C

{ Csh Bsk
uSv & I

h mkU S x
Aih vzumhx.

wsh J a\
wsh J [S
wsh uzu \

u|mk
h PP
Pa \, \ 600 006
 c u|k A_
u v & 2005
vzv v & 2007
Sz u
\x. Sn\P
h
xP Ba] C x
a\ P, \ 600 030.
P
. \ _. C\\
u { (C) xP mhu B] (C)
A_ PU P A_ {
|u, \ 600 035 PhUP, \ 600 024
. P\ Q C
u { (C) xP mhu B] (C)
Co P (um]) A_ P {
\ 600 004 A\U |P, \ 600 083
P. oP
h (C) . P|u
Gzv P P xP mhu B] (C)
\ 600 008 A_ P {
va\[Pk 637 211
G. \[P |UP mh
u { (C)
m] P P N.
PhUP, \ 600 024 u
G. AP ^ mU {
(C) \
Ab Asn A_ PU P \ 600 073
.
C.
]P x{
(C)
_. \ Co P (um])
Eu ] (C), \ 600 004
S.R.M. P
S.R.M. A
u~m {
({P{ PU PP)
Pmh[ Pzy 603 203
: .
h[P u : u|k A_UPP
UP CUPP, u|k

C 60 GSM u Aa]hmkx.

B\m Aa]mh:

ii
 u BUP \u

. P\ _. C\\
u { (C) xP mhu B]
Co P (um]) (C)
\ 600 004 A_ {
PhUP, \ 600 024
G. C[P
xP mhu B]
. P|u
(C) xP mhu B]
A_ P { (C)
zu|UP, A_ P {
\ mh. 636 109 va\[Pk 637 211
|UP mh
. _o
xP mhu B]
.
(C) xP mhu B]
Qn\u {, (C)
_o |P, A_ P {
\ & 636 005. Bzy, \ mh & 636102.

B. |uS u. Pnv _o
xP mhu B] xP mhu B]
(C) (C)
u { v z {,
\ & 636 007. ,
\ & 636 007.

i

UP P UQx vP Ax
{U PS. x Pzvmhzvx CUS |UQ
PzvmhzvS UTi Pmhzv {U P Ex.
Aih A uPUP AizuP C
hzu n n uukUQ. xU P
uP u Aih A Hkzu, sh
SP C h, v PzxPh Azxz
uP Aihz uPPh \mk
iUPmkx.
J h AP h G
EUPmkx. Azx h[P u, u,
_UP UP[P PkUPmk. hzv Cv wUPmh
PnUSP u vmk UP PkUPmk.
h \uh PzxP x Pux P
UQuS. G, hzu P x Pa \x
n, n u[PP u[P Gsn[P UPna \x
A]Qx. C hzu Bh PS P Ch
UPh uhh kP PkUPmk.
B \ vP E|US vP n
nhzv UP UQzx AUPmkx. AP P
A[P \P zvS Eu G |Q.
Ch ]U TP.
N v uPP PkUPmk.
N h[P uP mk.
N n n Pn v US uzv
uvmk UP (vP mk) PkUPmk.
uS Bzu \ x. n n uvmk
Sv E UP / PnUSP mk, h /
hzvmhzvx PmPhUTi UP PnUSPUS
hUP BzukzvU P sk.
\x. Sn\P
Szu

iv
 hzvmh
(180 h P)
AS & 1 {
(18 h P)
E mh, mh[P A A &
T v & C mh[Ph \.
mh[Ph \ & xu uzx.
& mhzu , U PkP,
C, C a \ & ^ zv
C & U A \ P C k.
zu & zu k & mh
C zu. \ zu P & C mh
A zu B.
& P u kP (1) i, }sh
| Phzv (2) ^ mh i \uz uPk (3) C
Cn uPkP (4) ^ mh P iU Tk
(E ).
{ ysh & uUQ uUSv & P
UP & Cnzumk uUQ ( P E
x, Cu x) & uUQ kP & uUQ
B \. uh UP CnP uUQP &
TP \ & Phzv & &i&Q C.

AS & 2 mh
(11 hP)
mh & EPU Phzv mh & Cz
v\P CUP Gsq mhzxh C uh.
K v, uh V-I ]P & uh Gs, Phzx v.
Phzx v Aih P Pk & U Phzxv
(uhUP{U Pzx) & P uhUQP & snU Sk &
uh UP CnP uhUQP & uh
{ k & P AP uh & P zu

v
k US \.
Qa\L v & G _UP UP & mh \a _ &
uh { Gsn Auu & mh \a _ & zu
& uzx & C PP US \P Jh.
v & mhzv v & v PP
(h, Ug], h) & xn PP & P A
\UP.

AS & 3 mhzv P
(15 hP)
& v & B \zu.
P & ^U & i & u\ &
mh & US \, v mk {.
mh AkUS.
mhzv Pu & Pu Pzx. Khm
\u & m \m v & i, }sh, | Phzv mhU
Pa _ Pu & hg\m Pmh & A
\k & a_ & PuU PkP.
B _ v & Cv kP.
^ Puzv zv C[S xP u \ &
^ Pu zv mhU Phzv u \, Cn
mhU PhzvPUQh \ & B .
^ Puzv mh En v\ &
C[S _ Pmh & Amh m mhP u
& mh J Pu C & Pu Cz vv.
_ GUm Puz vzv.

AS & 4 Puz ysh v\ mh

(14 h P)
Puz ysh & h vP & yshmh US \,
mh & v.
u ysh & ysh & }sh a_ u

vi
ysh Gs & C } a_P ysh Gs.
US \z ysk P & (1) Puz ysh
x (2) Pa _ x (3) Pa _
v\ x (Pou S).
AC & oP v (J Pmh, Pmh).
_ mh & kP & & }sh uS
v Ak.
v\ mh & A CI Aku & uhUQ E A C
_ & ysi E A C _, uUQ E A C _ & LCR uh _
& Jzv\ & Q Po & A C _P v.

AS & 5 Pu AP A J
(17 hP)
Pu AP A ]P & Pu {,
i, U AP, APa], Psq, Fu, X &PvP,
PU PvP.
k EmP { & , mh, uh {P
& Ju {u.
J C & ~sxP & A & Pu Ssh
PPP.
Ja]u & ]u & ish ]u & C & C
{ & }{z u & ` Eu `
] {zv uu.
A P & uzx & Gv, P AP
Gv, J P (\u A P \uzv).
SURmk & [ Cmh a \u & mh
AP & K [P & J SURmk & kP
sn[P uu (Pou S) & {mh [P.
& SURmk , & kP
& U Ro.
J u & Gv u & h v &
vii
Cmh P & |UP mhP & u J P &
kP & ua _] & u.

AS & 6 Aq C
(16 hP)
Aq A & GUm Pski & mh {z uP
(u\ ) & GUm mh (P ) B ]u &
uk Aq v.
v & B SshUPku & B A
Gs \k & m { & B mh h & \i
u\ { & Qa] AUP zu[P. \k
Aqv.
X &PvP & Ezv, sP, Psknu, EmPu,
& \u & U v & U { & X &Pv
{ & uh ] X &Pv { & v Aq
Gsq.
\, \ & ua\ ysk E & C{
AqzuP AqzuP H & \, He-Ne \, \
J sP kP & n .

AS & 7 Pva_ C s & \

PP (10 hP)
J & J AP mhP & Ij
J \k & J vP & B xP s &
B & JP & kP.
AP & Aq A GvU Pzx & xPP
A s & i \k & GUm i A} &
GUm ~snUQ.
, {, P Pzx & P Aa_P (\mh). ]a
\ PP & v\Pzua \x }, P, { J &
(E=mc2)

viii
 AS & 8 AqUP C
(14 h P)
AqUP sP & AqUP B, {, n,
Ahzv, mh & I\hP & I\P & I\hP &
{ & AqUP {zu & m { .
AqUP \ & {m & Pski & sP, \P
& xP kUQ.
PvUP & , , - Pva_P, sP & ]u, & ]u,
& ]u. PvUPa ]u v & A B & \\ B. \PU
PvUP & PvUP I\hP & P &
PP& Gso.
PvUPU P x Po & Pva] wP.
AqUP & uh n & AqSsk & AqUP E &
AqUP Cn & m Ssk & PU PvP & Aihz
xPP.

AS & 9 SUPhzv PP A kP
(26 hP)
SU Phzv PP & vs[P B mhP & B
PP Aih EP[P, Phzu P SU
PhzvP kzxu & SU Phzv `mh & Eu
SUPhzvP.
PN \v Eu & zu Aq CUP Sv & P N
\v hk, US USa \ ] P &
hk vzv & \ hk. \ hk J zua
^UQ & LED.
\v i]hP & ] P & i]h J _m\P &
i]h J UQ & i]h \ & UQP RC, LC, |
nP & mh UQ & | Gv mh & Gv
mh UQ {P & A & AP {v & LC
_ & Pm A.

ix
 U PmkP & N O T, OR, AND, EXOR (uzu EP
kzv) x PmkP NAND, NOR & Ja \v, Cmha \v
PP & uSa _P.
CPouzv u[P vP & \mk
UQ & sP & Smk & Aih kP.
mk UQ, mhu UQ, Tmk UQ, mk UQ.
Ak PP & PukU Pv A & uzx &
P[P & P & i mh & i P.

AS & 10 uP uh AP
(15 hP)
P & u A & A .
a_ s, {P SP & kP & Avs
s & {P kP & Pmh s.
Bsh v\ |kzx v.
i J H & A M F M & PUQ US H.
uUPm] u H & UPsnmh C\
\u.
iP (P) hU S & J { TV
Ha _P Pmhh[P.
h & uzx & kP.
ih uP uh & uP J H & LU, h,
xnUP uh & P, P, J uP uh.

x
 \uP (12 2 = 24 hP)
1. {U Psk, mhPzv Pn ]z
v\U PnzuU PnUQmk, mhP JP
GsnU PnUQku.
2. U Ro { Psk, SzuP
k Tmh A}[PU PnUQku. (N &v
Au v GU Pv)
3. {mh [P \u Euh, S]
BzuU PnUQku.
4. mh \a_U Psk, P uh, P
uh Gsn PnUQku.
5. zuU Psk C u PP US
\P Jku.
6. hg\m PmhU Psk, Pu zv QhzuU
TU PnUQku.
7. mhU Pa _ Aa]x J Pu zuU
PnUQku.
8. _ PU Psk v\ mhzv AvsnU
PnUQku.
9. \v hi USa \ P x, US
(a) PN
uh PnUQku.
\ hi ] P x, v
(b)
zuzuU PnUQku.
10. x E N P N i]h ] P x, Ek,
k vP mh UPzuU PnUQku.
11. IC 741&IU Psk Aih UQ (OP - amp) izu
(mk, mhu, Tmk).
12. uSa _PU Psk Aih U PmkP Au
(NOT,AND, OR, NAND, NOR, EXOR PmkP).

xi
 hUP
UP

1. { 1

2. mh 55

3. mhzv P 93

4. Puz ysh
v\ mh 140

5. Pu AP A J 188

hUP AmhnP 241

xii
 1. {

{ mh[P Ax K { mh[P
US C J Sv { Gk. Ch Sv
{ mh[P Aih {PP Ax P.
D zv E {P u zv E
mh[P BS. mh[P u[PUQh \k
\P u, A { B . CUPzxP
mh P, Aq PP x
kzukQ.
1.1 { & E
Q.. 600& u G QUP Ab B (Amber) G
] xsiU P uUP, Ax PQu \ P
P s Qx G Pshu. 17&B si
Q m G, Psni, Gm uSu Pk
uUPkx Cu s kzxQ G Pskizu.
C uUPkx, mh[P P
"UP Ahu (electrified)Ax mh ' G.
CzuP B G k GUm (electron) G QUP
zux mhS. E ES mh,
E mh G AUPk. J E mh[P
|P G, A mhzu { mh G
AUP.
1.1.1 mh[P C PP
(i) J Psniz ush, mkz xoh uUP, Psniz usk
| mhzu Qx. mkzxo Au A Gv mhzu
Qx.
(ii) Gm usk J P uUP, Gm Gv
mhhQx. Px Au A | mhzu Qx.
mh[P, AUP A Ab g\ [P G,
| Gv mh[P G CPP UPmk.
BP uv, mhh usk J, mh
EUPkv. B mh[P UP
kQ Ax mh[P QuUPkQ.

1
1.1.2 K mh[P J mk.
mh[P J P & \u \
mk C u[Phmk mhmh Psniz usk
J Qhzuzv AQx. ux Au UPQ
mh Psniz usk Psk mh, C P
J mkuU Pn (h 1.1). Cu v
mhmh Gm ushx, u[Phmh Psniz usi
UPQ Psk mh, C uskP J
PQ (h 1.2). Ca\u K mh[P J
mk, mh[P J P G u Qx.

mk mk

Psni
F
+++ Psni
++++ ++++
+++
+
+++ F F
+
++ ------
Psni F
Gm

h 1.1 K mh h 1.2 mh
C mh uskP C mh uskP

mh PUQh u P
mk sP, { sn uzu, xP a_,
PU TskP US \ \Pzu, u v Gv
(Ink-Jet-Printer) Aa_ P |P Gv (Xerox)
kPU Psk.
1.1.3 PhzvP PP
{ sP Aih P, PhzvP
Phzu P (P P) G CPP UP.
mhzu u \ AvUS P PhzvP
Gk. GkzxUPmkP EP[P, u Eh, .
mh[P u \ AvUPu P Phzu
P (PP) Gk. GkzxUPmkP Psni, UP,
Gm, iU .

2
1.1.4 mh[P Aih sP
(i) mh[P SshUP
J mhzv e Aih AS Gx, J GUm u[Qa
\ mhzv AS. Cu AS Coulomb BS. e- Gs
v 1.6 1019 C.
CP Gu J A mh, J mhzv
] v Gs h[SPP Gx AQx.
mhzv A, e- Gs h[S Psh uzu vP
Hu J mk Qx. G mh q = ne. Cv n&Gx
J Gs BS.
(ii) mh[P A
mh[P BUP AUP ix. mh A
vi, uzu A J zu mh Gx
S. B, A zu mh Gx u
P, A J Svx SvUS mh[P
kQ. GkzxUPmhP, (92U238) B xP (2He4
AqUP) mk uP (90Th234) Qx.
238 + 2He4234
92U 90Th
]uUS zu mh = + 92e, ]uUS zu
mh = 90e + 2e. G zu mh Ex. Aux,
P AQx.
(iii) mh[P Tmh s
J A zu mhx, A E Azx
mh[P S Tmkz uPUSa \. GkzxUPmhP, +2q, -5q
mh[P Psh C P \zx UPkx, A
zu mh -3q BS.
1.1.5 T v
1785& T G, C mh
PUQh \x Pshmhx.
T vi, C mh[PUS Ch Pa]
\ Ax mk \x, mh[P USz uUS
|zuP, AS Ch E u CiUS Gvz
uP A. mh[P CnUS Pmi \
v\ A.
P Ax hzv, r u Au C mh[P
q1 q2 GP (h 1.3a).

3
 T vi, q1 q2
F F
q1q 2 q1q 2 r
F (Ax) F = k
r2 r2 h 1.3a T \P
Cv k Gx Qu BS.
1
P Ax hzv, k = 4 , Cv o Gx hzv
o
kv BS. o& v 8.854 1012 C2 N1 m2 BS.
1 q1q 2
F = 4 (1)
o r2
1
4 = 9 109 N m2 C2
o
Ps \mi, q1 = q2 = 1C r = 1m G
11
F = (9 109) = 9 109 N
12

P Ax hzv, J mh Ch,
UPmk, Jzu mh[PUQh mk \ 9 109 N
G Amh v J T G UPkQx.
kv Psh FhPzv mh[P UPk, C
mh[PUQh \ A
1 q1q2
Fm = (2)
4 r 2
\k (1)I (2)B SUP
F
= = r
Fm

uP = r Gx FhPzv J kv Ax P

GUPk. P Ax hzvS r& v 1 BS.
= o r

F
Fm = Gu, C mh[PUQh \,
r

mh[P A FhPzv C zuQx.

4
T v & Uh i

F 21 Gx mh q1&B, q2 x uUPk \
G (h 1.3b),
qq
F 21 = k 1 2 ^
r 12
2
r12
Cv ^ r 12 Gx q1&x q2&UP AS Uh BS.

F 12 Gx mh q2&B q1 x uUPk \ G,

q1q 2

F 12 = k 2
^
r 21 q1 q2
r21 r^ 12
+ +
Cv ^r 21 Gx q2&x q1-UP F12 r F21
AS Uh BS.
q1 q2
+ r^ 12
( ^
r 21 ^
r 12 Csk J
F12 F21
v EhuP, Gvvz
r
v\ AQ.)
q1q 2 h 1.3b Uh

F 12 = k r 2 ( ^
r 12) izv T v
12

1 2 qq
Ax F 12 = k r 2 ^
r 12
12

Ax F 12 = F 21
G, mh[P J x \zx \
A \P, Gvz v\ AQx.
1.1.6 xu uzx
xu uzxzv q1 G mh q2, q3 . qn
G mh[P En \U PnUQh.
J mhzv u zu \ Gx mh[P
Amhzv x uUS \P Uh TkuS.
q2& q1 u \

1 q1q 2
F 12 = 4 ^
r 21
2
r21

5
 Cu , q3 q1 u \

1 q1q3
F 13 = 4 2
^
r 31
r31

Azx mh[P q1 x ES zu \ F1.

F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 ......... + F 1n

1 q q
1 2 1 3 qq 1 n qq
G, F 1 = 4 r 2 r21 + r 2 r31 + ....... r 2 rn1
21 31 n1
1.2
J mhzv Gx, Amhzua _
, J \u mhzu Enk \S. J
mhzvS AQ mhzuU Psk u
mhzua _ zuU Psh ix.
zvSU Pn mh q&US AQ, \u
mh qo UPk Au x { \ F
\kQx.
a \ (E)
J , a \ AhkQx.
zv E J UPmk KS | mh
En \, A a \ GUPkQx. Cx J
F
Uh AS. E = . a \ AS N C1.
qo
a \, Ax G
Sh. G, mhzv x uUS \,
F = qoE BS.
1.2.1 mhzu
P O G UPmk q G mhzuU
Px (h 1.4). mh q x r u, P,
\u mh qo UPmkx. T vi, q& qo
u \,
1 q qo
F = 4 2
o r

6
 P x, +q +q0
i, KS \u E
O r P
mhzv u \S.
F 1 q h 1.4 mhzu
E = q = 4 2
o o r

E& v\, O, P P CnUS Pmi , |

mhP Cu |UQ, Gv mhP Cu E
|UQ A.
1 q ^ ^
E = r Gx zv Uh ShS. Cv r
4o r 2
Gx q-x |UQ A AS Uh BS.
1.2.2 mh[P uS

{ mh[P, J ES uS
(\) uzu mhzv Au
[P Uh TkuUSa \.

E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n

1 q1 q2 q3
= r 2 r1 + r 2 r2 + r 2 r3 + .........
4 o 1 2 3
1.2.3 \U PkP
Pu [PU P \x PuPP UP
h G UPkP G Pzx APkzumhx.
zv KS |mh J, |P ]US |
Ax P u \UPk Gk.
] mh[P Hk [P h 1.5&
Pmhmk.
\UPkP sP
(i) \UPk | mhzv uh[Q Gv mhzv
ihQx.
(ii) \UPkP Jx J mia \x.

7
 +q +q -q +q +q

(a) (b) (c)

uzu mh mh[P K mh[P
h 1.5 \UPkP
(iii) J zv v\ (E), A E
\UPmkUS k ukPmi SUPk.
(iv) \UPkPUS |USzu v\, KS \u
\ \UPkP GsoUP a \ E&US
|zuP CUS. Aux E& v AvP Ch[P PkP
|UPP, E& v S Ch[P PkP Ch
mk CUS.
1
(v) J KS |mh, o A \U

PkP hzv EUS. G hzv J

mh q&x ES \U PkP GsoUP
q
N = .
o

1.2.4 C Cz vzv
C \, Gvv, Pa ] Ch UPmk
mh[P J CS. }, A,
P&h&BU\k S UTP {
C PUS ] GkzxUPmkPS. CUTP
|mhzv , Gv mhzv JP
v, ]x Ch UPmk.
+q -q G C
mh[P 2d u p
UPmk (h 1.6).
-q +q
C vzv 2d
Gsvx Hu J
h 1.6 C

8
mhzv Gsv mh[PUQh u
UPU QhuS.
C vz v P = 2qd. Cx J Uh
AS. Cu v\ -qx +q |UQ A. Cu AS C m BS.
1.2.5 C Aa_UPmi E J

AB Gx, -q +q G C mh[P 2d G ]
u zx UPmk J C BS (h 1.7).
C Ox, Aa_UPmi, r u Ax
P BS.
A O B E2 P E1
-q +q x axis
2d
r
h 1.7 Aa_UPmi E
B& E +q mhzv P&
1 q
E1 = 4 2 (BP )
o (r d )

A& E -q P&

1 q
E2 = 4 2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 Gvvz v\ \kQ.
G, uS zv Ax (E) Gsv
Psh Uh v\ \kQx. P uS
E = E1 + (E2)

1 q 1 q
E = 4
2 4 2 BP
o (r d ) o (r + d )

q 1 1
E = 4 BP
2
o (r d ) (r + d )2

q 4rd
E = 4 2 2 2 BP
o (r d )

9
 C x P u P AvP G d <<r
q 4rd q 4d
E = 4 =
o r
4 4 o r
3

1 2p
E = 4 3 (BP )
o r

( C vz v p = q x 2d)
E&x C vzv v\ \kQx.
1.2.6 C |kU Pmi E J

AB G C JU Px. 2d Gx C
Chzu G, p Gx C vz v G
P. C O&x r u |kU
Pmi Ax P GP (h 1.8a).

M
E1 E1
E1sin
E P
R
E2 E1cos
N R P
r E2cos

A B
-q +q E2 E2sin
O
d d
(a) |kU Pmi E (b) zv TP

h 1.8
C +q mhzv P& ,
1 q
E1 = 4 2 (BP )
o BP

1 q
= 4 2 2 (BP ) ( BP2 = OP2 + OB2)
o (r + d )

C -q mhzu P ,

10
 1 q
E2 = 4 2 (PA )
o AP

1 q
E2 = 4 2 2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 & Gs vP \. E1 E2& \[Szx

QhzuU TPP USx (h 1.8b).
\[SzxU TP E1 sin E2 sin A \P
Gvvz v\ Au J \ \Q.
Qhzu TP E1 cos E2 cos Csk PR&v\
TmhkQ.
C P uS
E = E1 cos + E2 cos (PR v\)
E = 2 E1cos ( E1 = E2)

1 q
E = 4 2 2 2 cos
o (r + d )

d
B cos =
r + d2
2

1 q 2d 1 q 2d
E = 4
2 2 2 2 1/2 = 4 2 2 3/2
o (r + d ) (r + d ) o (r + d )

1 p
= 4 2 2 3/2 ( p = q2d)
o (r + d )

r-Eh Jh d u Pa ]uS.
1 p
E = 4 3
o r

E& v\ C Aa_US CnP PR & P,

C vz v v\US Gvz v\ AQx.

1.2.7 ^ zv C
^ zv (E), AB G C, Pn \P
CuPU P. Au C vz v p GP

11
(h 1.9). mh +q
B +q F=qE
zv v\ qE G
\ EnQx. -q Au A
\ Gvz v\ EnQx. 2d E
G C u uS
\ _S. C \, p
Gvvz v\ CnPa
A
\k \P J F=-qE -q C
\x. G, C
h 1.9 ^ zv
x v \ J EQx.
C
Cx C zv
v\ \{US Psk .
v \ Gs v,
= \P J \PUS Ch \[Szxz u
= F 2d sin
= qE 2d sin = pE sin ( q 2d = p)

Uh Smi = p E
S : ^ zv, C Pn \
A, v \h, TkuP J \
Qx.
1.2.8 zv E C zu B
zv E C zu B Gx
zv C u {US _uS
BS.
p C vz E
v Psh J C, B F=qE
E zv, Pnzv E 2d +q
x, Au u v \,
= pE sin A p
-q
C, d Pn F=-qE
_, \k h 1.10 C
dw = .d zu B
= pE sin.d
G, C Pnzv _ \k ,

12
 W = dw
W = pE sin.d = pE cos
Cx, C { BS (U).
U = pE cos
C zv v\ J[Pzu, = 0o
U = pE

zv E C En v \x ( = p E)
C zv v\ J[Pa \ . Cu
PnP, { BP `US kQx.
U A \P (Microwave oven)
Cx, PU SQ Pzv En \UP kQx. P
\kx, U AP uUPkQ. C ^
A zu EUSQ. En } UTP,
CPP Au, A v \US EUPmk
J ] } UTP nP UPkQ. Cu
B EQ, En \UPkQx.
1.3 zu
O G +q G +q
mh EuPU Px O E
B A
(h 1.11). A, B G zv E x dx
C P GP. KS h 1.11 zu
|mhx A x BUS
|Pzuk \ kQx. Cu A
PUQh zu k BS. Aux, dV = WA B.
zv C PUQh E zu k Gx
J x US mk \US GvP KS |
mhzu |Pzua \k G UPkQx.
zu mi AS m BS. J x
US J T | mhzu \UPvP Gkzxa
\a \k J G APUQh E
zu k J m BS.
zv E J zu Gx KS |
mhzu iz ux \US GvP, AUS
Psk a \k G UPkQx.

13
a \S zuzvS E uh
A B PUQh E ] u dx GP. KS |
mhzu A x B&US |Pzua \k dV = E.dx.
mk \US GvP, +q mhzu |UQ KS
mhzu |Pzu \kQx. G,
dV = E.dx
dV
E=
dx
u zu zu zua \S.
G a \x GvU Shmh zua \US
\S.
GvUSx zv v\ zu SuU
SUQx. a \S V m1 G AS kzuh.

