synrift fan length of a single fold and/or fault segment.
al., 1984; Papatheodorou and Ferentinos, deltas in the Wadi Sidri region (Fig. 16) are Once the fold was breached by the upward-
1993). Smaller scour and chute-like features located in the hanging wall of the central part propagating fault, there is a further change in
within the Wadi Sidri and Wadi Baba fans are of the Wadi Sidri fault, where as much as 2 stacking patterns, fault-segment centers being
more difficult to relate confidently to individ- km of displacement has occurred. When characterized by more typical half-graben ge-
ual paleoseismic events, because such features traced southward toward the transfer zone, the ometries and aggrading synrift strata. The ag-
have been described from fan deltas in tecton- amount of syndepositional tilt between indi- grading synrift strata pass along strike into
ically quiescent settings (e.g., Nemec and vidual fan deltas dies out until topsets exposed tilted sequences where the fault remains blind
Steel, 1988). on the south face of Gebel Abu Alaqa are sub- (Gawthorpe et al., 1997). This suite of stratal

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
ample, in the North Sea extensional province.

Such features have largely been ignored or at-
tributed to drag or postdepositional compac-
tion. In contrast, we suggest that such features
may be attributed to fault-propagation folding,
and that this mechanism is more widespread
in extensional settings than has previously
been appreciated, particularly where decolle-
ment horizons such as salt or thick shale in-
tervals are present.
In addition to our studies in the Suez rift
(Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Sharp et al., 1998;
Gupta et al., 1999), other integrated studies of
fault-propagation folding and stratigraphic de-
velopment in an extensional setting include
those of Jackson and Leeder (1994), Maurin
(1995, 1996), and Corfield and Sharp (2000).
Jackson and Leeder (1994) addressed propa-
gation of the Pearce fault in the Basin and
Range Province of the western United States
and concluded that surface deformation above
the laterally and vertically propagating Pearce
fault tip was initially represented by a low-
amplitude monoclinal fold (their Figs. 12 and
13). Streams flowing across this growing fold
are incised into both the proto-footwall and
part of the proto-hanging wall. As the fault
propagated, the monocline was cut by a sur-
face rupture and the hanging-wall depocenter
migrated toward the fault scarp. As a result,
Figure 17. Fault-propagation and/or growth fold models for the Wadi Sidri (A) and north uplift in the proto-hanging wall became sub-
Wadi Baba (B) sections. The contrast in amount of tilt and stacking patterns of synrift sidence in the actual hanging wall, and the
sediments from the Wadi Baba and Wadi Sidri outcrops is directly related to the presence incised rivers began to cause aggradation. At
of secondary reverse faults. Note the overall progradational, forced regressive nature of the same time the part of the stream that was
the Wadi Sidri fans during fold growth, which forces individual depositional units bas- located in the footwall continued to incise
inward. This contrasts with stacking patterns that develop once the fault breaks surface deeply. Our data from Sinai show similar evo-
(iv); the patterns are characterized by a migration of deposition back toward the fault lutionary features, for example, the develop-
scarp. All four stages of synrift deposition would be expected to be coeval, along strike ment of unconformity surfaces in the hanging
with variation in fault and/or fold displacement and growth. wall during initial fold growth (Figs. 13 and
14), followed by subsidence, aggradation, and
shifting of the hanging-wall depocenter back
relationships can thus be used to identify pa- plex ceased because of footwall breaching and toward the fault scarp as the fault propagates
leorelay zones or areas of fault growth and hard linkage (sensu Cartwright et al., 1996) to the surface (Fig. 17A, iv) (Gawthorpe et al.,
linkage by tip-line migration (Sharp et al., between the Nukhul and Wadi Baba faults 1997).
1998; Gupta et al., 1999; Dawers et al., 1999; (Fig. 2). Maurin (1995, 1996) identified geometries
Dawers and Underhill, 2000). in the Rhine graben similar to those docu-
We conclude that the Wadi Baba and Abu REGIONAL COMPARISONS mented from Sinai. In common with the
Alaqa delta complexes developed in areas of growth folds from Sinai, folds above normal
major fault intersection (relay zones) and, as The geometries and structural-sedimento- faults in the southern Rhine graben are related
such, were favorable low-relief entry points logical interactions described in this paper are to the upward propagation of steep-dipping
for footwall-derived coarse synrift clastic sed- markedly different from those normally re- (608708) normal faults (Laubscher, 1982;
iments. Furthermore, with the progressive lat- ported from the hanging wall of normal fault Maurin, 1995). The faults typically have
eral propagation and linkage of originally iso- zones (e.g., Leeder and Gawthorpe, 1987; throws of ;2 km and are rooted in crystalline
lated fault strands, sediment input points ei- Roberts and Jackson, 1991; Barr, 1991; Pros- basement. The growth folds developed in
ther migrated laterally (e.g., Alaqa region, ser, 1993; Roberts et al., 1993; Leeder and overlying Mesozoic sediments owing to pro-
Gupta et al., 1999) or were cut off due to Jackson, 1993; Gawthorpe et al., 1994; Collier gressive upward fault propagation; the folding
propagation of linking faults (cf. hanging- and Gawthorpe, 1995). However, a review of was accommodated by decollement along
wall2 and footwall-breaching faults of Cart- other extensional basins indicates that steeply gypsiferous clays. The similarity in terms of
wright et al., 1996). It is speculated that sed- dipping prerift and synrift strata adjacent to synrift sediment response immediately above
iment supply to the Wadi Baba fan delta com- normal faults are relatively common, for ex- and adjacent to these growth folds to the Sinai

