Psychology in the Schools, Vol.

49(1), 2012 
C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pits DOI: 10.1002/pits.20628

VIDEO SELF-MODELING AS AN INTERVENTION STRATEGY FOR INDIVIDUALS

WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
NICHOLAS W. GELBAR, CANDACE ANDERSON, AND SCOTT MCCARTHY
University of Connecticut
TOM BUGGEY
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Video self-modeling demonstrates promise as an intervention strategy to improve outcomes in indi-

viduals with autism spectrum disorders. This article summarizes the empirical evidence supporting
the use of video self-modeling with individuals with autism spectrum disorders to increase language
and communication, increase social skills, modify behavior, and teach functional skills. A compar-
ison of the empirical evidence supporting the use of video self-modeling with other video modeling
interventions is also provided. The use of video self-modeling as part of a continuum of strategies
for this population is supported by the current research base. C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recent estimates indicate that autism spectrum disorders (ASD) affect approximately 1 in
110 people (Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2006
Principal Investigators, 2009). Prevalence coupled with the heterogeneous nature of these disorders
make the implementation of skill development strategies associated with ASD extremely complex.
Intervention strategies derived from applied behavioral analysis have been particularly effective in
enhancing the skill deficits associated with ASD (Virues-Ortega, 2010). However, the recalcitrant
and heterogeneous nature of many problem behaviors associated with ASD engenders a need for
a continuum of effective and efficient interventions. In particular, video self-modeling (VSM) is
a intervention strategy that has shown promise in both teaching skills and remediating problem
behaviors for individuals with ASD.
This article provides a brief overview of VSM for students with ASD. The relative effectiveness
of VSM is contrasted with other video modeling strategies, and an overview of VSM across four
broad categorieslanguage and communication, social skills interventions, behavior modification,
and task instructionis presented. These categories are useful for assessing the current evidence base
supporting VSM as a research-based practice for targeting specific problem behaviors or increasing
certain skill deficits present in individuals with ASD. As the research base supporting the use of
VSM for students with ASD is still evolving, suggestions for future research are also addressed. The
current evidence that is summarized in this article, however, does support the use of VSM as a part
of a continuum of interventions and strategies for individuals with ASD.

T HE AUTISM S PECTRUM
ASD involves deficits in social reciprocity, language, and communication, as well as repetitive
behaviors and/or stereotyped interests (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Eigsti & Shapiro,
2003). Individuals with ASD vary considerably in the profile of their strengths and weaknesses,
as some individuals with ASD display significant cognitive difficulties, whereas others function
at a relatively high cognitive level, despite varied social deficits. Thus, the symptoms associated
with ASD are best described as heterogeneous, both in the aggregate of disorders that comprise
the spectrum, as well as the wide range of functional abilities within each specific disorder (Eigsti
& Shapiro, 2003; Rapin, 2002; South, Schultz, & Ozonoff; 2011). No one universally accepted

Correspondence to: Nicholas W. Gelbar, University of Connecticut, 222 Warrenville Road, Mansfield, CT 06250.
E-mail: nicholas.gelbar@uconn.edu

15
16 Gelbar et al.

theory explains all of the causes of ASD or the specific deficits exhibited by people with ASD.
The heterogeneity of ASD stems from the many neuropsychological, genetic, and environmental
interactions that underlie different clusters of symptoms within the spectrum (South et al., 2011).
Accordingly, the different interventions designed to improve skills or reduce problematic behaviors
in students with ASD include a wide range of strategies that are reflective of these clusters of
symptoms. VSM is one of the newer approaches used with this population (Bellini & Akullian,
2007), and the results to date appear to be promising. This is an important area of research because
it is clear that if school psychologists can intervene with students with ASD as early as possible
during their school years, a series of negative implications stemming from their difficult behaviors
might be avoided.
VSM can, for example, improve interactions for a preschool-aged child with ASD who rarely
responds to teacher requests. To increase the number of appropriate responses, a video is recorded
of the teacher asking a series of questions, and all of the childs ensuing responses are included.
Approximations or appropriate responses are rewarded accordingly. The video is then edited to
include only the teachers questioning and the childs appropriate responses. When the edited tape is
shown to the child multiple times, the childs subsequent number of appropriate responses is likely
to increase and be maintained across time.