1.3.1 J mhzu J Hk zu
P O UPmk uzu mh +q GP.
+q&x r u E P GP. O-x x x + dx
u E P A BU Px (h 1.12).
A B +q dx
p E
PUQh E O
r A B
zu k,
dV = E.dx h 1.12 mhzu

A UPmk
KS | mhzu Enk \,
1 q
E = .
4o x2
1 q
dV = 4 2 . dx
o x
\k , \US Gvx Gu GvUS
SUQx.
+q mhzv P& zu Gx, KS |
mhzu iz ux, AUSU Psk a
\k zu S.
r
q q
V=
4 x
o
2
. dx = 4 r
o

14
1.3.2 C J zu
2d G ] u UPmh, A, B P E -q
+q G C mh[P C EUSQ. Cu C
vzv p BS. (h 1.13)
P Gx C O G x r u
E . C, zu CnUS Phx
(PO) C Aa_h (OB) Hkzx Pn GP. r1 r2
G +q -
qx P uP P
GP.
+q mhzv P r2
1 q r r1
zu = 4 r
o 1

-q mhzu P A 180- p B
1 q -q O +q
zu = d d
4 o r2
h 1.13 C J
C P
zu
1 q 1 q
zu, V = 4 r 4 r
o 1 o 2

q1 1
V = ...(1)
4o r1 r2

P\ v kzu
r12 = r2 + d2 2rd cos
cos d 2
r12 = r2 1 2d +
r r2

d2
d Bx r&I h Pa ]u, &I UPoUP.
r2
1
2d
r1 = r 1 2
cos
r

15
 1/ 2
1 1 2d
Ax, = 1 cos
r1 r r

Dz (Binomial) uzu kzv, kzv, E

AkUSP UPoUP,
1 1 d
= 1 + cos (2)
r1 r r

Cu,
r22 = r2 + d2 2rd cos (180 )
Ax r22 = r2 + d2 + 2rd cos .
1/2
2d d2
r2 = r 1 + cos ( UPoUPzuUPx)
r r2

1/2
1 1 2d
Ax = 1 + cos
r2 r r

uzu kzv, E AkUSP UPoUP

1 1 d
= 1 cos ...(3)
r2 r r
\k (2) (3) I \k (1) vh
q 1 d d
V = 4 r 1 + r cos 1 + r cos
o

q 2d cos 1 p . cos
V = = (4)
4o . r 2 4o r2

] |P :
1. P x C Aa_UPmi +qUS AQ
Au, = 0
p
V =
4o r 2

2. Px C Aa_UPmi qUS AQ
Au = 180o,

16
 p
V =
4o r 2

3. Px C |kU Pmi Au, = 90o,

V = 0
q1 q2
1.3.3 zu B
A B
C mh[P r
zu B Gx A h 1.14a zu
mh[P J[Pa B
\mh Ax J
mhzu AUS Psk \mh Ax J
mhzu iz ux AUS Psk
\mh Gk.
A& UPmk mh q1 GP (h 1.14a)
q1
q1-x r u E B zu, V = 4 r
o
iz ux mh q2&Bx
BUS Psk kQx. C[S mh q2& x \mh
x, q1 q2 mh[P Psh A {
zu BP (U) \UPkQx.
\mh , w = Vq2 r23
q3 q2
q1q 2
zu B (U) = 4 r
o
mh q2 Bx B& UPmk, r13 r12
q1& iz ux AUS
Psk uP P \u Cu A
q1
\kQx.
h 1.14b
, q1 q2 G mh[P mh A
r Ch E A B zu B
PUS, iz ux Psk
kQ. G, A zu B, u P
mh BUSa \P CUS.
CskUS mh mh[PU Psh AS (h
1.14b), zu B (U) Bx,
1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3
+ +
U =
4o r12 r13 r23

17
1.3.4 \ zu
J h Azx P, \ zuzv E
G, A \ zu Gk.
(i) uzu mhzu zu , Avx \

B E
A

+q E

(a) \ zu (b) ^ zxUS (u)

(P i)
h 1.15

u E Azx P \ zuzv CUS.

BP, \ zu P G mhzu PU
Psh uha] P[PS (h 1.15a). Cuv
zux P[PUS P CUS.
\ zu x Gu C PUQh, J
mhzu GP |Pzv \mh _S.
H, A B PUS Chmh zux
W AB
VB VA = q G UPkQx. VA = VB G, WAB = 0. G
U PkP \ zu USa \[SzuP CUS.
(ii) ^ zu zu, \ zu P
Cn u[PP, A P \U PkPUSa
\[SzuP E Gu h 1.15b PmkQx.

18
1.4 P v Au kP

^ zv E S G i E
U Px (h 1.16). Cu S
x ds G Pa ] U Px.
ds
ds& v\x, US SzuP ds
|UQ Ex. ds&u \[Szx

E PU P. E ds
JUP Pnzu HkzxQ.
Gx PkUPmh h 1.16
\ \U PkP
zu GsoUP BS G UPkQx.
ds \k ,
d = E . ds = E ds cos

Ps \mh, zx uPkzu, i
S \k, zu kQx.


= d =
E . ds

uPUP Smi SUPmk ]mh i

, uPkzxuU SUS. J P
AS. Cu AS N m2 C1
1.4.1 P v
Cv, Gu i \
zu, A E zu mhzu uh
kzxQx. Cvi, Gu i \k
zv zu v, A E zu mhzv
1/o h[SUSa \.
q
=
o
Cu hmh P P (Gaussian Surface)
GUPkQx. S G i \
(E) E zu mhzv v mk \ux,
B, Amh[P Ax Chzua \uu G P
vx AQ. US E mh[P
zvS Pnv.

19
1.4.2 P v kP
(i) | i } Psh mh P
Hk
^P mhmh, i
2 r ds
} Psh, P J mh
} Ahzv () (KS }zvP +
mh) uPU Px. +
+
Px r u E P +
E GP (h 1.17). C +
P Aa_USa \[Szu E + r ds E
Psh, l }, r B + P
l +
Eh J E P +
PU Px. P +
x ds G Pa] U +
Px. J s PnP +
E E Azx h 1.17 i }
P zv Gsv Psh |
\P, BUPmi mhmh P
|UQ AQx. E ds
J v\.

() = E ds cos

= E ds [ = 0; cos = 1]

= E (2rl)
( 2rl)
E ds JUP \[SzuP Au,
= 0
P zu , = E. (2rl)
P E zu mh q = l
P vi,
l
E (2rl) = Ax E = 2 r
o o

20
 E& v\x, Aa] mh,
|mh G, Bzv |UQ, Gv mh
G Bzv E|UQ AQx.

1.4.3 mh i, \u Hk

mh
Ahzv Psh +
+
i \u + + +
+ +
JU Px +
+ +
(h 1.18). x +
ds + ds
r u E E + A
E
P
P E GP. +
P + +
mh + r
+ +
US SzuP, 2r +
+ +
+
}, A SUS mk + +
+
Psh E +
i P
U Px. h 1.18 i \u
E C SvP, SU SzuP, \a^
[P \kQ. A uzu mk Q CUS. P,
P G SvP [P Gsv \P CUS.
G hmh zu

=
P
E.ds + E.ds
P 1
( = 0, cos = 1)

= EA + EA = 2EA
\u KS E mh G, P
E zu |mh, q = A
P v kzu,
A
2EA =
o

E = 2
o

21
1.4.4 C Cn mhmh uPkP Hk
C Cn, \u i,
+
i Psh, mh -
+
uPkP, h 1.19& + -
Pmhmkx , \ B + -
- E1(+)
mh AhzvP + E1(+)
+ -
uPU Px. P1 - P2
+
mh J uPkUS C + -
zv A E = /2o. + E2(-) - E2(-)
+ -
C uPmiS SzuP,
+ -
|US mh |UQ-
, GvUS mh E|UQ h 1.19 C
\k. CnzuPkP
(i) P G C uPmiS
1
|k Au, C uPkP
[P \P, J v\ A. P1&
uS ,

E = E1 + E2 = 2 + 2 = ( |UQ)
o o o
(ii) zu P2 G , [P A
\P, v\ GvvP CUS. P2& uS

E = E1 E2 = 2 2 = 0.
o o
1.4.5 ^ mh P iU Tmi Hk

P (i) P iU TmiS E
B R Eh, mh P iU Tk (shell) JU
Px (h 1.20a). Au O&x r u P iU
TmiS E P GP. r B Psh P i P
. US, E&x SzuPa \kQx.
P Pzv , USU SzuP |UQ
\k

=
s E . ds = s E ds = E (4 r 2 )

(H E ds&US Ch Pn = 0)

22
 E
P v i,
q
E . (4r2) =
o

1 q P
Ax E = 4 2 R
o r E r E
O
Ca\mix,
P]
P iU TmiS
E
x, P iU
Tmi zu mh E
h 1.20 a PUTmi
Avu Hkzx E zu
zvSa \S G uQx.
P (ii) x E J
mh PiU Tmi E P
E,
1 q
E = 4 2 ( r = R)
o R
P (iii) P iU Tmi
Emzv E J
P iU Tmi R P/
1
r
zvx r u, O
Pzv Ax P P]
GP. r B Psh P i
P U Px.
h 1.20b PU Tmi
P ,
Emzv E
US SzuP, |UQ

v\ \k zu

=
s E . ds =
s Eds = E (4 r 2 )

P Gu mh Cu, P
vi,
q
E 4r 2 = = 0 E=0
o

23
 Aux ^ mh Psh PU Tmi PU
Tmi E Azx P zv v _ BS.
1.4.6 { uk (Electrostatic shielding)
Cx zvx, J Smh Sv
ukzx {P BS. C{P, Phzv EmSv
_S Gu Aih AQx.
Cih Ti x, vu Ax
zvi AuU Pmi, v Cx P
xPuS. v EP , v
_u x, { ukPa \kQx.
x v UP |hQx.
1.5 { ysh
J mhzv uku (a)
C mhzu
i. CP mh[P
+ -
yshmh mh[PS. -
--
+ -
+ -
C yshmh mh[ - - - (b)
-
- -
Pz uUS {P
{ysh GUPk +
- +
Qx. Cx i Q -- +
- -- (c)
{ Gv[P, uUQ - -
P kQx.
+
{ ysh , -- +
- - + (d)
- --
EPU P J iiP -
ku h 1.21
++
PmkQx. + +
+++ (e)
(a) mh EPU
Px Phzu
u[Q x UPmk Ex. h 1.21 { ysh
(b) Gv mh iU usk J Pzv AQ
Psk x, mk \ PnP, Pmk GUmP Qa
\ Gv u[Pz x[SQ. G, AP E
GUm S Hmk, |mhhQx. EPzv E
Pmk GUm u zu \ _S x Cmh Q
{Pa] {zukQx. (C{P P P |h).

24
 (c) EPU P un h, Gv mh
u AhQx. AP E E |mh, D
\P PnP A[P { kQx.
(d) EPU Px ux APmh S AP
E |mh uhx {zvUQx.
(e) iU usk }UPmhh, Azx | mh[P
Pzv x J ^P Q.

1.5.1 Phzv uUS v

uzu Phzv JS q G mh AUPkx, Au
zu hQx. Azu Phzv
nzu, izu zuQx. PhzvUS AUPmh
mhzu, Phzv zu V AUS hQx G,
q V Ax q = CV
Aux C = q/V
C[S C&x Phzv uUSv GUPkQx.
J Phzv uUSv Gx, AUPhzvUS AUPk
mhzvS, Phzv ES zuzvS Ch E
uP G UPkQx.
uUSz v AS m (farad) BS. Phzv JS 1 T
mh AUPkx, Au zu E 1 m G,
Phzv uUSz v 1 m BS.
uUSz v \ ASP F pF BS.

uUQ uzx
Pk Phzv (EPz umk A) J q A |
mhzu, V zuzu uPU Px
(h 1.22a). A uUS v, C = q/V. P B G
EPz umk A AP Psk kx, A US AP
E B& UPzv Gv mh yshkQx. AuS \ A |
mh B& UPzv yshkQx (h 1.22b). B Gv
hh A zuzuU SUS. B | mh, A
zuzu AvPUS. B | mhzu h Gv mh
AUS AQ Cu A zu Sx kQx. Cu A
uUS v AvPUQx.
umk B h CnUSx, Av |mh |k

25
{UPkQx (h 1.22c). Cu A zu
SQx. A uUS v Sk AUS AvPUQx.

A A B A B
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
(a) (b) (c)

h 1.22 uUQ uzx

uUSz v PhzvP izu, FhPzv C,
zux. uUQ Gx mh[P \US \uS.
1.5.2 Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v
Cnzumk uUQ J A Eh X, Y G
C EPz umkP, d G Ch JUP CnP
UPmk (h 1.23). Au mh hzv GP.
umkPUQh FhP P BS. umk X&US +q A
|mh ukQx. Cu -q A Gv mh
n umk YUS
+q
X zv yshkQx. umkP
+ + + + + +
P |UPP Ax
d umkPUS Ch SvUS
PmkkzukQx. umk
-q - - - - - - X&x mk Y- ih
Y
\U PkP, umkPUSU
h 1.23 Cnzumk SzuP JU P CnP
uUQ AQ.
P v mii, C umkPUQh
,

E=
o

26
 X Y umkPUS Ch, zu k
0 0
d
V = E dr =
d d
o
dr =
o

Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v,

q A o A q
C = = d/ = [ H = ]
V o d A
o A
C =
d
uUSz vx umkP US (A) |zuP,
ChzuS (d) GvzuP AQx.
1.5.3 PP UP (Dielectrics and
polarisation)
PP (Dielectrics)
Azx GUmP AqUPh CP nUPmk
AqUP Phzu P PP
GUPkQ. C mhzu Gkzxa \ Gu
GUmP C. Gm, UP, Gsn
PPUS GkzxUPmkPS. C GUmP,
zv P C CUP iv.
UP (Polarisation)
| mh[P (mhP) D (centre of
gravity), Gv mh[P (GUmP) D JP
v AQ UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : O2, N2, H2. UTP { C
vzv v.
UTP , P zv
zu, A mh[P UPkQ.
ux AUTP GUm
UP Ahx Tmh
G, A ys hmh +q -q +q -q
CP G GUm
AUPkQ . A Tmh E
z v v\
h 1.24 yshmh C
(h 1.24) yshmh
27
C vz v (p) Q.
| m h[P D , Gv mh[P D
zvx UPmk UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. CUTP {
C vz v .
Cu {, UTP C
vzvP v\P Ax. G,
PP uS C vzv Pnkv.
\zumhh, zv v\ C vz
vP u[P \kzvU PQ. Cu uS
C vz v EUPkQx (h 1.25).

- + + + - + -
+ - -
+ -
+ -
+
-
+ -

+ -
-
+ -

+
+ - + -

E
(a) A { (b) zv
h 1.25 U TP

\kzuk x, { Ax yshmh
CP C vz vP, zv v\
J[PUPkQ {P UP Ax UP
GUPkQx.
yshmh C vzv p& vx
zvS |z uP AQx.
p E Ax p = E Cv Gx Qu BS. Cx
UTP US v (molecular polarisability)
GUPk.
1.5.4 P UP
+q q mh[P Cnzumk uUQ
JU Px. P, C umkPUQh E0 GP.
umkPUQh, P J Szv, P
UP Qx. uUQ umkPUS Gvzv E

28
P P E
E0
yshmh mh[P +qi
qi G, Czyshmh + - + - + -
mh[P u[PUQh _ -qi +qi
+ - + - + -
Ei&, Eo&US GvP
Ei
EUSQ (h 1.26). G + - + - + -
uS E < Eo. B + - + - + -
E Bx Eo& v\ A.
E
E = Eo + (Ei)
+ - + - + -

( Ei Bx, Eo& v\US

+ - + - + -

Gvz v\ AQx) P
1.5.5 Cnzumk uUQ, h 1.26 P
umkPUQh P E UP
x uUSzv
d u UPmh J A Psh, X, Y G

+
X
P

d P t

P
Y
t<d
h 1.27 uUQ P
C Phzx uPkP Psh, J Cnzumk uUQU
Px. X&US | mh AUPku, Au mh
hzv BS, Y&Bx n x.
umkPUQh, t ui, r J kv Psh
P J, Szumkx GP (h 1.27).
P ui = t.

29
 P Ch ui (dt).
umkPUS Chmh P E J ,

E= .
o

P E J E = .
r o

umkPUQh zu zu hx, J
umix umiS KS |mhzu, E G zv
(d-t) }zvS, E G zv t }zvS, Psk \uS
\k AUSa \. BP
V = E (dt) + E t
t
V = (d t ) +
o o r

t
V =
o (d t ) +
r

umk X&u mh, q = A

G, uUQ uUSz v
q A o A
C = = =
V t t
(d t ) + (d t ) +
o r r

P
uUQP, C umkPUS Chmh Svx, UP
Ax Gsn P {k. P
{mk uUQ uUSzv,
o A
C =
d
P {mk uUQ uUSzv
r o A
C =
d
C
= r Ax C = rC
C
Pzu, Gu J P FhPzvS, r > 1 Gu,
P UPkx, uUSzv AvPUS.

30
1.5.6 uUQ kP
(i) u[Q Gv[P, G Gmk AP,
w Hkuz uUP kzukQx.
(ii)v [QP (Power supplies) zu H
CUPzuU SuS, v Ami Au v
AvPUPa \ uUQP kQ.
(iii) uUQP, Pu APz uUP, i
_P Jzv\ \ kQ.

1.5.7 uUQP uh Cn UP Cn
(i) uhn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSzvP Psh uUQP
(h 1.28) uhn CnUPmkuPU Px.
uhn uS US \kzuk zu
k V GP. J uUQ \ mh A q
Pskx. C1, C2, C3 &UQh E zu kP
V1, V2, V3 GP. BP, V = V1 + V2 + V3
J uUQ Ch
E zu k c1 c2 c3
+ - + - + -
q q q + - + - + -
V1 = ;V2 = ;V3 = + - + - + -
C1 C2 C3 + - + - + -

q q q 1 1 1 v1 v2 v3
V = C + C + C = q C + C + C
1 2 3 1 2 3 V
uhnz uS, + -
uS uUSzv CS G, h 1.28 uhn
AuS V zu AUPkx, q uUQP
mhzu Qx.
q
Aux, V = C
S

q q q q
= + +
Cs C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
C =C +C +C
s 1 2 3

31
 G, uUQP uhn CnUPkx
uS uUSzv uR v, uzu uUQP
uUSz vP uR vP Tmkz uPUSa \.
(ii) UP Cn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSz vP Psh uUQP
(h 1.29) UP Cn CnUPmkuPU Px.
Cn, \kzuk zu c 1

k V GP. J uUQ
zu k \P CUS.
uUQP E mh[P c 2

q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V.
uUQP uS zu
mh c3

q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1V + C2V + C3V
V
B q = CpV. Cv Cp&x +
-
uS uS uUSzv BS. h 1.29 UP
CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3) Cn
uUQP
CP = C 1 + C 2 + C3
G, UP Cn CnUPmk uUSP
uS uUSzv, uzu uUQP uUSz vP
Tmkz uPUSa \.

1.5.8 uUQ uUQ UPmk B

uUQ Gx, mhzu uUQ US \u BS.
uUQ, mhzuz uUQ UP, \h
six. Cu x, uUQ { zu
BP \UPkQx.
uUQ umkPUS Chmh zu V Au
mh q GP. umiSU TkuP umh mh dq G,
\mh , dw = Vdq
q q
dw = dq V =
C C

32
 uUQ \uS \mh zu
q
q 1 q2

w = dw =
0 C
dq =
2 C

Cu x, uUQ {zu { BP
(U) \UPkQx.
1 q2 1
U= = CV 2 ( q = CV)
2 C 2
uUQx, UP \kx, Cu B
v kQx.

1.5.9 Phzv u mh[P

TP \k
A
J Phzx
P, Jh B

CnUPmk, A, B G r1 r2
C Phzx P[PU
Px. A B[P r1
q2
r2 GP (h 1.30). B
r1&Bx r2&I h AvP GP. q1
Cu AS AUPmh h 1.30 h u
mh A B x q1
q2 BP Qx. P[P A B u mh AhzvP
1 2 GP.

A zu,
q1
V1 = 4 r
o1
B zu,
q2
V2 = 4 r
o 2
P[P CnUPmku, A zu[P \S.
q1 = 4 r121
q1 q2
=
4o r1 4o r2
2
q 2 = 4 r2 2
1r1 = 2r2

33
 Aux r Gx J BS.
A
Ca\mix, B Su, + + + + +
+ + ++
mh Ahzv AvPS Gx + +
uQx. ++C
+ +
+ + + + + +
h 1.31& Pmhmk i
Psh Phzv mh ^P h 1.31 Ta
C. AvP, Aux B \k
SP E TP, mh[P
A \vUS. x
TPU Psh, mh , Phzv J, u
mh[P S P Cx kQ Ga \u
Pshmkx.
CuSU Pn, TPk uhh P UTP
AUPkQ. |mh AP T
mhkQ. Gv mh AP T PkQ.
Cu TP mh SUPkQx. C, mh
Phzv TPx mh P]Q {P
TP \k Ax Jmh UP
GUPkQx. Cuz uzx mhzua \PUS {
Gv[P, PhzvP kzukQx.

1.6 Phzv (Lightning Conductor)

P E Pmih[P x xPUP Eu K G
\u Phzv BS Cu UPzv Ciu[Q G Tx
Esk. Cx Pmihzv uUSa \ J }sh, uizu uz
usiU Pskx. usi R x, u AvP Bzv
uUPmk uz umkh CnUPmkx. Au
GsoUPUP TP Eh u F]P
CnUPmk, Pmihzv E Sv UPmkx.
Gvmh P Pmihzv \x,
Phzv T P | mh yshkQx. |mh
TP AQ E P UTP AUP
\Q. Cx Pzv E Gv mhzv J Sv \
\x, Pzv zuzuU SUQx. Phzv Pmh Gv
mh[P u |UQ oUQ. Cu Pmih
uUSu Cx xPUPkQx.

34
&i&Q C
1929 m J &i&Q G { Gv J
izu. Cu 107 V A AvP {
zu k Ezv \kQx.
Cu \k, + + + +
+
{ysh

+
A

+
Ta \mkz

+ + + +

+ + + +
uzx[P Ai
E B
h AQx.
J Eh

+
EPU P A
h 1.32& Pmh
mh
Belt
mkx
P ysP
x zumkx.
Pzv zv B
G P, Pz
yo AiSvUS
AQ C G P + D
zumk. C Pz
Insulating
mkz xo mh - Pillar
ys
J PP
\Qx. P C
mh J
uhx h 1.32 &i&Q
CUPkQx. PPUS AP H TP Psh D
E G C ^ iU PhzvP zumk. ^ D
|zu 104 V G CUS v [Q \Qx.
^ E&Bx Eh EPU Pzv Em CnUPmkx.
^ DUS AQ E E zv, Ta \mi
PnP P AUPkQx. P E GvAP
TP |UQ |PQ. |AP mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu | AP mh JmiU Pu
|UQa \ ^ E& |[SQx.

35
 {ysh uzxzv P ^ E Gvmh
Qx. P |mhzu Qx. Cmh[P
P Q. ^ E& E AvP A P
AUSQx. G, Gv mh[P mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu mh Ah P, Av E |
mh[P \\mk kQ. G mh R[Sx
mh { AhQx.
C Gv uha]P, |mhzu PzvS
Qx. Cu P Pzv zu J G
v AhQ , AvPzxU Psh CUS. Psk
Pzv mh[P HPh iu { Gmih, P
AUPzv PnP mh[P P]z uh[SQ.
E Azuzv P {mh GLSU Pzv Pzu
kv , Pzv mhU P]U SUP.
C k E zu AqUP
k | AP (mh, im) kUSUP
kzukQx.

36
 wUPmh PnUSP
1.1 J v ] xP 3 1012C,
8 1012C 4 1012C mh[PU Psk.
A J uk {US Psk x zx
UPkQ. (i) J v mh, (ii) ukuUS
J v E AvPi Ax US
GUmP GsoUP BQU PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 3 1012C, q2 = 8 1012 C, q3 = 4 1012 C
w : (i) J v mh
q1 + q 2 + q 3 3 + 8 + 4 12
q= = 10
3 3
= 3 1012 C
(ii) mh |mh BP, J v x
GUmP GsoUP S Hk.

q 3 1012
n= = = 1.875 107
e 1.6 10 19
GUmP GsoUP = 1.875 107.
1.2 Phmh, J 6.5 107C mh C
P[P 0.5 m u zx UPmk.
APUQh { \U PnUQk.
(i) mh[P Ch[PUPmk, u vPU SUP
k x (ii) mh[P P }
UPk x (r = 80) \U PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = q2 = 6.5 107C, r = 0.5 m
1 q1q 2
w : F = 4
o r2

9 10 9 (6.5 10 7 )2
=
(0.5)2

= 1.52 102 N.
(i) mh C h[PP AvPUPmk, u vP
SUPmh,

37
 1 2q1 2q 2
F1 =
4 o
( r 2)
2

F & 16 h[S
= 16 1.52 102
F1 = 0.24 N
(ii) r = 80 & Eh } UPk x,

F 1.52 10 2
F2 = =
r 80

F2 = 1.9 104 N
1.3 2 108 C vh C ] mh[P, A B
G P 6 cm Ch UPmk. AB& C
\U Tk \[SzxU Pmi 4 cm u E P G
UPmk, 1 108 C mhzv u \U
PnUQk.
uP : q1 = +2 108 C, q2 = 2 108 C
P q3 = 1 108 C
XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m
w :
F

P R
q3= +1 x 10-8C
F
5cm 5cm
4cm
q1= +2 x 10 C -8 -8
q2= -2 x 10 C
A X B
3cm 3cm

APX, & Cx, AP = 42 + 32 = 5 cm or 5 102 m.

A E mh, P& E mhzu F G \
(AP ) mkQx.

