RF Propogation ScotBaxter

Chapter 4 Section A
Physical
Physical Principles
Principles of
of
Propagation
Propagation
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-1

Introduction to Propagation
Propagation is the heart of every radio link. During propagation, many processes
act on the radio signal.
attenuation
the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms. If there
is too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection
threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor
in propagation.
multipath and group delay distortions
the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a
host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF
phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent
signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are overcome
through a variety of special techniques
time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically
space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance
frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different
frequencies
To master propagation and effectively design wireless systems, you must know:
Physics: understand the basic propagation processes
Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest
Statistics: analyze known data, extrapolate to predict the unknown
Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models

Frequency and Wavelength: Implications
Radio signals in the atmosphere

propagate at almost speed of light
=C/F = wavelength
C = distance propagated in 1 second
F = frequency, Hertz
for AMPS: F= 870 MHz
The wavelength of a radio signal
= 0.345 m = 13.6 inches determines many of its propagation
for PCS-1900: F = 1960 MHz
characteristics
= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches Antenna elements size are
typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength
/2 Objects bigger than a wavelength
can reflect or obstruct RF energy
RF energy can penetrate into a
building or vehicle if they have
apertures a wavelength in size, or
larger

Propagation Effects of Earths Atmosphere
Earths unique atmosphere supports life (ours

included) and also introduces many propagation
effects -- some useful, some troublesome
Skywave Propagation: reflection from Ionized
Layers
LF and HF frequencies (below roughly 50
MHz.) are routinely reflected off layers of the
upper atmosphere which become ionized by
the sun
this phenomena produces intermittent world-
wide propagation and occasional total outages
this phenomena is strongly correlated with
frequency, day/night cycles, variations in
earths magnetic field, 11-year sunspot cycle
these effects are negligible for wireless
systems at their much-higher frequencies

More Atmospheric Propagation Effects
Rain Fades on Attenuation at Microwave Frequencies

MIcrowave Links rain droplets can substantially attenuate RF
signals whose wavelengths are comparable to, or
smaller than, droplet size
rain attenuations of 20 dB. or more per km. are
possible
troublesome mainly above 10 GHz., and in
Refraction tropical areas
by air layers must be considered in reliability calculations
during path design
not major factor in wireless systems propagation
Diffraction, Wave Bending, Ducting
signals 50-2000 MHz. can be bent or reflected at
Ducting boundaries of different air density or humidity
by air layers
phenomena: very sporadic unexpected long-
>100 mi. distance propagation beyond the horizon. May
last minutes or hours
can occur in wireless systems

Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation
Most propagation in the mobile
Free Space environment is dominated by these
d
three mechanisms:
A D Free space
B
No reflections, no obstructions
first Fresnel Zone clear
Signal spreading is only mechanism
Reflection Signal decays 20 dB/decade
with partial cancellation
Reflection
Reflected wave 180out of phase
Reflected wave not attenuated much
Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade
Knife-edge
Knife-edge diffraction
Diffraction
Direct path is blocked by obstruction
Additional loss is introduced
Formulae available for simple cases
Well explore each of these further...

Free-Space Propagation
The simplest propagation mode
Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space
r
Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas)
= 36.58 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas)
= 32.26 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
Free Space Notice the rate of signal decay:
Spreading Loss 6 db per octave of distance change, which is
20 db per decade of distance change
energy intercepted
Free-Space propagation is applicable if:
by receiving
there is only one signal path (no reflections)
antenna is
the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone
proportional to 1/r2
is not penetrated by obstacles)
d
1st Fresnel Zone
A D
B First Fresnel Zone =
{Points P where AP + PB - AB < /2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (D)^(1/2)
Reflection With Partial Cancellation
Mobile environment characteristics:
Heights Exaggerated
for Clarity Small angles of incidence and reflection
Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1)
HTFT
HTFT Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees
Analysis
Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal
decay of 40 dB per decade of distance
DMILES
Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (DMiles )
- 20 x Log (Base Ant. HtFeet)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. HtFeet)
SCALE PERSPECTIVE
Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP = 50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht = 200 ft, Mobile Ht = 5 ft.
DistanceMILES 1 2 4 6 8 10 15 20
Received Signal in
Free Space, DBM -52.4 -58.4 -64.4 -67.9 -70.4 -72.4 -75.9 -78.4
Received Signal in
Reflection Mode -69.0 -79.2 -89.5 -95.4 -99.7 -103.0 -109.0 -113.2

Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments
Signal Level vs. Distance

Weve seen how the signal decays
0
with distance in two basic modes
of propagation:
-10 Free-Space
20 dB per decade of distance
-20 6 db per octave of distance
Reflection Cancellation
-30
40 dB per decade of distance
-40 12 db per octave of distance
1 2 3.16
Distance, Miles
5 6 7 8 10 Real-life wireless propagation
decay rates are typically
One Decade
One Octave of distance (10x)
somewhere between 30 and 40
of distance (2x) dB per decade of distance