V IDEO S ELF -M ODELING

VSM has been found to be an effective intervention for a variety of deficits present in people
with ASD, as well as a skill-building intervention targeted for this population, such as improving
language or social skills (Bellini & Akullian, 2007). As noted, a VSM videotape will include
exemplars of positive targeted behaviors, including replacements for negative behaviors, with all
errors, prompting, and other extraneous footage edited out (Dowrick, 1999). Thus, when the video is
viewed, the student only sees himself or herself performing the specified target behavior at mastery
level, without either errors or off-task behaviors. Banduras (1997) social learning theory suggests
that the use of VSM techniques should increase self-efficacy for performing the target behavior; VSM
may be successful because people learn best from models that most closely resemble themselves,
and having oneself as the model optimizes this factor. For a more extensive review of the theoretical
foundations and history of VSM, see the articles in this issue by Peter Dowrick and by Tom Buggey
and Lindsey Ogle, respectively.

V IDEO M ODELING VERSUS VSM

VSM is part of a larger repertoire of video modeling techniques. The models in the videos
used in these interventions range from self (VSM), to videos with peers, to videos with adults
acting as models. Alternately, individuals are filmed from the perspective of the observer (point-of-
view modeling). Bellini and Akullian (2007) conducted a meta-analysis of video modeling and VSM
interventions for individuals with ASD and found that video modeling interventions (including VSM)
met criteria for being an evidence-based practice as defined by Horner et al. (2005). These criteria
were specifically designed to determine whether a collection of single-subject design studies qualified
as an evidence-based practice. These criteria include, but are not limited to, at least five published
studies across three different research teams in different locations with at least 20 participants.
Three demonstrations of an experimental effect must be conducted to prove experimental control.
The results of this meta-analysis reflected no differences in the effectiveness of video modeling
compared with VSM (Bellini & Akullian, 2007). This is consistent with other reviews comparing
video modeling to VSM (Delano, 2007; Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos, 2009; Wang & Spillane,
2009).

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 Video Self-Modeling for Autism Spectrum Disorders 17

Rayner and colleagues (2009) have questioned the efficacy of VSM for individuals with ASD
compared with other video modeling techniques. Given that VSM represents a more resource-
intensive intervention, exploring the efficacy of VSM over other forms of video modeling is essential
to justify its use as an evidence-based practice in schools. Several studies have addressed this issue.
For example, Sherer and colleagues (2001) conducted an early study to address this question by
comparing the verbal responses of 5 boys with ASD, ranging from 3 to 11 years, after viewing a
self-modeled or a peer-modeled videotape. The results of this study were clear, as the participants
did not demonstrate a definitive preference for VSM over peer modeling. Using an alternative
treatment design, Cihak and Schrader (2009) reached similar conclusions studying the acquisition
of vocational task chains in 4 adults with ASD whose response to self-modeling was compared with
video modeling. Two participants demonstrated improved responses to the self-modeling condition
in terms of the number of completed steps and rate of acquisition, whereas the other two students
did not demonstrate a clear preferential response to either the self- or peer-modeling condition.
Using a different approach, however, Marcus and Wilder (2009) compared the correct responses
of 3 participants to novel letters (nonalphabetic) after viewing self-modeling and peer-modeling
videotapes. All 3 students reached 100% performance in the self-modeling condition, and reached
a ceiling of 80% in the peer-modeling condition. The students also met the standard of three
consecutive sessions of at least 80% performance in the self-modeling conditioning. One student
who reached this standard in both conditions met the criteria in fewer sessions using VSM. In a
similar study, Mechling and Moser (2010) compared the video modeling preferences of 5 students
with ASD by allowing them to choose which type of modeling tape (self, peer, or adult) to view and
found no consistent preference for any type of model across the 5 participants. The aggregate data
from these studies suggests that the video modeling preferences of individuals with ASD vary across
both individuals and tasks, although in some cases, self-modeling appeared to be more efficacious
than other forms (Marcus & Wilder, 2009).