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
SHARP et al.
examples is striking. For example, Maurin cal and lateral fault propagation by tip-line rizons. Ultimately, secondary normal and re-
(1996) described the overlying synrift alluvial migration in the Statfjord area of the northern verse faults propagated through to the surface,
conglomerates to exhibit divergent onlaps, North Sea, and speculated that steeply dipping followed by the master normal fault, leaving
steeply dipping intraformational unconformi- strata in the hanging-wall to normal faults most of the steeply dipping beds and second-
ties and a general syn-sedimentary syncline could have developed due to fault-propagation ary faults in the hanging wall.
geometry. folding. The evolving structural style exerted a
Our own preliminary study of onshore ex- In terms of the overall sediment stacking marked control on the geometry and stacking
posures of major Late Jurassic extensional patterns that develop, comparisons can also be patterns of coeval synrift sediments. Synrift
faults and synrift clastic rocks from the Moray drawn with syntectonic sedimentation ahead sediments deposited ahead of buried faults re-
Firth basin of eastern Scotland has revealed of fault-propagation anticlines in contractional cord the early stage of propagation. Individual
similarities to data from Sinai. For example, settings. Perhaps the most spectacular docu- depositional sequences are characterized by
the major basin-bounding fault in this region, mented examples of this style of deposition onlap and intraformational unconformities to-
the Helmsdale fault, is a steeply dipping come from the foreland basins of the Pyrenees ward the buried faults, and diverge into ex-
down-to-the-east normal fault that juxtaposes (e.g., Riba, 1976; Anadon et al., 1986; Puig- panded sections in adjacent growth synclines.
Devonian granite and sandstone in the foot- defabregas et al., 1986; Deramond et al., Continued movement across buried faults re-
wall against Late Jurassic synrift sediments in 1993; Lawton et al., 1999), where progressive sults in the progressive rotation of growth
the hanging wall (Thomson and Underhill, unconformities develop within syntectonic strata, producing upward-widening growth-
1993; McDonald and Hurst, 1993). Bedding sediments ahead of propagating fault-tip folds. syncline geometry in the immediate hanging
in coarse-grained synrift clastics (Helmsdale The unconformities are most pronounced to- wall of the fault. Large-scale slope failure and
Boulder Beds) in the immediate hanging wall ward anticlinal crests and pass basinward into slump features within individual conglomerate
dip steeply away from the fault toward the expanded and conformable sections. Incre- packages may also relate to this progressive
east. Moreover, individual synrift clastic pack- mental tilting of the syntectonic sediments tilting and slope oversteepening. The resulting
ages thin and converge toward the Helmsdale also results in the older strata dipping more synrift geometries that record this growth-fold
fault, whereas an overall expansion of stratig- steeply than successively younger deposits. stage of structural evolution differ significant-
raphy associated with a decreasing angle of The similarity to the Sinai examples is clear. ly from predicted stratal geometries adjacent
bedding dip is evident as one moves progres- Thus, regardless of the regional tectonic set- to large normal faults in extensional settings
sively basinward away from the fault. ting (contractional or extensional), sediments and resemble those described from contrac-
Similarly, offshore seismic profiles across deposited ahead of growing fault-tip fold tional settings.
block-bounding faults from the North Sea hy- structures appear to respond to fold growth The degree of bedding tilt, both within prer-
drocarbon province, including the Inner Mor- and rotation in a similar style. It appears that ift and synrift units, is closely related to po-
ay Firth basin (e.g., Lossiemouth fault, Thom- it is the evolution of the surface of deposition sition along the individual fault segments.
son and Underhill, 1993, their Fig. 7) and the that primarily controls sediment dispersal and Maximum tilt characterizes zones of high dis-
Brae and Brent provinces of the South and stacking patterns, regardless of the underlying placement at fold and/or fault segment centers,
North Viking graben (Glennie, 1990), reveal structural style. whereas no tilt occurs beyond fault tips in
the presence of steeply dipping reflectors in transfer zones. This situation changes when
the immediate hanging wall of border faults. CONCLUSIONS the fault breaks surface (Gawthorpe et al.,
These reflectors, which are entirely within 1997). Where fault segments are highly
synrift Late Jurassic sediments, thin and con- The results of this study suggest that fault- curved (concave) in plan view, secondary
verge back toward the fault zone and thicken propagation folding is more important and high-angle normal to reverse faults and asso-
and dip away from the fault (e.g., Fig. 2.3A widespread in rift basins than has previously ciated folds develop. The secondary structures
of Glennie, 1990). The features have previ- been appreciated. Field data from the eastern can have a profound effect on coeval sediment
ously been attributed to either compaction-re- margin of the OligoceneMiocene Gulf of dispersal and stacking patterns on a local scale
lated draping or to short-lived periods of con- Suez rift show that growth faulting and fold- (e.g., Wadi Baba region).
traction (structural inversion) at the end of rifting can explain previously problematic struc- In summary, continued lateral and vertical
ing (Glennie, 1990). However, we suggest that tural geometries adjacent to large normal fault propagation and segment linkage re-
faults, including overturned bedding and local quires a dynamic approach to understanding
they could equally well represent synrift sed-
rift-basin configuration and synrift sediment
imentation above upward-propagating faults reverse faulting. In addition, this structural
dispersal rather than a static structural frame-
and their associated growth folds. The local style had a major impact on synrift sediment
work. Such structurally related spatial and
presence of more steeply dipping faults splay- dispersal and facies stacking patterns.
temporal changes have largely been over-
ing off block-bounding faults in these sections Fault-propagation folds in the Suez rift are
looked by current models addressing drainage
is also reminiscent of geometries observed in related to steeply dipping (.608) upward-
development and sequence stratigraphy in ex-
Sinai (Glennie, 1990, his Fig. 2.3A). Withjack propagating normal faults. Fault propagation
tensional settings. However, these are the keys
et al. (1990), Pascoe et al. (1999), Corfield et resulted in the development of broad upward-
to understanding the fundamental controls on
al. (2000), Corfield and Sharp (2000), and Er- widening monoclines within overlying prerift
rift-basin drainage development, stacking pat-
rat (1993) also described fault-propagation Paleozoic2Cenozoic strata. Extension and
terns, and stratigraphy.
folds involving Triassic salt and Jurassic syn- folding during fault propagation were accom-
rift strata from the Haltenbanken area of the modated by (1) normal and reverse upward- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Norwegian North Sea and the United King- steepening secondary faults that propagated
dom Central graben. Dawers et al. (1999) and away from the master fault, and (2) layer-par- We acknowledge financial support from the
Dawers and Underhill (2000) identified verti- allel slip and detachment along mudstone ho- Realizing Our Potential Award Scheme (Nat-

