Travelling Wave Fault Location in Hv Lines

TRAVELLING WAVE FAULT LOCATION IN HV LINES

Krzysztof Glik / Warsaw University of Technology

Ryszard Kowalik / Warsaw University of Technology
Dsir Dauphin Rasolomampionona / Warsaw University of Technology

1. INTRODUCTION

Determination of fault location in high-voltage lines is one of the most important issues which the protec-
tion services have to deal with.
Determination of fault location may be used for the proper operation of protection equipment or for
inspection and repair purposes. In the rst case, it is very important to nd the fault location quickly, whereas
the accuracy may be limited only to determining the area of protection operation. Determining the location for
inspection and repair purposes must have a high degree of accuracy. It is carried out through the fault location
function implemented in a protection device, interference recorder or by a separate locator.
Accurate determination of the fault location for inspection and repair purposes enables:
faster restoration of the line to operation
preventing permanent faults
verication of protection operation.
Faster restoration of the line to operation is a result of more efcient work of energy services, who, hav-
ing accurate information about the distance to the fault location, may quickly locate it even in mountainous or
forested areas.
Most of the faults occurring in high-voltage lines are transient faults. Precise determination of the loca-
tion of these faults enables carrying out preventive works (e.g. replacement of insulators, trimming of trees) in
order to prevent permanent faults.
The use of information on the designated distance to verify the protection operation is based on conrm-
ing that the protection is operational in the relevant zone, in a designated location in the case of fault simula-
tion.

2. COMPARISON OF IMPEDANCE AND WAVE DETERMINATION OF FAULT LOCATION

Among the used locators two are of the greatest importance: impedance and wave locators. Impedance
locators may be a part of a protection device, interference recorder, or constitute a separate device, similar to
wave locators.
Operation of impedance locators is based on the measurement of current and voltage during fault. Due
to the use of these two electrical values in determining the fault location, we deal with a measurement that is
characterised by errors resulting from multiple factors, such as:
transient components in current
current distortions caused by core saturation in current transformers
pre-charge current in the line immediately before the occurrence of a fault
transition resistance at the fault location
capacitance to earth of the line
magnetic coupling between the channels in dual lines

Abstract

The article compares wave and impedance meth- nation of wave phenomena, describes the wave measure-
ods used for determining fault location in high voltage ment methods and particular elements included in the
lines, and presents the basic issues related to the exami- measurement systems of wave locators.
 Krzysztof Glik, Ryszard Kowalik / Warsaw University of Technology
6 Dsir Dauphin Rasolomampionona / Warsaw University of Technology

inaccuracies in the data concerning the line impedance, particularly inaccurate determination of the
zero line impedance due to the change in ground resistance along the line
the phenomenon of current ow at the connection point of a tapped line in branched lines.
Thanks to many years of operation of impedance-based fault locators, there are methods that reduce or
eliminate the effect of particular factors on the accuracy of measurement. Nevertheless, the accuracy of de-
termination of fault location using impedance locators is in the range of 1-20 percent. The lower limit of error
refers to metallic faults, determined at both ends of the line, while the upper limit occurs in the case of long
lines, usually series-compensated. Error in determining fault location using the function in Siemens protection
7SA522 is declared for certain conditions at 2.5 percent of the line length. Such an accuracy is insufcient, given
that transmission lines often have a length of hundreds of kilometres in environmentally diverse areas. Locating
the particular damage by the operating staff in such conditions may result in too long a break in the transmis-
sion of electricity.
Wave fault locators measure time instead of measuring current and voltage. This way, the effect of many
of the above-mentioned factors on the measurement error is eliminated.
However, wave fault locators also have their drawbacks. The main factors that affect the error in determin-
ing the distance to a fault location in such locators are the following:
small fault angles
faults close to locator installation points
device synchronization error
ill-dened wave propagation velocity in the line
travelling wave detection error.
The term small fault angles refers to a situation in which a fault occurs when the instantaneous voltage
value is close to zero, which prevents fault detection due to the low value of amplitude of the formed electro-
magnetic wave. A sudden change in voltage is required for voltage and current wave with a high amplitude to
appear in a high-voltage line, which in this case is not possible. This issue can be eliminated by a simultaneous
determination of the fault location using a wave and impedance locator, with the latter responsible for locating
the fault occurring at a small angle.
The error associated with a fault close to the locator installation point, which causes multiple wave reec-
tions between the locator installation point and fault location, may be eliminated by applying a sufciently high
sampling frequency.
Device synchronization error occurs for fault location determination using measurements on the two ends
(type D location). This error is typically 1 s, which is associated with uncertainty in determining the distances of
150 m for a single locator.
Wave propagation velocity in line is one of the values used to calculate the distance to the location. It
depends on the line parameters and the path of electromagnetic wave conductors (no-ground fault) or conductors
and ground (ground fault).
Travelling wave detection error is associated with the reduction of amplitude and lengthening of the wave
moving in the line. If a fault occurs closer to station A than station B, then due to the greater extension of the wave
front reaching station B, detection of the wave in this station occurs later, causing additional error.
Wave locators are characterized by accurate determination of fault location in the range of 150-500 m, re-
gardless of the line length. Such an accuracy applies also to long lines that are series-compensated, multicircuit
lines with cable sections, and direct current lines.
High accuracy in determining the distance to the fault location and increase in network reliability, as well
as cost savings resulting from the use of wave fault locators, made them widely used in such countries as the
U.S., China, South Africa, Scotland and Canada. The national power system uses LAS-type wave locators, pro-
duced by the Institute of Power Systems Automation Ltd, a Wroclaw-based Company, and TWS-type locator
produced by Qualitrol.
The basic issues associated with the operation of wave fault locators are described below.
 Travelling Wave Fault Location in Hv Lines
7

