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Biomechanics
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Biomechanicsisthestudyofthestructureandfunctionofbiological
systemssuchashumans,animals,plants,organs,fungi,andcells[1]by
meansofthemethodsofmechanics.[2]

Contents
1 Wordhistory
2 Method
3 Subfields
3.1 Sportsbiomechanics
3.2 Continuumbiomechanics
3.3 Biofluidmechanics
3.4 Biotribology
3.5 Comparativebiomechanics Pageofoneofthefirstworksof
3.6 Plantbiomechanics
Biomechanics(DeMotuAnimalium
3.7 Computationalbiomechanics
ofGiovanniAlfonsoBorelli)inthe
4 History
17thcentury
4.1 Antiquity
4.2 Renaissance
4.3 Industrialera
5 Applications
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks

Wordhistory
Theword"biomechanics"(1899)andtherelated"biomechanical"(1856)fromtheAncientGreekbios"life"
and,mchanik"mechanics",torefertothestudyofthemechanicalprinciplesoflivingorganisms,
particularlytheirmovementandstructure.[3]

Method
Biomechanicsiscloselyrelatedtoengineering,becauseitoftenusestraditionalengineeringsciencestoanalyze
biologicalsystems.SomesimpleapplicationsofNewtonianmechanicsand/ormaterialssciencescansupply
correctapproximationstothemechanicsofmanybiologicalsystems.Appliedmechanics,mostnotablymechanical
engineeringdisciplinessuchascontinuummechanics,mechanismanalysis,structuralanalysis,kinematicsand
dynamicsplayprominentrolesinthestudyofbiomechanics.

Usuallybiologicalsystemsaremuchmorecomplexthanmanbuiltsystems.Numericalmethodsarehenceapplied
inalmosteverybiomechanicalstudy.Researchisdoneinaniterativeprocessofhypothesisandverification,
includingseveralstepsofmodeling,computersimulationandexperimentalmeasurements.

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Subfields
Appliedsubfieldsofbiomechanicsinclude:

Softbodydynamics
Kinesiology(kinetics+physiology)
Animallocomotion&Gaitanalysis
Musculoskeletal&orthopedicbiomechanics
Cardiovascularbiomechanics
Ergonomy
Humanfactorsengineering&occupationalbiomechanics
Implant(medicine),Orthotics&Prosthesis
Rehabilitation
Sportsbiomechanics
Allometry
Injurybiomechanics

Sportsbiomechanics

Insportsbiomechanics,thelawsofmechanicsareappliedtohumanmovementinordertogainagreater
understandingofathleticperformanceandtoreducesportinjuriesaswell.Itfocusesontheapplicationofthe
scientificprinciplesofmechanicalphysicstounderstandmovementsofactionofhumanbodiesandsports
implementssuchascricketbat,hockeystickandjavelinetc.Elementsofmechanicalengineering(e.g.,strain
gauges),electricalengineering(e.g.,digitalfiltering),computerscience(e.g.,numericalmethods),gaitanalysis
(e.g.,forceplatforms),andclinicalneurophysiology(e.g.,surfaceEMG)arecommonmethodsusedinsports
biomechanics.[4]

Biomechanicsinsportscanbestatedasthemuscular,jointandskeletalactionsofthebodyduringtheexecutionof
agiventask,skilland/ortechnique.Properunderstandingofbiomechanicsrelatingtosportsskillhasthegreatest
implicationson:sport'sperformance,rehabilitationandinjuryprevention,alongwithsportmastery.Asnotedby
DoctorMichaelYessis,onecouldsaythatbestathleteistheonethatexecuteshisorherskillthebest.[5]

Continuumbiomechanics

Themechanicalanalysisofbiomaterialsandbiofluidsisusuallycarriedforthwiththeconceptsofcontinuum
mechanics.Thisassumptionbreaksdownwhenthelengthscalesofinterestapproachtheorderofthemicro
structuraldetailsofthematerial.Oneofthemostremarkablecharacteristicofbiomaterialsistheirhierarchical
structure.Inotherwords,themechanicalcharacteristicsofthesematerialsrelyonphysicalphenomenaoccurring
inmultiplelevels,fromthemolecularallthewayuptothetissueandorganlevels.