VSM AS I NTERVENTION

Although more studies are needed to better define and explore the differences between VSM and
other modeling techniques with various populations of students, it appears that the response to their
application may vary. Currently, VSM can be considered an effective, evidence-based intervention
for children with ASD across the four categories of language/communication, social skills, behavior,
and task instruction. These categories serve as a method of understanding the types of interventions
that have the most robust empirical support. A review of the major studies in each of these areas
follows.

VSM as a Language and Communication Intervention

VSM has been used in a variety of studies to increase language and communication skills
in individuals with ASD. Buggey (2005), for example, used VSM with 1 student to increase un-
prompted, appropriate responses questions. During all of the opportunities to respond during the
baseline phase, the student made only one response to a question. When initially shown a longer
self-modeling videotape, the individual demonstrated a slight increase in responses to questions,
but no increase in his unprompted responses. These responses increased when he was shown a
shorter self-modeling videotape in which the inclusion of peers asking questions was removed. This
tape involved editing together individual words the students had said to give the impression he was
speaking in sentences. This second, shorter tape resulted in more responses to questions, increased
the students unprompted responses, and increased the average length of responses. A similar study
using VSM attempted to increase responding behaviors in 3 children with ASD between the ages of

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18 Gelbar et al.

7 and 12 years (Buggey, Toombs, Gardener, & Cervetti, 1999). All 3 children showed increases in
the percentage of appropriate verbal responses from baseline, and these were maintained after the
intervention was withdrawn.
Wert (2002) also demonstrated the utility of VSM in home settings to increase spontaneous
requests in 6 preschool children aged 4 to 6 years. Three of the children were shown videos of
themselves talking with adults, and 3 were shown videos of themselves talking with peers. Data
were collected on the number of spontaneous responses to adults and peers for both groups, as
well as generalization to school settings for both groups. Overall, VSM increased the frequency of
spontaneous requests, which generalized to other people and settings, and these frequency gains
were maintained after the intervention was withdrawn. In summary, these studies indicate that VSM
has been successful in increasing language and communication skills in some individuals with ASD.

VSM as a Social Skills Intervention

The use of VSM interventions for social skill deficits in individuals with ASD has been
particularly effective. Buggey (2005) reported the results of three studies targeting the social skills
of children on the autism spectrum. In the first study, the researchers used VSM to facilitate social
initiations in 2 students with ASD (aged 11 and 5), in which the level of social initiations was
maintained after the intervention was withdrawn. In the second study, 2 boys with ASD (aged
6 and 8) demonstrated improvements in social skills, such as making requests and turn-taking.
One childs requests and social questions increased in the intervention phase and demonstrated
some maintenance after the intervention was withdrawn. However, the maintenance of turn-taking
behavior was inconsistent for the other child.
In a study that demonstrated a clearer response to a VSM intervention, Lantz (2005) improved
the interactions among 2 students with ASD and their siblings on five of six target behaviors. These
behaviors included requesting (both students), turn-taking (student 1), social questions (student 2),
and commenting (student 2). Quantitative data were not collected for the sixth behavior (pretend
play) for student 1. Generalized responses not addressed in the video were also demonstrated.
Providing further evidence of the effect of VSM on the development of social skills, Deaton (2007)
found that 7 of 8 children aged 12 to 18 years with ASD responded positively to a VSM intervention
targeting their social behavior in school during the intervention phase, although the maintenance
of these behaviors was less conclusive. The individual who did not respond to treatment may have
involved the strongly stereotypical behavior (blurting out words during conversation) that seemed
involuntary (Deaton, 2007, p. 188).
In a school-based study of 2 boys with ASD, aged 4 and 5 years, Bellini, Akullian, and Hopf
(2007) used VSM in their preschool setting to increase peer social engagement. The uses of VSM
to improve communication with peers in a natural setting were the unique elements of this study.
This study also defined social engagement as unprompted participation in an activity or play
sequence with a peer involving shared toys, objects, and play items (Bellini et al., 2007, p. 83). This
definition is in contrast to other studies, which have focused on increasing responses to requests,
not on increasing reciprocal social interactions. The increases in social engagement observed during
the intervention phase were maintained during follow-up. In a study focusing on different aspects
of social skills, Bernad-Ripol (2007) combined VSM with social stories for 1 boy with ASD. In this
study, videos were created of 10 emotional situations. These situations were divided into two videos.
Each video was paired with a social story, and three of the situations directly related to emotions
mentioned in the social story. The other two served as distractors. This intervention resulted in an
increase in emotion naming and explanation that was maintained after the intervention was removed.
Taken together, these studies indicate that VSM can be used to successfully target social skill deficits

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 Video Self-Modeling for Autism Spectrum Disorders 19

present in individuals with ASD, Other factors, including the specific social skills being targeted,
should be explored in more depth to give a clearer perspective on the effectiveness of VSM as a
social skill development intervention.