Knife-Edge Diffraction
Sometimes a single well-defined
obstruction blocks the path, introducing
additional loss. This calculation is fairly
H easy and can be used as a manual tool
to estimate the effects of individual
R1 R2 obstructions.
First calculate the diffraction parameter
from the geometry of the path
= -H
2
(R
1
1
+
1
R2 ) Next consult the table to obtain the
obstruction loss in db
0 Add this loss to the otherwise-
-5 determined path loss to obtain the total
atten -10 path loss.
dB -15
-20 Other losses such as free space and
-25 reflection cancellation still apply, but
computed independently for the path as
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
if the obstruction did not exist

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 10
Local Variability: Multipath Effects
The free-space, reflection, and diffraction
mechanisms described earlier explain signal
Multi-path Propagation level variations on a large scale, but other
mechanisms introduce small-scale local
fading
Slow Fading occurs as the user moves over
hundreds of wavelengths due to shadowing
by local obstructions
Rapid Fading occurs as signals received
from many paths drift into and out of phase
the fades are roughly /2 apart in space:
Rayleigh Fading 7 inches apart at 800 MHz., 3 inches
apart at 1900 MHz
A /2 fades also appear in the frequency
10-15 dB domain and time domain
fades are typically 10-15 db deep,
occasionally deeper
Rayleigh distribution is a good model
d for these fades
these fades are often called Rayleigh fades

Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity
D
Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are
very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Two antennas separated by
several wavelengths will not
generally experience fades at the
same time
Signal received
Space Diversity can be
by Antenna 1 obtained by using two receiving
antennas and switching instant-
by-instant to whichever is best
Signal received
by Antenna 2 Required separation D for good
decorrelation is 10-20
Combined 12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
Signal
5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
Space Diversity Application Limitations
Space Diversity can be applied only

on the receiving end of a link.
Transmitting on two antennas would:
fail to produce diversity, since the
two signals combine to produce
only one value of signal level at a
given point -- no diversity results.
produce objectionable nulls in
Signal received the radiation at some angles
by Antenna 1 Therefore, space diversity is applied
only on the uplink, i.e.., reverse
Signal received path
by Antenna 2 there isnt room for two
sufficiently separated antennas
on a mobile or handheld
Combined
Signal

Using Polarization Diversity
Where Space Diversity Isnt Convenient
Sometimes zoning considerations or

aesthetics preclude using separate diversity
receive antennas
Dual-polarized antenna pairs within a single
radome are becoming popular
Environmental clutter scatters RF
energy into all possible polarizations
V+H Differently polarized antennas receive
or signals which fade independently
\+/ In urban environments, this is almost as
good as separate space diversity
Antenna pair within one radome can be V-H
A B A B polarized, or diagonally polarized
Each individual array has its own
Antenna A independent feedline
Antenna B Feedlines connected to BTS diversity
Combined inputs in the conventional way; TX
duplexing OK

The Reciprocity Principle
Does it apply to Wireless?
Between two antennas, on the same

exact frequency, path loss is the
same in both directions
-148.21 db
But things arent exactly the same in
@ 870.03 MHz
cellular --
transmit and receive 45 MHz. apart
antenna: gain/frequency slope?
different Rayleigh fades
up/downlink
often, different TX & RX antennas
-148.21 db
RX diversity
@ 835.03 MHz Notice also the noise/interference
environment may be substantially
different at the two ends
-151.86 db So, reciprocity holds only in a general
@ 870.03 MHz sense for cellular

Chapter 4 Section B
Propagation
Propagation Models
Models

Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses
Examples of various model types
Simple Analytical models Simple Analytical

Used for understanding and Free space (Friis formula)
predicting individual paths and Reflection cancellation
specific obstruction cases Knife-edge diffraction
General Area models
Area
Primary drivers: statistical Okumura-Hata
Used for early system Euro/Cost-231
dimensioning (cell counts, etc.) Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami
Point-to-Point models
Point-to-Point
Primary drivers: analytical Ray Tracing
Used for detailed coverage - Lees Method, others
analysis and cell planning Tech-Note 101
Local Variability models Longley-Rice, Biby-C
Primary drivers: statistical Local Variability
Characterizes microscopic level Rayleigh Distribution
fluctuations in a given locale, Normal Distribution
confidence-of-service probability Joint Probability Techniques

General Principles Of Area Models
-50 +90
-60 +80 Area models mimic an average

-70 +70
path in a defined area
-80 +60 Field Theyre based on measured data
RSSI, Strength, alone, with no consideration of
dBm
-90 +50 dBV/m
individual path features or
-100 +40 physical mechanisms
-110 +30 Typical inputs used by model:
-120 +20 Frequency
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Distance from transmitter to
Distance from Cell Site, km
receiver
Actual or effective base
Green Trace shows actual measured signal station & mobile heights
strengths on a drive test radial, as determined Average terrain elevation
by real-world physics. Morphology correction loss
Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata (Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.)
prediction for the same radial. The smooth
curve is a good fit for real data. However, Results may be quite different
the signal strength at a specific location on the than observed on individual paths
radial may be much higher or much lower in the area
than the simple prediction.

