Thermomechanical Analysis of a Ceramic

Cooker

Michael D.Hayes & David L.Ahearn

Journal of Failure Analysis and

Prevention

ISSN 1547-7029

J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

DOI 10.1007/s11668-013-9699-9

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 Author's personal copy
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
DOI 10.1007/s11668-013-9699-9
FEATURE
Thermomechanical Analysis of a Ceramic Cooker
Michael D. Hayes David L. Ahearn
Submitted: 26 February 2013
ASM International 2013
Abstract This article highlights the use of experimental
methods in determining operating conditions for a con-
sumer product. The research was prompted by the
investigation of a house fire in which it was determined that
the fire originated at a ceramic cooker/grill on the home-
owners deck. The cause of the fire is believed to be the
escape of hot gases from the cooker through a crack in the
lower portion of the cooker, which pyrolized the wood
table on which the cooker rested. The source of the crack is
unknown, but one hypothesis inferred that the hinge design
was defective because it applied concentrated loads to the
ceramic material at the hinge attachment points. This study
examines the stress/strains that are experienced by the
ceramic material of the cooker during normal operation at
elevated temperature and abnormal operation, including
abuse and improper functioning of the hinge. The experi-
mental methods and analysis techniques used to perform
the measurements are detailed.
Keywords Ceramics  Cracking  Mechanical testing
Background
The authors firm was hired to investigate the cause of a
fire at a home. The details of the fire investigation are not
presented, but the origin of the fire was found to be a
ceramic cooker/cooker on the rear deck adjacent to the
house. The cooker was an oval shaped, two-piece design
with a hinged lid. The hinge was spring loaded to assist in
M. D. Hayes (&)  D. L. Ahearn
Engineering Systems Inc, 6230 Regency Parkway,
Norcross, GA 30071, USA
e-mail: mdhayes@esi-atl.com
lifting the ceramic top. Apparently, the hinge design was
modified after the purchase of the subject cooker, but the
reason for the change is unknown. The cooker had been
installed on a wooden table built by the homeowner.
Examination of the cooker revealed that the top was off at
the time of the fire, and the bottom air vent was closed. A
crack was also found in the lower base of the cooker,
adjacent to the hinges at the rear of the cooker (Fig. 1). The
manufacturer claims operating temperatures in excess of
700 F.
Cold smoke testing on the subject cooker after the
incident (Figs. 2, 3) demonstrated that the crack had fully
grown through the thickness of the ceramic wall, and thus,
a pathway for hot exhaust gas travel to the combustible
wood table existed. Examination of the fracture surfaces
revealed discoloration, indicating that the crack had existed
even before the fire. Hot gases inside the cooker during use
would cause the pressure inside the cooker to rise above the
pressure outside the cooker, causing the hot gases to flow
through the crack and heat the wood table. Furthermore,
the geometry of the table would allow the hot gases to
escape through the crack to approach the internal temper-
ature of the cooker.
The cause of cracking is unknown. Possible explana-
tions include porosity in the ceramic material (Fig. 4) and/
or excessive stresses developing in service due to product
design, or operating factors such as thermal shock, which
this material is specifically designed to resist. In particular,
it was discovered that the table geometry, as built by the
owner, was such that the hinge would strike the table when
the lid was fully opened. This impact with the table could
potentially introduce unusual loads upon the cooker, such
as torsion or local bending. The hinge assembly for this
particular cooker consists of metal bands that are tightened
around the rim portion of both the top and bottom sections.
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Fig. 1 Subject cooker with hinge locations indicated by arrows (top),
close-up of crack at one hinge (bottom)
Fig. 2 Hinge detail on subject cooker (photo taken during smoke
testing)
The bands are connected to the spring-loaded hinge
through a series of clinch studs (Fig. 2). Therefore, any
local loading on the hinge could result in concentrated
forces or moments acting on the ceramic material. It is
noted that the hinge design apparently had been changed
some time after the owner purchased his cooker. The rea-
son for the change is unknown.
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
Fig. 3 Close-up of smoke transmission through cracks during smoke
test
Fig. 4 Porosity in ceramic material near the crack location
The purpose of the study described herein was to
investigate the effect of the loads introduced by the hinge
design in conjunction with the installation geometry on the
stresses/strains imparted to the ceramic material. A cooker
with the original hinge design was not available for testing,
and so a new, exemplar cooker with the newer hinge design
was tested. In addition, the stresses/strains resulting from
thermal expansion of the material (and constraint by the
hinge bands, for example) were characterized.
Material Analysis
To first understand the mechanical properties of the
unknown ceramic material, a sample of the subject cooker
material was analyzed using semiquantitative x-ray dif-
fraction (XRD). The results, shown in Table 1, indicate a
multiphase ceramic of Cordierite and Mullite with Cordi-
erite comprising over 50% of the material. These phases
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