VSM as a Behavioral Intervention

The use of VSM has been effective in modifying the classroom behavior of individuals with
ASD, but less evidence has been gathered demonstrating its ability to modify other behaviors. For
example, Bline (1996) investigated whether VSM can be effective in decreasing restorative behaviors
(e.g., moving an object back to its original location, such as a book not being returned to its original
location on a bookshelf) in 10 participants with ASD. Parents of the participants nominated objects
that the children had moved back to their original location in the past month, and the researcher
confirmed that the participant engaged in restoring this item in at least two of three trials. A video
was then produced that included the object in its original location, with the participant being near
this object. The participant was then shown in a different location in the room, the object was then
moved to this location, and, finally, the participant was shown exiting the room without moving this
item back to its original location. The intervention had varied results across the participants, as only
2 responded favorably to the intervention, but the overall response of students to the intervention
was not statistically significant. Although more research on VSM targeting restorative behaviors is
necessary, these behaviors may be more resistant to intervention than other behaviors targeted by
VSM interventions.
Studies using VSM to target classroom behaviors have been generally successful, as noted
previously. Coyle and Cole (2004) used VSM to decrease off-task behavior in 3 students with
ASD. Off-task behavior was defined as any behaviors that were unnecessary to complete a task
independently, such as looking around at other children, fiddling with a pencil or other objects,
rolling items from the desk, inspecting objects and other students at close proximity, touching other
students, staring blankly, and leaving their seats (Coyle & Cole, 2004, p. 6). These off-task behaviors
decreased for all 3 students during the intervention and were maintained when the intervention was
withdrawn. Another study reported by Buggey (2005) involved reducing school-based tantrums in
2 boys with ASD utilizing VSM. The researchers utilized a functional behavioral assessment to
discover the triggers for each of the boys tantrums. Each of the triggers was targeted in a scene
in the video. The resulting decrease in tantrum behavior was maintained after the intervention was
withdrawn. In the same study, VSM was utilized to reduce pushing behavior in a boy with ASD, and
this decrease was maintained after the intervention was withdrawn. The immediacy and magnitude
of these changes in behavior evidenced in these studies demonstrate the efficacy of VSM to target
school-based behaviors.
Another study utilized a VSM intervention for 2 boys with ASD to increase their knowledge
of classroom rules (Lang et al., 2009). The researchers used videos of classroom behaviors to
demonstrate examples of rule compliance and to demonstrate specific behaviors engaged in by each
boy that violated the classroom rules. Both childrens ability to recite all classroom rules improved
and was maintained after the withdrawal of the intervention. Targeting a more complex behavior,
Figueira (2007) used VSM to attempt to increase compliance in 3 students with developmental
disabilities, 2 of whom had ASD. These 2 students demonstrated increased compliance during the
intervention phase. One of the students with ASD maintained compliance beyond the intervention.
Information was not collected on the other student after intervention, however. This review of studies
utilizing VSM indicates that classroom-based behaviors have shown less variability in the responses
of individuals with ASD to VSM, suggesting that VSM may be more effective as an intervention for
targeting classroom-based behaviors.

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20 Gelbar et al.