38
 1 q1q 3 9 109 2 10 8 1 10 8
F = 4 =
o r2 (5 10 2 )2

= 7.2 104 N (PB )

B E mh P E mhzu, Au F G
\ PB PQx. H BP = AP = 5 cm. R
vUPn, \ C TPP UP sk.
R = F cos + F cos = 2F cos

3 BX 3
= 2 7.2 104
5 cos = PB = 5

R = 8.64 104 N
1.4 i Aq r u zx UPmk J
mhUS, GUmUS Ch {
D \P Gs vP JkP.
uP : me = 9.11 1031 kg ; mP = 1.67 1027 kg;
G = 6.67 1011 N m2 kg2; e = 1.6 1019 C)
w :
GUmUS, mhUS Ch D \
me m p
Fg = G .
r2
i Aq GUmUS, mhUS Ch
\\ u r GP.
C mh[PUQh { \
1 q 1q 2
Fe = 4 r2
o

Fe 1 q1q 2 1 e2
= =
Fg 4 o Gme m P 4 o Gme m P

9 109 (1.6 1019 )

2

=
6.67 1011 9.11 1031 1.67 1027
Fe
Fg = 2.27 1039

Cvx, { \ D \

2.27 1039 h[S P Ex G A.

39
1.5 +9e +1e G C +9e r
q +e
mh[P Jx + +

16 cm u x (r-x)

UPmk. Cu C
mh[PUQh, x mh q, G
zu Cx uhx \{ CUS?
uP : r = 16 cm Ax 0.16 m; q1 = 9e q2 = e
w : x mh q Bx 9e&x x u,
+ e&x (r x) u UPmkuPU Px.
1 q 1q 2 1 9e q 1 q e
F = 4 r 2 = 4 =
o o x 2
4o (r x )2

x2 x
=9 ; = 3
(r x )2 r x
Ax x = 3r 3x
4x = 3r = 3 16 = 48 cm

48
x= =12 cm
4
Ax 0.12 m
x mh +9ex 0.12 u UPmkx.
1.6 4 107 C 8 107 C BQ C mh[P UP A
20 cm Psh ABP G \UP UPnzv A B
P UPmk. P G Pnk uS
a \U PnUQkP.
uP :q1 = 4 107 C; q2 = 8 107 C; r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
w :
E1

P
E
E2
-7 C
10 60
x -8 x 10-7C
+4 A X B
20cm

40
 AP E1

1 q1 9 109 4 10 7
E1 = = = 9 104 N C1
4 o r2 (0.2)2
PB E2

1 q2 9 10 9 8 10 7
E2 = = = 18 104 N C-1
4 o r 2
0.04

E= E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o

= 9 10 2 + 1 + 2 2 1 12
4 2 2
( )
= 9 3 104 = 15.6 104 N C 1

1.7 (i) 4 107C mhzv Cx 0.09 u E J

zuzu, (ii) 2 109 C mhzu iz
ux, AUS Psk \ si
PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 4 107C, q2 = 2 109 C, r = 0.09 m
w : (i) q1 G mhzu J zu
1 q1
V = 4 r
o

9 109 4 107
= = 4 104 V
0.09
(i) q2
G mhzu iz ux
AUS Psk \ si
W = q2 V = 2 109 4 104
W = 8 105 J

1.8 HCl , 2.5 104 N C1 A zv UPkQx.

J HCl UT C vz v
3.4 1030 C m G J UT x \k v
\U PnUQkP.
uP : E = 2.5 104 N C1,
p = 3.4 1030 C m.

41
 w : UT x \k v \
= pE sin (z v \US, = 90o)
= 3.4 1030 2.5 104
= 8.5 1026 N m.
UT u z v \ = 8.5 1026 N m.

1.9 hzv Pmi \xzv P UPmk

mh[P, zv E ES
zuzuU PnUQkP.
q1 d q2
uP : q1 = + 12 n C; +12nc -24nc
q2 = 24 n C; q3 = +31n C; P
q4 = +17 n C; d = 1.3 m d d

r
w : +31nc +17nc
q3 d=1.3m q4
P G zu,

1 q1 q 2 q 3 q 4
V = 4 + + +
o r r r r

d 1.3
u r = = = 0.919 m
2 2

zu mh = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= (12 24 + 31 + 17) 109
q = 36 109 C

9 109 36 109
V =
0.919

V = 352.6 V

1.10 20 cm UP A ABC G \UP UPnzv Ea]P

2 109C, +3 109C, 4 109C BQ mh[P
UPmk G, mh[P A, B C

42
 UPnzv UP[P A
-9
-2 x 10 C
P A1, B1
C1&US |Pzu \k
U PnUQkP. /
A C
/

uP : q1 = 2 109C;
q2 = +3 109C;

C
-9
10
-9
-4 x 10 C

x
q3 = 4 109C; C

+3
B /
B
AB = BC = CA = 20cm = 0.20 m
w : mh A zu B
1 q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3 q1
U = 4 + +
o r r r

mh[P A, B C &UP A1, B1

C1US Cha] \ \k ,
W = Uf Ui
Ui Uf G A, uhUP Cv
zu B,
9 109
Ui = [6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.20
= 4.5 107 J
9 109
Uf = [6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.10
= 9 107J
\k = 9 107 (4.5 107)
W = 4.5 107J

1.11 i mh, 2 cm u 9 104 N C1 zu

EUSQx G mh } AhzvU PnUQkP.
uP : E = 9 104 N C1, r = 2 cm = 2 102 m

w : E = 2 r
o

= E 2or

43
 1 1
= 9 104 2 2 o = 9
9 2 10 18 10
18 10
= 107 C m1
1.12 J mh, Au PU Psk A 10 cm
B, J P i P \
6 103 Nm2 C1 A zu EUSQx, G

(i) P B Ch[PUPkx
\ zv AU PnUQkP.
(ii) mhzv v G?
uP : = 6 103 N m2 C1; r = 10 cm = 10 102 m
w : (i) P B C h[PUPkx, v
\ x. H,
E zu mhzua \x A u
Bzua \x Ax.
= 6 103 N m2 C1

q
(ii) = or q = (8.85 1012 6 103)
o

q = 5.31 108 C

1.13 J Cnzumk uUQ, uPkP 200 cm2. A

umkP 1 mm Ch zx UPmk G
(i) uUQUS 1nC mh AUPk x, uPkPUS
Ch zu k, (ii) Au mhzvS (1n C)
Chzu 2 mmUS AvPUPmh v zu k
(iii) uPkPUQh BQU PnUQkP.
uP : d = 1 mm = 1 103m; A = 200 cm2 or 200 104 m2 ;
q = 1 nC = 1 109 C ;

w : uUQ uUSzv
o A 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
C = =
d 1 10 3
C = 0.177 109 F = 0.177 nF

44
 (i) uPkPUQh zu k
q 1 10 9
V= = = 5.65 V
C 0.177 10 9
(ii)
uPkPUQh u 1 mm-x 2mm&US
AvPUS x uUS v C h[PPU S. zu
k C h[S AvPUS.
v zu k = 5.65 2 = 11.3 V
(iii)

q 1 10 9
E = = A . = 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
o o

= 5650 N C1

1.14 P {mh, J Cnzumk uUQ uUSv

8 pF. umkPUQh E u vP SUPmk, Au
Ch P 6 Psh P
{k x uUSzv G?
uP : Co = 8 pF , r = 6, P E x u
d Bx d/2 BP .

Ao
w : Co = = 8pF
d
u vP SUPmk, P Ch
{k x, v uUSv,
r A o 2 r A o
C = =
d /2 d
= 2r Co
C = 2 6 8 = 96 pF

1.15 hzv Pmi Cn C1

10 F
uS uUSz vU
C3
PnUQk.
4 F
uP : C1 = 10F ; C2
C2 = 5F ; 5 F

C3 = 4F

45
 w : (i) C1 C2 uhn CnU Pmk.
uh n CnUPmk uUQ Tmh
uS uUS v
1 1 1
= +
CS C1 C 2

1 1
= +
10 5
10 5 10
CS = = F
10 + 5 3
(ii) CS Bx C3&h UP Cn CnUPmkx. UP
Cn, uUQP uS uUSzv
Cp = Cs + C3
10 22
= + 4 = F
3 3
Cp = 7.33 F
1.16 J Cnzumk uUQ uPmi 90 cm2. A
umkP 2.5 mm Ch zx UPmk.
uUQx 400 V zxh CnUPmk
\kQx G, Av uUQ UPmk {
B G?
uP : A = 90 cm2 = 90 104 m2; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 103 m;
V = 400 V
w : Cnzumk uUQ uUSzv
o A 8.85 10 12 90 10 4
C= =
d 2.5 10 3
= 3.186 1011 F
1
uUQ B = C V2
2

1
= 3.186 1011 (400)2
2
B = 2.55 10-6 J

46
 u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

1.1 J Psniz usk, mkz xoh uUPk x

+8 1012 C mhzu HQx. Ax HUPsh Ax Cu
GUmP GsoUP
(a) 5 107 (Hx) (b) 5 107 (Cux)
(c) 2 108 (Cux) (d) 8 1012 (Cux)

1.2 C mh[P, r = 6 Psh FhPzv, d u

zx UPku ES { \ 0.3 N.
hzv, Au u zx UPmh,
Amh[PUQh \
(a) 20 N (b) 0.5 N
(c) 1.8 N (d) 2 N

1.3 J mhzvx 2 m u a \
400 V m1
Gzu Au a \ 100 V m1 BP
A?
(a) 50 cm (b) 4 cm
(c) 4 m (d) 1.5 m

1.4 C mh[P +4q +q, 30 cm u zx

UPmk. Amh[P CnUS Pmi x
G _S?
(a) mh +q&x 15 cm
(b) mh +q&x 7.5 cm
(c) mh +4q&x 20 cm
(d) mh +q&x 5 cm

47
1.5 ^ zv, zvS CnP, Au Aa_ A J
C UPmh, Ax Enx
(a) zu \ mk
(b) v \ mk
(c) zu \ v \ Csh
(d) zu \ A, v \ A
1.6 C zvx x u A
zu, GuS |zuP AQx?
1 1
(a) (b)
x2 x3
1 1
(c) (d)
x4 x 3/2
1.7 a UP Psh \xzv |S P A, B, C DUP
mh[P +q, +q, q q UPmk.
\xzv O & zux,
1 q 1 2q
(a) 4 a (b) 4 a
o o

1 4q
(c) 4 a (d) _
o

1.8 C mh[P zu B (U) ...... BS.

q1q 2 q 1q 2
(a) 4 r 2 (b) 4 r
o o

(c) pE cos (d) pE sin

1.9 \ zu E C PUS Ch 500 C
mhzu |Pzu \k
(a) _ (b) |US v
(c) GvUS v (d) i
1.10. RUPsh AP Gx P AS?
(a) C vz v (b) \
(c) (d) zu

48
1.11 kv AS
(a) C2 N1 m2 (b) N m2 C2
(c) H m1 (d) N C2 m2
1.12 1 T mhzvx ES \UPkP GsoUP
(a) 1.129 1011 (b) 1.6 1019
(c) 6.25 1018 (d) 8.85 1012
1.13 mh Ahzv Psh, C Gvv mh EPz
uPkPUS E
+
(a) (b)
2 o 2 o

(c) (d) _S.
o
1.14 J Cnzumk uUQ uUS vx, umkPUQh
P U Psk {u, 5 Fx 60 FUS
AvPUQx. P P
(a) 65 (b) 55
(c) 12 (d) 10
1.15 mh Eh EP x J, _ zu
GP uUQx?
(a) PzvS (b) Au
(c) Pzv Em (d) C h[S uUS A
1.16 { T vU T, Au Uh izuU
Sk.
1.17 kv J kv G G? A G
uhkzumk.
1.18 xu uzuzu US.
1.19 J . Au APU T, J
mhzu Hk zvP P P.
1.20 \U PkP sPU TP.
1.21 C G G? C vz v
.

49
1.22 ^ zv UPmk C x \k
v \UP P P.
1.23 J ^ ^ zv J C UPk
x {Px G?
1.24 C Aa_U Pmi E J , |kU
Pmi E J a \P P P.
1.25 J zu . Cx J P A Ax
Uh A? J mhzu Hk zuzvP
P P.
1.26 zu zu k C kzxP.
1.27 \ zu G G?
1.28 C mh[P A zu B G
G? AuP P P.
1.29 C Hk AzuzvP P P.
1.30 zu . Au APz uP.
1.31 P vU T. Cu kzv, (i) ^ mh Ahzv
Psh i, }sh, | Phzv (ii) q mh Eh
i \u uPk, BQ zu [PU PnUQkP.
1.32 uUQ G G? Au uUSzv .
1.33 uUQ uzxzu . J Cnzumk uUQ
uUSz vUP P P.
1.34 P G G? J Cnzumk uUQ
umkPUQh P zu u Hk
.
1.35 J Cnzumk uUQ J Pzxh CnUPmkx.
uPkPUS Ch E uUSa \ ui Psh
P , uPkPUQh Szukx
(i) uUQ uUSzv, (ii) uPkPUQh
(iii) uPkPUQh zu k, C G
HkQx?
1.36 uUQP uhn, UP Cn CnUPk
x uS uUSz vPU PsP.

50
 q2
1.37 J Cnzumk uUQ, \zx UPk B G
2C
{P.
1.38 P UP G G?
1.39 &i&Q uzx, A \k
uzu .
1.40 Ci, x J zvi {u h J P (car)
E Cx xPx. H?

PnUSP
1.41 C mh[P Tku 6 C. hzv 40 cm
Ch A UPk x 0.9 N \h J
J PQx G, Amh[PU PnUQkP.
1.42 J ] mh P[P J 2 103 N
\h mkQ. J Pzv u mh u
C h[S BS. mh[P J x
10 cm uUS |Pzv \x 5 104 N
BS. Amh[P, AQh Au Bz
u PnUQkP.
1.43 J \xzv |S P +q, +2q, +q q BQ
mh[P UPmk. q = 5/3 109C G, 10 cm
UP Psh Aa\xzv mh[P miU P
zuU PnUQkP.
1.44 10 109 C 20 109 C G C mh[P, 0.3 m
u zx UPmk. C mh[P Chz
u zu a \U
PsP.
1.45 5 mm u zx UPmh, 2 1010 C
2 10 10 mh[P Psh Cx 10 V m1
^ zv 60o Pnzv UPmkx. (i) J
mhzv x \k \ Gs v v\
(ii) zu \kzuk v \ BQU PsP.

51
1.46 J C mh[P 2 106 C 2 106
C Csk, 1 cm u zx UPmk. C
(i) Aa_UPmi, Au zvx 1 m u
E (ii) |kU Pmi, zvx 1 m u
E BQ Hk zuU PnUQkP.
1.47 +q 3q G C mh[P 1 m u zx
UPmk. Au Aa_UPmi, mh[PUS Ch
G zu _S?
1.48 60 cm UP[P Psh J \UP UPnzv Ea]P +1 C,
+3 C 5 C mh[P UPmk.
Cmh[P A zu BU PnUQkP.
1.49 10 cm Chz u 12 C 8 C G C |
mh[P zx UPmk. Chzu 6 cm BP
CUS, A 4 cm u |UQU Psk \
si U PnUQkP.
1.50 J Eh, 10 cm UP Psh P \xzv zv 8.85 C
mh UPmkx. Au J UPzv P
\ zuU PsP.
1.51 0.12 m B Psh, P i Phzv x
1.6 107 C mh ^P x. (i) Pzv E
(ii) Pzv x (iii) Pzv zvx 0.18 m u
E GS?
1.52 J 4 102 sq m Psh J Cnzumk
uUQ umkPUQh 103 m ui Psh P
SzukQx. P J kv 7
G, uUQ uUSzvU PnUQkP.
1.53 C uUQP, uhn UP Cn
CnUPkQ. Cu C CnP QhUP
uS uUSz vP 6 F 25F G,
AuUQP uUSzvPU PnUQkP.
1.54 uUSzv 0.5 F 0.75 F Psh C uUQP UP
Cn CnUPmk J Ah 110 V P
CnUPmkx. zv mh J
uUQ E mh PsP.

52
 30 F
C1
1.55 uUQP UP Cn CnUPmk
100 V Pzxh CnUPmku h C2
20 F

PmkQx. uUQ uS \zx

UPmk zu B G? 10 F
C3

1.56 J Cnzumk uUQx, Smh

zuzv UPkQx. uPkPUQh 100V
3 mm ui Psh J SzukQx.
uPkPUS Ch E zuzu UP, uPkP
Chzu 2.4 mm. AvPUPkQx. zv P
U PnUQkP.
1.57 J Cnzumk uUQ uPkPUQh E Ch
|Q Sv, P 3 Eh P
{kQx. P \zx UPmk
B \uu G?
2 F
C2
C1
1.58 hzv Pmhmk A
D B
uUQP mhzuU PsP.
2 F
AP Ch E C3
1 F
zu mhU PsP.
120V
1.59 J 9 pF uUSzv Psh uUQP uh
n CnUPmk. uS zu uUSzv
x? uSx 120 V zxh CnUPkx, J
uUQ Ch E zu k x?

53
 hP

1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (c) 1.4 (c) 1.5 (d)

1.6 (a) 1.7 (d) 1.8 (b) 1.9 (a) 1.10 (d)

1.11 (a) 1.12 (a) 1.13 (d) 1.14 (c) 1.15 (c)

1.35 (i) AvPUS (ii) vUS (iii) vUS

1.41 q1 = 8 106C , q2 = 2 106 C
1.42 q1 = 33.33 109C, q2 = 66.66 109C, x = 0.1 m
1.43 0.9 104Vm1
1.44 V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm1
1.45 2 109N, zv v\, = 0.866 1011 Nm
1.46 360 N/C, 180 N C1
1.47 +q --x 0.25 m u
1.48 0.255 J
1.49 5.70 J
1.50 1.67 105 N m2 C1
1.51 _, 105 N C1, 4.44 104 N C1
1.52 2.478 109F
1.53 C1 = 15 F, C2 = 10F
1.54 q = 137.5 C, q1 = 55 C, q2 = 82.5 C
1.55 0.3 J
1.56 r = 5
1.57 50%
1.58 q1 = 144 106C, q2 = 96 106C, q3 = 48 106C
V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V
1.59 3 pF, J 40 V

54
 1. {

{ mh[P Ax K { mh[P
US C J Sv { Gk. Ch Sv
{ mh[P Aih {PP Ax P.
D zv E {P u zv E
mh[P BS. mh[P u[PUQh \k
\P u, A { B . CUPzxP
mh P, Aq PP x
kzukQ.
1.1 { & E
Q.. 600& u G QUP Ab B (Amber) G
] xsiU P uUP, Ax PQu \ P
P s Qx G Pshu. 17&B si
Q m G, Psni, Gm uSu Pk
uUPkx Cu s kzxQ G Pskizu.
C uUPkx, mh[P P
"UP Ahu (electrified)Ax mh ' G.
CzuP B G k GUm (electron) G QUP
zux mhS. E ES mh,
E mh G AUPk. J E mh[P
|P G, A mhzu { mh G
AUP.
1.1.1 mh[P C PP
(i) J Psniz ush, mkz xoh uUP, Psniz usk
| mhzu Qx. mkzxo Au A Gv mhzu
Qx.
(ii) Gm usk J P uUP, Gm Gv
mhhQx. Px Au A | mhzu Qx.
mh[P, AUP A Ab g\ [P G,
| Gv mh[P G CPP UPmk.
BP uv, mhh usk J, mh
EUPkv. B mh[P UP
kQ Ax mh[P QuUPkQ.

1
1.1.2 K mh[P J mk.
mh[P J P & \u \
mk C u[Phmk mhmh Psniz usk
J Qhzuzv AQx. ux Au UPQ
mh Psniz usk Psk mh, C P
J mkuU Pn (h 1.1). Cu v
mhmh Gm ushx, u[Phmh Psniz usi
UPQ Psk mh, C uskP J
PQ (h 1.2). Ca\u K mh[P J
mk, mh[P J P G u Qx.

mk mk

Psni
F
+++ Psni
++++ ++++
+++
+
+++ F F
+
++ ------
Psni F
Gm

h 1.1 K mh h 1.2 mh
C mh uskP C mh uskP

mh PUQh u P
mk sP, { sn uzu, xP a_,
PU TskP US \ \Pzu, u v Gv
(Ink-Jet-Printer) Aa_ P |P Gv (Xerox)
kPU Psk.
1.1.3 PhzvP PP
{ sP Aih P, PhzvP
Phzu P (P P) G CPP UP.
mhzu u \ AvUS P PhzvP
Gk. GkzxUPmkP EP[P, u Eh, .
mh[P u \ AvUPu P Phzu
P (PP) Gk. GkzxUPmkP Psni, UP,
Gm, iU .

2
1.1.4 mh[P Aih sP
(i) mh[P SshUP
J mhzv e Aih AS Gx, J GUm u[Qa
\ mhzv AS. Cu AS Coulomb BS. e- Gs
v 1.6 1019 C.
CP Gu J A mh, J mhzv
] v Gs h[SPP Gx AQx.
mhzv A, e- Gs h[S Psh uzu vP
Hu J mk Qx. G mh q = ne. Cv n&Gx
J Gs BS.
(ii) mh[P A
mh[P BUP AUP ix. mh A
vi, uzu A J zu mh Gx
S. B, A zu mh Gx u
P, A J Svx SvUS mh[P
kQ. GkzxUPmhP, (92U238) B xP (2He4
AqUP) mk uP (90Th234) Qx.
238 + 2He4234
92U 90Th
]uUS zu mh = + 92e, ]uUS zu
mh = 90e + 2e. G zu mh Ex. Aux,
P AQx.
(iii) mh[P Tmh s
J A zu mhx, A E Azx
mh[P S Tmkz uPUSa \. GkzxUPmhP, +2q, -5q
mh[P Psh C P \zx UPkx, A
zu mh -3q BS.
1.1.5 T v
1785& T G, C mh
PUQh \x Pshmhx.
T vi, C mh[PUS Ch Pa]
\ Ax mk \x, mh[P USz uUS
|zuP, AS Ch E u CiUS Gvz
uP A. mh[P CnUS Pmi \
v\ A.
P Ax hzv, r u Au C mh[P
q1 q2 GP (h 1.3a).

3
 T vi, q1 q2
F F
q1q 2 q1q 2 r
F (Ax) F = k
r2 r2 h 1.3a T \P
Cv k Gx Qu BS.
1
P Ax hzv, k = 4 , Cv o Gx hzv
o
kv BS. o& v 8.854 1012 C2 N1 m2 BS.
1 q1q 2
F = 4 (1)
o r2
1
4 = 9 109 N m2 C2
o
Ps \mi, q1 = q2 = 1C r = 1m G
11
F = (9 109) = 9 109 N
12

P Ax hzv, J mh Ch,
UPmk, Jzu mh[PUQh mk \ 9 109 N
G Amh v J T G UPkQx.
kv Psh FhPzv mh[P UPk, C
mh[PUQh \ A
1 q1q2
Fm = (2)
4 r 2
\k (1)I (2)B SUP
F
= = r
Fm

uP = r Gx FhPzv J kv Ax P

GUPk. P Ax hzvS r& v 1 BS.
= o r

F
Fm = Gu, C mh[PUQh \,
r

mh[P A FhPzv C zuQx.

4
T v & Uh i

F 21 Gx mh q1&B, q2 x uUPk \
G (h 1.3b),
qq
F 21 = k 1 2 ^
r 12
2
r12
Cv ^ r 12 Gx q1&x q2&UP AS Uh BS.

F 12 Gx mh q2&B q1 x uUPk \ G,

q1q 2

F 12 = k 2
^
r 21 q1 q2
r21 r^ 12
+ +
Cv ^r 21 Gx q2&x q1-UP F12 r F21
AS Uh BS.
q1 q2
+ r^ 12
( ^
r 21 ^
r 12 Csk J
F12 F21
v EhuP, Gvvz
r
v\ AQ.)
q1q 2 h 1.3b Uh

F 12 = k r 2 ( ^
r 12) izv T v
12

1 2 qq
Ax F 12 = k r 2 ^
r 12
12

Ax F 12 = F 21
G, mh[P J x \zx \
A \P, Gvz v\ AQx.
1.1.6 xu uzx
xu uzxzv q1 G mh q2, q3 . qn
G mh[P En \U PnUQh.
J mhzv u zu \ Gx mh[P
Amhzv x uUS \P Uh TkuS.
q2& q1 u \

1 q1q 2
F 12 = 4 ^
r 21
2
r21

5
 Cu , q3 q1 u \

1 q1q3
F 13 = 4 2
^
r 31
r31

Azx mh[P q1 x ES zu \ F1.

F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 ......... + F 1n

1 q q
1 2 1 3 qq 1 n qq
G, F 1 = 4 r 2 r21 + r 2 r31 + ....... r 2 rn1
21 31 n1
1.2
J mhzv Gx, Amhzua _
, J \u mhzu Enk \S. J
mhzvS AQ mhzuU Psk u
mhzua _ zuU Psh ix.
zvSU Pn mh q&US AQ, \u
mh qo UPk Au x { \ F
\kQx.
a \ (E)
J , a \ AhkQx.
zv E J UPmk KS | mh
En \, A a \ GUPkQx. Cx J
F
Uh AS. E = . a \ AS N C1.
qo
a \, Ax G
Sh. G, mhzv x uUS \,
F = qoE BS.
1.2.1 mhzu
P O G UPmk q G mhzuU
Px (h 1.4). mh q x r u, P,
\u mh qo UPmkx. T vi, q& qo
u \,
1 q qo
F = 4 2
o r

6
 P x, +q +q0
i, KS \u E
O r P
mhzv u \S.
F 1 q h 1.4 mhzu
E = q = 4 2
o o r

E& v\, O, P P CnUS Pmi , |

mhP Cu |UQ, Gv mhP Cu E
|UQ A.
1 q ^ ^
E = r Gx zv Uh ShS. Cv r
4o r 2
Gx q-x |UQ A AS Uh BS.
1.2.2 mh[P uS

{ mh[P, J ES uS
(\) uzu mhzv Au
[P Uh TkuUSa \.