The Okumura Model: General Concept
70
Urban Area 35
100
(dB)
30
area
Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB
80 Open
Correction factor, Garea

25 area
50 70 i open
s
Qua
d, km
20
a
40 15 are
urban
30
10 Sub
26
5 9 dB
2 5
1 850 MHz
850
10
100 500 3000 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, MHz Frequency f, (MHz)
The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements

made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The collected
date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources,
both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights.
The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every
imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a
median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea
(f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m.
Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless
systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic
concepts and numerical parameters.

Structure of the Okumura Model
Path Loss [dB] = LFS + Amu(f,d) - G(Hb) - G(Hm) - Garea
Morphology Gain
Free-Space 0 dense urban
Path Loss Base Station 5 urban
Height Gain 10 suburban
= 20 x Log (Hb/200) 17 rural
Amu(f,d) Additional Median Loss

35
from Okumuras Curves

area
Correction factor, Garea (dB)

30
Open
Mobile Station 25
Qu a
si o
pen
area
Height Gain
20
70
Urban Area 15 a
ar e
= 10 x Log (Hm/3)
an
ur b
Sub
Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB
100
10
80
50 5
d, km
70
850 MHz
40 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000

100
Frequency f, (MHz)
30
26
5
2
1
Frequency f, MHz 850
10
100 500 3000
The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical

mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data
Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumuras
curves as formulas and automated the computation
The Hata Model: General Concept
The Hata model is an empirical formula for propagation loss derived from
Okumuras model, to facilitate automatic calculation.
The propagation loss in an urban area is presented in a simple general format A +
B x log R, where A and B are functions of frequency and antenna height, R is
distance between BS and MS antennas
The model is applicable to frequencies 100 MHz-1500 MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS
antenna heights 30-200 m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
The model is simplified due to following limitations:
Isotropic antennas
Quasi-smooth (not irregular) terrain
Urban area propagation loss is presented as the standard formula
Correction equations are used for other areas
Although Hata model does not imply path-specific corrections, it has significant
practical value and provide predictions which are very closely comparable with
Okumuras model

Hata Model General Concept and Formulas
(1) LHATA (urban) [dB] =69.55 + 26.16 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ] x log ( d )
-13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm )
(2) LHATA (suburban) [dB] = LHATA (urban) - 2 x [ log ( f/28 ) ]2 - 5.4
(3) LHATA (rural) [dB] =LHATA (urban) - 4.78 x [ log ( f ) ]2 - 18.33 x log ( f ) -40.98
(4) A ( hm ) [dB] = [ 11 x log ( f ) - 0.7 ] x hm - [ 1.56 x log ( f ) - 0.8 ]
(5) A ( hm ) [dB] = 8.29 x [ log ( 1.54 x hm ) ]2 - 1.1 (for f<= 300 MHz.)
(6) A ( hm ) [dB] = 3.2 x [ log ( 1175 x hm ) ]2 - 4.97 (for f > 300 MHz.)
Formulas for median path loss are: f - carrier frequency, MHz

(1) - Standard formula for urban areas hb and hm - BS and MS
(2) - For suburban areas antenna heights, m
(3) - For rural areas d - distance between BS
Formulas for MS antenna ht. gain and MS antennas, km
correction factor A(hm)
(4) - For a small to medium sizes cities Environmental Factor C
(5) and (6) - For large cities 0 dense urban
-5 urban
-10 suburban
-17 rural
The EURO COST-231 Model
LCOST (urban) [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ]
x log ( d ) + Cm -13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm )
The COST-231 model was developed by European

COoperative for Scientific and Technical Research
committee. It extends the HATA model to the 1.8-2
GHz. band in anticipation of PCS use.
COST-231 is applicable for frequencies 1500-2000
MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS antenna heights 30-200
m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
Parameters and variables:
f is carrier frequency , in MHz Environmental
hb and hm are BS and MS antenna heights (m) Factor C
d is BS and MS separation, in km 1900
-2 dense urban
A(hm) is MS antenna height correction factor
(same as in Hata model) -5 urban
-10 suburban
Cm is city size correction factor: Cm=0 dB for
-26 rural
suburbs and Cm=3 dB for metropolitan centers

Examples of Morphological Zones
Suburban: Mix of
residential and business
communities. Structures
include 1-2 story houses
Suburban Suburban 50 feet apart and 2-5
story shops and offices.
Urban: Urban residential
and office areas (Typical
structures are 5-10 story
Urban Urban buildings, hotels,
hospitals, etc.)
Dense Urban: Dense
business districts with
skyscrapers (10-20 stories
Dense Urban and above) and high-rise
Dense Urban
apartments
Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above
are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.