Table 1 XRD results

Phase ID Chemical Formula Estimated wt.%

Cordierite Mg2Al3.96Si5.04O18 11.1

Cordierite Mg2(Al4Si5O18) 39.6
Mullite Al4.44Si1.56O9.78 33.4
Hydrogen magnesium H(Mg2(SiO4))8 May not be present or
silicate could not be measured
Amorphous phase  16.0

Fig. 6 Strain gage and thermocouple installations near the 11:00

position

band, on the band, on the table near the circular cutout, on

Fig. 5 Strain gage and thermocouple installations near the 9:00
position
characteristically have low coefficients of thermal
expansion (0.781.4 9 106 in/in/F and 2.52.9 9
106 in/in/F, respectively), providing good resistance to
thermal shock. They also provide good mechanical proper-
ties [1]. Typical properties for Cordierite are Youngs
Modulus = 20,000 ksi, bend strength = 35.5 ksi, and
fracture toughness = 2.1 ksiHin.
Mechanical Analysis
Cooker Testing
In order to establish the stress or strain on the material during
various operation scenarios, the cooker was instrumented
with strain gages and thermocouples at a number of loca-
tions around the circumference of the cooker on the left, rear
quarter of the cooker (from the users perspective). The
strain gages, type WK-03-250BG-350 from Vishay Micro-
Measurements were positioned on the smooth outer lip or
flange of the bottom piece (base) and on the steel hinge
attachment band between the 9:00 and 12:00 locations, as
shown in Figs. 5 and 6. A high-temperature adhesive was
utilized to provide survivability up to approximately 500 F.
Thermocouples were also mounted at a number of locations,
including the outer and inner surfaces of the base near the
the top and bottom sides of the cooker, inside the cooker on
the top of the cooking grate, and on the inside of the base
opposite the steel band. All gages were connected to a sig-
nal-conditioning and data-acquisition system via a high-
temperature-insulated wire for real-time recording of strains
and temperatures.
A number of loading scenarios (initially performed at
room temperature and then later at elevated temperature)
were considered, including the following:
1. Installation of hinge attachment band.
2. Normal, slow opening and closing of the lid.
3. Tightening of the hinge attachment band using the
5/1600 carriage bolt (to 125 in-lbs).
4. Quick opening and closing of the lid.
5. Dropping the lid from the fully open position.
By zeroing out the strain gages before step 1, the strains
induced in the base ceramic by tightening the carriage bolt
on the hinge could be determined.
The table assembly instructions specify the use of a
concrete stepping stone (paver) between the base of the
cooker and the lower shelf, presumably to insulate the table
from the cooker. The preceding experiments were per-
formed with the paver in place (proper setup) and then
repeated without the paver (improper setup) to allow the
hinge mechanism to impact the table. During testing with
this modified setup, a twisting load was also introduced
through the handle while opening and closing.
Results
During testing at room temperature, it was found that the
act of attaching the hinge hardware introduced only 46
microstrains on the ceramic base, and tightening to the