E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n

1 q1 q2 q3
= r 2 r1 + r 2 r2 + r 2 r3 + .........
4 o 1 2 3
1.2.3 \U PkP
Pu [PU P \x PuPP UP
h G UPkP G Pzx APkzumhx.
zv KS |mh J, |P ]US |
Ax P u \UPk Gk.
] mh[P Hk [P h 1.5&
Pmhmk.
\UPkP sP
(i) \UPk | mhzv uh[Q Gv mhzv
ihQx.
(ii) \UPkP Jx J mia \x.

7
 +q +q -q +q +q

(a) (b) (c)

uzu mh mh[P K mh[P
h 1.5 \UPkP
(iii) J zv v\ (E), A E
\UPmkUS k ukPmi SUPk.
(iv) \UPkPUS |USzu v\, KS \u
\ \UPkP GsoUP a \ E&US
|zuP CUS. Aux E& v AvP Ch[P PkP
|UPP, E& v S Ch[P PkP Ch
mk CUS.
1
(v) J KS |mh, o A \U

PkP hzv EUS. G hzv J

mh q&x ES \U PkP GsoUP
q
N = .
o

1.2.4 C Cz vzv
C \, Gvv, Pa ] Ch UPmk
mh[P J CS. }, A,
P&h&BU\k S UTP {
C PUS ] GkzxUPmkPS. CUTP
|mhzv , Gv mhzv JP
v, ]x Ch UPmk.
+q -q G C
mh[P 2d u p
UPmk (h 1.6).
-q +q
C vzv 2d
Gsvx Hu J
h 1.6 C

8
mhzv Gsv mh[PUQh u
UPU QhuS.
C vz v P = 2qd. Cx J Uh
AS. Cu v\ -qx +q |UQ A. Cu AS C m BS.
1.2.5 C Aa_UPmi E J

AB Gx, -q +q G C mh[P 2d G ]
u zx UPmk J C BS (h 1.7).
C Ox, Aa_UPmi, r u Ax
P BS.
A O B E2 P E1
-q +q x axis
2d
r
h 1.7 Aa_UPmi E
B& E +q mhzv P&
1 q
E1 = 4 2 (BP )
o (r d )

A& E -q P&

1 q
E2 = 4 2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 Gvvz v\ \kQ.
G, uS zv Ax (E) Gsv
Psh Uh v\ \kQx. P uS
E = E1 + (E2)

1 q 1 q
E = 4
2 4 2 BP
o (r d ) o (r + d )

q 1 1
E = 4 BP
2
o (r d ) (r + d )2

q 4rd
E = 4 2 2 2 BP
o (r d )

9
 C x P u P AvP G d <<r
q 4rd q 4d
E = 4 =
o r
4 4 o r
3

1 2p
E = 4 3 (BP )
o r

( C vz v p = q x 2d)
E&x C vzv v\ \kQx.
1.2.6 C |kU Pmi E J

AB G C JU Px. 2d Gx C
Chzu G, p Gx C vz v G
P. C O&x r u |kU
Pmi Ax P GP (h 1.8a).

M
E1 E1
E1sin
E P
R
E2 E1cos
N R P
r E2cos

A B
-q +q E2 E2sin
O
d d
(a) |kU Pmi E (b) zv TP

h 1.8
C +q mhzv P& ,
1 q
E1 = 4 2 (BP )
o BP

1 q
= 4 2 2 (BP ) ( BP2 = OP2 + OB2)
o (r + d )

C -q mhzu P ,

10
 1 q
E2 = 4 2 (PA )
o AP

1 q
E2 = 4 2 2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 & Gs vP \. E1 E2& \[Szx

QhzuU TPP USx (h 1.8b).
\[SzxU TP E1 sin E2 sin A \P
Gvvz v\ Au J \ \Q.
Qhzu TP E1 cos E2 cos Csk PR&v\
TmhkQ.
C P uS
E = E1 cos + E2 cos (PR v\)
E = 2 E1cos ( E1 = E2)

1 q
E = 4 2 2 2 cos
o (r + d )

d
B cos =
r + d2
2

1 q 2d 1 q 2d
E = 4
2 2 2 2 1/2 = 4 2 2 3/2
o (r + d ) (r + d ) o (r + d )

1 p
= 4 2 2 3/2 ( p = q2d)
o (r + d )

r-Eh Jh d u Pa ]uS.
1 p
E = 4 3
o r

E& v\ C Aa_US CnP PR & P,

C vz v v\US Gvz v\ AQx.

1.2.7 ^ zv C
^ zv (E), AB G C, Pn \P
CuPU P. Au C vz v p GP

11
(h 1.9). mh +q
B +q F=qE
zv v\ qE G
\ EnQx. -q Au A
\ Gvz v\ EnQx. 2d E
G C u uS
\ _S. C \, p
Gvvz v\ CnPa
A
\k \P J F=-qE -q C
\x. G, C
h 1.9 ^ zv
x v \ J EQx.
C
Cx C zv
v\ \{US Psk .
v \ Gs v,
= \P J \PUS Ch \[Szxz u
= F 2d sin
= qE 2d sin = pE sin ( q 2d = p)

Uh Smi = p E
S : ^ zv, C Pn \
A, v \h, TkuP J \
Qx.
1.2.8 zv E C zu B
zv E C zu B Gx
zv C u {US _uS
BS.
p C vz E
v Psh J C, B F=qE
E zv, Pnzv E 2d +q
x, Au u v \,
= pE sin A p
-q
C, d Pn F=-qE
_, \k h 1.10 C
dw = .d zu B
= pE sin.d
G, C Pnzv _ \k ,

12
 W = dw
W = pE sin.d = pE cos
Cx, C { BS (U).
U = pE cos
C zv v\ J[Pzu, = 0o
U = pE

zv E C En v \x ( = p E)
C zv v\ J[Pa \ . Cu
PnP, { BP `US kQx.
U A \P (Microwave oven)
Cx, PU SQ Pzv En \UP kQx. P
\kx, U AP uUPkQ. C ^
A zu EUSQ. En } UTP,
CPP Au, A v \US EUPmk
J ] } UTP nP UPkQ. Cu
B EQ, En \UPkQx.
1.3 zu
O G +q G +q
mh EuPU Px O E
B A
(h 1.11). A, B G zv E x dx
C P GP. KS h 1.11 zu
|mhx A x BUS
|Pzuk \ kQx. Cu A
PUQh zu k BS. Aux, dV = WA B.
zv C PUQh E zu k Gx
J x US mk \US GvP KS |
mhzu |Pzua \k G UPkQx.
zu mi AS m BS. J x
US J T | mhzu \UPvP Gkzxa
\a \k J G APUQh E
zu k J m BS.
zv E J zu Gx KS |
mhzu iz ux \US GvP, AUS
Psk a \k G UPkQx.

13
a \S zuzvS E uh
A B PUQh E ] u dx GP. KS |
mhzu A x B&US |Pzua \k dV = E.dx.
mk \US GvP, +q mhzu |UQ KS
mhzu |Pzu \kQx. G,
dV = E.dx
dV
E=
dx
u zu zu zua \S.
G a \x GvU Shmh zua \US
\S.
GvUSx zv v\ zu SuU
SUQx. a \S V m1 G AS kzuh.

1.3.1 J mhzu J Hk zu
P O UPmk uzu mh +q GP.
+q&x r u E P GP. O-x x x + dx
u E P A BU Px (h 1.12).
A B +q dx
p E
PUQh E O
r A B
zu k,
dV = E.dx h 1.12 mhzu

A UPmk
KS | mhzu Enk \,
1 q
E = .
4o x2
1 q
dV = 4 2 . dx
o x
\k , \US Gvx Gu GvUS
SUQx.
+q mhzv P& zu Gx, KS |
mhzu iz ux, AUSU Psk a
\k zu S.
r
q q
V=
4 x
o
2
. dx = 4 r
o

14
1.3.2 C J zu
2d G ] u UPmh, A, B P E -q
+q G C mh[P C EUSQ. Cu C
vzv p BS. (h 1.13)
P Gx C O G x r u
E . C, zu CnUS Phx
(PO) C Aa_h (OB) Hkzx Pn GP. r1 r2
G +q -
qx P uP P
GP.
+q mhzv P r2
1 q r r1
zu = 4 r
o 1

-q mhzu P A 180- p B
1 q -q O +q
zu = d d
4 o r2
h 1.13 C J
C P
zu
1 q 1 q
zu, V = 4 r 4 r
o 1 o 2

q1 1
V = ...(1)
4o r1 r2

P\ v kzu
r12 = r2 + d2 2rd cos
cos d 2
r12 = r2 1 2d +
r r2

d2
d Bx r&I h Pa ]u, &I UPoUP.
r2
1
2d
r1 = r 1 2
cos
r

15
 1/ 2
1 1 2d
Ax, = 1 cos
r1 r r

Dz (Binomial) uzu kzv, kzv, E

AkUSP UPoUP,
1 1 d
= 1 + cos (2)
r1 r r

Cu,
r22 = r2 + d2 2rd cos (180 )
Ax r22 = r2 + d2 + 2rd cos .
1/2
2d d2
r2 = r 1 + cos ( UPoUPzuUPx)
r r2

1/2
1 1 2d
Ax = 1 + cos
r2 r r

uzu kzv, E AkUSP UPoUP

1 1 d
= 1 cos ...(3)
r2 r r
\k (2) (3) I \k (1) vh
q 1 d d
V = 4 r 1 + r cos 1 + r cos
o

q 2d cos 1 p . cos
V = = (4)
4o . r 2 4o r2

] |P :
1. P x C Aa_UPmi +qUS AQ
Au, = 0
p
V =
4o r 2

2. Px C Aa_UPmi qUS AQ
Au = 180o,

16
 p
V =
4o r 2

3. Px C |kU Pmi Au, = 90o,

V = 0
q1 q2
1.3.3 zu B
A B
C mh[P r
zu B Gx A h 1.14a zu
mh[P J[Pa B
\mh Ax J
mhzu AUS Psk \mh Ax J
mhzu iz ux AUS Psk
\mh Gk.
A& UPmk mh q1 GP (h 1.14a)
q1
q1-x r u E B zu, V = 4 r
o
iz ux mh q2&Bx
BUS Psk kQx. C[S mh q2& x \mh
x, q1 q2 mh[P Psh A {
zu BP (U) \UPkQx.
\mh , w = Vq2 r23
q3 q2
q1q 2
zu B (U) = 4 r
o
mh q2 Bx B& UPmk, r13 r12
q1& iz ux AUS
Psk uP P \u Cu A
q1
\kQx.
h 1.14b
, q1 q2 G mh[P mh A
r Ch E A B zu B
PUS, iz ux Psk
kQ. G, A zu B, u P
mh BUSa \P CUS.
CskUS mh mh[PU Psh AS (h
1.14b), zu B (U) Bx,
1 q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3
+ +
U =
4o r12 r13 r23

17
1.3.4 \ zu
J h Azx P, \ zuzv E
G, A \ zu Gk.
(i) uzu mhzu zu , Avx \

B E
A

+q E

(a) \ zu (b) ^ zxUS (u)

(P i)
h 1.15

u E Azx P \ zuzv CUS.

BP, \ zu P G mhzu PU
Psh uha] P[PS (h 1.15a). Cuv
zux P[PUS P CUS.
\ zu x Gu C PUQh, J
mhzu GP |Pzv \mh _S.
H, A B PUS Chmh zux
W AB
VB VA = q G UPkQx. VA = VB G, WAB = 0. G
U PkP \ zu USa \[SzuP CUS.
(ii) ^ zu zu, \ zu P
Cn u[PP, A P \U PkPUSa
\[SzuP E Gu h 1.15b PmkQx.

18
1.4 P v Au kP

^ zv E S G i E
U Px (h 1.16). Cu S
x ds G Pa ] U Px.
ds
ds& v\x, US SzuP ds
|UQ Ex. ds&u \[Szx

E PU P. E ds
JUP Pnzu HkzxQ.
Gx PkUPmh h 1.16
\ \U PkP
zu GsoUP BS G UPkQx.
ds \k ,
d = E . ds = E ds cos

Ps \mh, zx uPkzu, i
S \k, zu kQx.


= d =
E . ds

uPUP Smi SUPmk ]mh i

, uPkzxuU SUS. J P
AS. Cu AS N m2 C1
1.4.1 P v
Cv, Gu i \
zu, A E zu mhzu uh
kzxQx. Cvi, Gu i \k
zv zu v, A E zu mhzv
1/o h[SUSa \.
q
=
o
Cu hmh P P (Gaussian Surface)
GUPkQx. S G i \
(E) E zu mhzv v mk \ux,
B, Amh[P Ax Chzua \uu G P
vx AQ. US E mh[P
zvS Pnv.

19
1.4.2 P v kP
(i) | i } Psh mh P
Hk
^P mhmh, i
2 r ds
} Psh, P J mh
} Ahzv () (KS }zvP +
mh) uPU Px. +
+
Px r u E P +
E GP (h 1.17). C +
P Aa_USa \[Szu E + r ds E
Psh, l }, r B + P
l +
Eh J E P +
PU Px. P +
x ds G Pa] U +
Px. J s PnP +
E E Azx h 1.17 i }
P zv Gsv Psh |
\P, BUPmi mhmh P
|UQ AQx. E ds
J v\.

() = E ds cos

= E ds [ = 0; cos = 1]

= E (2rl)
( 2rl)
E ds JUP \[SzuP Au,
= 0
P zu , = E. (2rl)
P E zu mh q = l
P vi,
l
E (2rl) = Ax E = 2 r
o o

20
 E& v\x, Aa] mh,
|mh G, Bzv |UQ, Gv mh
G Bzv E|UQ AQx.

1.4.3 mh i, \u Hk

mh
Ahzv Psh +
+
i \u + + +
+ +
JU Px +
+ +
(h 1.18). x +
ds + ds
r u E E + A
E
P
P E GP. +
P + +
mh + r
+ +
US SzuP, 2r +
+ +
+
}, A SUS mk + +
+
Psh E +
i P
U Px. h 1.18 i \u
E C SvP, SU SzuP, \a^
[P \kQ. A uzu mk Q CUS. P,
P G SvP [P Gsv \P CUS.
G hmh zu

=
P
E.ds + E.ds
P 1
( = 0, cos = 1)

= EA + EA = 2EA
\u KS E mh G, P
E zu |mh, q = A
P v kzu,
A
2EA =
o

E = 2
o

21
1.4.4 C Cn mhmh uPkP Hk
C Cn, \u i,
+
i Psh, mh -
+
uPkP, h 1.19& + -
Pmhmkx , \ B + -
- E1(+)
mh AhzvP + E1(+)
+ -
uPU Px. P1 - P2
+
mh J uPkUS C + -
zv A E = /2o. + E2(-) - E2(-)
+ -
C uPmiS SzuP,
+ -
|US mh |UQ-
, GvUS mh E|UQ h 1.19 C
\k. CnzuPkP
(i) P G C uPmiS
1
|k Au, C uPkP
[P \P, J v\ A. P1&
uS ,

E = E1 + E2 = 2 + 2 = ( |UQ)
o o o
(ii) zu P2 G , [P A
\P, v\ GvvP CUS. P2& uS

E = E1 E2 = 2 2 = 0.
o o
1.4.5 ^ mh P iU Tmi Hk

P (i) P iU TmiS E
B R Eh, mh P iU Tk (shell) JU
Px (h 1.20a). Au O&x r u P iU
TmiS E P GP. r B Psh P i P
. US, E&x SzuPa \kQx.
P Pzv , USU SzuP |UQ
\k

=
s E . ds = s E ds = E (4 r 2 )

(H E ds&US Ch Pn = 0)

22
 E
P v i,
q
E . (4r2) =
o

1 q P
Ax E = 4 2 R
o r E r E
O
Ca\mix,
P]
P iU TmiS
E
x, P iU
Tmi zu mh E
h 1.20 a PUTmi
Avu Hkzx E zu
zvSa \S G uQx.
P (ii) x E J
mh PiU Tmi E P
E,
1 q
E = 4 2 ( r = R)
o R
P (iii) P iU Tmi
Emzv E J
P iU Tmi R P/
1
r
zvx r u, O
Pzv Ax P P]
GP. r B Psh P i
P U Px.
h 1.20b PU Tmi
P ,
Emzv E
US SzuP, |UQ

v\ \k zu

=
s E . ds =
s Eds = E (4 r 2 )

P Gu mh Cu, P
vi,
q
E 4r 2 = = 0 E=0
o

23
 Aux ^ mh Psh PU Tmi PU
Tmi E Azx P zv v _ BS.
1.4.6 { uk (Electrostatic shielding)
Cx zvx, J Smh Sv
ukzx {P BS. C{P, Phzv EmSv
_S Gu Aih AQx.
Cih Ti x, vu Ax
zvi AuU Pmi, v Cx P
xPuS. v EP , v
_u x, { ukPa \kQx.
x v UP |hQx.
1.5 { ysh
J mhzv uku (a)
C mhzu
i. CP mh[P
+ -
yshmh mh[PS. -
--
+ -
+ -
C yshmh mh[ - - - (b)
-
- -
Pz uUS {P
{ysh GUPk +
- +
Qx. Cx i Q -- +
- -- (c)
{ Gv[P, uUQ - -
P kQx.
+
{ ysh , -- +
- - + (d)
- --
EPU P J iiP -
ku h 1.21
++
PmkQx. + +
+++ (e)
(a) mh EPU
Px Phzu
u[Q x UPmk Ex. h 1.21 { ysh
(b) Gv mh iU usk J Pzv AQ
Psk x, mk \ PnP, Pmk GUmP Qa
\ Gv u[Pz x[SQ. G, AP E
GUm S Hmk, |mhhQx. EPzv E
Pmk GUm u zu \ _S x Cmh Q
{Pa] {zukQx. (C{P P P |h).

24
 (c) EPU P un h, Gv mh
u AhQx. AP E E |mh, D
\P PnP A[P { kQx.
(d) EPU Px ux APmh S AP
E |mh uhx {zvUQx.
(e) iU usk }UPmhh, Azx | mh[P
Pzv x J ^P Q.

1.5.1 Phzv uUS v

uzu Phzv JS q G mh AUPkx, Au
zu hQx. Azu Phzv
nzu, izu zuQx. PhzvUS AUPmh
mhzu, Phzv zu V AUS hQx G,
q V Ax q = CV
Aux C = q/V
C[S C&x Phzv uUSv GUPkQx.
J Phzv uUSv Gx, AUPhzvUS AUPk
mhzvS, Phzv ES zuzvS Ch E
uP G UPkQx.
uUSz v AS m (farad) BS. Phzv JS 1 T
mh AUPkx, Au zu E 1 m G,
Phzv uUSz v 1 m BS.
uUSz v \ ASP F pF BS.

uUQ uzx
Pk Phzv (EPz umk A) J q A |
mhzu, V zuzu uPU Px
(h 1.22a). A uUS v, C = q/V. P B G
EPz umk A AP Psk kx, A US AP
E B& UPzv Gv mh yshkQx. AuS \ A |
mh B& UPzv yshkQx (h 1.22b). B Gv
hh A zuzuU SUS. B | mh, A
zuzu AvPUS. B | mhzu h Gv mh
AUS AQ Cu A zu Sx kQx. Cu A
uUS v AvPUQx.
umk B h CnUSx, Av |mh |k

25
{UPkQx (h 1.22c). Cu A zu
SQx. A uUS v Sk AUS AvPUQx.

A A B A B
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
(a) (b) (c)

h 1.22 uUQ uzx

uUSz v PhzvP izu, FhPzv C,
zux. uUQ Gx mh[P \US \uS.
1.5.2 Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v
Cnzumk uUQ J A Eh X, Y G
C EPz umkP, d G Ch JUP CnP
UPmk (h 1.23). Au mh hzv GP.
umkPUQh FhP P BS. umk X&US +q A
|mh ukQx. Cu -q A Gv mh
n umk YUS
+q
X zv yshkQx. umkP
+ + + + + +
P |UPP Ax
d umkPUS Ch SvUS
PmkkzukQx. umk
-q - - - - - - X&x mk Y- ih
Y
\U PkP, umkPUSU
h 1.23 Cnzumk SzuP JU P CnP
uUQ AQ.
P v mii, C umkPUQh
,

E=
o

26
 X Y umkPUS Ch, zu k
0 0
d
V = E dr =
d d
o
dr =
o

Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v,

q A o A q
C = = d/ = [ H = ]
V o d A
o A
C =
d
uUSz vx umkP US (A) |zuP,
ChzuS (d) GvzuP AQx.
1.5.3 PP UP (Dielectrics and
polarisation)
PP (Dielectrics)
Azx GUmP AqUPh CP nUPmk
AqUP Phzu P PP
GUPkQ. C mhzu Gkzxa \ Gu
GUmP C. Gm, UP, Gsn
PPUS GkzxUPmkPS. C GUmP,
zv P C CUP iv.
UP (Polarisation)
| mh[P (mhP) D (centre of
gravity), Gv mh[P (GUmP) D JP
v AQ UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : O2, N2, H2. UTP { C
vzv v.
UTP , P zv
zu, A mh[P UPkQ.
ux AUTP GUm
UP Ahx Tmh
G, A ys hmh +q -q +q -q
CP G GUm
AUPkQ . A Tmh E
z v v\
h 1.24 yshmh C
(h 1.24) yshmh
27
C vz v (p) Q.
| m h[P D , Gv mh[P D
zvx UPmk UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. CUTP {
C vz v .
Cu {, UTP C
vzvP v\P Ax. G,
PP uS C vzv Pnkv.
\zumhh, zv v\ C vz
vP u[P \kzvU PQ. Cu uS
C vz v EUPkQx (h 1.25).

- + + + - + -
+ - -
+ -
+ -
+
-
+ -

+ -
-
+ -

+
+ - + -

E
(a) A { (b) zv
h 1.25 U TP

\kzuk x, { Ax yshmh
CP C vz vP, zv v\
J[PUPkQ {P UP Ax UP
GUPkQx.
yshmh C vzv p& vx
zvS |z uP AQx.
p E Ax p = E Cv Gx Qu BS. Cx
UTP US v (molecular polarisability)
GUPk.
1.5.4 P UP
+q q mh[P Cnzumk uUQ
JU Px. P, C umkPUQh E0 GP.
umkPUQh, P J Szv, P
UP Qx. uUQ umkPUS Gvzv E

28
P P E
E0
yshmh mh[P +qi
qi G, Czyshmh + - + - + -
mh[P u[PUQh _ -qi +qi
+ - + - + -
Ei&, Eo&US GvP
Ei
EUSQ (h 1.26). G + - + - + -
uS E < Eo. B + - + - + -
E Bx Eo& v\ A.
E
E = Eo + (Ei)
+ - + - + -

( Ei Bx, Eo& v\US

+ - + - + -

Gvz v\ AQx) P
1.5.5 Cnzumk uUQ, h 1.26 P
umkPUQh P E UP
x uUSzv
d u UPmh J A Psh, X, Y G

+
X
P

d P t

P
Y
t<d
h 1.27 uUQ P
C Phzx uPkP Psh, J Cnzumk uUQU
Px. X&US | mh AUPku, Au mh
hzv BS, Y&Bx n x.
umkPUQh, t ui, r J kv Psh
P J, Szumkx GP (h 1.27).
P ui = t.

29
 P Ch ui (dt).
umkPUS Chmh P E J ,

E= .
o

P E J E = .
r o

umkPUQh zu zu hx, J
umix umiS KS |mhzu, E G zv
(d-t) }zvS, E G zv t }zvS, Psk \uS
\k AUSa \. BP
V = E (dt) + E t
t
V = (d t ) +
o o r

t
V =
o (d t ) +
r

umk X&u mh, q = A

G, uUQ uUSz v
q A o A
C = = =
V t t
(d t ) + (d t ) +
o r r

P
uUQP, C umkPUS Chmh Svx, UP
Ax Gsn P {k. P
{mk uUQ uUSzv,
o A
C =
d
P {mk uUQ uUSzv
r o A
C =
d
C
= r Ax C = rC
C
Pzu, Gu J P FhPzvS, r > 1 Gu,
P UPkx, uUSzv AvPUS.

30
1.5.6 uUQ kP
(i) u[Q Gv[P, G Gmk AP,
w Hkuz uUP kzukQx.
(ii)v [QP (Power supplies) zu H
CUPzuU SuS, v Ami Au v
AvPUPa \ uUQP kQ.
(iii) uUQP, Pu APz uUP, i
_P Jzv\ \ kQ.

1.5.7 uUQP uh Cn UP Cn
(i) uhn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSzvP Psh uUQP
(h 1.28) uhn CnUPmkuPU Px.
uhn uS US \kzuk zu
k V GP. J uUQ \ mh A q
Pskx. C1, C2, C3 &UQh E zu kP
V1, V2, V3 GP. BP, V = V1 + V2 + V3
J uUQ Ch
E zu k c1 c2 c3
+ - + - + -
q q q + - + - + -
V1 = ;V2 = ;V3 = + - + - + -
C1 C2 C3 + - + - + -

q q q 1 1 1 v1 v2 v3
V = C + C + C = q C + C + C
1 2 3 1 2 3 V
uhnz uS, + -
uS uUSzv CS G, h 1.28 uhn
AuS V zu AUPkx, q uUQP
mhzu Qx.
q
Aux, V = C
S

q q q q
= + +
Cs C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
C =C +C +C
s 1 2 3

31
 G, uUQP uhn CnUPkx
uS uUSzv uR v, uzu uUQP
uUSz vP uR vP Tmkz uPUSa \.
(ii) UP Cn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSz vP Psh uUQP
(h 1.29) UP Cn CnUPmkuPU Px.
Cn, \kzuk zu c 1

k V GP. J uUQ
zu k \P CUS.
uUQP E mh[P c 2

q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V.
uUQP uS zu
mh c3

q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1V + C2V + C3V
V
B q = CpV. Cv Cp&x +
-
uS uS uUSzv BS. h 1.29 UP
CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3) Cn
uUQP
CP = C 1 + C 2 + C3
G, UP Cn CnUPmk uUSP
uS uUSzv, uzu uUQP uUSz vP
Tmkz uPUSa \.