Example Morphological Zones
Rural - Highway Rural - Highway
Rural - Highway:
Highways near open
farm land, large
open spaces, and
sparsely populated
residential areas.
Typical structures
are 1-2 story
houses, barns, etc.
Rural Rural Rural - In-town:
Open farm land,
large open spaces,
and sparsely
populated residential
areas. Typical
structures are 1-2
story houses, barns,
Suburban Suburban etc.
Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately
above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but
different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
The MSI Planet General Model
Pr = Pt + K1 + k2 log(d) + k3 log(Hb) + K4 DL + K5 log(Hb) log(d)
+ K6 log (Hm) + Kc + Ko
Pr - received power (dBm)
Pt - transmit ERP (dBm)
Hb - base station effective antenna height
Hm - mobile station effective antenna height
DL - diffraction loss (dB)
K1 - intercept K2 - slope
K3 - correction factor for base station antenna height gain
K4 - correction factor for diffraction loss (accounts for clutter heights)
K5 - Okumura-Hata correction factor for antenna height and distance
K6 - correction factor for mobile station antenna height gain
Kc - correction factor due to clutter at mobile station location
Ko - correction factor for street orientation
This is the general model format used in MSIs popular PlaNET propagation
prediction software for wireless systems. It includes terms similar to
Okumura-Hata and COST-231 models, along with additional terms to
include effects of specific obstructions and clutter on specific paths in the
mobile environment.
Typical Model Results
Including Environmental Correction
Okumura/Hata Tower
EIRP C, Range,
Height,
f = 870 MHz. (watts) dB km
m
Dense Urban 30 200 0 4.0
Urban 30 200 -5 4.9
Suburban 30 200 -10 6.7
Rural 50 200 -17 26.8
COST-231/Hata Tower
EIRP C, Range,
Height,
f =1900 MHz. (watts) dB km
m
Dense Urban 30 200 -2 2.52
Urban 30 200 -5 3.50
Suburban 30 200 -10 4.8
Rural 50 200 -26 10.3

Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.
Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are
more pronounced.
Reflections are more effective
Shadows from obstructions are deeper
Foliage absorption is more attenuative
Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective,
but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls
attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz.
The net result of all these effects is to increase the contrast of hot
and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared
to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz.
Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately
two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same
ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.

Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in

this environment, but the Walfisch models
attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting
the actual propagation mechanisms
involved
Path Loss = LFS + LRT + LMS
LFS = free space path loss (Friis formula)
LRT = rooftop diffraction loss
Area View
LMS = multiscreen reflection loss
Propagation in built-up portions of cities is
Signal
Level
-20 dBm
-30 dBm dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of
Legend
-40 dBm
-50 dBm buildings and by ray channeling through
-60 dBm
-70 dBm multiple reflections down the street canyons
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm

Statistical Techniques
Distribution Statistics Concept
Signal Strength Predicted Vs. Observed
An area model predicts signal Model is tweaked to
produce Best-Fit curve
strength Vs. distance over an area
Observed
This is the median or most RSSI,
Signal Strength
probable signal strength at every dBm 50% of observed

data is above curve
distance from the cell
The actual signal strength at any
real location is determined by Distance 50% of observed
data is below curve
local physical effects, and will be
higher or lower
It is feasible to measure the Normal
Occurrences
Distribution
observed median signal strength
M and standard deviation
M and can be applied to find RSSI
probability of receiving an
Median
arbitrary signal level at a given Signal ,
distance Strength dB

Statistical Techniques
Practical Application Of Distribution Statistics
SIGNAL STRENGTH vs DISTANCE
General Approach: RSSI, 25% of locations exceed

dBm blue curve
Use favorite model to predict Signal 50% exceed red
Strength
75% exceed
Analyze measured data, obtain: Min signal black
reqd for
median signal strength M operation
(build histogram of observed Distance
vs. measured data)
Cell radius for Cell radius for
standard deviation of error, 75% reliability Cell radius for 75% reliability
at edge 90% reliability at edge
(determine from histogram) at edge
add an extra allowance into model Normal

drop curve so a desired % of Occurrences
Distribution
observations are above model
predictions
RSSI
Median
Signal ,
Strength dB

Cell Edge
Area Availability And Probability Of Service
Overall probability of service is best close to the