GEOLOGY BULLETIN
ural Environment Research Council grant Dawers, N.H., and Underhill, J.R., 2000, The role of fault ein kinematisches und dynamisches problem: Eclogae
interaction and linkage in controlling synrift strati- Geologicae Helvetiae, v. 75, p. 101116.
GR3/R9527), and Norsk Hydro and Amoco graphic sequences: Late Jurassic, Statfjord East area, Lawton. T.E., Roca, E., and Guimera, J., 1999, Kinematic-
under the Modes of Sedimentation in Exten- Northern North Sea: American Association of Petro- stratigraphic evolution of a growth syncline and its
leum Geologists Bulletin, v. 84, p. 4564. implications for tectonic development of the proximal
sional Settings (MOSES) project. We grate-
Dawers, N.H., Berge, A.M., Hager, K.-O., Puigdefabregas, foreland basin, southeastern Ebro basin, Catalunya,
fully acknowledge the constructive comments C., and Underhill, J.R., 1999, Controls on Late Juras- Spain: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 111,
and reviews of Steve Drury, Kevin Maher, sic, subtle sand distribution in the Tampen Spur area, p. 412431.
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Deramond, J., Souquet, P., Fondecave-Wallez, M-J., and tion 28, p. 139152.
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Adel Moustafa. Roald Frseth, John Gjelberg, tonics and sequence stratigraphy in foredeeps: Model tween normal faulting and drainage in active exten-
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GEOLOGY BULLETIN

Wednesday Aug 02 2000 03:07 PM gsab 112 1004 Mp 60

Fault-propagation folding in extensional settings: Examples of

GSA Bulletin; October 2000; v. 112; no. 10; p. 000000; 17 figures.

.. Due to facing page requirements, begin article on a left-hand page. ..

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

structural style of fault-propagation folds in

The Suez rift is the northern continuation of

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

placement Thal, Baba-Sidri, and Hadahid fault

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

gion, especially in the immediate vicinity of

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Allen Press DTPro System

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

axis during deposition of the synrift sediments, resulting in the development

Allen Press DTPro System

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

throw across the Baba-Sidri fault segment de-

FAULT PROPAGATION AND

We interpret the eastern edge of the Ham-

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

trast, where the normal fault segments are

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

The reverse fault tips to the west and is as-

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

ample, in the North Sea extensional province.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING IN EXTENSIONAL SETTINGS

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

Geological Society of America Bulletin, October 2000

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