1.5.8 uUQ uUQ UPmk B

uUQ Gx, mhzu uUQ US \u BS.
uUQ, mhzuz uUQ UP, \h
six. Cu x, uUQ { zu
BP \UPkQx.
uUQ umkPUS Chmh zu V Au
mh q GP. umiSU TkuP umh mh dq G,
\mh , dw = Vdq
q q
dw = dq V =
C C

32
 uUQ \uS \mh zu
q
q 1 q2

w = dw =
0 C
dq =
2 C

Cu x, uUQ {zu { BP
(U) \UPkQx.
1 q2 1
U= = CV 2 ( q = CV)
2 C 2
uUQx, UP \kx, Cu B
v kQx.

1.5.9 Phzv u mh[P

TP \k
A
J Phzx
P, Jh B

CnUPmk, A, B G r1 r2
C Phzx P[PU
Px. A B[P r1
q2
r2 GP (h 1.30). B
r1&Bx r2&I h AvP GP. q1
Cu AS AUPmh h 1.30 h u
mh A B x q1
q2 BP Qx. P[P A B u mh AhzvP
1 2 GP.

A zu,
q1
V1 = 4 r
o1
B zu,
q2
V2 = 4 r
o 2
P[P CnUPmku, A zu[P \S.
q1 = 4 r121
q1 q2
=
4o r1 4o r2
2
q 2 = 4 r2 2
1r1 = 2r2

33
 Aux r Gx J BS.
A
Ca\mix, B Su, + + + + +
+ + ++
mh Ahzv AvPS Gx + +
uQx. ++C
+ +
+ + + + + +
h 1.31& Pmhmk i
Psh Phzv mh ^P h 1.31 Ta
C. AvP, Aux B \k
SP E TP, mh[P
A \vUS. x
TPU Psh, mh , Phzv J, u
mh[P S P Cx kQ Ga \u
Pshmkx.
CuSU Pn, TPk uhh P UTP
AUPkQ. |mh AP T
mhkQ. Gv mh AP T PkQ.
Cu TP mh SUPkQx. C, mh
Phzv TPx mh P]Q {P
TP \k Ax Jmh UP
GUPkQx. Cuz uzx mhzua \PUS {
Gv[P, PhzvP kzukQx.

1.6 Phzv (Lightning Conductor)

P E Pmih[P x xPUP Eu K G
\u Phzv BS Cu UPzv Ciu[Q G Tx
Esk. Cx Pmihzv uUSa \ J }sh, uizu uz
usiU Pskx. usi R x, u AvP Bzv
uUPmk uz umkh CnUPmkx. Au
GsoUPUP TP Eh u F]P
CnUPmk, Pmihzv E Sv UPmkx.
Gvmh P Pmihzv \x,
Phzv T P | mh yshkQx. |mh
TP AQ E P UTP AUP
\Q. Cx Pzv E Gv mhzv J Sv \
\x, Pzv zuzuU SUQx. Phzv Pmh Gv
mh[P u |UQ oUQ. Cu Pmih
uUSu Cx xPUPkQx.

34
&i&Q C
1929 m J &i&Q G { Gv J
izu. Cu 107 V A AvP {
zu k Ezv \kQx.
Cu \k, + + + +
+
{ysh

+
A

+
Ta \mkz

+ + + +

+ + + +
uzx[P Ai
E B
h AQx.
J Eh

+
EPU P A
h 1.32& Pmh
mh
Belt
mkx
P ysP
x zumkx.
Pzv zv B
G P, Pz
yo AiSvUS
AQ C G P + D
zumk. C Pz
Insulating
mkz xo mh - Pillar
ys
J PP
\Qx. P C
mh J
uhx h 1.32 &i&Q
CUPkQx. PPUS AP H TP Psh D
E G C ^ iU PhzvP zumk. ^ D
|zu 104 V G CUS v [Q \Qx.
^ E&Bx Eh EPU Pzv Em CnUPmkx.
^ DUS AQ E E zv, Ta \mi
PnP P AUPkQx. P E GvAP
TP |UQ |PQ. |AP mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu | AP mh JmiU Pu
|UQa \ ^ E& |[SQx.

35
 {ysh uzxzv P ^ E Gvmh
Qx. P |mhzu Qx. Cmh[P
P Q. ^ E& E AvP A P
AUSQx. G, Gv mh[P mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu mh Ah P, Av E |
mh[P \\mk kQ. G mh R[Sx
mh { AhQx.
C Gv uha]P, |mhzu PzvS
Qx. Cu P Pzv zu J G
v AhQ , AvPzxU Psh CUS. Psk
Pzv mh[P HPh iu { Gmih, P
AUPzv PnP mh[P P]z uh[SQ.
E Azuzv P {mh GLSU Pzv Pzu
kv , Pzv mhU P]U SUP.
C k E zu AqUP
k | AP (mh, im) kUSUP
kzukQx.

36
 wUPmh PnUSP
1.1 J v ] xP 3 1012C,
8 1012C 4 1012C mh[PU Psk.
A J uk {US Psk x zx
UPkQ. (i) J v mh, (ii) ukuUS
J v E AvPi Ax US
GUmP GsoUP BQU PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 3 1012C, q2 = 8 1012 C, q3 = 4 1012 C
w : (i) J v mh
q1 + q 2 + q 3 3 + 8 + 4 12
q= = 10
3 3
= 3 1012 C
(ii) mh |mh BP, J v x
GUmP GsoUP S Hk.

q 3 1012
n= = = 1.875 107
e 1.6 10 19
GUmP GsoUP = 1.875 107.
1.2 Phmh, J 6.5 107C mh C
P[P 0.5 m u zx UPmk.
APUQh { \U PnUQk.
(i) mh[P Ch[PUPmk, u vPU SUP
k x (ii) mh[P P }
UPk x (r = 80) \U PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = q2 = 6.5 107C, r = 0.5 m
1 q1q 2
w : F = 4
o r2

9 10 9 (6.5 10 7 )2
=
(0.5)2

= 1.52 102 N.
(i) mh C h[PP AvPUPmk, u vP
SUPmh,

37
 1 2q1 2q 2
F1 =
4 o
( r 2)
2

F & 16 h[S
= 16 1.52 102
F1 = 0.24 N
(ii) r = 80 & Eh } UPk x,

F 1.52 10 2
F2 = =
r 80

F2 = 1.9 104 N
1.3 2 108 C vh C ] mh[P, A B
G P 6 cm Ch UPmk. AB& C
\U Tk \[SzxU Pmi 4 cm u E P G
UPmk, 1 108 C mhzv u \U
PnUQk.
uP : q1 = +2 108 C, q2 = 2 108 C
P q3 = 1 108 C
XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m
w :
F

P R
q3= +1 x 10-8C
F
5cm 5cm
4cm
q1= +2 x 10 C -8 -8
q2= -2 x 10 C
A X B
3cm 3cm

APX, & Cx, AP = 42 + 32 = 5 cm or 5 102 m.

A E mh, P& E mhzu F G \
(AP ) mkQx.

38
 1 q1q 3 9 109 2 10 8 1 10 8
F = 4 =
o r2 (5 10 2 )2

= 7.2 104 N (PB )

B E mh P E mhzu, Au F G
\ PB PQx. H BP = AP = 5 cm. R
vUPn, \ C TPP UP sk.
R = F cos + F cos = 2F cos

3 BX 3
= 2 7.2 104
5 cos = PB = 5

R = 8.64 104 N
1.4 i Aq r u zx UPmk J
mhUS, GUmUS Ch {
D \P Gs vP JkP.
uP : me = 9.11 1031 kg ; mP = 1.67 1027 kg;
G = 6.67 1011 N m2 kg2; e = 1.6 1019 C)
w :
GUmUS, mhUS Ch D \
me m p
Fg = G .
r2
i Aq GUmUS, mhUS Ch
\\ u r GP.
C mh[PUQh { \
1 q 1q 2
Fe = 4 r2
o

Fe 1 q1q 2 1 e2
= =
Fg 4 o Gme m P 4 o Gme m P

9 109 (1.6 1019 )

2

=
6.67 1011 9.11 1031 1.67 1027
Fe
Fg = 2.27 1039

Cvx, { \ D \

2.27 1039 h[S P Ex G A.

39
1.5 +9e +1e G C +9e r
q +e
mh[P Jx + +

16 cm u x (r-x)

UPmk. Cu C
mh[PUQh, x mh q, G
zu Cx uhx \{ CUS?
uP : r = 16 cm Ax 0.16 m; q1 = 9e q2 = e
w : x mh q Bx 9e&x x u,
+ e&x (r x) u UPmkuPU Px.
1 q 1q 2 1 9e q 1 q e
F = 4 r 2 = 4 =
o o x 2
4o (r x )2

x2 x
=9 ; = 3
(r x )2 r x
Ax x = 3r 3x
4x = 3r = 3 16 = 48 cm

48
x= =12 cm
4
Ax 0.12 m
x mh +9ex 0.12 u UPmkx.
1.6 4 107 C 8 107 C BQ C mh[P UP A
20 cm Psh ABP G \UP UPnzv A B
P UPmk. P G Pnk uS
a \U PnUQkP.
uP :q1 = 4 107 C; q2 = 8 107 C; r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
w :
E1

P
E
E2
-7 C
10 60
x -8 x 10-7C
+4 A X B
20cm

40
 AP E1

1 q1 9 109 4 10 7
E1 = = = 9 104 N C1
4 o r2 (0.2)2
PB E2

1 q2 9 10 9 8 10 7
E2 = = = 18 104 N C-1
4 o r 2
0.04

E= E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o

= 9 10 2 + 1 + 2 2 1 12
4 2 2
( )
= 9 3 104 = 15.6 104 N C 1

1.7 (i) 4 107C mhzv Cx 0.09 u E J

zuzu, (ii) 2 109 C mhzu iz
ux, AUS Psk \ si
PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 4 107C, q2 = 2 109 C, r = 0.09 m
w : (i) q1 G mhzu J zu
1 q1
V = 4 r
o

9 109 4 107
= = 4 104 V
0.09
(i) q2
G mhzu iz ux
AUS Psk \ si
W = q2 V = 2 109 4 104
W = 8 105 J

1.8 HCl , 2.5 104 N C1 A zv UPkQx.

J HCl UT C vz v
3.4 1030 C m G J UT x \k v
\U PnUQkP.
uP : E = 2.5 104 N C1,
p = 3.4 1030 C m.

41
 w : UT x \k v \
= pE sin (z v \US, = 90o)
= 3.4 1030 2.5 104
= 8.5 1026 N m.
UT u z v \ = 8.5 1026 N m.

1.9 hzv Pmi \xzv P UPmk

mh[P, zv E ES
zuzuU PnUQkP.
q1 d q2
uP : q1 = + 12 n C; +12nc -24nc
q2 = 24 n C; q3 = +31n C; P
q4 = +17 n C; d = 1.3 m d d

r
w : +31nc +17nc
q3 d=1.3m q4
P G zu,

1 q1 q 2 q 3 q 4
V = 4 + + +
o r r r r

d 1.3
u r = = = 0.919 m
2 2

zu mh = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= (12 24 + 31 + 17) 109
q = 36 109 C

9 109 36 109
V =
0.919

V = 352.6 V

1.10 20 cm UP A ABC G \UP UPnzv Ea]P

2 109C, +3 109C, 4 109C BQ mh[P
UPmk G, mh[P A, B C

42
 UPnzv UP[P A
-9
-2 x 10 C
P A1, B1
C1&US |Pzu \k
U PnUQkP. /
A C
/

uP : q1 = 2 109C;
q2 = +3 109C;

C
-9
10
-9
-4 x 10 C

x
q3 = 4 109C; C

+3
B /
B
AB = BC = CA = 20cm = 0.20 m
w : mh A zu B
1 q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3 q1
U = 4 + +
o r r r

mh[P A, B C &UP A1, B1

C1US Cha] \ \k ,
W = Uf Ui
Ui Uf G A, uhUP Cv
zu B,
9 109
Ui = [6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.20
= 4.5 107 J
9 109
Uf = [6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.10
= 9 107J
\k = 9 107 (4.5 107)
W = 4.5 107J

1.11 i mh, 2 cm u 9 104 N C1 zu

EUSQx G mh } AhzvU PnUQkP.
uP : E = 9 104 N C1, r = 2 cm = 2 102 m

w : E = 2 r
o

= E 2or

43
 1 1
= 9 104 2 2 o = 9
9 2 10 18 10
18 10
= 107 C m1
1.12 J mh, Au PU Psk A 10 cm
B, J P i P \
6 103 Nm2 C1 A zu EUSQx, G

(i) P B Ch[PUPkx
\ zv AU PnUQkP.
(ii) mhzv v G?
uP : = 6 103 N m2 C1; r = 10 cm = 10 102 m
w : (i) P B C h[PUPkx, v
\ x. H,
E zu mhzua \x A u
Bzua \x Ax.
= 6 103 N m2 C1

q
(ii) = or q = (8.85 1012 6 103)
o

q = 5.31 108 C

1.13 J Cnzumk uUQ, uPkP 200 cm2. A

umkP 1 mm Ch zx UPmk G
(i) uUQUS 1nC mh AUPk x, uPkPUS
Ch zu k, (ii) Au mhzvS (1n C)
Chzu 2 mmUS AvPUPmh v zu k
(iii) uPkPUQh BQU PnUQkP.
uP : d = 1 mm = 1 103m; A = 200 cm2 or 200 104 m2 ;
q = 1 nC = 1 109 C ;

w : uUQ uUSzv
o A 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
C = =
d 1 10 3
C = 0.177 109 F = 0.177 nF

44
 (i) uPkPUQh zu k
q 1 10 9
V= = = 5.65 V
C 0.177 10 9
(ii)
uPkPUQh u 1 mm-x 2mm&US
AvPUS x uUS v C h[PPU S. zu
k C h[S AvPUS.
v zu k = 5.65 2 = 11.3 V
(iii)

q 1 10 9
E = = A . = 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
o o

= 5650 N C1

1.14 P {mh, J Cnzumk uUQ uUSv

8 pF. umkPUQh E u vP SUPmk, Au
Ch P 6 Psh P
{k x uUSzv G?
uP : Co = 8 pF , r = 6, P E x u
d Bx d/2 BP .

Ao
w : Co = = 8pF
d
u vP SUPmk, P Ch
{k x, v uUSv,
r A o 2 r A o
C = =
d /2 d
= 2r Co
C = 2 6 8 = 96 pF

1.15 hzv Pmi Cn C1

10 F
uS uUSz vU
C3
PnUQk.
4 F
uP : C1 = 10F ; C2
C2 = 5F ; 5 F

C3 = 4F

45
 w : (i) C1 C2 uhn CnU Pmk.
uh n CnUPmk uUQ Tmh
uS uUS v
1 1 1
= +
CS C1 C 2

1 1
= +
10 5
10 5 10
CS = = F
10 + 5 3
(ii) CS Bx C3&h UP Cn CnUPmkx. UP
Cn, uUQP uS uUSzv
Cp = Cs + C3
10 22
= + 4 = F
3 3
Cp = 7.33 F
1.16 J Cnzumk uUQ uPmi 90 cm2. A
umkP 2.5 mm Ch zx UPmk.
uUQx 400 V zxh CnUPmk
\kQx G, Av uUQ UPmk {
B G?
uP : A = 90 cm2 = 90 104 m2; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 103 m;
V = 400 V
w : Cnzumk uUQ uUSzv
o A 8.85 10 12 90 10 4
C= =
d 2.5 10 3
= 3.186 1011 F
1
uUQ B = C V2
2

1
= 3.186 1011 (400)2
2
B = 2.55 10-6 J

46
 u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

1.1 J Psniz usk, mkz xoh uUPk x

+8 1012 C mhzu HQx. Ax HUPsh Ax Cu
GUmP GsoUP
(a) 5 107 (Hx) (b) 5 107 (Cux)
(c) 2 108 (Cux) (d) 8 1012 (Cux)

1.2 C mh[P, r = 6 Psh FhPzv, d u

zx UPku ES { \ 0.3 N.
hzv, Au u zx UPmh,
Amh[PUQh \
(a) 20 N (b) 0.5 N
(c) 1.8 N (d) 2 N

1.3 J mhzvx 2 m u a \
400 V m1
Gzu Au a \ 100 V m1 BP
A?
(a) 50 cm (b) 4 cm
(c) 4 m (d) 1.5 m

1.4 C mh[P +4q +q, 30 cm u zx

UPmk. Amh[P CnUS Pmi x
G _S?
(a) mh +q&x 15 cm
(b) mh +q&x 7.5 cm
(c) mh +4q&x 20 cm
(d) mh +q&x 5 cm

47
1.5 ^ zv, zvS CnP, Au Aa_ A J
C UPmh, Ax Enx
(a) zu \ mk
(b) v \ mk
(c) zu \ v \ Csh
(d) zu \ A, v \ A
1.6 C zvx x u A
zu, GuS |zuP AQx?
1 1
(a) (b)
x2 x3
1 1
(c) (d)
x4 x 3/2
1.7 a UP Psh \xzv |S P A, B, C DUP
mh[P +q, +q, q q UPmk.
\xzv O & zux,
1 q 1 2q
(a) 4 a (b) 4 a
o o

1 4q
(c) 4 a (d) _
o

1.8 C mh[P zu B (U) ...... BS.

q1q 2 q 1q 2
(a) 4 r 2 (b) 4 r
o o

(c) pE cos (d) pE sin

1.9 \ zu E C PUS Ch 500 C
mhzu |Pzu \k
(a) _ (b) |US v
(c) GvUS v (d) i
1.10. RUPsh AP Gx P AS?
(a) C vz v (b) \
(c) (d) zu

48
1.11 kv AS
(a) C2 N1 m2 (b) N m2 C2
(c) H m1 (d) N C2 m2
1.12 1 T mhzvx ES \UPkP GsoUP
(a) 1.129 1011 (b) 1.6 1019
(c) 6.25 1018 (d) 8.85 1012
1.13 mh Ahzv Psh, C Gvv mh EPz
uPkPUS E
+
(a) (b)
2 o 2 o

(c) (d) _S.
o
1.14 J Cnzumk uUQ uUS vx, umkPUQh
P U Psk {u, 5 Fx 60 FUS
AvPUQx. P P
(a) 65 (b) 55
(c) 12 (d) 10
1.15 mh Eh EP x J, _ zu
GP uUQx?
(a) PzvS (b) Au
(c) Pzv Em (d) C h[S uUS A
1.16 { T vU T, Au Uh izuU
Sk.
1.17 kv J kv G G? A G
uhkzumk.
1.18 xu uzuzu US.
1.19 J . Au APU T, J
mhzu Hk zvP P P.
1.20 \U PkP sPU TP.
1.21 C G G? C vz v
.

49
1.22 ^ zv UPmk C x \k
v \UP P P.
1.23 J ^ ^ zv J C UPk
x {Px G?
1.24 C Aa_U Pmi E J , |kU
Pmi E J a \P P P.
1.25 J zu . Cx J P A Ax
Uh A? J mhzu Hk zuzvP
P P.
1.26 zu zu k C kzxP.
1.27 \ zu G G?
1.28 C mh[P A zu B G
G? AuP P P.
1.29 C Hk AzuzvP P P.
1.30 zu . Au APz uP.
1.31 P vU T. Cu kzv, (i) ^ mh Ahzv
Psh i, }sh, | Phzv (ii) q mh Eh
i \u uPk, BQ zu [PU PnUQkP.
1.32 uUQ G G? Au uUSzv .
1.33 uUQ uzxzu . J Cnzumk uUQ
uUSz vUP P P.
1.34 P G G? J Cnzumk uUQ
umkPUQh P zu u Hk
.
1.35 J Cnzumk uUQ J Pzxh CnUPmkx.
uPkPUS Ch E uUSa \ ui Psh
P , uPkPUQh Szukx
(i) uUQ uUSzv, (ii) uPkPUQh
(iii) uPkPUQh zu k, C G
HkQx?
1.36 uUQP uhn, UP Cn CnUPk
x uS uUSz vPU PsP.

50
 q2
1.37 J Cnzumk uUQ, \zx UPk B G
2C
{P.
1.38 P UP G G?
1.39 &i&Q uzx, A \k
uzu .
1.40 Ci, x J zvi {u h J P (car)
E Cx xPx. H?

PnUSP
1.41 C mh[P Tku 6 C. hzv 40 cm
Ch A UPk x 0.9 N \h J
J PQx G, Amh[PU PnUQkP.
1.42 J ] mh P[P J 2 103 N
\h mkQ. J Pzv u mh u
C h[S BS. mh[P J x
10 cm uUS |Pzv \x 5 104 N
BS. Amh[P, AQh Au Bz
u PnUQkP.
1.43 J \xzv |S P +q, +2q, +q q BQ
mh[P UPmk. q = 5/3 109C G, 10 cm
UP Psh Aa\xzv mh[P miU P
zuU PnUQkP.
1.44 10 109 C 20 109 C G C mh[P, 0.3 m
u zx UPmk. C mh[P Chz
u zu a \U
PsP.
1.45 5 mm u zx UPmh, 2 1010 C
2 10 10 mh[P Psh Cx 10 V m1
^ zv 60o Pnzv UPmkx. (i) J
mhzv x \k \ Gs v v\
(ii) zu \kzuk v \ BQU PsP.

51
1.46 J C mh[P 2 106 C 2 106
C Csk, 1 cm u zx UPmk. C
(i) Aa_UPmi, Au zvx 1 m u
E (ii) |kU Pmi, zvx 1 m u
E BQ Hk zuU PnUQkP.
1.47 +q 3q G C mh[P 1 m u zx
UPmk. Au Aa_UPmi, mh[PUS Ch
G zu _S?
1.48 60 cm UP[P Psh J \UP UPnzv Ea]P +1 C,
+3 C 5 C mh[P UPmk.
Cmh[P A zu BU PnUQkP.
1.49 10 cm Chz u 12 C 8 C G C |
mh[P zx UPmk. Chzu 6 cm BP
CUS, A 4 cm u |UQU Psk \
si U PnUQkP.
1.50 J Eh, 10 cm UP Psh P \xzv zv 8.85 C
mh UPmkx. Au J UPzv P
\ zuU PsP.
1.51 0.12 m B Psh, P i Phzv x
1.6 107 C mh ^P x. (i) Pzv E
(ii) Pzv x (iii) Pzv zvx 0.18 m u
E GS?
1.52 J 4 102 sq m Psh J Cnzumk
uUQ umkPUQh 103 m ui Psh P
SzukQx. P J kv 7
G, uUQ uUSzvU PnUQkP.
1.53 C uUQP, uhn UP Cn
CnUPkQ. Cu C CnP QhUP
uS uUSz vP 6 F 25F G,
AuUQP uUSzvPU PnUQkP.
1.54 uUSzv 0.5 F 0.75 F Psh C uUQP UP
Cn CnUPmk J Ah 110 V P
CnUPmkx. zv mh J
uUQ E mh PsP.

52
 30 F
C1
1.55 uUQP UP Cn CnUPmk
100 V Pzxh CnUPmku h C2
20 F

PmkQx. uUQ uS \zx

UPmk zu B G? 10 F
C3

1.56 J Cnzumk uUQx, Smh

zuzv UPkQx. uPkPUQh 100V
3 mm ui Psh J SzukQx.
uPkPUS Ch E zuzu UP, uPkP
Chzu 2.4 mm. AvPUPkQx. zv P
U PnUQkP.
1.57 J Cnzumk uUQ uPkPUQh E Ch
|Q Sv, P 3 Eh P
{kQx. P \zx UPmk
B \uu G?
2 F
C2
C1
1.58 hzv Pmhmk A
D B
uUQP mhzuU PsP.
2 F
AP Ch E C3
1 F
zu mhU PsP.
120V
1.59 J 9 pF uUSzv Psh uUQP uh
n CnUPmk. uS zu uUSzv
x? uSx 120 V zxh CnUPkx, J
uUQ Ch E zu k x?

53
 hP

1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (c) 1.4 (c) 1.5 (d)

1.6 (a) 1.7 (d) 1.8 (b) 1.9 (a) 1.10 (d)

1.11 (a) 1.12 (a) 1.13 (d) 1.14 (c) 1.15 (c)

1.35 (i) AvPUS (ii) vUS (iii) vUS

1.41 q1 = 8 106C , q2 = 2 106 C
1.42 q1 = 33.33 109C, q2 = 66.66 109C, x = 0.1 m
1.43 0.9 104Vm1
1.44 V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm1
1.45 2 109N, zv v\, = 0.866 1011 Nm
1.46 360 N/C, 180 N C1
1.47 +q --x 0.25 m u
1.48 0.255 J
1.49 5.70 J
1.50 1.67 105 N m2 C1
1.51 _, 105 N C1, 4.44 104 N C1
1.52 2.478 109F
1.53 C1 = 15 F, C2 = 10F
1.54 q = 137.5 C, q1 = 55 C, q2 = 82.5 C
1.55 0.3 J
1.56 r = 5
1.57 50%
1.58 q1 = 144 106C, q2 = 96 106C, q3 = 48 106C
V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V
1.59 3 pF, J 40 V

54
 2. mh
mh[P CUPzu UPUTi C J
mhS. mh u EPU Phzv J
AqUPh CUPP nUPhu J ] GUmP, J[P
C[S A[SP uhx C[QU Psh CUS.
CUP AP B xuP Cu, uzu AqUP
UTmi E GUmP kUPmk
C[SQ. B, Gu J , mh[P uS
Kmh _S. G, mh {Px. Cu GUmP Pmk
GUmP (free electrons) Gk. Pmk GUmP, Smh
v\ C[P UPz uk B US \ (emf)
G. US \ Gx \. B. J x
US KS mhzu |Pzua \k S.
Phzv, J Smh v\ Pmk GUmP Kmh
mhzu (current) HkzxQx.
2.1 mh
Phzv J J Sv mh u
mh G UPkQx. Phzv J Sv t Pzv
Phx \ zu mh q G, mh I = q / t. q AS
T. t AS i. mh I B SUPk. mh
u ^P Ai mh Pzu zx k.
dq
G mhzv Pnv i = GU T.
dt
mh J P A. | mh[P CUP v\
Ax GUmP CUP v\US Gv v\ mhzv
v\PU Pk.
J i E
2.1.1. C v\P
CUP Gs (Drift velocity and X Y
mobility) vd

Pzxh CnUPmh XY
G PhzvU PxP (h 2.1). X&
Cx YI |UQa \k E G
h 2.1 mhU Phzv
^ Phzv {kQx.