BTS, and decreases with increasing distance away
from BTS
Statistical View of For overall 90% location probability within cell
Cell Coverage
coverage area, probability will be 75% at cell edge
75% Result derived theoretically, confirmed in
modeling with propagation tools, and observed
from measurements
90% True if path loss variations are log-normally
distributed around predicted median values, as
in mobile environment
90%/75% is a commonly-used wireless
Area Availability: numerical coverage objective
90% overall within area Recent publications by Nortels Dr. Pete
75%at edge of area
Bernardin describe the relationship between
area and edge reliability, and the field
measurement techniques necessary to
demonstrate an arbitrary degree of coverage
reliability
Application Of Distribution Statistics: Example
Lets design a cell to deliver at least -
Cumulative Normal Distribution 95 dBm to at least 75% of the
locations at the cell edge
100%
(This will provide coverage to 90% of
90% total locations within the cell)
80% Assume that measurements you
75%
70% have made show a 10 dB standard
60%
deviation
50%
On the chart:
40%
To serve 75% of locations at the
cell edge , we must deliver a
30%
median signal strength which is
20%
0.675 .675 times stronger than -95
10% dBm
0% Calculate:
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 - 95 dBm + ( .675 x 10 dB )
Standard Deviations from = - 88 dBm
Median (Average) Signal Strength So, design for a median signal
strength of -88 dBm!

Statistical Techniques:
Normal Distribution Graph & Table For Convenient Reference
Cumulative Normal Distribution
Standard Cumulative
Deviation Probability
100%
-3.09 0.1%
90%
-2.32 1%
80% -1.65 5%
70% -1.28 10%
60% -0.84 20%
-0.52 30%
50%
0 50%
40%
0.52 70%
30% 0.675 75%
20% 0.84 80%
10% 1.28 90%
1.65 95%
0%
2.35 99%
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
3.09 99.9%
Standard Deviation from Mean Signal Strength 3.72 99.99%
4.27 99.999%

Building Penetration
Statistical Characterization
Building penetration
Statistical techniques are effective
against situations that are difficult to
characterize analytically
Vehicle penetration
Many analytical parameters, all
highly variable and complex
Building coverage is modeled using
Typical Penetration Losses, dB existing outdoor path loss plus an
compared to outdoor street level additional building penetration loss
Environment Median Std. Median value estimated/sampled
Type Loss, Dev.
(morphology) dB , dB Statistical distribution determined
Dense Urban Bldg. 20 8 Standard deviation estimated or
Urban Bldg. 15 8 measured
Suburban Bldg. 10 8 Additional margin allowed in link
Rural Bldg. 10 8 budget to offset assumed loss
Typical Vehicle 8 4 Typical values are shown at left

Composite Probability Of Service
Adding Multiple Attenuating Mechanisms
Building
Outdoor Loss + Penetration Loss

COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+( ENETRATION)2)1/2
P
LOSSCOMPOSITE = LOSSOUTDOOR+LOSSPENETRATION
For an in-building user, the actual signal level includes regular

outdoor path attenuation plus building penetration loss
Both outdoor and penetration losses have their own variabilities
with their own standard deviations
The users overall composite probability of service must include
composite median and standard deviation factors
Composite Probability of Service
Calculating Fade Margin For Link Budget
Example Case: Outdoor attenuation is 8 dB., and penetration loss

is 8 dB. Desired probability of service is 75% at the cell edge
What is the composite ? How much fade margin is required?
COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+(PENETRATION)2)1/2 On cumulative normal distribution curve, 75%

= ((8)2+(8)2)1/2 =(64+64)1/2 =(128)1/2 = 11.31 dB probability is 0.675 above median.
Fade Margin required =
Cumulative Normal Distribution
(11.31) (0.675) = 7.63 dB.
100%
90%
Composite Probability of Service
80% Calculating Required Fade Margin
75% 70% Building Out- Composite
60% Environment Penetration Door Total
50% Type Median Std. Std. Area Fade
(morphology) Loss, Dev. Dev. Availability Margin
40%
dB , dB , dB Target, % dB
30%
Dense Urban Bldg. 20 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6
20%
Urban Bldg. 15 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6
10%
0%
Suburban Bldg. 10 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6
Rural Bldg. 10 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6
.675
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Standard Deviations from
Median (Average) Signal Strength
Typical Vehicle 8 4 8 90%/75% @edge 6.0

Chapter 4 Section C
Commercial
Commercial
Propagation
Propagation Prediction
Prediction
Software
Software

Point-To-Point Path-Driven Prediction Models
Use of models based on deterministic methods

Use of terrain data for construction of path profile
Path analysis (ray tracing) for obstruction, reflection analysis
Appropriate algorithms applied for best emulation of underlying
physics
May include some statistical techniques
Automated point-to-point analysis for enough points to appear
to provide large area coverage on raster or radial grid
Commonly-used Resources
Terrain databases
Morphological/Clutter Databases
Databases of existing and proposed sites
Antenna characteristics databases
Unique user-defined propagation models