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specified torque reduced the strain to approximately 0

microstrains (i.e., induced compression on the ceramic).
Hard opening and closing or twisting at room temperature
increased the strain up to approximately 100 microstrains.
Removing the paver had a negligible effect, increasing the
strain to 104 microstrains.
Next, the experiment (without paver) was repeated for a
hot cooker. After zeroing the strain gages and starting the
data-acquisition program, a 9-pound bag of Kingsford
Original charcoal briquettes was poured into the base and
lit. The lid was closed, and the top and bottom vents were
left completely open to maximize airflow. Strains and
temperatures were monitored as the cooker heated up to a
maximum temperature of 690 F, according to the built-in Fig. 7 Raw, uncorrected strains and temperatures versus time
measured during the CTE experiment
lid thermometer. According to the thermocouple mea-
surements, the temperature was as high as 1,450 F at the
grate (just above the fire) and on the inside of the cooker,
just below the lip of the base. The outside of the base at the
same location reached 450 F.
Once a steady-state temperature profile was reached
(approximately one hour), the opening/closing, dropping,
and twisting steps above were repeated. The cooker vents
were then closed and left to cool naturally. Data were
recorded for approximately 8 min until the outer temper-
ature had dropped to approximately 200 F, and then the
test was concluded.

CTE Measurements

The data obtained in the cooker testing provided strain
measurements as a function of thermal history. These
readings include not only the mechanical strain induced by
the introduction of external stresses (e.g., band tightening,
opening/closing, etc.), but also thermal strains due to the
thermal expansion of the material. In the absence of con-
straints, a part or component that is allowed to expand
freely will experience no additional stress as a result of
thermal expansion. However, if some type of constraint is
introduced to limit the thermal expansion, a stress will be
generated. Thus, the thermal expansion strains must be
known and subtracted from the total strains to isolate pure
mechanical strains. The presence of constraints must also
be assessed, as they could introduce additional stresses.
To this end, an experiment was devised to measure the
CTE of the subject cooker material, following the approach
outlined in the American Society for Testing and Materials,
Standard Test Method for Linear Expansion of Metals,
ASTM Standard No. B95-39 [2]. A piece of material taken
from the subject cooker was instrumented with two strain
gages and a thermocouple. The sample was then heated in a
commercial oven to a temperature of over 450 F through
several heating and soak steps over a period of 8 h
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 8 Corrected strains and temperature versus time measured
during the CTE experiment
The strain gages were chosen to have similar coefficient
of thermal expansion (CTE) as the Cordierite/Mullite
ceramic. However, owing to the thermal sensitivity of the
material comprising the gage, the strain gages will produce
a temperature-induced apparent strain. This apparent
strain depends on both the gage and the substrate material.
It can be estimated using the data provided by the gage
manufacturer, but direct measurement is preferred [3].
Therefore, a control sample of titanium silicate with a CTE
equal to 0.0 was also gaged and placed in the oven adjacent
to the ceramic test sample to directly measure the tem-
perature-induced apparent strain. This strain was then
subtracted from the measured strain on the ceramic test
sample at every measurement increment (Fig. 8). (Note
that both samples were free of constraint except for friction
with the oven rack; a sheet of Teflon was placed between
the samples and the oven rack to minimize friction.)
The results indicated an artificial, temperature-induced
apparent strain of approximately 1,000 microstrains
(1,000 9 106 in/in) at 450 F (see Fig. 9)not an