Biomaterialsareclassifiedintwogroups,hardandsofttissues.Mechanicaldeformationofhardtissues(likewood,
shellandbone)maybeanalysedwiththetheoryoflinearelasticity.Ontheotherhand,softtissues(likeskin,
tendon,muscleandcartilage)usuallyundergolargedeformationsandthustheiranalysisrelyonthefinitestrain
theoryandcomputersimulations.Theinterestincontinuumbiomechanicsisspurredbytheneedforrealisminthe
developmentofmedicalsimulation.[6]:568

Biofluidmechanics

Biologicalfluidmechanics,orbiofluidmechanics,isthestudyofbothgasandliquidfluidflowsinoraround
biologicalorganisms.Anoftenstudiedliquidbiofluidsproblemisthatofbloodflowinthehumancardiovascular
system.Undercertainmathematicalcircumstances,bloodflowcanbemodelledbytheNavierStokesequations.
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InvivowholebloodisassumedtobeanincompressibleNewtonianfluid.However,this
assumptionfailswhenconsideringforwardflowwithinarterioles.Atthemicroscopic
scale,theeffectsofindividualredbloodcellsbecomesignificant,andwholebloodcan
nolongerbemodelledasacontinuum.Whenthediameterofthebloodvesselisjust
slightlylargerthanthediameteroftheredbloodcelltheFahraeusLindquisteffect
occursandthereisadecreaseinwallshearstress.However,asthediameterofthe
bloodvesseldecreasesfurther,theredbloodcellshavetosqueezethroughthevessel
andoftencanonlypassinsinglefile.Inthiscase,theinverseFahraeusLindquist
effectoccursandthewallshearstressincreases.

Anexampleofagaseousbiofluidsproblemisthatofhumanrespiration.Recently, Redbloodcells
respiratorysystemsininsectshavebeenstudiedforbioinspirationfordesigning
improvedmicrofluidicdevices.[7]

Biotribology

ThemainaspectsofContactmechanicsandtribologyarerelatedtofriction,wearandlubrication.Whenthetwo
surfacescomeincontactduringmotioni.e.rubagainsteachother,friction,wearandlubricationeffectsarevery
importanttoanalyzeinordertodeterminetheperformanceofthematerial.Biotribologyisastudyoffriction,wear
andlubricationofbiologicalsystemsespeciallyhumanjointssuchashipsandknees.[8]Forexample,femoraland
tibialcomponentsofkneeimplantroutinelyrubagainsteachotherduringdailyactivitysuchaswalkingorstair
climbing.Iftheperformanceoftibialcomponentneedstobeanalyzed,theprinciplesofbiotribologyareusedto
determinethewearperformanceoftheimplantandlubricationeffectsofsynovialfluid.Inaddition,thetheoryof
contactmechanicsalsobecomesveryimportantforwearanalysis.Additionalaspectsofbiotribologycanalso
includeanalysisofsubsurfacedamageresultingfromtwosurfacescomingincontactduringmotion,i.e.rubbing
againsteachother,suchasintheevaluationoftissueengineeredcartilage.[9]

Comparativebiomechanics

Comparativebiomechanicsistheapplicationofbiomechanicstonon
humanorganisms,whetherusedtogaingreaterinsightsintohumans(asin
physicalanthropology)orintothefunctions,ecologyandadaptationsofthe
organismsthemselves.CommonareasofinvestigationareAnimal
locomotionandfeeding,asthesehavestrongconnectionstotheorganism's
fitnessandimposehighmechanicaldemands.Animallocomotion,has
manymanifestations,includingrunning,jumpingandflying.Locomotion
requiresenergytoovercomefriction,drag,inertia,andgravity,though
whichfactorpredominatesvarieswithenvironment.
Chinstrappenguinleapingoverwater
Comparativebiomechanicsoverlapsstronglywithmanyotherfields,
includingecology,neurobiology,developmentalbiology,ethology,and
paleontology,totheextentofcommonlypublishingpapersinthejournalsoftheseotherfields.Comparative
biomechanicsisoftenappliedinmedicine(withregardstocommonmodelorganismssuchasmiceandrats)as
wellasinbiomimetics,whichlookstonatureforsolutionstoengineeringproblems.