Path-Driven Propagation Prediction Tools
Data Structure
Geographic Overlay Format:

Output Map(s) on screen or plotter
Coverage
field strengths @ probability
probabilities @ field strength
Best-Server
C/I (Adjacent Channel & Co-
Channel)
Cell locations, cell grid
Terrain elevation data
USGS & Commercial databases
Satellite or aerial photography
Clutter data
Roads, rivers, railroads, etc.
State, county, MTA, BTA
boundaries
Traffic density overlay
Land use overlay
The World as seen by a
Propagation Prediction Tool
Propagation tools use a terrain
database, clutter data for land
use, and vectors to represent
features and traffic levels.
The figure at right is a 3-D
view of such databases in the
area of this demonstration.
Notice the granularity of the
data and the very mild terrain
undulations in the area,
exaggerated 8 times in this
view.

Survey Of Commercially Available Tools
RF Prediction Software Tools
A wide variety of software Qualcomm
tools are available for QEDesign CDMA Tool
propagation prediction and (Unix)
system design MSI
PlaNet (Unix)
Some tools are
LCC
implemented on CellCad (Unix)
PC/DOS/Windows ANet (DOS PC)
platforms, others on more CNET
powerful UNIX platform Wings (Unix)
Solutions (mainframe)
Capabilities and user
ComSearch
interfaces vary greatly IQSignum (Unix)
Several of the better-known AT&T
tools for cellular RF PACE (DOS PC)
engineering are shown in Motorola
the table at right proprietary (Unix)
TEC Cellular: Wizard (DOS)
Elebra: CONDOR, CELTEC
Virginia Tech MPRG
SMT-Plus Indoor Site Planning Tool

Composite Coverage Plot
A composite coverage plot shows
the overall coverage produced by
each sector in the field of view
The color of each pixel corresponds
to the signal level of the strongest
server at that point
Such plots are useful for identifying
coverage holes and overall coverage
extent

Equal Power Handoff Boundaries Plot
A Best Server Plot or in CDMA

terms, an Equal Power
Handoff Boundaries plot paints
each pixel with a unique color
to identify the best-serving
sector at that point
the boundaries shown are
the equal-power points
between cells
This type of plot is extremely
useful in creating initial
neighbor lists and identifying
areas of no dominant server
Some tools (MSI Planet) can
generate automatic neighbor
lists from such a plot

Qualcomms QEDesign
Qualcomms commercial tool QEDesign offers a number of features targeted

at CDMA system design and analysis. The figures above show the output
of its microcell propagation analysis tool in the Washington, DC area, and
a three-dimensional view of an antenna pattern. Other features of this
package include live cursor mode in which the user can drag the cursor
about and see in near-real-time the line-of-sight area visible from the
selected location, or a coverage footprint calculated from that location.

General Survey Of Tool Features
Universal Basic Features of Most Tools
Automatically calculates signal strength

at many points over a geographic area
Use databases of terrain data,
environmental conditions, land use,
building clutter, estimated -20 dBm
geographic traffic distribution, etc.

-30 dBm
-40 dBm
Signal -50 dBm
-60 dBm
Level -70 dBm
User-definable 3-dimensional
Legend -80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
antenna patterns -120 dBm
Automatically analyzes paths, selects

appropriate algorithms based on path
geometry
Produces plots of coverage, C/I, etc. C/I
Legend
>20 dB
<20 dB
<17 dB
<14 dB
Used for analysis of sites, interference,

frequency planning, C/I evaluation, etc.
Drawback: requires significant
computation power, time and RF staff
special training
General Survey Of Tool Features, Continued
A
Pred.
A Meas
Popular Features of Advanced Tools A Mean -76 -
A 72
A A AA
A A Std. Dv 9
Accepts measurement input, can A A 12
Samples 545
automatically generate predicted-vs- A A
545
measured statistics and map displays
Automatic hexagon-manipulation grid Area Name: DALLAS Subs: 100,000
Date: Initial Service
utility
Site Name Site # LatitudeLongitudeType Capacity
SITE - 1 A1 33/17/4696/08/33 S322 77

SITE - 2 A2 33/20/0896/11/49 S211 37
SITE - 3 A3 33/16/5096/12/14 S332 91
Maintains cell sites in relational SITE - 4

SITE - 5
A4
A5
33/10/2896/11/51
33/25/2196/03/53
S11
01
8
8
database
Number of Sites
5 Total Capacity (Erlangs)221
Easy manipulation, import, export

Flexible user interface allows
multitasking
7 1 6
9 3
1 4 2 7
Allows multiple user-defined

8
3 6 9
2 7 5 1 8 10
propagation models
9 3
11
8 2
4
Three dimensional terrain view