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Fig. 9 Temperature-induced apparent strain versus temperature
Fig. 10 Corrected thermal strains used to calculate CTE
insignificant amount. Subtracting this response from the
ceramic sample data yielded the real strain versus tem-
perature response. The corrected (actual) strain at each
temperature level was then plotted as a function of tem-
perature, as shown in Fig. 10. The curves obtained at the
two gages have different slopes and are slightly non-linear.
Fitting the curves with linear fits provides CTE estimates of
1.4 and 0.88 9 106 in/in/F. The variation between the
two gage locations is likely due to the material inhomo-
geneity of this multiphase composite. The average value
was 1.14 9 106 in/in/F. Referring back to the handbook
data, this information confirms the observation of high
Cordierite content, as determined through XRD.
Data Analysis
Using the thermally induced apparent strain curves
obtained above, the data acquired during the cooker testing
Fig. 11 Strains (and temperature) versus time during heating of the
cooker
Fig. 12 Strains (and temperature) versus time during operation of the
cooker
were then corrected to eliminate temperature-induced
apparent strain. The resulting strain versus time curves are
shown in Figs. 11 and 12 for the ceramic during heating
and operation at the maximum temperature. (Note that the
red thermocouple (TCO, channel 0) curve corre-
sponds to temperature on the right-hand vertical axis. As
shown in Fig. 12, the temperature only rose to about 6 F
when the lid was opened.) The data indicate maximum
readings on the cooker at the 9:00 location, which is closest
to the left-side hinge attachment point. However, the
maximum value was only about 400 microstrains with
small fluctuations up to 430 microstrains during opening
and closing. Furthermore, the free expansion thermal strain
is estimated to be between 394 and 633 (average = 513)
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microstrains at 450 F. Assuming no constraint to limit free
expansion, this means that the mechanical strain was no more
than 200 microstrains (or 81 microstrains, using the average
CTE). This is similar to the maximum value obtained during
the room temperature testing: 104 microstrains.
During heating, the gaged steel band expanded to
approximately 3,000 microstrains at 450 F, indicating a
CTE of approximately 7.9 9 106 in/in/F, which is in the
typical range for steel. Thus, the steel band also expands
relatively freely and likely relaxes the clamping stress on
the ceramic, thereby allowing the ceramic to also expand
relatively freely. The result is that heating the cooker has
little or no effect on the stress in the ceramic with the
exception of relieving some of the compressive stress
exerted by the band when tightened during installation.
While the subject ceramic material was not tested to
provide mechanical strength data, the Engineered Materials
Handbook data suggest a strain to failure of at least 773
microstrains for a pure Cordierite phase, and the Mullite
phase may contribute even greater strength to the com-
posite. Thus, the factor of safety on ultimate strength for
this design is estimated to be very high (773/104 = 7.4),
and the propensity for self-initiated cracking of the ceramic
is considered to be very low for the conditions of normal
use (and even some abnormal use).
Summary
This article highlights the use of experimental methods in
determining operating conditions for a consumer product.
In this case, the operating conditions were fairly extreme
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with external temperatures on the cooker exceeding
450 F. At these temperatures, special strain gages, adhe-
sives, and conductor cable are required. In addition, the
resulting strain values must be adjusted to compensate for
artificial or apparent strains resulting from the thermal
characteristics of the gages themselves.
The analysis performed as part of this investigation was
prompted by the observation that a crack in the ceramic
cooker could have allowed hot gases to escape over time
and pyrolize the wood table. This crack was associated
with the attachment point for the steel hinge band on the
lower portion of the cooker. However, a detailed experi-
mental analysis of the stresses/strains acting on the ceramic
material during normal and abnormal operation of an
exemplar cooker with an updated hinge design did not
reveal any appreciable values. Furthermore, the stresses/
strains appeared to be unaffected by the key variables of
installation, adjustment, and operation, thereby suggesting
that cracks would not have occurred under normal cir-
cumstances. It is possible that the original hinge design did,
in fact, overstress the ceramic material, but this hypothesis
has not been proven.
References
1. ASM International: Engineering Materials Handbook, vol. 4:
Ceramics and Glasses, ASM International (1991)
2. Vishay Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN-513-1, Measurement
of Thermal Expansion Coefficient Using Strain Gages (2010)
3. Vishay Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN-513-1, Technical
Note TN-504-1, Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor
Variation with Temperature (2007)