55
 Cu { Phzv E Pmk GUmP Gz
v\P C[QU PsiUQ. Cu mh Hhx.
B, \kzumhh Y E GUmP,
zvS Gv v\ F = eE G \ En. Cu,
GUmP kUPhx, Jh, Phzv E |
APh uUSmkQ.
u P GUmP x UQ \
\k. G, C xP, zvS Gv v\, vd G
^ \\ Cz v\zxh ukQ. zvx
\k zv, Phzv Pmkh CUPzv E
GUmP x voUPk v\P Cz v\P G
UPkQx. C uPUS Chmh \\U P G
GUm kUP a G Psh, C v\P.
v d = a
m { Psh GUm En \
F = ma
eE
G, a =
m
eE
vd = = E
m
e
C[S = Gx CUP Gs (mobility) Gk. Cx KS
m
Psh zv k C v\P G
UPkQx. Cu AS m2V1s1. C v\P
US |zuP A. Cu v 0.1 cm s1.A PU
SP CUS.
2.1.2 mh Ahzv (Current density)
J mh Ahzv Gx, A, mh
C[S v\US \[SzuPU Puk, KS KS
Pzv mhzv A G UPkQx.
A SUS mk Psh Phzv I
mhzvP mh Ahzv J Gx
(q /t ) I
J = =
A A
mh Ahzv Uh AS. Cx A m2 G AP
SUPk.
*US mh Pn | mh i G
Smi mh[P I G Smi Ch
SUPmk.
56
2.1.3 mhzvS C v\PzvS E uh
L }, A SUS mk Psh XY G PhzvU
PxP (h 2.1). Au PUQh E Psh
\kzukQx. Phzv KS E Pmk
GUmP GsoUP n GP. GUmP vd G { C
v\Pzxh ChUPP C[S.
Phzv E Pmk GUmP GsoUP = nAL
GUm mh = e
Phzv zu mh = q = (nAL) e
L
mh[P Phzv \ BS P, t = v
d

q (nAL )e
Phzv mh, I = = (L /v )
t d

I = nAevd ...(1)
Phzv mh, C v\PzvS
|zuP A.
I
\k (1) Cx, = nevd
A
I
J = nevd J = A , mh Ah zv

2.1.4. K v (Ohm's law)

\ K G zu miS mhzvS
E uh {. Cx K v Gk. K Phzv
mh
I = nAevd
eE
B vd = .
m
eE
I = nAe
m
nAe 2 V
I = V E = L
mL
mL
C[S, V Gx zu k. G A
nAe 2
PkUPmh PhzvUS S. Cx Phzv uh (R) Gk.

57
 I V
Cvi, {, Phzv J ^
mh Phzv US Chmh zu miS
|zuP A.
1
Aux I V Ax I = V
R Y
V
V = IR Ax R =
I
Phzv J PUS Chmh I
zu miS Au
mhzvS E uP Phzv uh
G UPkQx. uh AS 0
V X
ohm ().
h 2.2 KU Phzv
uh uR Phzxz v
V-I h
(Conductance) BS. Cu AS mho (1)
zu k V, mh I US |zuP Au V
IUS Chmh h (h 2.2) J PhzvUS |PhP A.
Phzv J ^ mh x mk K v
x.
2.1.5 u uh Gs Phzx Gs
Phzv J uhx (R), Au }zvS (l) |zuP,
SUS mk S (A) GvzuP A.
l l
R Ax R =
A A
Gx Phzv _ uh Ax u uh Gs
Gk.
l = l m, A = l m2, G = R
KS }, KS SUS mk Psh Phzv J
mhzvS Hkzx uh AUPhzv u uh Gs
G UPkQx. - AS ohm m ( m). Cx J Smh EP
US S.
1
u uh Gso uR Phzx Gs Gk, = .
Phzx Gso AS mho m1 (1 m1)

58
2.1.6. u uh Gso Aih P
Pkzxu
uuh Gs Gx J ] BS. P,
PhzvP (conductors) P P (insultators) G C
PP UP. 106 108 m G A Su u uh
Gs Psh EP[P, EPU PP (alloys) |PhzvPP
A. C AvP B C Hh mhzuz u[Qa
\. GkzxUPmkP: , A, u, C, h[h,
{U, [P, Phh. { Ex EP[P
u uh { Gs E. P PUS 108 1014 m
G A P AvP u uh Gs CUS. mhzvS P AvP
uhz u. CP Phzu P Gk.
GkzxUPmkP: Psni, UP, A (amber), Sm, UPmh,
hL (Teflon), Um. C PPUS Chmh P
S PhzvP (semi conductors) BS (Amhn 2.1). C Phzx
u S. S PhzvP u uh Gs 102 104 m A
A. GkzxUPmkP : , ]P.

Amhn 2.1 A{ u uh GsP

(uUS Eu)

Pk (
m)

PhzvP 1.6 108

u 1.7 108
A 2.7 108
C 10 108

S PhzvP 0.46
]P 2300

P P Psni 1010 1014

UPmh 108 1011
Sm 1013
C 1013 1016

59
2.2 UPhzxz v (Super conductivity)
\un PhzvP, Su {P AvP Phzxzv
Q. PU Su {P, J ] EP[P, AP
\[P EPU PP uh _ v Ah. _
uhh mhzuU Phzx A u UPhzxzv
Gk. Cs kzx P UPhzvP (super con-
ductors) Gk.
UPhzxz v u P[U K (Kammerlingh Onnes)
G 1911 Pshu. 4.2K (h 2.3)
{ u\zv uh vj
_ v AhuU Pshu. 1957
m, T, PL BQ
Phzx sUP PP UP
umhx. Cx BCS PP Gk.
R( )
\un PhzvP, u[P uh
vj Cx UPhzvPP Q
0 4.2 K
{ { Ax
T (K)
{ { Tc (Transition tempera-
ture) Gk. { h 2.3 u\zv
kP PnkQ. UPhzx v

1. uuh Gs _Qx.
2. Phzx Gs i (Infinity) v AhQx.
3. Pu U PkP x JxUQz ukQ.

UPhzvP P
1. UPhzx CP (generators) AP, B \
v APP UPhzvP E.
2. UPhzxz v Psh Pu[P C siP
ush[P Cx Ezu kQ. PU Su B
kzv C si P AvP Pzxh \zu.
3. CUPmkP Eu, xnUPP |iP A
mhuUS H, UPhzxv Psh Pu H AP
kzu.

60
 4. UPhzxv Psh Pu[PU Psk, uxUP
zukUS, Pz v u Gv[P EUP. CU Pu[P
kzv | { E \P Cx, PmiP (Tumor)
EUS \P, AvPa \ UP Puzu Psk UP.
5. UPhzx { E PhzvP mhzv
CUS. BP A AU PP kzu.
6. PoP (Computer) { (A) \US AihU
TPPa \kQ.
2.3 P uhUQP (Carbon resistors)
_UP uhUQP A uP EUS \
AvPP E. G, P uhUQP kzu
kQ. P iP k UPmh \U (Ceramic)
EPzu Bx P uhUQS. CP, A
]uP, {zuhuP, SxP E.
P uhUQP uh vP, A x {U SkP
Cmk SUPk (Amhn 2.2). {U Sk Eh P
uhUQ J E Ax u[P ,
uh k AU (tolerance) SUS. Aux, uh
mk a\U (+) SUQx. , u[P, ], {
[P mk AP 10%, 5%, 2%, 1% BS.
C { Hx
, mk A 20% G Amhn 2.2 P
k. Akzu E uhUQP {USk
u Csk [P uh { Gs
v UQ GsqUPS.
P 0
Cuh UP si 10&
AkUQ Ax _P (zeroes) 1
GsoUP x ] 2
SUQx. Bg_ 3
GkzxUPmk : h 2.4 u g\ 4
g\ zvS Gs 4. Akzu a\ 5
Fu zvS Gs 7,
} 6
x zvSx 103
BS. zv Fu 7
mk A 10% G zu Q 8
uh 47 103 + 10% BS. s 9

61
 Fu P
g\ Bg_ ]

4 7 000 + 10% 1 0 00 5 %
h 2.4 P
h 2.5 P uh
uhUQ {USk
Aux 47K, 10%. h 2.5& 1 k , 5% P uhUQ Pmh
mkx.
uPzv, |S {USk P uhUQP
kzukQ. ] Smh kP 1% 2% mk
AP kzukQ.
2.4 uhUQP uS (Combination of resistors)
uhUQPU Psh G _P K v
kzv uS uhU Pn. uhUQP uh
UP CnP CnUP.

2.4.1. uh Cn uhUQP (Resistors in series)

h 2.6 Pmii R
uhP CnUPmk
R1 R2 R3 R4
R1, R2, R3, R4 uh I
Psh uhUQPU
V1 V2 V3 V4
Px.
h 2.6 uhn
uhUQP
uhUQP
uhP Ex, J
uhUQ P J A mh .
uhUQP uS PUS Ch \zuk
zu k VG, R1, R2, R3 R4 uhUQPUS
Chmh zu k = V1, V2, V3, V4
K vi V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, V4 = IR4 V = IRs
C[S RS Gx uh Cn uS uS uh
BS.
G IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 or RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
BP, uhP CnUPmk uhUQPUS uS
uh, uzu uhUQP uh[P TkuUSa \.

62
2.4.2 UP Cn uhUQP (Resistors in Parallel)
h 2.7 Pmii UP V
Cn \UPmk R1, R2, R3, R1
R4 uh Psh |S uhU I1
QPU Px. CzuSh V R2
I2
US \ Psh
A R3 B
CnUPmkx. uhUQP
I I3
UP Cn Ex, J R4
uhUQ SUP zu I4
k V &USa \.
R
uS Ah I G h 2.7 UP Cn
mh I1, I2, I3, I4 G x uhUQP
R1, R2, R3, R4 \.
Cx
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4.
K vi
V V V V V
I1 = R , I2 = R , I3 = R , I4 = R I = R
1 2 3 4 P

C[S RP Gx UP Cnz uS uS uh BS.

V V V V V
= + + +
RP R1 R2 R3 R 4

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R P R1 R 2 R3 R 4

G, uhUQP UP Cn CnUPkx,
uzu uhUQP uh uRP Tku, uS
uh uRUSa \
2.5 {a \u uh
P u uh Gs { zx k.
{ E x PhzvP uh AvPUS. 0oC&
Phzv uh Ro to C Au Phzv uh Rt G,
Rt = Ro (1 + t)
Cv Gx uh { Gs (Temperature Co-efficient of
resistance) Gk.

63
 Rt Ro
= Ro t
1o C { E Hk
uh miS, 0oC& E
uhUS E uP uh { R( )
Gs G UPkQx. { R0
zx uh Hk k
h 2.8 Pmhmkx. 0C T (C)
EP[P |US uh h 2.8
{ Gs Psh. Aux, {a \u
{ Ex A uh uh
AvPUS. P P S
PhzvP GvUS uh { Gs Psh. Aux,
{ Ex A uh S. GvUS uh
{ Gs Psh (Thermistor) G AUPk.
EPU PP uh { Gs SP CUS.
2.6 Pzv APuh (Internal resistance of a cell)
J _ zu, mh Pzv | Cx
GvUS Aa_ E TP a \.
mhx uha]P A, Pzv E S
vzv (electrolyte) P Au Gv Cx |US
mh sk. C Pzv mh \
{P, Pzv E S v mhzvS J
uhz uQx. Cx Pzv APuh Gk.
vuPz uUPmh Pzv APuh SP A.
|h Au APuh AvPUS.
m mhU Psk
Pzv APuhU + V

Pn
h&2.9 Pmii
E
Cna \kQx. \ K
I
vu { Ex,
PzvS SUPP E
R
uh Psh m mh K
Cnzx, Pzv US h 2.9 P AP uh
\ E AhkQx.

64
Euh m mh UPh PU Su mhzu
GkzxU P. Bu _ vu _P Pu. G
m mh Ak Pzv US \z u. R G ]
vh uh a_ CnUPmk, \ K hkQx. RUS
Chmh zu k Pzv SUP E zu
miS (V) \.
RUS Chmh zu k, V = IR ...(1)
Pzv APuh r PnP, m mh Pmk
Ax V, Pzv US \hU SP A.
Cx, V = E Ir Ax Ir = EV
...(2)
\k (2)I \k (1) B SUP
Ir E V E V R
= or r =
IR V V
E,V R vP uu Pzv APuh rIU
PnUQh.
2.7 Qa\L vP (Kirchoff's laws)
1
K v G _PUS
mk kzu. ]UP _PUS 5 2
I5 I1
Qa\L vP kzv mh I2
Ax zuzuU Pn. Cv C
I4 O
xvP E. 1. Qa\L mh I3
v 2. Qa\L zu v
3
Qa\L u v : (mh v) 4

J _, Gu \v h 2.10 Qa\L
\vUQ mh[P S mh v
TmkzuP _S.
\v |UQa \ mh |US Ehx G
\v Cx a\ mh GvUS Ehx G
Pkx . h 2&10 Pmii, J _ E 1,2,3,4,5
G PhzvP O G \v \vuPU Px. PhzvP
\ mh[P I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 G, Qa\L u
vi,
I1 + (I2) + (I3) + I4 + I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 + I5 = I2 + I3.
\v |UQa \ mh[P Tku, \vx

65
a\ mh[P TkuUSa \. Cu vx
mh A vi AQx.
Qa\L Csh v (zu v)
J i _ SvP E uh
mh BQ UQ AP S Tmkzu
Ai _ E US \P S TmkzuPUSa \.
Cv B Ai AQx.
_ PUS Qa\L v kzx x, mh
v\ g_ Ax Chg_PU Psk. PnUSPUSz
w Pqx, | Pv mh v\x mhzv
v\ Ai mh GvUSh A. mh
|USh Au, | Pv v\ Es mh
A.
Smh v\U Pv S, A I1 B C
PnUS US Au v\ R2
I2 I3
kzu sk GuU Pzv
R3 R4
P sk. G, R1
Qa\L Csh v kzx
I1
x g_Pa \ m E1 r1 E2 r2 E3 r3
h[P |US EhuP, D
F R6 I4 E R5 I3
Chg_Pa \ mh[P
GvUS EhuP Px. h 2.11a Qa\L vP

h 2.11a- Pmi _U Pu.

ABCDEFA G i uU Pv,
I1R2 + I3R4 + I3r3 + I3R5 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 + E3
E1, E3 G C P[P mh[P g_P
A.
ABEFA G i uUS
I1R2 + I2R3 + I2r2 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 E2
E2 Eh E GvUS, Au mh Chg_P AuU
SUS.
Qa\L Csh v mh UP
_P mhzuU PnUQk.

66
GkzxUPmk 1 A I1 B I2 C
h 2.11b& Qa\L u I3
v B \vUS kzu 132 60
20
I1 I2 I3 = 0
I3 = I1 I2 ...(1) 200V 100V

ABEFA G i uUS F D
I1 E I2
132 I3 + 20I1 = 200 ...(2) h 2.11b Qa\L vP
\k (1)I \k (2)
vh
132 (I1 I2) + 20I1 = 200
152I1 132I2 = 200 ...(3)
BCDEB, G i uUS
60I2 132I3 = 100
I3 v (1) Cx 10 50V 5 70V
A I
vh B
60I2 132 (I1 I2) 0.5 0.5

= 100 8

132I1 + 192I2 = 100...(4) 10

\kP (3) (4)Iz

wUP 40V 5 30V

Il = 4.39 A I2 = 3.54 A D C
0.5 0.5
GkzxUPmk 2 h 2.11c Qa\L vP
h 2.11c Pmhmk i _ ABCDA Pa \
mh g_P AuPU Pv, mh |US
EhuS.
10 I + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 I + 8 + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 + 10 I = 50 70 30 + 40
I ( 10 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 8 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 10) = 10
40 I = 10

10
I = = 0.25 A
40

GvUSx, mh Chg_P uU SUQx.

67
2.7.1 mh \a_ (Wheatstone's B
I3
bridge) P Q
Ig
Qa\L vP UQ k
mh \a _ BS (h 2.12). mh I1 G
\a _ P, Q, R, S G uhP J A I2 C
i _ EUS CnUPmk.
E US\ Psh P A C S
R
PUQh CnUPmkx. Pz I4
vx k I G mh I1, I2, D
I3, I4 G |S SvPP Qx.
Pmh \ mh
Ig. P mh uh G. I
E
Qa\L mh v B \vUS h 2.12 mh
kzu \a _
I1 Ig I3 = 0 ...(1)
Qa\L mh v D \vUS kzu
I2 + Ig I4 = 0 ...(2)
Qa\L zu v ABDA G i uUS kzu
I1 P + IgG I2 R = 0 ...(3)
Qa\L zu v ABCDA G i uUS kzu
I1P + I3Q I4S I2R = 0 ...(4)
Pmh _ UP Pmkx, B D P J
zuzv A. Ig = 0 BS. Ig = 0 G \kP (1), (2),
(3) vh
I1 = I 3 ...(5)
I2 = I 4 ...(6)
I1P = I2R ...(7)
\kP (5), (6), (7) vP \k (4) vh
I1P + I1Q I2S I2R = 0
I1 (P + Q) = I2 (R+S) ...(8)
\k (8)I \k (7) B SUP
I1(P + Q ) I 2 (R + S )
=
I1P I 2R
P +Q R +S
=
P R

68
 Q S
1+ =1+
P R
Q S P R
= Ax =
P R Q S
Cx \a _ \{ AuP {uS. P, Q,
R vP uu uh S- vU PnUQh.
2.7.2 mh \a _ (Metre bridge)
mh \a _ i mh \a _S.
uh UPoUPzuUP uizu u mhP P x
zumk. u mhPUS Ch G1, G2 G C
ChP E. J mh }, ^ ui Psh [P
P AC APUS CnP P x Czx
zumkx (h 2.13). P P C u mhP
P UPmk (soldered). v uu P G uh
G1 Ch, Q G izu (standard) uh G2 Ch
CnUPmk. P Q
J G EPz
ukPx B
Pmh (G) G
1 2 G
E uh G HR
(HR) BQh J
A C
uhP CnUP l
1 2l
mk B Eh Cn
Qx. ukP ( )
K
P Hu J Bt
uk h 2.13 mh \a _
\x Cn
Hkzu. AC P PUSU SUP Ug] P
\ CnUPmk.
mh \a _ P x ukP |Pzv Pmh
mh _S \sk. C J GP. P
AJ JC SvP mh \a _ R, S G uhPUS
vP AQ. Cx
P R r .AJ
= =
Q S r .JC
r Gx KS }U P uhS.

69
 P AJ l1
= =
Q JC l 2
C[S AJ = l1 JC = l2
l1
P = Ql
2

UPoUPzuUP A uhh ui u
mhPh uhP CnUPmhv, P AC& P
l1
mhPh UPmiu, uh PnP l &
2
v ] Hk. Cz uUP, P Q Ch
\x \ \ J&Bx P AC& zvS AQ
CUS AkP SUPmk, P & \\ v PnUQhh sk.
2.7.3 u uh Gs Pn
P uh (P), B (r) } (L) BQ vP
P r 2
u P u uh Gsn = G
L
\mhU Psk PnUQh.
2.7.4 uh { GsnU Pn
t1, t2, {P Pa _ J uhP R1, R2
R 2 R1
G, P uh Gs = G \mi
R1t 2 R 2t1
PnUQhkQx.
2.8 zu (Pontentiometer)
zu mh Ah k P
zuS (h 2.14). Cv 10 mh } Psh ^
[P Ax Phh P, P x zumkx.
10 mh Px 1 mh
} Psh 10 SvPP,
JUP CnP A
zu miUS.
PUS CnP mh
AP J zu
miUS. Ph
Cn Hkzu uk
B
P J kQx.
h 2.14 zu

70
2.8.1 zu uzx
zuU ( )
P A, B PUS I Bt K
Ch J P AkUS
J
Bt, \ K BQ A B
CnUPmk.
Cx zuU G HR
P I G ^ E
mh h 2.15 zu uzx
(h 2.15). Cx ua
_S. K u P, Pmh, E uh
ukPh uhP CnUPmk, Au | zu
A h CnUPmkx. Cx xna _S.
A JUS Chmh zu k, P US
\USa \S x, P mh mh x.
Cx Pmh _ UP Pmk. AJ Gx \ \ }
(Balancing length) Gk. \ \ } l G, AJUS Chmh
zu k, AJ = Irl BS. r Gx KS }U P uh
I Gx ua _ \ mh.
E = Irl,
I r PP Au, E l
G, P US\, \ \ }zvS |zuP
A. Cx zu uzxS.
2.8.2 zu
kzv PkUPmh
C PP ( )
Rh
I Bt K
US \P Jh
zuU P AB J
A B
Bx, P AkUS (Bt), \ E1

(K), uh (Rh) C1 D1
BQh uhP CnU C D G HR
Pmkx (h 2.16). Cx C2 D2
ua _S. zu
A , DPDT- E2

\ (DPDT-Double Pole h 2.16 C PP

Double Throw) C, US \P Jh

71
Eh CnUPmkx. \ D Eh Pmh
(G), E uh (HR), ukP (J) BQ uhP CnUP
mk. DPDT \ C1, D1 PUS Ch E1 US \
Psh P, C2, D2 PUS Ch E2 US \ Psh
P CnUPmk.
ua _ mh I G, KS }
zuU P uh r G PxP.
DPDT \ C D P C1 D1 Ph
Cn ia \u, E1 P xna _ CnUPk.
uk \ zuU P x |Pzv Pmh
_UP Pmkia \kQx. \ \ } l1US Chmh
zu k = Irl1. zu uzxi,
E1 = Irl l ...(1)
E2 P xna _ Cni DPDT \a \\u S,
P mh _ UPzvP \ \ } l2 PnUQhkQx.
\ \ } l2 US Chmh zu k = Irl2
E2 = Irl 2 ...(2)
\kP (1)I, (2) B SUP
E1 l1
=
E2 l2

J P US \ (E1) uu vhx G,
P US \ (E2)

l2
E2 = E 1 G uh kzvU PnUQh.
l1

2.8.3 US \ zu mh Jh
1. vu _, J P C PUS Chmh
zu[P k US\ Gk. i _
Hu C P zu[P k, zu k
Gk.
2. US \ _ CnUPmk uha \ux
A. B zu hx, C PUS Chmh
uhUS |zuP A.

72
2.9 v
R uh Psh Phzv I mh t PzvS
u, Phzv \ mhzv A, q = It. Azu
k V Psh C PUQh \ mh q G,
mhzua \zu \ si = V. q = V It.
mhzv J i \k A
v Gk.
\k VIt
v = = = VI
P t
zu k mhzv UP
vUSa \.
V = IR Gu, v = I2R G A
Gx \ vS. Cu AS joule.
|h Ah m o (Wh) Ax Q m o
(kWh) G AS kQx. 1 kWh A 1 m (unit)
Gk.
(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 3600 J = 36 105 J)
2.9.1 m mh (Wattmeter)
kzuk v Ah k P m mh
BS. Aux, _ J KS Pzv kzuk B
AhU Tix BS. CUP, {P zumh, a _
J \i Pa _PUQh AUPmh C[S _
Ex. C[S _h S J zumiUS. S
x mh APS P C[PU TiuP CUS. Pa
_P mh x,
+
S UPx
vUS |zuP CUS.
2.10 mhzv v

v J
mh v [P + Gv
EUSQx. Ca\ | +
Szu (Electrolysis) Gk.
mh AP h 2.17 v[P Phzxu

73
GvvP P Ah v[P mk mh \ C
(h 2.17). CzuP v[P S v[P (electrolytes) Gk.
S vzv, mhzu E, \zu k
EPz uPkP P (electrodes) Gk. | AP
\h Gv (cathode) G, Gv AP
\h | (anode) G AUPkQ.
| AP Gv AP (cations) Gk. C EP[P
Ax i Cx ES Gv AP | AP
(anions) Gk.
2.10.1 Lh Szu vP (Faradays laws of
electrolysis)
Szu x k u[P AP
\x PoP Lh Bx Au.
u v
Szu x k
{x S vzv mhzvS |zuP
A.
S v J t P AS \zuk
mh I G, Au \zumh mh (q) = I t
k uzv { m G, u vi,
m q Ax m = zIt
C[S z Gx . Cx Azuzv v Gs (electro
chemical equivalent) Gk. Cu AS kg C1. BS.
S v J 1 T mh \x
k uzv { Azuzv v Gs G
UPkQx.
Csh v
S vzv Smh A mh \zuk
x, J k uzv {, Azuzv v
CnUS (Chemical equivalent) |zuP A.
u J v Cn E G, Csh vi,
m E

J Aq{ Aq {
*v Cn = Cnv = C12Aq {
1/12 [S Cnv

74
2.10.2 Lh S vPa \zu
u v : SU
P (Electrolytic cell) Jh
P AkUS, \, uh A
Amh BQ
uhP CnUPkQ
(h 2.18). Gv Bt
Gv
Gkzx, uzxU P, |
xhzx E zu Au
{U Pnsk. Au
sk Chzv zu Rh
sk. I1 A m h 2.18 Lh u va
hzu t P ASa \zu \zu
sk.
Amh Eu mh AhkQx. Gv
Gkzx, |P } A], E zx, sk Au {U Pn
sk. Cx k uzv { m1 kQx.
Gv sk zv, I2 A mhzu t P
AS \zv k uzv { m2 PnUQhkQx.
1m 1 I
Cx, m = I G AuU Pn.
2 2
m I ...(1)
J A I G mh t1, t2 G P A
PUSa \zv, k u[P {P m3 , m4 G
PshkQ.
3m 1 t
Cx, m = t G AuU Pn.
4 2

m t ...(2)
uhP (1), (2) Cx
m It Ax m q . G u v \UPkQx.
Csh v : CuSO4 AgNO3 P\P
Psh C SU P[P, P AkUS, \, uh
Amhh uhP CnUPkQ (h 2.19). CUSO4
P\ u P, AgNO3 P\
P \P sk.