Plantbiomechanics

Theapplicationofbiomechanicalprinciplestoplantsandplantorganshasdevelopedintothesubfieldofplant
biomechanics.[10]

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Computationalbiomechanics

OverthepastdecadetheFiniteelementmethodhasbecomeanestablishedalternativetoinvivosurgical
assessment.ThemainadvantageofComputationalBiomechanicsliesinitsabilitytodeterminetheendo
anatomicalresponseofananatomy,withoutbeingsubjecttoethicalrestrictions.[11]ThishasledFEmodellingto
thepointofbecomingubiquitousinseveralfieldsofBiomechanicswhileseveralprojectshaveevenadoptedan
opensourcephilosophy(e.g.BioSpine).

History
Antiquity

Aristotlewrotethefirstbookonthemotionofanimals,DeMotuAnimalium,orOntheMovementofAnimals.[12]
Henotonlysawanimals'bodiesasmechanicalsystems,butpursuedquestionssuchasthephysiologicaldifference
betweenimaginingperforminganactionandactuallydoingit.[13]Inanotherwork,OnthePartsofAnimals,he
providedanaccuratedescriptionofhowtheureterusesperistalsistocarryurinefromthekidneystothe
bladder.[6]:2

Renaissance

LeonardodaVincistudiedanatomyinthecontextofmechanics.Heanalyzedmuscleforcesasactingalonglines
connectingoriginsandinsertions,andstudiedjointfunction.DaVincitendedtomimicsomeanimalfeaturesinhis
machines.Forexample,hestudiedtheflightofbirdstofindmeansbywhichhumanscouldflyandbecausehorses
weretheprincipalsourceofmechanicalpowerinthattime,hestudiedtheirmuscularsystemstodesignmachines
thatwouldbetterbenefitfromtheforcesappliedbythisanimal.[14]

GalileoGalileiwasinterestedinthestrengthofbonesandsuggestedthatbonesarehollowbecausethisaffords
maximumstrengthwithminimumweight.Henotedthatanimals'bonemassesincreaseddisproportionatelytotheir
size.Consequently,bonesmustalsoincreasedisproportionatelyingirthratherthanmeresize.Thisisbecausethe
bendingstrengthofatubularstructure(suchasabone)ismuchmoreefficientrelativetoitsweight.Mason
suggeststhatthisinsightwasoneofthefirstgraspsoftheprinciplesofbiologicaloptimization.[14]

Inthe16thcentury,Descartessuggestedaphilosophicsystemwherebyalllivingsystems,includingthehuman
body(butnotthesoul),aresimplymachinesruledbythesamemechanicallaws,anideathatdidmuchtopromote
andsustainbiomechanicalstudy.GiovanniAlfonsoBorelliembracedthisideaandstudiedwalking,running,
jumping,theflightofbirds,theswimmingoffish,andeventhepistonactionoftheheartwithinamechanical
framework.Hecoulddeterminethepositionofthehumancenterofgravity,calculateandmeasuredinspiredand
expiredairvolumes,andshowedthatinspirationismuscledrivenandexpirationisduetotissueelasticity.Borelli
wasthefirsttounderstandthattheleversofthemusculoskeletalsystemmagnifymotionratherthanforce,sothat
musclesmustproducemuchlargerforcesthanthoseresistingthemotion.InfluencedbytheworkofGalileo,
whomhepersonallyknew,hehadanintuitiveunderstandingofstaticequilibriuminvariousjointsofthehuman
bodywellbeforeNewtonpublishedthelawsofmotion.[15]

Industrialera

Inthe19thcenturytienneJulesMareyusedcinematographytoscientificallyinvestigatelocomotion.Heopened
thefieldofmodern'motionanalysis'bybeingthefirsttocorrelategroundreactionforceswithmovement.In
Germany,thebrothersErnstHeinrichWeberandWilhelmEduardWeberhypothesizedagreatdealabouthuman
gait,butitwasChristianWilhelmBraunewhosignificantlyadvancedthescienceusingrecentadvancesin
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engineeringmechanics.Duringthesameperiod,theengineeringmechanicsofmaterialsbegantoflourishin
FranceandGermanyunderthedemandsoftheindustrialrevolution.Thisledtotherebirthofbonebiomechanics
whentherailroadengineerKarlCulmannandtheanatomistHermannvonMeyercomparedthestresspatternsina
humanfemurwiththoseinasimilarlyshapedcrane.InspiredbythisfindingJuliusWolffproposedthefamous
Wolff'slawofboneremodeling.[16]