3. WAVE PHENOMENA

Of all the transient states that occur in the power system, wave phenomena in HV lines are characterized
by the shortest duration, ranging from microseconds to milliseconds.
Wave phenomena are related to the propagation of electromagnetic waves, resulting from: a fault occur-
ring in power lines, atmospheric discharges or switching operations in the grid. A sudden and signicant change
in voltage, in at least one location of HV line (Fig. 1) leads to the initiation of an electromagnetic wave, which
propagates in opposite directions from that point.

Fig. 1. Propagation of electromagnetic wave due to a fault

An electromagnetic wave can be divided into a voltage wave associated with the phenomena occurring in
the electric eld, and a current wave associated with the magnetic eld. An important feature of such a wave is
the movement of specic values of voltage and current with a nite speed along the line.
The use of wave phenomena in determining fault location requires consideration of many theoretical is-
sues, such as:
wave propagation velocity in the line
power line model with distributed parameters
wave attenuation and distortion
wave passage and reection
diagonalizing transformations
wavelet transform.
The accuracy of determining fault location using the wave phenomena depends on the correct estimation of
wave propagation velocity in the particular power line. This velocity depends on the power line parameters,
which change with the change of environment temperature, conductor surface contamination or icing. Wave propa-
gation velocity also depends on the path of electromagnetic wave movement, and thus it is determined separately for
each line, for ground faults and faults not affected by the ground. Aerial-mode propagation velocity is approximately
v = 295 000 km/s, while ground-mode propagation velocity is approximately v = 188 000 km/s. When installing
a wave locator the wave propagation velocity is determined forcing the movement of the travelling wave in the power
line by switching capacitors or circuit breaker.
Circuit with distributed parameters is characterized mainly by the fact that the signal appearing at the
system input requires a certain specied time to appear at its output. These circuits are described by partial dif-
ferential equations. Voltages and currents in such a circuit are a function of two variables time t and location x.
Power lines cannot be considered as circuits with concentrated parameters when their length l [m] is commensurate
with the length of wave = v/f [m] occurring in this line. Transmission lines that operate at a frequency of 50 Hz and
are shorter than 6000 km are modelled as circuits with concentrated parameters. However, if the signal frequency
increases, e.g. to 100 kHz, a 3-kilometre line should be treated as a circuit with distributed parameters.
Wave attenuation and distortion causes the reduction of the wave amplitude and wavelength as a re-
sult of its movement in the line. This is associated with energy loss in resistances of conductors or conductors and
ground, loading of insulator capacity and the escape of.
Wave passage and reection is also the cause of attenuation and distortion of travelling waves at the points
of wave impedance change. Wave impedance in the line is determined by the ratio between the amplitude of voltage
and current of wave running in this line. Usually its value is in the range of 200 400 and is dependent mainly
on the voltage level of the line. When the incoming wave encounters the point of wave impedance change, called
a node, a part of the wave energy is reected from that point, and a part moves further.
 Krzysztof Glik, Ryszard Kowalik / Warsaw University of Technology
8 Dsir Dauphin Rasolomampionona / Warsaw University of Technology