75
 Gv P + +
Gkzx, |Pz
uzxU P, E zu
S A {PU Bt
Pn sk. A
S Ch[P zv ]x A
CuSO4 AgNO3
|zvS mhzua
\zu sk.
GvP
Gkzx |P } A], E
Rh
zu S A {P
h 2.19 Lh Csh
U Pnsk. C
va \zu
x k u
{P m1, m2 GU PnUQhkQ.
m1 E1
Cx, m = E G AuU Pn.
2 2
E1, E2 G u v CnP
BS.
mE
G, Csh v \UPkQx.
2.11 PP (Electric cells)
P (Luige Galvani) Ax ] (Lucia)
\u ] B PP EUPzvS uhUPP
Aux. AP SvPP UPmh (dissected) u
zu PUQP Psk Cz ush[P Cx u[P
mh. u PP Cz ushzuz uku
xU Svzu. Cx, [SPx \ G PzxUS
Szux. Cu S Czu |mha \u A Ab ,
, ] A\sm h (Alessandro
Volta) G v P AkUS EUPmhx. Ax
hmh h P AkUQ u xzu|P mkP
(discs) Akzukzx UPmh uS A EU P\
UPmiu. uPkP AQh UPmh PQu[P
UPmh. C z uPkP \ oh CnUS
x \ o uhx Jzux. Cx \u Cx, C
mh EP[P, C Hu Jh EU
P\ S vP Psk Pzu EUP G
{UPmhx.
76
2.11.1 h P (Voltaic cell)
h Pzv, +
Psni zv J
E }zu PuP Azv Cu Zn
C P UP
mk (h 2.20). J Psni
uzux zv ++ }zu H2SO4
xzu|Pzux.
PzvS , ++
P P CnU
Pk x, mh, h 2.20 h P
a_ uzvx
xzu|PzvS, Pzv xzu|Pzvx uzvS .
Pzv | (A) BhP u, Gv Ax
PuhP xzu|P A. }zu PuP A S vS.
mh AP CUPzv Aih Pzv
\k UPkQx. Gv xzu|P AqUP
AUPmk Zn++ APP P\ \Q. Cu Gv
C GUmP Gv mh EhuQx. Au
\zv u | Cx C GUmP GkzxU Psk,
C m AP (2H+) kQ. Cu u
|mh EhuQx. xzu|Pzv AvPi GUmP
CUS C{P uhx {P. Bu a_
mh . G, Cu G P uhx v B
P z u AP \kQx. C uPkP E
Gvv mh[P PnP u xzu|Pz
uPkPUQh zu k uUPkQx. C[S u
xzu|Pzu h AvP zuzv A. C PUS
Chmh zu k 1.08 V BS.
2.11.2 u P (Primary Cell)
Cu v P uhx
Eu AP u P[P Gk. u Pzv
Sv P P uSu S v BQ
\USx, US \ . h P
Ug] P G Csk UQ u PP
\kP UPkQ. CP P[P mhzu
kzv sk \ Cx.

77
2.11.3 h P
(Daniel cell)
+
h P, }sh
|zvS { mhzu xzu|Pz usk
\zu Cu u P }zu PuP A
BS. u zvzv
~s x sh
umi (saturated) u \Lm
P\ GkzxU PkQx CuSO P\ 4

(h 2.21). ~sx sh u zv
(Porous pot) J E }zu
PuP Azv xzu|Pz usk h 2.21 h P
UPmiUS. ~sx
sh, u \Lm P\ UPmiUS.
xzu|Pz usk PuP Azxh x Zn++ AP
C GUmP u.
Zn++ AP ~sx shzv E xP
\ u \Lm P\h x Cu++AP EUS.
Cu Cu++AP | u zvzv i. h
P _ CnUPkx, xzu|Pz usix C
GUmP _ a \, uzv E u AP
|k{US. Cu uzv Cx xzu|PzvS mh
. h P 1.08V US \z u.
2.11.4 Ug] P (Leclanche cell)

Carbonusk
P Rod
Mixture of MnO2
[P_&h&BUk
P y Pu P
and Charcoal
~sx
Porous Pot sh

xzu|Pz
Zinc Rod usk

Ammonium Sk
A
Chloride Solution
P\
Glass Vesselzv
Psni

h 2.22 Ug] P

78
 ~sx sh J P UPmiUS.
P a _ [P_&h&BUk P y Pu
P UPmiUS (h 2.22). umi { E
A Sk P\ (S v) Psh Psni
zvzv ~sx sh UPmiUS. S vzv
xzu|Pz usk UPmkx.
BUzv xzu|P usi E Zn AqUP Zn++
APP, C GUmPP hQ. Zn++ AP
A Skh x xzu|PU Sh,
A uQ.
Aux, Zn++ + 2 NH4Cl 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2 H+ + 2e
zvzvx A uzxa \ k. ~sx
shzv E xP \ m AP
[P_&h&BUkh x, m AP |
mh P uskUS kQx. P xzu|Pz
uskP CnUSx, xzu|Pzv C GUmP
P ush Ahx Au |mhzu |k{US. G,
P Cx xzu|PzvS mh \. mh uhx
uhu Ch[P Ug] P kzuk. C P
1.5 V US \, 0.25 A mhzu ux.
2.11.5 xn PP (Secondary cells)
xn P[P sk (recharge) \ C.
xn P[P |h v P P BS.
a_ mhzua \zxx ES
vP, x mhzu Gvv\ \zv
sk . xn Pzvx mhzu v
{P UP (Discharge) Gk. P A \UP P
\UP G xP k xn P[PS.
2.11.6 P A \UP (Lead Acid Accumulator)
P A \UPzv Ev C Ax Psni Ax
\i B zv Ex. Cu E }zu PuP A
S vS. z u (Spongy) Psh P (pb) Gv
P, P BUk (PbO2) |P \kQ. uSu
P P P UPmk, Su
APuhz u P \UPmiUS.

79
 +

Pb

PbO2

H2SO4

Glass / Rubber
Psni container
/ zv

h 2.23P A \U P

P, a_ CnUPk x,Gv |h
BU z u Psh P, Pu Azxh
x P \Lm C GUmPz u. Cu
GUmP a_ Gvx |USa \.
| BU CUP |h. |, P
BUk, PuP Azxh x P \Lmhz ux C
GUmP |k{UPk. Cu a_ mh
|x GvS (h 2.23).
vuP \mh Pzv US\ 2.2 V
BP, S vzv Jhzv 1.28 BP CUS. Au APuh
SP Cu AvP mhzu UP \x
US \ 2 V BPU S.
{Px, vP {PQ.
2.11.7 xn PP kP
xn PP sk \hU Ti.
A AP uh P S. G, uUP AvP
mhzu Hkzx. sP Hx, AvP
GsoUP, A sk sk \. CP
A P . PP (cars), C\UP P[P, iUSP
(Truck) kQ. zvx
S J Ahzv PsPoUP sk. J
Ahzv v zv x 1.28 G, UPzv x
1.12 G CUP sk.

80
 wUPmh PnUSP
2.1 Phzv J SUSmi J i 6.25 1018
GUmP Phx \ mhzuU PnUQkP. (GUm
mh 1.6 1019 C)
uP : n = 6.25 1018 ; e = 1.6 1019 C ; t = 1 s ; I = ?
q ne 6.25 1018 1.6 1019
w : I = = = = 1 A
t t 1

2.2 106 m2 SUS mk Psh uU P 2 A

mh Qx. Phzv KS E
GUmP GsoUP 8 1028 G mh Ahzv
\\ Cz v\P BQU PnUQkP. (e = 1.6 1019C)
uP : A = 106 m2 ; I = 2 A ; n = 8 1028
e = 1.6 1019 C ; J = ? ; vd =?

I 2
w : mh Ahzv J = = = 2 106A/m2
A 10 6
J = n e vd

J 2 106
Ax vd = = = 15.6 10-5 m s1
ne 8 1028 1.6 1019

2.3 US (Lamp) J 240 V zuzv \k. Au

mh 0.5 A G UQ uhU PnUQkP.
uP : V = 240 V ; I = 0.5 A ; R = ?
w : K v Cx
V 240
V = IR Ax R= = = 480
I 0.5
2.4 5m } Psh uU P uh 0.5 , P mh
0.05 cm G uuh GsnU PnUQkP.
uP : l = 5m ; R = 0.5 ; d = 0.05 cm = 5 104 m ;
r = 2.5 104m ; = ?

l RA
w : R = or =
A l
A = r2 = 3.14 (2.5 104)2 = 1.9625 107 m2

81
 0.5 1.9625 107
=
5
= 1.9625 108 m
2.5 0oC& {U P uh 10 . Au uh {
Gs 0.004oC } Pv{ Au uhU PnUQkP.
i UPzuU TP.
uP : 0oC&, Ro = 10 ; = 0.004/oC ; t = 1000C ;
toC&, Rt = ?
w : Rt = Ro (1+ t)
= 10 (1 + (0.004 100))
Rt = 14
{ Ex P uh AvPUQx.
2.6 \ } Psh, J EPzu C PhzvP uhP
5 10 . AUPhzvP B[P QuzuU
PnUQkP.
uP : u P uh R1 = 5 ;
u P B = r1
Cshx P uh R2 = 10
Cshx P B = r2
PP } = l
P u uh Gs =
l
w : R = ; A = r 2
A
l l
R1 = 2 ; R2 =
r1 r22

R 2 r12 r1 R2 10 2
= or = = =
R1 r22 r2 R1 5 1

r1 : r2 = 2 :1

2.7 uU P J, Au } 0.1% AvPUSiP }mhkQx.

Au uh Hk zu UPmi PnUQk.
uP : uU P B } l1 = l

82
 }mhmh S P Cv }
l 2 = l + (l & 0.1%)
0.1
= l + l
100
= l (1 + 0.001)
l 2 = 1.001 l
}mhk x, } AvPu, SUS mk
S.
uhUP = A1l1 = A1l
Cv = A2l2 = 1.001 A2l
}mhkuS P uh = R1.
}mhmh S uh = R2
w : Pa \ \
A1l = 1.001 A2l
Ax A1 = 1.001A2

l
R =
A
l1 l 2
R1 =
A1 R2 = A
2

l 1.001l
R1 = R2 =
1.001A2 A2
R2
2
R1 = (1.001) =1.002

uh Hk = (1.002 1) = 0.002
uh Hk UPmk = 0.002 100 = 0.2%

2.8 Pa _ J uh 20oC 50 G, 70oC 65 G

AhkQx. uh { GsnU PnUQkP.
uP : R20 = 50 ; 70oC&, R70 = 65 ; = ?
w : Rt = Ro (1 + t)
R20 = Ro (1 + 20)
50 = Ro (1 + 20) ...(1)

83
 R70 = Ro (1+ 70)
65 = Ro (1 + 70 ] ...(2)
(2)I (1)B SUP
65 1 + 70
=
50 1 + 20
65 + 1300 = 50 + 3500
2200 = 15
= 0.0068 / oC
2.9 400 W v Psh J \ mi v 30 {h[PUS
kzukQx. J m vUP Pmhn 75 \ G,
\ mi J P kzv Hk \U
PnUQkP.
uP : \ mi v = 400 W
J mkUP Pmhn = 75 p
kzuk P = 30 {h[P / |
J zvP \ = ?
w: 30 {hzv \hk B = v P (o)
= 400 = 200 W h
J zv \hk B
= 200 7 = 1400 Wh = 1.4 unit
J zvP \ = \hmh zu mkP J
mkUP Pmhn = 1.4 0.75 = Rs.1.05

2.10 hzv Pmii uhUQP 10 V zu

mkh uhP CnUPmk. J uhU
QUS Chmh zu kPU PnUQkP.

R1 5 R2 3 R3 2

V1 V2 V3
I

10V

84
 uP : R1 = 5, R2 = 3, R3 = 2 ; V = 10
uh Cn uS uh
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10

V 10
w : _ \ mh I = R = 10 = 1A
s

R1 zu k, V1 = IR1 = 1 5 = 5V
R2 zu k, V2 = IR2 = 1 3 = 3V
R3 zu k, R3, V3 = IR3 = 1 2 = 2V

2.11 UP Cn E 3, 5 2 uhUQP 15 V
zu mkh CnUPmk. J
\ mhzuU PnUQkP. uS
uh, zu mhzu PnUQkP.
uP : R1 = 3, R2 = 5, R3 = 2 ;
zu k, V = 15 m
w : uS uS uh
3
I1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R1
= + + = + +
R P R1 R2 R 3 3 5 2 I2 5
R2
Rp = 0.9677 2
I3
R1 mh R3
I
V 15
I1 = = = 5A
R1 3
15V

R2 mh

V 15
I2 = = = 3A
R2 5
V 15
R3 mh R3, I 3 = R = 2 = 7.5 A
3

V 15
zu mh I = R = 0.9677 = 15.5 A
P

85
2.12 _ A B PUS Chmh
uS uhU PnUQkP.
5 10 5 10 5 10

A B
5 5 5
10 10 10

w : _ J v uSPU Pskx.
J uS GUPmh _ A.
5 10 R1 = 15

10 5 R2 = 15
J uS uS uh
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
RP R1 R2 15 15 or RP = 7.5

J uS uh 7.5 . Cx _
A.
7.5 7.5 7.5
A B
R/ R/ R/
A B PUS Chmh uS uh
R = R + R + R ( Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 )
R = 7.5 + 7.5 + 7.5 = 22.5
2.13 10 uh J 10V US\ Psh Pzxh
uhP CnUPmkx. Pzxh UP Cn h
mh CnUPkx, Ax Pmk A 9.9 V G Pzv
APuhU PnUQkP.
uP R = 10 ; E = 10 V ; V = 9.9 V ; r = ?
10V 10
E V R
w : r =
V R
10 9.9
= 10 V
9.9 I
9.9V
= 0.101

86
 u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

2.1 60 C A mh J UQ 2 {h[PUSa
\, UQ \ mh
(a) 30 A (b) 1 A
(c) 0.5 A (d) 5 A

2.2 mh[P G GuP x \?

(a) Sm (b) UP
(c) (d) u

2.3 Phzv mh GuS |zuP A?

(a) C v\P
(b) 1/ SUS mk Ci.
(c) 1/GUmP GsoUP
(d) SUS mk Ci

2.4 240 Vzuzv \k `h uh 120

G v
(a) 400 W (b) 2 W
(c) 480 W (d) 240 W

2.5 Smh } Psh uU P uh R. Au }

Ch[PUPk x Au uh Gs
(a) C h[PS (b) |Q J [PS.
(c) |S h[PS (d) hx.

2.6 C 2 uhP UP Cn Cu, uS uh

(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 1 (d) 0.5

87
2.7 { S x, P P uuh Gs
(a) S (b) AvPUS
(c) hx (d) _S.

2.8 0o C Pa _ uh2 = 0.004 /oC G 100o C

Au uh
(a) 1.4 (b) 0
(c) 4 (d) 2.8

2.9 Lh Szu vi, S vzv

mh \x, Gv i AP {
Gua \ux A?
(a) mh (b) mh
(c) P (d) uh

2.10 \v uh (R) Eh n uhP uhn

C, uS uh
(a) n/R (b) R/n
(c) 1/nR (d) nR
2.11 zu uU P hx. H?
2.12 EPU PhzvP mh[P USP.
2.13 C v\P, CUP Gs & kzxP. C v\P
mhzvS Chmh uh .
2.14 K vU TP.
2.15 J u uh Gs & . u uh Gso
Aih P G PkzukQ?
2.16 UPhzx v S P. UPhzvP PU TP.
2.17 P uhUQ Bg_, Bg_, Bg_ { [P
Cu uhUQ v x?
2.18 uhUQP uh Cn UP Cn Ex
uS uhU PsP.
2.19 { zx uh k uzu \k
h USP.

88
2.20 m mh kzv Pzv AP uhU Pq
.
2.21 _ PUP Qa\L vPU T USP.
2.22 mh \a _ kzv uh uh {
Gs BQU Pq \u .
2.23 u uh Gs & . mh \a _ kzv Cu
G Ps?
2.24 zu uzxzu USP. zuU
Psk C P[P US \P G
JhkQ?
2.25 v, & kzxP.
2.26 Lh S vPU T. Cu vP \u
G \UPkQ?
2.27 1. h P 2. Ug] P BQ
P |h P USP.
2.28 P A \UPzv \mi USP.
2.29 u[QP (automobiles) k P AkUSP AP
uh SP Cx H?
PnUSP
2.30 10 106m2 SUS Eh uU Phzv 2A mh
{P x GUm Cz v\P G? Phzv
10 1028 GUmP / m3 CuPU PxP.

2.31 Phzv 200 mA mh {P, J 1020 GUmP

PhUP six. PhUS | G? (e = 1.6 1019 C)
2.32 2 m } 0.4 mm mh Eh [P P uh
70 . u uh GsnU PnUQkP.

2.33 C uhUQP uhn UP Cn

Ex uS uhP 10 2.4 G,
uzu uhP G?

89
2.34 PkUPmh _ zu uh P u
mhzuU PnUQkP.

6V

3 3 3

2.35 PkUPmh _ A B &US Ch uS

uhU PnUQkP.

2 2
2
A B

1 1
2.36 PkUPmh _ 18 uhUQ SUP Hk
zuU SU PnUQkP.
18 12

30V 6 6

2.37 PkUPmh _ I1, I2 , I3 G mh[PU

PnUQkP.
3V 1
I1
2
I2 2V

I3
10

90
2.38 00 C mi P uh 4 . mizv uh
{ Gs 0.0038 /0 C G 100oC P uh G?
2.39 vu _ E P 6 V zu k x.
Au 2 A mh {Pa \u zu 4 V&USU
SQx. P AP uhU PnUQkP.
2.40 mh \a _, Pmh UP _ G, uu
uhU PnUQkP. P = 1000, Q = 10000 , R = 20
2.41 80 uh \ mix 200 V zuzv
2 o | \mh, kzumh U
PnUQkP.
2.42 1500 W v Eh `h J |
45 {h[PUS kzv } PvUP UPkQx. 1 m
Pmhn .3.25 G, J uzvS (30 |P) \zu si
uP G?
2.43 1.5 V US \ Eh P&xzu|P \ P,
1000 uhUQh CnUPmkx.
mhzu, v PnUQkP.
2.44 mh \a _ Chx UP Ch 10 uh
Ex \mk } 51.8 cm BP Ex. 108 cm } 0.2 mm
B Eh P uh u uh Gsn
PnUQkP. A

5
2.45 3 V Ph CnUPmk 5
R2
3V
R1
_ mhzuU
PnUQkP. R3
B 5 C

4V 2
C D

2.46 PkUPmk _, I1 4 I1
5V
I2 I2
J i u B E
\ mhzu, (I1 +I2 ) 10
10 uh SUP F
A
Hk zuU S
PnUQkP.

91
 hP
2.1 (c) 2.2 (d) 2.3 (a) 2.4 (c)

2.5 (d) 2.6 (c) 2.7 (b) 2.8 (d)

2.9 (d) 2.10 (d)

2.17 33 k 2.30 1.25 105 m s1

2.31 80s 2.32 4.396 m

2.33 6 4 2.34 3 2A

2.35 3.33 2.36 24 V

2.37 0.5 A, 0.25 A, 0.25 A 2.38 5.52

2.39 1 2.40 200

2.41 1 kWh 2.42 Rs. 110

2.43 1.5 mA; 2.25 mW 2.44 1.082 106 m

2.45 0.9 A 2.46 0.088A, 0.294A, 3.82 V

92
 3. mhzv P

mh, US\ PzxP v SvP

vzvUQ. CSv |h mhzv P
A. Pzuz ysk \, Pzv |,
\ k , _u, ] mh
A. US\ PkUS zvx B J
Sv mh Ex P , Gg] Sv
uhUQP (Resistors) P k. Cx mhzv
BS. mh B EUSx ,
B US \ EUP i. Cx
Gk. C{Pa] mhzv Pn mk A,
BS. ^ mh Aua _ Pu zv EshUS
{Pa] mhzv Pu BS.
3.1
Phzv J E Pmh GUmP J[P CUPzv,
Phzv AqUP, UTPh u {Pzx. V zu
Phzv PUQh PkUPk x, Pmh GUmP
kUPmk, I mh {P. G, GUmP J iUS V I
B . AoUP AP Ax UTP V I
B u\P Hk u . Cx AoUP
B En BS. G, t Pzv I {
mhzu Hk B A
H = VIt ...(1)
R uhUS,
H = I2Rt ...(2)
V2
H = t ...(3)
R
Psh uhP, \u G \UPmk,
vP GUPmh. \k (2)x, EshS
Bx (i) R ux, mhzv CiUS
|Quzv (ii) I ux, R uhUS | Quzv

93
(iii) mh PzvS |Quzv CUS. Czxh
\k (3)x, EshS B Smh zu, V&
uhUS (R) GvQuzv CUS G A iQx.
3.1.1 v \zu
P kzv,
v \UP. K
+ A +
uhUPa _ R J uU Rh
Bt
P Pskx (h 3.1).
uhU Pa _ P +
V
P i zumk
T
Csk Ph CnUP
miUS. i E C xP
J PUQ,
{zumk. P
Csk [S } GkzxU PkQx.
Cz uuPP R
P J mi
UPmiUS.
P (Bt) \ (K), uh h 3.1 P
(Rh) Amh (A) BQ
Ph uhP CnUPk Q. uha _US (R)
UP Cn m mh (V) CnUPmkx.

(i) mhzvP v (Law of currents)

} uhUP { 1 AUPkQx. P
PUQ, } C Hzv W G. I1 mh t
PzvS (20 {h) \zumk u vzu[P \u Cv
{ 2 AUPkQx. P } HUPsh
B
H1 = W (21). } 1 {US SUPkQx.
Ca\u I2, I3 .. mh[P, Au Pa _ Au P
Ch (t) \zv EshS BP H2, H3 ......
PnUQhkQ. Cvx

H1 H2 H3
= =
I12 I22 I32

94
 H
Aux =
I2
Aux H I2
C mh v \UPkQx.
(ii) uhv (Law of resistance)
J A mh I, Smh PzvS (t) uhP
R1, R2, R3 ... Psh _P \zumk EshS
BP H1, H2, H3 ............. AUPkQ.
H1 H2 H3
Cvx = =
R1 R2 R 3 G AkQx

H
=
R
Aux H R
G uh v \UPmhx.
(iii) PzvP v (Law of time)
J A mh I, J uha _ R
P ChPUS t1, t2, t3 ... \zumk EshS
BP H1, H2, H3 ... AUPkQ.
H1 H2 H3
Cvx t = = G AkQx
1 t2 t3
H
=
t
Aux H t.
G PzvP v \UPmhx.
3.1.2 ] P
(i) \ \u[P
\mi, `h, mi _k Ak (electric
toaster) BQ mhzv kzukQx.
C zv EshUP {UP S Pu {U G
EPU P B _ kzukQx. H C
(1) AvP uh Gs Pshx.
(2) AvP ES{ Pshx.
(3) BUPnzvS EPx.
95
(ii) ES C (Fuse wire)
ES C Gx 37% D (Pb), 63% (tin) Psh
EPU P BS. AvP uh, Su ES { Pshx.
_ uu Cn (short circuit) Hkx AvP
mh x, ES C EQ, Cn xsiUPk. Cu
kzuk \u xPUPk.
(iii) US (Electric bulb)
UQ uh P AvP. G EshS
B A AvPzx E { Ahx J. AvP
ES{ (3380oC) Psh h[h kzukQx.
x, Szuzv u {mh PsniU S
CUS.
(electric arc), zu (electric welding),
P mhzv kzukQx.
h ] AP
uUPh siuS. CUPP Hk B
Su A CUS iUPmiUS.
3.1.3 ^U
C u BQ C EP[PU Psh J
_, A \vP {P UPmh,
_ US\ ES Gu 1821& a
\u Ab u ^U Pshu.
Csk \vPU Psh A mh Gk,
Hk US\ US\ G, mhx
mh G AUPk. C
Ax ^U Gk.
Cu G
Cu G

Fe Fe

C C
1
2 C 2 C 1

S
\v S \v \v
\v

(a) (b)
h 3.2 ^U

96
 , S\vP Ch \x mh v\
. G ^U J \ BS. Cu-Fe
mh (h 3.2a) mh uzvx CS
\v (h 3.2b).
US\ Gsv, v\ kzx
EP[P \vP {Pa \ux.
EP[PU Psh mhP Bx, ^U AP[P
\P Azu. Cx \ Gmhx.
mh, a \v mhx C\
E EPzvx E EPzvS .
US\ v, \ Au EP[PUS E
Ch zx AvPS.
Bi, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, Sb Gx
\S.
C\ EPzv {, {a \ux.
US \US, {US E uh
Shk.
V = + 2,
C[S Gx \vP { k, , G
EPzva \u P.
3.1.4 v {, mk {
J mh S \v {
(C) uhUP PU Psk, a \v {US,
US \US Hk
uU SUS h
(h 3.3) Pmhmkx.
{ k SP
CUSx hx .C..
(mv)
|UPhS. {
k AvP G h J
BS.
S \v { C n i
{PU Psk a\v a\v {

{ xP Ezuk h 3.3 US \ &

Qx. US \ { uU Pmk
AvPzx J Smh h

97
{ v Ah. C{ v
{ (n) Gk. US \ xPU Sx,
Smh { _S. C{ mk { (i)
Gk. mk {US , US \ v\ k.
B Gs v AvPUS.
Smh mhUS v { J S.
B, mk {x S \v {a \ux.
C{PUP uh
c + i
= n
2
3.1.5 i
1834 g_ A Ab i G, C
EP[P Psh J _ mh x, EP[P J
\v Ek, EmPk GU
Pshu. Cx i Gmhx. Cx ^U
u BS.
Cu Cu

1 2 1 2
S S
\v \v \v \v
Fe Fe
(a) (b)
h 3.4 i
(Cu-Fe) mh (h 3.4a) \v 1 mh uzv
x CS , EmPk (G S), \v & 2
mh Cx uzvS , Ek (G
h). mhzv v\ k x (h 3.4b) \v 1
h, \v 2 Sa]h. G i J
{P BS.
i SnP (Peltier coefficient)
Csk EP[P Psh \v J B
mh J i |zv (1 T) x hk
Ax EmP B A i SnP Gk. Cu GU
SUP. Cu AS volt. hk Ax EmPk
B A H = It
J \v i zu, Aua \v i SnP
BS. i SnPx k EP[P \vP
{ zux.