Applications
Thestudyofbiomechanicsrangesfromtheinnerworkingsofacelltothemovementanddevelopmentoflimbs,to
themechanicalpropertiesofsofttissue,[17]andbones.Somesimpleexamplesofbiomechanicsresearchinclude
theinvestigationoftheforcesthatactonlimbs,theaerodynamicsofbirdandinsectflight,thehydrodynamicsof
swimminginfish,andlocomotioningeneralacrossallformsoflife,fromindividualcellstowholeorganisms.The
biomechanicsofhumanbeingsisacorepartofkinesiology.Aswedevelopagreaterunderstandingofthe
physiologicalbehavioroflivingtissues,researchersareabletoadvancethefieldoftissueengineering,aswellas
developimprovedtreatmentsforawidearrayofpathologies.

Biomechanicsisalsoappliedtostudyinghumanmusculoskeletalsystems.Suchresearchutilizesforceplatformsto
studyhumangroundreactionforcesandinfraredvideographytocapturethetrajectoriesofmarkersattachedtothe
humanbodytostudyhuman3Dmotion.Researchalsoapplieselectromyography[18](EMG)systemtostudythe
muscleactivation.Bythis,itisfeasibletoinvestigatethemuscleresponsestotheexternalforcesaswellas
perturbations.

Biomechanicsiswidelyusedinorthopedicindustrytodesignorthopedicimplantsforhumanjoints,dentalparts,
externalfixationsandothermedicalpurposes.Biotribologyisaveryimportantpartofit.Itisastudyofthe
performanceandfunctionofbiomaterialsusedfororthopedicimplants.Itplaysavitalroletoimprovethedesign
andproducesuccessfulbiomaterialsformedicalandclinicalpurposes.Onesuchexampleisintissueengineered
cartilage.[19]

Seealso
Biomedicalengineering
Biomechatronics
CardiovascularSystemDynamicsSociety
Evolutionaryphysiology
InternationalSocietyofBiomechanics
Listofbiofluidmechanicsresearchgroups
Mechanicsofsex
Simtkopensim

References
1.R.McNeillAlexander(2005)Mechanicsofanimalmovement,CurrentBiologyVolume15,Issue16,23August2005,
PagesR616R619.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.016(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2005.08.016)
2.Hatze,Herbert(1974)."Themeaningofthetermbiomechanics".JournalofBiomechanics.7(12):189190.
doi:10.1016/00219290(74)900608.
3.OxfordEnglishDictionary,ThirdEdition,November2010,s.vv.(http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/19232)
4.Bartlett,Roger(1997).Introductiontosportsbiomechanics(1ed.).NewYork,NY:Routledge.p.304.ISBN0419
208402.
5.MichaelYessis(2008).SecretsofRussianSportsFitness&Training.ISBN9780981718026.
6.Fung1993