In a departure from the procedures utilized in traditional VSM interventions, Cihak, Fahrenkrog,
Ayres, and Smith (2010) developed an innovative technique that blends traditional VSM with point-
of-view modeling. The videos are displayed to students on handheld devices. In this study, a
combination of their VSM, point-of-view modeling, and a system of least prompts was used to
improve the percentage of independent transition in 4 elementary-school students with ASD. The
videos in this study were edited to combine the students seeing himself or herself perform the
target transition behaviors with a video shot from his or her point of video during transitions. The
students were prompted to view the video before each transition and were given verbal praise if
they independently transitioned between locations. Additional prompts to watch the video again
were given if the student was having difficulty during the transition period. All 4 students showed
significant gains in the percentage of independent transitions they completed relative to baseline,
and the results were maintained at follow-up.
Cihak (2011) also compared static self-modeling prompts (using a picture instead of a video)
with blended VSM prompts to help 4 middle-school students with ASD increase the number of
independent transitions. Similar to the previous study, the videos shown to students involved a blend
of traditional VSM with point-of-view modeling of optimal transition behavior. One student met the
researchers criteria (three consecutive independent transitions) for success in both conditions. Two
students met the researchers criteria for success in the static picture condition. One student met
the criteria in the video condition. This finding indicates that some students may respond to video
self-models over picture self-models. This research supported the results of a prior study that found
that static self-modeling prompts delivered by a hand-held computer increased on-task behavior
and decreased teacher prompting in 3 middle school students with ASD (Cihak, Wright, Ayres,
2010). Perhaps because of the various techniques employed, VSM has been shown to be an effective
intervention strategy for targeting behavior in students with ASD, particularly in classroom settings,
although static prompts can be as effective for some students, and this is a simpler procedure.

The Use of VSM as an Intervention to Increase Task Fluency

Researchers have also utilized VSM as an instructional tool for individuals with ASD. Lasater
and Brady (1995) studied VSM as an intervention to increase task fluency in students with ASD.
The 2 male students were able to improve fluency in tasks required for independent living, such as
shaving (for both), making a peanut-butter-and-jelly sandwich (for student 1), and putting shirts on
hangers and in a closet (for student 2). The percentage of completed steps was improved for both
students, and the number of adult prompts required to complete the tasks decreased for both students
across four tasks. Cihak and Schrader (2009) demonstrated that VSM could be used to increase task
fluency in occupational tasks (such as sending a fax, making copies, or packaging a first aid kit).
These studies provide some preliminary evidence that VSM can also be used to increase task fluency
in students with ASD.

Suggestions for Future Research

Future research concerning the effectiveness of VSM as an intervention for individuals with
ASD should explore the characteristics of both students who respond positively and those who do
not. This research would contribute a more refined knowledge base regarding cognitive thresholds
for success, as well as to the development of teaching tasks that are most conducive to VSM as an
intervention. Along these lines, it would be prudent to understand the effectiveness of VSM compared
with other video modeling techniques, in light of the resource-intensive nature of VSM. Given that
not all individuals with ASD prefer VSM over peer or adult modeling, it would be interesting to
know how this compares with their typical peers, for whom modeling is also useful. Although VSM

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 Video Self-Modeling for Autism Spectrum Disorders 21

has been found to be effective in research across all types of behaviors in persons with ASD, only a
few studies have been conducted for each type of behavior. More research on various behaviors, as
well as on the interaction of the characteristics of responders and nonresponders for all behaviors,
would also be useful so that practitioners could effectively target which individuals would benefit
most from VSM as an intervention strategy.

C ONCLUSION
VSM interventions for individuals with ASD have can help to reduce problem behaviors in some
students. Given the wide range of behaviors and deficits in individuals with ASD, it is not surprising
that different participants responded differently to VSM interventions. Further research exploring
the relative effectiveness of VSM compared with other video modeling techniques for individuals
with ASD would be beneficial to justify its use to reduce negative behaviors. For example, are some
outcomes targeting certain types of social behaviors more efficacious than others? Are there certain
profiles of individuals with ASD who have a more robust response? Are certain developmental ages
or stages more likely to promote change or create enduring responses? And how can psychologists
and educators create successful interventions to extend a particular range of social behaviors in
people with ASD? Initial attempts to use VSM as an intervention to reduce negative social behaviors
have been successful, as summarized in this article. More research is necessary to better understand
how the use of VSM can be successful in certain children with ASD and why some types of VSM
are more efficacious than others. The current evidence summarized in this article, however, does
suggest that VSM should be considered as part of a continuum of strategies for targeting the varied
deficits and behavior problems often observed in students with ASD.

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