Diagonalizing transformations are used in order to consider three-phase lines as three separate single-
phase lines without mutual magnetic couplings. Theoretically, there is an innite number of diagonalizing transforma-
tions, the most common of which is the symmetrical components method. However, in the case of wave phenomenon
analysis, such a transformation is not used, which results from the nature of wave phenomena described by instan-
taneous values of voltages and currents, which cannot be converted to compatible, negative and zero component.
Transformation matrices that consist of elements which are not complex numbers (as in the case of the transforma-
tion of symmetrical components) are used.
Wavelet transform is used to analyse non-stationary signals, i.e. signals whose statistical characteristics
(mean value, mean square value, correlation function) are time functions (they depend on the choice of baseline).
One of the most important features of wavelet transform is the ability to determine the time at which a high fre-
quency signal occurred, at the same time examining the components of a low frequency signal.

4. MEASUREMENT METHODS

Depending on the measuring method used, wave fault locators are divided into ve types: A, B, C, D and
E. The operation of each type of locator is based on an analysis of the incoming electromagnetic wave caused by
the fault. The types of locators are described below.

A-type locators
A-type locators perform measurements on one side of the line. The distance to the fault location is calcu-
lated by measuring the time between the moment when the rst wave, generated at the fault location, reaches
the locator, and the second moment when the wave reected from the fault location reaches the locator. The
electromagnetic wave is entirely reected from the fault location if the occurring fault angle has a resistance
less than the wave impedance of the line. The examined network system and course of travelling waves is shown
in Fig. 2.

Station A Station B

Waves moving from the fault

location

Fig. 2. The use of an A-type wave locator

The distance to the fault location from station A results from the following dependence:

t3 t1
D v (1)
2

where:
D distance to fault location [m]
t, time in which the rst wave generated at fault location reaches station A [s]
t3 time in which the wave reected from fault location reaches station A [s]
v wave propagation velocity [m/s].
The error in measuring the distance to the fault location using method A is affected by such factors as
short duration of fault arc, the transition resistance, branching and taps in the line and the difculty in identifying
the appropriate wave. These errors are eliminated using method D.
 Travelling Wave Fault Location in Hv Lines
9

B-type locators
B-type locators perform measurements on both sides of the line. The wave created at the fault location
runs towards stations A and B. The arrival of the rst wave of several microseconds to station A activates the
timer. The timer is disabled in station A when a signal from the device installed in station B is sent, when the
wave running from the fault location is detected in the device. The examined network system and course of
travelling waves is shown in Fig. 3.

Station A Station B

Fig. 3. The use of a B-type wave locator

The calculation of fault location distance is similar to measuring method D, and the calculations must take
into account the delay associated with the transmission of the signal from station B to station A, which stops
the timer.

C -type locators
C -type locators perform measurements on one side of the line. The locator sends a pulse to the line where
the interference occurred. The distance to the fault location is calculated using the time difference between the
moment of sending the pulse and the time when the device receives the wave reected from the fault arc. The
examined network system and course of travelling waves is shown in Fig. 4.

Station A
Station B

Pulse sent to the line

Pulse
generator

Fig. 4. The use of a C -type wave locator

The distance to the fault location from station A results from the following dependence:

t2 t1 (2)
D v
2

where:
t 1 time of sending the pulse by the generator [s]
t2 time in which the wave reected from fault location reaches station A [s]
It should be noted that the current use of this type of locators encounters difculties associated with the
correct coupling of the pulse generator with the power line and its high price.
 Krzysztof Glik, Ryszard Kowalik / Warsaw University of Technology
10 Dsir Dauphin Rasolomampionona / Warsaw University of Technology

D-type locators
D-type locators perform measurements on both sides of the line. Waves generated at a fault location run
towards stations A and B, and reach them within several microseconds. For a correct determination of the fault
location, a D-type locator requires the use of two devices synchronized with each other in time (e.g. by means
of GPS), installed on two ends of the line. The locator determines the moment in which the wave is coming to
stations A and station B, then they are used to calculate the distance from fault location. The examined network
system and course of travelling waves is shown in Fig. 5.