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7.Aboelkassem,Yasser(2013)."Selectivepumpinginanetwork:insectstylemicroscaleflowtransport".Bioinspiration&
Biomimetics.8(2):026004.Bibcode:2013BiBi....8b6004A.doi:10.1088/17483182/8/2/026004.
8.Davim,J.Paulo(2013).Biotribology.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN9781118617052.
9.Whitney,G.A.,Jayaraman,K.,Dennis,J.E.andMansour,J.M.(2014),Scaffoldfreecartilagesubjectedtofrictional
shearstressdemonstratesdamagebycrackingandsurfacepeeling.JTissueEngRegenMed.doi:10.1002/term.1925
10.Niklas,KarlJ.(1992).PlantBiomechanics:AnEngineeringApproachtoPlantFormandFunction(1ed.).NewYork,
NY:UniversityOfChicagoPress.p.622.ISBN0226586316.
11.Tsouknidas,A.,Savvakis,S.,Asaniotis,Y.,Anagnostidis,K.,Lontos,A.,Michailidis,N.(2013)Theeffectof
kyphoplastyparametersonthedynamicloadtransferwithinthelumbarspineconsideringtheresponseofabiorealistic
spinesegment.ClinicalBiomechanics28(910),pp.949955.
12.Abernethy,BruceVaughanKippersStephanieJ.HanrahanMarcusG.PandyAlisonM.McManusLaurelMacKinnon.
Biophysicalfoundationsofhumanmovement(3rded.).Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics.p.84.ISBN978145043165
1.
13.Martin,R.Bruce(23October1999)."Agenealogyofbiomechanics".PresidentialLecturepresentedatthe23rdAnnual
ConferenceoftheAmericanSocietyofBiomechanicsUniversityofPittsburgh,PittsburghPA.Archivedfromtheoriginal
on8August2013.Retrieved2January2014.
14.Mason,Stephen(1962).AHistoryoftheSciences.NewYork,NY:CollierBooks.p.550.
15.Humphrey,JayD.(2003).TheRoyalSociety,ed."Continuumbiomechanicsofsoftbiologicaltissues"(PDF).
ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonA.459(2029):346.Bibcode:2003RSPSA.459....3H.
doi:10.1098/rspa.2002.1060.
16.R.BruceMartin(23October1999)."AGenealogyofBiomechanics".23rdAnnualConferenceoftheAmericanSociety
ofBiomechanics.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17September2010.Retrieved13October2010.
17.Whitney,G.A.,Jayaraman,K.,Dennis,J.E.andMansour,J.M.(2014),Scaffoldfreecartilagesubjectedtofrictional
shearstressdemonstratesdamagebycrackingandsurfacepeeling.JTissueEngRegenMed.doi:10.1002/term.1925
18.Basmajian,J.V,&DeLuca,C.J.(1985)MusclesAlive:TheirFunctionsRevealed,Fifthedition.Williams&Wilkins
Publ.
19.Whitney,G.A.,Jayaraman,K.,Dennis,J.E.andMansour,J.M.(2014),Scaffoldfreecartilagesubjectedtofrictional
shearstressdemonstratesdamagebycrackingandsurfacepeeling.JTissueEngRegenMed.doi:10.1002/term.1925

Furtherreading
Cowin,StephenC.,ed.(2008).Bonemechanicshandbook(2nded.).NewYork:InformaHealthcare.ISBN084939117
2.
FischerCripps,AnthonyC.(2007).Introductiontocontactmechanics(2nded.).NewYork:Springer.ISBN0387
681876.
Fung,Y.C.(1993).Biomechanics:MechanicalPropertiesofLivingTissues.NewYork:SpringerVerlag.ISBN0387
979476.
Gurtin,MortonE.(1995).Anintroductiontocontinuummechanics(6ed.).SanDiego:Acad.Press.ISBN978012
3097507.
Humphrey,JayD.(2002).Cardiovascularsolidmechanics:cells,tissues,andorgans.NewYork:Springer.ISBN0
387951687.
Mazumdar,JaganN.(1993).Biofluidsmechanics(Reprint1998.ed.).Singapore:WorldScientific.ISBN9810209274.
Mow,VanC.Huiskes,Rik,eds.(2005).Basicorthopaedicbiomechanics&mechanobiology(3ed.).Philadelphia:
Lippincott,Williams&Wilkins.p.2.ISBN9780781739337.
Peterson,DonaldR.Bronzino,JosephD.,eds.(2008).Biomechanics:principlesandapplications(2.rev.ed.).Boca
Raton:CRCPress.ISBN0849385342.
Temenoff,J.S.Mikos,A.G.(2008).Biomaterials:theIntersectionofbiologyandmaterialsscience(Internat.ed.).
UpperSaddleRiver,N.J.:Pearson/PrenticeHall.ISBN9780130097101.
Totten,GeorgeE.Liang,Hong,eds.(2004).Mechanicaltribology:materials,characterization,andapplications.New
York:MarcelDekker.ISBN9780824748739.
Waite,LeeFine,Jerry(2007).Appliedbiofluidmechanics.NewYork:McGrawHill.ISBN0071472177.
Young,DonaldF.BruceR.MunsonTheodoreH.Okiishi(2004).Abriefintroductiontofluidmechanics(3rded.).
Hoboken,N.J.:Wiley.ISBN0471457574.

Externallinks
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BiomechanicsandMovementScienceListserver(BiomchL)(http://biomchl.isbweb.org/)
BiomechanicsLinks(http://bones.ame.nd.edu/links.html)
AGenealogyofBiomechanics(https://web.archive.org/web/20130808074008/http://www.asbweb.org/html/
biomechanics/genealogy/genealogy.htm)

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