6
Roads, boundaries, coastline easily

overlaid onto any display

More Popular Advanced Features
Produces plots of server boundaries,

C/I plots, handoff boundaries, etc.
Allows interactive change of antenna
number, type, orientation, power and
tilt CELL ERL Channels
Using growth-scaleable traffic input 14

22
26X
8.3
2.1
1.7
17
4
5
mask, can predict traffic carried by 26Y

26Z
23
14
31
20
each site, # channels required

Can automatically highlight cells
not meeting specified grade of
service 7
2
3 7
2
3
1 1
Algorithms for automatic frequency 6
5
4 6
5
4
planning and optimization
User can define or mask cells to be
changed or unchanged during
automatic optimization
More Popular Advanced Features
Cell 51 -82 dBm
Cell 76 -97 dBm
Identification of server and C/I +15 dB
interferer signal levels in live
cursor mode upon graphical
coverage display C/I Pct. of Area
>20 dB 93.0%
Generates bin C/I & coverage <20 dB 7.0%
statistics for system evaluation <17 dB 2.2%
Predicted handoff analysis
Cell 18
Statistical analysis of most Cell 24 48%
likely handoff candidates Cell 16 22%
Cell 17 18%
Automatic generation of Cell 05 8%
neighbor cell lists Cell 22 4%
Percentage probability of
handover
Runs on powerful workstations to
minimize computation time

Resolution Of Terrain Databases
Elevation data in terrain 10m

databases can be stored in any
of several formats: 10m
Contour vectors: lines of

constant elevation in vector
segment form, digitized
from topographic maps
Elevation sample points on
rectangular grids with fixed
spacing
Elevation sample points on
latitude-longitude grids with 3 arc-seconds
spacing of a fixed number
of arc-seconds
Data can be converted from 3 arc-seconds
one format to another

Resolution Of Terrain Databases, Continued
Latitude Longitude
It is useful to know the horizontal (North Pole) N90 0 Greenwich, UK
spacing in feet between sample points N60
in a terrain database using arc-seconds, W 30
N30
i.e., latitude-longitude spacing W 60
(Equator) 0
North-South spacing is constant, S30 W 90
everywhere on the planet S60 W 120
1 arc-second = 101.34 feet (South Pole) S90
1 degree = 69.096 miles

East-West sample spacing varies with
the cosine of the North Latitude
= 101.34 feet/arcsecond 101.34 ft 1
sec.
at the Equator
= 0 feet/arcsecond at Poles
101.34 ft * Cos (N Lat )
= 101.34 ft. * Cos (N Lat)
per arcsecond, everywhere

Chapter 4 Section D
Commercial
Commercial
Measurement
Measurement Tools
Tools

Propagation Data Collection Philosophy
RF testing of sites is usually performed for one of two reasons:

Drive Testing for model calibration
Prior to cell design of a wireless system, accurate models of
propagation in the area must be developed for use by the prediction
software. A significant number of typical sites are evaluated using the
test transmitter and receiver to determine signal decay rates and to
get a fairly accurate understanding of the effects of typical clutter in
the area.
Tests are also conducted to evaluate the additional attenuation which
the signal suffers during penetration of typical buildings and vehicles.
The focus is on developing models generally applicable to the area,
not on the performance of specific individual sites.
Drive Testing for site evaluation
Although propagation models for an area already have been refined,
coverage of a particular site is so critical, or its environment so
variable due to urban clutter, that it is essential to actually measure
the coverage and interference it will produce. The focus is on this
specific site.

CW or Modulated Test Signals?
Can measurements of unmodulated RF carriers provide adequate
propagation data for system design, or is it advisable to use a
modulated RF signal similar to the type which will be radiated by
actual BTS in the contemplated system?
CW (continuous wave, i.e., unmodulated carriers) transmitters
are moderately priced ($10K-$25K). CW-only receivers are
priced from $5K to over $20K.
Technology-specific GSM or CDMA modulated test transmitter-
receiver systems are available, at costs in the $100,000-
$275,000 range per TX-RX system.
Modulated Systems CW Systems

Multiple Sites Simultaneously Too expensive! Yes
Propagation Loss Mapping Yes Yes
FER, BER statistics Yes No
Usually Not. However, DSP
post-processing can yield
Multipath Characteristics Delay Spread some multipath data using
various transforms. (Not
commercially available yet.)