GPS

Station A Station B

Fig. 5. The use of a D-type wave locator

The distance to the fault location from station A results from the following dependence:
L (t A t B ) v (3)
D
2

where:
t1 time in which the rst wave generated at fault location reaches station A [s]
t3 time in which the rst wave generated at fault location reaches station B [s]
L line length [m].
The accuracy of D-type locators is not reduced by a short duration of a fault or branching in the line. The
subsequent reections of the wave at the points of wave impedance change do not affect determination of the
distance to interference location. The main error in calculating the distance to the fault location is the synchro-
nization error.
It should be noted that D-type locators are resistant to the factors mentioned earlier in this article, which
prevent the correct determination of fault location or introduce an additional error in A-type locators.

E-type locators
E-type locators perform measurements on one side of the line. For this purpose they use the wave induced
by the breaker on the line. In its operation the E-type method is similar to the pulse method used in determin-
ing a fault location in cables. The breaker switching the HV line can be treated as three separate pulse genera-
tors. Voltages in switched phases have a different amplitude and phase shift, which results from switching each
breaker pole in a minimally different time. The time difference between the pulse generated by switching and
the pulse reected from fault location is used to determine the distance to the fault location. The operation of
this type of locator is shown in Fig. 6.
 Travelling Wave Fault Location in Hv Lines
11

Station A Station B

Fig. 6. The use of an E-type wave locator

The distance to the fault location from station A is calculated based on the following dependence:

t2 t1 (4)
D v
2

where:
D distance to fault location [m]
t1 time in which the wave is generated as a result of switching [s]
t2 time in which the reected wave reaches station A [s]
v wave propagation velocity [m/s].
E-type locators can be used for detection and location of the interrupted line cord. In addition, this method
may be used to check whether the electrical length of the operating line corresponds to the line length measured
using another method. Such a procedure is based on switching off the line breaker and then measuring the time
in which the reected wave returns to the locator. The known line length is compared with the measured time
of the reected wave movement.
In the latest wave fault locator solutions, fault locations are applied simultaneously in types A, D and
the new type E. They use current waves in their operation. The D-type method is usually the basic method of
measurement used in wave locators. Methods A and E are added to method D, which, as a result of operating
experience, has proved to be reliable and accurate.

5. DESCRIPTION OF ELEMENTS IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS OF WAVE LOCATORS

Due to the nature of wave phenomena it is worth describing various key elements included in the meas-
urement systems of wave fault locators, i.e.:
current and voltage transformers
digital signal processing systems
satellite navigation systems.
Initially, voltage transformers were used in capturing travelling waves; however, due to unsatisfactory
transfer characteristics of these transformers, current transformers are mainly used. Fault location is determined
using protective current transformers, which successfully carry signals with a frequency of up to 100 kHz. The
most common solution is a system in which a protective current transformer is used as the main transformer,
and a current transformer with an open core is used as an intermediary transformer.
Wave fault locators need appropriate systems, which are able to receive and analyse large amounts of data,
and distinguish between relevant waveforms coming to the device. A wave fault locator requires the use of a data
collection unit with a sampling frequency higher than or equal to 1 MHz, which is far more than in conventional types
of protection. The higher the sampling frequency of the input signal, the more accurate the result. On the other hand,
an increased number of samples per period increases the processor load and requires more memory for data storage.
Additionally, a key problem is caused by noises in the measured signal.
Time synchronization of locators installed on both ends of the line is done using GPS. The time synchronization
error is 1 s, which corresponds to the error in determining the distance to the fault location of 150 m for a single
 Krzysztof Glik, Ryszard Kowalik / Warsaw University of Technology
12 Dsir Dauphin Rasolomampionona / Warsaw University of Technology

locator. The European satellite navigation system Galileo may reduce this type of error. GPS receivers have an accu-
racy of several metres, whereas the accuracy error in Galileo will be less than 1 metre in 2012.

6. SUMMARY

The use of wave locators in high-voltage lines enables more accurate determination of a fault location in com-
parison with impedance locators. Operational experience gained from many countries shows the high accuracy of
wave locators in the case of various interferences (e.g. high transition resistance) and use for various types of lines
(lines compensated in series, long lines, multicircuit lines with cable sections).

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