Stems

Stems generally occur above ground, and are the structures onto which leaves are
attached. This latter point is very important for distinguishing stems from roots since
some stems occur below ground.
There are two basic patterns of differentiated tissues in stems of flowering plants.
We look at other reasons for making distinctions between two types of flowering
plants later in the course. For now, however, we just have to know that one type is
calledmonocots, the other dicots.
Dicot stems The epidermis is on the outside of the stem. Toward the interior of the
stem just underneath the epidermis is the cortex. The most interior region of the
stem is the pith. In the region between the pith and the cortex are several to many
vascular bundles arranged in a ring. The phloem is on the side of the bundle facing
toward the cortex; the xylem on the side toward the pith.
In plants that increase in diameter as they get older, e.g., trees, the increase in
diameter is due to secondary growth. Secondary growth is produced by a lateral
or secondary meristem, the vascular cambium. Vascular cambium originates from
a group of cells between the xylem and phloem. As the vascular cambium
produces new cells, thus new secondary growth, xylem cells are formed to the
interior of the vascular cambium, phloem cells are formed to the exterior of the
vascular cambium. The xylem is commonly called wood. The bark is everything to
the exterior of the vascular cambium; major components of bark include phloem
and cork.
Monocot stems In monocot stems viewed in cross section, the vascular bundles
are scattered throughout the stem. Thus, there is no clear separation of tissues
around the vascular bundles into cortex and pith. In the vascular bundles of
monocots, the phloem is on the side facing toward the epidermis, the xylem toward
the center of the stem. Most monocots do not have secondary growth.

Roots
Roots generally grow underground and anchor the plant into the soil. The major
function of roots is absorption of water and minerals from the soil. There are two
basic types of roots. 1) Taproot has a main, large root that has branch roots
coming off of it. A carrot is an example of a taproot. 2) Fibrous roots have many
roots, none of which is more prominent than the others. Roots of grasses are
examples of fibrous roots.
Leaves
Leaves are attached to stems at nodes. Leaves generally are green because the
cells of leaves contain chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are green because of the
presence of the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the molecule that
converts light energy into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.
A leaf is divided into two regions; 1) blade or lamina, and 2) petiole. The petiole is
the thin, stick-like structure between the blade and the attachment site at the node.
Sometimes at the base of the petiole is a small leaf-like structure called the stipule.
If there is no petiole, the leaf is said to be sessile.
Flowers
The portion of stem to which a flower is attached is the peduncle.
The receptacleis the swollen tip of the peduncle to which the other major flower
parts are attached. Sepals occur in the outermost whorl of leaf-like structures,
the calyx. The next whorl to the interior is the corolla; the individual leaf-like
structures are the petals. If sepals and petals look the same, they are
called tepals. To the interior of the petals are the stamens, the pollen-producing
structures. Each stamen consists of a thin filament and sac-like structure,
the anther, in whichpollen is produced. The most interior structure of the flower is
the pistil, which is divided into three parts, the stigma, style and ovary. Seeds are
produced in the ovary.