Summary of Available Commercial Tools
Commercial Measurement Systems

Measurement data can be Grayson Electronics:
collected manually, but it is Inspector32, Spectrum Tracker
simply too tedious to obtain Wireless Measurement Instrument
statistically useful quantities Handheld Logger
by hand MLJ, Berkeley Varitronics
There are many commercial CW test transmitters, receivers
data collection systems Qualcomm
available to automate the Mobile Diagnostic Monitor
collection process CDMA test TX-RX & analyzer
SAFCO
Many modern propagation SmartSAM , SmartSAM Plus*,
prediction software packages PROMAS*, CDMA OPAS32
have the capability to import COMARCO
measurement data, compare NES-150, NES-250, NES-350
it with predicted values, and LCC
generate statistical outputs RSAT; Walkabout, RSAT 2000
w/expansion chassis*
(mean error, standard TDMA/AMPS, GPS
deviation, etc.). ZKSAM - AMPS tools
Rohde & Schwarz: GSM Tools

Elements of Typical Measurement Systems
Main Features
Field strength measurement
Accurate collection in real-time
Multi-channel, averaging
capability
Location Data Collection Methods:
Wireless
Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver GPS
Dead reckoning on digitized map Receiver
database using on-board
compass and wheel revolutions PC or Dead
sensor Collector Reckoning
A combination of both methods is
recommended for the best results
Ideally, a system should be calibrated
in absolute units, not just raw
received power level indications
Record normalized antenna gain,
measured line loss

Typical Test Transmitter Operations
Typical Characteristics
portable, low power needs
weatherproof or weather resistant
regulated power output
frequency-agile: synthesized
Operational Concerns
spectrum coordination and proper
authorization to radiate test signal
antenna unobstructed
stable AC power
SAFETY:
people/equipment falling due to
wind, or tripping on obstacles
electric shock
damage to rooftop
A Typical Mobile Test Receiver
Receivers and decoders are installed Main

only for the appropriate technologies On/Off
and frequency bands
Internal GPS or external GPS may
be used, with or without dead- RF to
reckoning capabilities Int. GPS inputs to internal RXs
Up to 2 handsets
may be connected
for GSM or CDMA
at 800 or 1900 MHz.
Internal GPS
Receiver,
if used
Up to 4
Up to 4
technology and
technology-specific
band-specific
decoder boards:
receivers:
AMPS, TDMA
800 MHz. cellular
GSM, CDMA
150, 450, 800 Paging
Paging
1900 PCS
Selecting and Tuning Propagation Models
Parameters of propagation
models must be adjusted for
best fit to actual drive-test
measured data in the area
where the model is applied
The figure at right shows drive-
test signal strengths obtained
using a test transmitter at an
actual test site
Tools automate the process of
comparing the measured data
with its own predictions, and
deriving error statistics
Prediction model parameters
then can be tuned to
minimize observed error

Measured Data vs. Model Predictions
Is the propagation model approximately correct?

Is the data scatter small enough to justify use of a model?
correct slope to match data
correct position up/down on Y-axis?
Analysis of Measured vs. Predicted
Several tools produce histograms showing the distribution of the

differences between measured and predicted values
The mean of the difference between predicted and measured is a
very important quantity. It should be small (on order of a few dB).
The standard deviation of the difference also should be small. If it is
substantially larger than 8 dB., then either:
the environment is very diverse

(perhaps it should be broken
into pieces with separate
models for better fit) or
the slope of the model is
significantly different than the
observed slope of the
measurements (review the Sig.
vs. Dist. graph)

Displaying Error Distribution by Location
Suppose a major hill blocked

the signal in one direction, or
the antenna pattern had an
unexpected minimum in that
direction
This would cause the data in
the shadowed region to differ
substantially from data in all
remaining directions
Some tools can display the
error values on a map like the
one at right, to provide quick
visual evidence for recognizing
this type of problem

RF Propogation ScotBaxter

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Chapter 4 Section A

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-1

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-2

Radio signals in the atmosphere

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-3

Earths unique atmosphere supports life (ours

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-4

Rain Fades on Attenuation at Microwave Frequencies

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-5

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-6

Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-8

Signal Level vs. Distance

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4-9

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 11

Space Diversity can be applied only

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 13

Sometimes zoning considerations or

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 14

Between two antennas, on the same

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 15

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 16

Simple Analytical models Simple Analytical

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 17

-60 +80 Area models mimic an average

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 18

Correction factor, Garea

The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 19

Amu(f,d) Additional Median Loss

from Okumuras Curves

Correction factor, Garea (dB)

40 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000

The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 21

Formulas for median path loss are: f - carrier frequency, MHz

The COST-231 model was developed by European

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 23

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 24

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 27

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 28

Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 29

probable signal strength at every dBm 50% of observed

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 30

General Approach: RSSI, 25% of locations exceed

add an extra allowance into model Normal

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 31

Overall probability of service is best close to the

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 33

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 34

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 35

Outdoor Loss + Penetration Loss

For an in-building user, the actual signal level includes regular

Example Case: Outdoor attenuation is 8 dB., and penetration loss

COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+(PENETRATION)2)1/2 On cumulative normal distribution curve, 75%

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 37

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 38

Use of models based on deterministic methods

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 39

Geographic Overlay Format:

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 41

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 42

July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 4 - 43