98
3.1.6 u\
u\ Ti, ^ { kzumh Phzv
mh {Px, B EmPu kzu
EPU Phzv x |h.

EmP h h EmP
ku ku ku ku
C C
A M N B A M N B

(a) | (b) Gv
h 3.5 u\
A B G uzusi |k kzukQx (h 3.5a).
Cu mh {Pux, C &x \u E
M N G P \ { CUS. A &x
B&P mh \zui, M G Jkx N
G { AvPP CUS. Cu A G
Jkx B G { AvPP CUS. Aux,
Ax C & EmPkQx. C x B&
hkQx. C | u\ GkQx. usi
B x A US mh \zukx N G
Jkx M G { AvPP CUS.
Sb, Ag, Zn, Cd | u\ HkQx.
A B G Cz usi |k C kzukQx (h
3.5 b). Cu mh {Pu x, C &x \ u
E M N G P \ { CUS. A&x
B&P mh \zui, N &G Jkx M
G { AvPP CUS. Aux, A&x C &
hkQx. C &x B& EmPkQx.
C Gv u\ GkQx. Pt, Bi, Co, Ni, Hg
Gvu\ HkQx.

99
 Dzu (lead) usk J |k C kzukQx.
Cu A x B US Ax B&x A &US mh
\zvTh, C &x \ u CUS M, N G P
Gx \ { CUS. G, Dzv u\
Hhx (_ u\ ) Cu PnP _ h
x, k mh EP[Ph D
kzukQx.
u\ SnP ()
J EPzv 1o C { mi C
PUQh J B mh J i |zvS
(1 T) x, hk Ax EmPk
B A u\ SnP Gk. Cu GU SUP. Cu
AS volt per oC .

3.1.7 mh AkUS (thermopile)

U Pv\ Psh \u mh AkUS
BS. Cx ^U Aih \kQx.
mh u US \ PU S. G
AvP GsoUP mhP uhP CnUPkQ.
Cu P J P mhh (G) CnUPkQ.
mhP J ] \vP (1, 3, 5...) Phmk U

Bi A

5
E
4

k Pv a_ 3 G

1
B
Sb

h 3.6 mh AkUS

100
Pva\ EmP \kQ. \vP (2, 4... ) S \vP
Gk. C x Pva_ u UPmiUS.
P \vP x (1, 3, 5) U Pva_ x,
\vP, { k u AvP US \
u. Pmh u P, Pva] \
zx A (h 3.6).
3.2 mhzv Pu
1820 h |mk C Ab Qi
Khm G, mh Phzv AP E Pu F]
P Ah GuU T. Cvx mh
Phzv Pu Hk Gx Qx.
3.2.1 mh u[Q |UPhzv Ja
_ Hk Pu I

J \ Amh h 3.7 Pmii J

u[Q QhmhP Azx Aux ]x
Cz x ^P ykQx. Amh
J P \zukQx.
P P J Pzxh Cnzx
mh \zukQx. Amh \Pz
umkx, Cz xP Pa _
h 3.7
mh[P AuU Pn. Cu
mh
Bx Phzva _ Pu Eu
|
A i.
Phzva _
Pu zv v\ A, Czu Hk
uzvS \[Szu v\ Phzv \uPU Pu
P.

N S S N

S N N S

(a ) E|UQ mh (b) |UQ mh

h 3.8 Puzv v\

101
 Pu F] J zu, Phzva _ mh i
Puzv ukPmi v\ Pu F] Aa_ A.
mh E|UQ x Phzva _ Pu
g_P A (h 3.8a). mhzv v\ ,
Aux |UQ (h 3.8b) Au Pu F] x
k. Aux Pu Chg_P A. C
mh Phzva _ Pu mhzv
v\ zx A G.
U UP vS v
mh Phzva _ Ax Pu
\UPkP v\x, x P vS J mh
\ v\ \zxx, vS _ v\ k.
3.2.2 mh mhU Pa _ Hk Pu
Amh J QhzuP zukQx. Av JUP
]x u Ax C xP (h 3.9) mh
iU P \zukQx.
Amh x Cz x
^Pz ykQx. P
mh \zv,
Amh \Pz umi
Cz xP uP
zuk uhh
Puzv v\
|UQ A. Pu
\U PkP P \
h 3.9 mhU Pa _
ua _ HUS
Hk Pu
mh u AuU
Pn. Pa _ zv, Pu \UPkP CnP
|UPmkz v\ Pa _ uzvSa \[SzuP A.
3.3. m & \m v (Biot - Savart law)
m \m BPa \x mh
Phzva _ Hk Pu, \x PoPU Pshu.
I mh XY G PhzvU Px (h 3.10). AB
Gx Phzv dl } ] Sv, mhU T Gk.
AB& O& x r u E P G U
Px. m & \m vi dl } Phzv \

102
mhzv P- Hk Puz Y

ysh dB Bx.
(i) mhzvS (I) |

\
v
Quzv,

dl
(ii) mhU T }zvS dl

(dl) |Quzv, A O

(iii) mhU T
P CnUS |U PmiS, r
I
mhU T dl&US E
Pnzv \ vS | P
Quzv, X

(iv) mhU Tx,

u CiUS h 3.10 m&\m v
1
GvQuzv ( ) CUS.
r2

I dl sin
dB
r2
I dl sin
dB = K , K Gx Qu .
r2

Qu K = , Cv Gx FhPzv EmSv.
4

I dl sin
dB =
4 r2
= r o. C[S r Gx FhPzv J EmSv, 0 Gx
hzv EmSv. Cu v o = 4 107 henry/metre.
P FhPzvS, r = 1.
o I d l sin
G, P FhPzv dB = .
4 r2
JJJG G JJJG 
JJJG o Idl r JJJG o Idl r
Uh izv dB = or dB =
4 r 3 4 r 2
dB v\x mhU T Idl r (Aux, Czu
uzvS) SzuP E|UQ A. Puz ysh AS tesla
(Ax) Wbm2.

103
3.3.1 mh D |UPhzv J
Pu Ahzv Y
XY G |UPhzv J I mh
uPU P (h 3.11). Phzvx B
P G a u Ex. AB Gx dl } dl C

Psh mhU T. mhU T A

d
P CnUS |UPk mhU Th r
2
Hkzx Pn G. m&\m
a
vi, mhUT Idl B P Hk Puz O P
ysh 1

o I d l sin I
dB = . ... (1)
4 r2

A BPUS AC G \[SzxUPk
kQx.
X
OPA = , APB = d GP.
h 3.11 }
AC AC Phzv
ABC&, sin = =
AB dl

AC = dl sin ...(2)
APC x, AC = rd ...(3)
\kP (2), (3)x
rd = dl sin ...(4)
\k (4)I, \k (1) vh,
o I rd o I d
dB = = r
...(5)
4 r2 4
a
OPA, cos =
r
a
r = cos ...(6)

\k (6) I \k (5) vh
o I
dB = cos d
4 a

G, XY Phzv P Hk zu Puz ysh

104
 2 2
o I
B =

dB = 4 a
cos d
1 1

o I
B = [sin 1 + sin 2]
4 a
i } Psh PhzvUS, 1 = 2 = 90o
o I
B =
2 a
Phzvx EmSv Psh FhPzv Cu,
I
B =
2 a

3.3.2 mh mha _ Aa] J

Hk Puz ysh
a B Psh Pa _ I mh (h 3.12)
uPU P. _ O x Au Aa] x P G
x u Ex. dl } Psh AB G mhU TU
Px. AB C G. CP = r BS.
m&\m vi, dl T P Hk Puz ysh
o I dl sin
dB = ,
4 r2
Gx Idl rUS Ch E Pn.
C[S = 90o
o I dl
dB =
4 r2

dl dB Cos
A B
C R
r
a
I P N
O x dB Sin

M
A/ B/ dB Cos

h 3.12 mha _

105
 dB v\x Idl CPUS \[SzuP A. Aux CP
US \[SzuP PR A.
AB US GvP E AB G TU Pu, P Hk Puz
ysh dB Gsv \P, PM v\ A. dl mhU
T P CnUS Pk Aa_h Hkzx Pn
G.
dB v OP v\ dB sin G, CuS \[Szu
v\ dB cos G C TPUP. dB cos TP, JUP
GvP Au, A \kzu kQ. dB sin TP Cnx
k. G mha _ P zu Pu Ahzv
o Idl a o Ia
B = dB sin = 4 r2 r
=
4 r3 dl
o Ia
B = 2a
4 r 3
o Ia 2
B = 3
(H r2 = a2 + x2)
2(a 2 +x 2 )2
_ n _P Cu,
o nIa 2
3
B =
2(a 2 +x 2 )2

mha_ zv, x = 0

o nI
B =
2a

3.3.3 hm P mh
mhzv AUP Eu P hm Pmh
hm v Aih \kQx. JUP |USzu
C [P \k u[Phmh Pu F]x
A [P uS v\ {S (h 3.13).
A
Puz u zu Ax zu mh ia \mhzv
Pa _ _mk J hzv x |USzuP UPmkx. h
Qhz uzv _UTix. hzv QhmhP UP mhz

106
vSP E. mhia
\mh \[SzuP mh
\ Aa\ _.
hzv zv J u[Q
x Pu F]mi Ex.
Cmi T x
Pu F] u[PkQx. Pu
F]US \[SzuP }sh
AU S Ex.
S P iQ
Ahmk mh
AP x C[S.
AP |S PSvP
U Pshx. Pu F]
mi F]
mha _ zxh
x UPmiU
S. Pa _ zv
] ^ Pu h 3.13 hm Pmh
uu ] Pu F]
(uS z u)
kzukQx. G
Q { Pu ^P CUS. Pa _P 2, 5, 50
_P Psh PP E. A ui ku
h mh[P Ah kQ.
UP
Pa _ u Puz ysh (Bh) QhzuU TUS
CnP UPmk, _ mh x C
Pu[P JUP \[SzuP A B h

(h 3.14).
(1) mh u _ N

uzvSa \[SzuP Hk Puz ysh (B) B

(2) Puz ysh QhzuU T (Bh) BQ
[P JUP \[SzuPa \k. S
C Pu [P, Pu F]
P Ah. hm vi
h 3.14 hm
B = Bh tan ...(1) v

107
 a B, n _P Psh _ I mh
x Au zv u Puz ysh
o nI
B= ...(2)
2a
\k (2) I \k (1) vh
o nI
= Bh tan
2a
2aBh
I = n tan
o

I = K tan ...(3)
2aBh
C[S K = o n I hsm Pmh _UPU Ts
G, Smh Chzv Cx J S. Ca\mix _
hzv AUP.
hm Pmh P 45o BP E x ~sqn
AvP. G, P 30o u 60o CUS x mk
CUP kzxx |.

3.4 B _ v
m&\m v B _v G T.
mh }sh, D, |UPhzv EshS Puz
ysh
oI
B =
2 a
B (2a) = oI
B (2a) Puz ysh Pa _ _ C
UP BS. C[S Pux uuS. hmh
_ L G, zu mh Io G Psh
BL = oIo ....(1)
B _v C Gu.

v B. dl = oIo ....(2)

Pmk z uPmk (line integeral) vx mh

u i Phzv { Ca \uu. mh
Gv v\ u uPmk v GvUS . h
mh u mhzv Au (Phzv u mk
108
Au) Pu zv uPmk v _S. }sh |U
PhzvPUS PnUQmh, Cv GzuP PhzvUS, uUS
x. \k (1)x, B _ v RPsh
T.
Gu i Pmia _ Pu zv Pmk

z uPmk v v B. dl Bx, EmSv ()
Pmh hmh mh BQ
UP US \.

3.4.1 a_
}sh, |UP, _ i
P
_mh Pa _ Bx a_
Gk. }mhmh a_
A h 3.15& Pmhm
kx. a_ Hk Pu
x, J _ Hk
Pu P Uh TkuUSa
\. J _ Hk
h 3.15 mh Pu J (concentric
a_ Pu circles) mh[PP Ax, _
PUQhmh Sv J
C \x k. _ zv a_ Aa]
(a_ Aa]S CnP) Pu Hk. P
a_ E _P Hk Pu
RSv E _P Hk Pu zvS
GvP \mk A. G, a_
Sv Pu _S. hmh
[P (a_) u Pu zv
v\ x E[P v .
x E[P v
x P P v\ mh
_P A a_
UPsh, }mhmh Puzv
v\z u (h 3.16).
h 3.16 x
E[P v

109
3.4.2 mh }sh a_ Hk Pu
KS }zv n _P Psh a_ I mh
{PuPU Px. CzuP | (ideal solenoid) a_
(Bzxh Jkx AvP } Psh) E P
Pu _S.
}sh a_x }sh Ei EPzuPk x
(h 3.17). hzv, \ Shmk (NNN) G P,
u x mhz uPk x
uzu R \ E () G SP, mhz uPk
Czu EmSv |UQa d c
\x uzu
HkzxQ. a_
E J Puz a b
l
yshU (B) Pn abcd
G B i u
(Amperean loop)U
Px. C Sv h 3.17 }sh a_ Pu

v B. dl |S SvPU Pshx.
b c d a

v B. dl =
a
B. dl +
b
B. dl +
c
B. dl +
d
B. dl

\P Sv } l G, \mi x Sv u
z uPk Bl BS. Cshx, |Px vP _S.

H CSvP Pu zv B v\US \[SzuP CUS.
a_ E Pu _u, x
v _S.

v B. dl = Bl ...(1)

l }Sv nl _P Au, zu mh
Io = Inl ...(2)
B _vi i uUS

v B. dl = oIo ...(3)

\kP (1), (2) I (3) vh

Bl = o Inl
B = onI ...(4)

110
 a_x, xP ^ Puzv EUPk.
a_ zv u EPzva \zv AvP
Pu u.
B = nI = o r nI ...(5)
mh a_ J uh u[Phmh,
Ax u[Phmh \mh Puzv h&u
v\ v {S. a_ Hk Pu zv v\
vU Psk .
v

S N N S
(a) (b)
h 3.18 v
J x |US x, a_
mh g_P Au (h 3.18a) AP E
u, \ E hS.
J x |US x a_
mh Chg_P Au (h 3.18b) AP E
h, \ E uS.
3.5 Pu \ (Magnetic Lorentz force)
Z Z

v v

B B

+q -q
O v sin Y O v sin Y

F F

X
(a) X (b)

h 3.19 \
Z Aa] B G ^ Puz ysh Psh Pu
\ku PU P. YZ uzv +q mh Psh xP v
v\Pzxh, Puzxh Pnzv C[SuPU P
(h 3.19a). Pu zv xPx F G \ EnQx.

111
 C\ ( \) F ]P H.A.
UQ.
(i) mh Av { Cu \ _S. Aux
C[S xPP mk, Pu zu vUPk.
(ii) mhx, Pu zvS CnP Ax GvP
C[Q \k \ _S. PuzvSa \[SzuP
C[Q, \x v .
(iii) \x mhzvS (q) |Quzv
(iv) \x Puz yshUS (B) |Quzv
(v) \x Puz yshUS SzuP E v\PU TUS
(v sin) |Quzv
(vi)GvUS mh[PUS, C\ Gv v\
\k (h 3.19b) CiP C Gu.

F = q ( v B)
\ Gsv,
F = Bqv sin
xP CUPzvS \[Szu v\ \ \ku, \
Gu \v.
E, Pu B BQ Csk \kx
mhz xP x \k \

F = q [( v B) + E]
3.5.1 ^ Puzv mh xP CUP
B Pu Ahzv Psh Pu, Z Aa_
\kuPU P. m { q mh Psh xP XY
uzv C[SQx (h 3.20). P G v\P v.

xP x \k \ F = q ( v B). C\x v

B Au uzvS \[SzuP PO Pa \k.
\x v\ PzvSa \[SzuP \ku, \ Gu
\kv. G, v\Pzv Gsv ,
v\ mk . O G \k C\ |US
\P \mk xP mh u C[Pa \. Q R
P \x, QO, RO v\P \k.

v B JUP \[SzuP Au,

112
 F = Bqv sin 90o = Bqv
Z
Pu \
u |US \U
PkUS. B

B
mv 2 B v
Bqv = R
r
Q
O F v
mv F
r = Bq ...(1) B Y
F
P
\k (1)x, mh
X v
u Bx (i) xP {
(ii) xP v\P h 3.20 mh
C zx A G xP CUP
AkQx.
\k (1)x
v Bq
=
r m
Bq
= ...(2)
m
Cx xP Pn v\Pzv vS.
2
xP A | T =

2 m
T = Bq ...(3)

\kP (2), (3)x ^ Puzv mh u

C[S xP Pn Avsq, A | (i) xP
v\P (ii) mh u B C zuu G
uQx.
3.5.2 \Um
mh xPP, Eu B kUP
Eu A \Umh, _ (Lawrence) G
iUPmhx.
uzx
PuzvSa \[Szu v\ mh xP
C[Sx, \k \, xP mh u C[Pa
\Qx G uzxzv Aih \Um \kQx.

113
A
Cv Eh EP E D1, D2 G C SvPP
UPmk h A UPmkx. C jUP (Dees)
Gk (h 3.21). jUP Csk \ Ch mk UPmk,
Ch A S UPkQx. Cu A
Puz x[PUS Ch UPkQx. jUP E Avs
A Ch CnUPmk.
D.P
\k u
q mh, m { Psh T
| A, zvx m
h, Au Pnzv Gvmh S
j DUPk. \[SzuPa \k
Pu \ xP mh u
C[S. jUPUQhmh Sv
D D
A Ahx, jUP x 1 2

k. G, xP sk Akzu

S
j AvP Pzxh, AvP B Psh
h 3.21 \Um
_ u C[S. Ax
jUP S AP \h UPz uPkP (DP)
k. Cu E B xP, u CUQ (Target) T
x ua \.
xP r B Psh mh u v v\Pzxh C[S
x, \ u |US \z u.
mv 2
Bqv =
r
v Bq
= = ...(1)
r m
A mhuU PhUS P
r
t = (2)
v
\k (1)I (2) vh
m
t = Bq (3)

\k (3)x A Amh u PhUS Px

(i) mhu B (r), (ii) xP v\P (v) Ca \uu
G A. G

114
 A | T = 2t
2 m
T= Bq = ...(4)

G, ^ Puzv A Azx mhuP J

Pzv PhUS. xP _UP Avs
1 Bq
= = (5)
T 2 m
A Avs \k (5) PkUPmh
v \u Jzv\ Hk. mh, im,
B xP xPP \Um kUP.
P
(i) jUP ^ Pu {x Pi.
(ii)
v\P[P Hk J {k
Jzv\U SUS.
(iii) E AvsP, GUm J { k P
AvPP Cu, GUmP \Um kUP Cx.
3.6 Pu zv mh Phzv x
\k \
l } A SUS Psh PQ G PhzvU Px.
CU Phzvx B Puz ysh Psh Puzxh Pnzv
Ex (h 3.22). PQ I mh Qx. G GUmP
QP v\ vd G C
Z
v\Pzxh CUP kQ.
JS E GUmP
GsoUP n G, mhx, B
I = nAvde
I
C l B UP Q

Il = nAvdel. Y
vd
G, mhU T l

Il = nAvdel ...(1)
mh v\US GvP P
h 3.22 Pu
GUmP CUPk Gu
GvUS SUQx. zv mh
Phzv x \

115
 GUmP, Puzv CUPzv Cu, \k
\

f = e (vd B) (2)
GUmP Gvmh Psh Gu GvUS
SUQx.
Phzv Pmh GUmP zu GsoUP
N = nAl ...(3)
Azx Pmh GUmP x \k

zu \ F = N f
\k (2), (3)I E \mi vh

F = nAl { e (vd B) }

F = nAl e vd B ...(4)

\k (1)I (4)& vh,

F = Il B
Phzv Azx Pmh GUmPx \k
C\, Puzv mh Phzv x \k
\S.
\ Gs v
\ Gs v F = BIl sin
(i) Phzvx PuzuS CnP Cu, = 0o,
F = 0
(ii) Phzvx PuzvS \[SzuP Cu = 90o
F = BIl
G Phzvx \ .
\ v\
Puzv E mh Phzv x \k
\ v\, [ ChxP vx . Aux Chx
P , _mk, |k JUP |USzu
v\P zxU PP. _mk Puzv v\, |k
mhzv v\ Szu, Phzv C[S
v\U SUS.

116
3.6.1 mh C | }sh CnU PhzvPUS
Ch Hk \
B D
AB, CD
G P, a
Ch E } | I1 I2
B1
CnU PhzvP BS. C I1, I2 EmP
mh Qx (h 3.23). F F

AB I1 mhu, a
u Hk Puz ysh, B2
P
o I1 a
B1 = ...(1)
2 a
CuU Pu u uzvS
\[SzuP E|UQ A. CuU A C

Puzv (B1), I2 mh h 3.23 mh

Phzv CD Axu CD C | Cn
l }zv \k \ PhzvPh \
F = B1I2l
\k (1) I vh
o I1I2l
F = ...(2)
2 a
[ vi, \ F Bx ChxP \k, Cu
CD I2 mhzu a u Hk Puz
ysh
o I2
B2 = ...(3)
2 a
CuU Pu u uzvS \[SzuP |UQ
\k. I1 mh Phzv AB Cu Puzv
Eu Au l }zv \k \
F = B2I1l
\k (3)I vh
o I1I2l
F= (4)
2 a
[ vi, C\ F xPa \k. \k (2),
(4) Tmh \P J P. G, C PhzvP
mh J v\ u Pa] \P,
v\P u mk \P CUS.

117
B (ampere)
mh C Cn PhzvP l }zv \k
\
o I1I2
F = l
2 a
F o I1I2
KS }zv \k \, =
l 2 a
I1 = I2 = 1A G a = 1m G Psh
F o 1 1 4 10-7
= = = 2 10-7 Nm-1
l 2 1 2
Cvx B UP.
hzv Ax P J mh Ch
UPmk, UPoUPzuUP SUS Psh, C }sh
CnUPhzvP , J mh }zv \ mh
Hkzx \ v 2 10-7 Nm1 G, Amh A J
B G UPkQx.
3.7 Pu zv mh \P ia _ x
Hk v \
l } b AP Psh PQRS G \P ia _U
Px (h 3.24). PQRS G _x B Puz ysh Psh
Pu zv UPmk, mh I \zukQx. _
uzvS k \[SzxUPk Puzxh Hkzx Pn
G. F S 2

B F4

P n
B F4

I S

B B
R

F3 n
B P
N
n
Q F3
F1
h 3.24 Pu zv E h 3.25 v \
_ x \k v \

118
 JJJJJJG
QR G zv x \k \, F1 = I(QR) B
JJJJJJG
I(QR) B US Chmh Pn (90o ). G,
F1 Gs v = BIb sin (90o )
F1 = BIb cos
JJJJJG
SP G zv x \k \, F2 = I(SP) B
JJJJJG
I(SP) US B US Ch Pn (90o + ), G F2 Gs v
F2 = BIb cos
F1, F2 \P JUP \P B GvvP J Pmi
\ku _S.
JJJJJJG
PQ zv x \, F3 = I(PQ) B
JJJJJJG
I(PQ) US B US Ch E Pn 90o. G,
F3 Gs v,
F3 = BIl sin 90o = BIl
F3 Bx u uzvSa \[SzuP |UQa \k.
JJJJJG
RS zv x \k \, F4 = I(RS) B
JJJJJG
I(RS) US B US Ch E Pn 90o.
F4 Gs v, F4 = BIl sin 90o = BIl
C\, u uzvS \[SzuP E|UQa \k.
F3, F4 \P Gs v \P, Gvv v\,
PkP \ku, Pa _ x J v \
\k.
G,
v \, = BIl PN = BIl PS sin (h 3.25)
= BIl b sin = BIA sin
Pa _ n _P Cu
= nBIA sin
G, Pa _ u PuzvS CnP CUSx
v\, \[SzuP CUSx _ v\
\k.

119
3.7.1 C[S_ Pmh
C[S _ Pmh Gx, J _
mhzv AUS PS.
T

T1 T2

P S

N S
Q R N S
s

h 3.26 C[S _ h 3.27 B

P mh Pu

uzx
Puzv mh _ J USx Av
v \ \k.
A
AvP GsoUP Phmh uU P
_, \ \P i EPa \mhzv x _mkx (h
3.26). \ \UTi vS Jx & sPU P ,
Pa _x Ch i Puzv x[PUQh
u[PhkQx. Pa _ , sPU
P a _ (hair spring) vSh
CnUPmiUS. Pa _ zv u E
UPmiUS. Pu P AUP i Eu, Gu
{ _ x \k B Pu CnP CUS
(h 3.27).
J ] \ \u Bi (M), Pa _ u[Phmh
& sPU P x zumiUS. US
AP kzv _ P AUP.
UP
PQRS G J _ mk Px (h 3.28). I mh
_ a \uPU P. B Pu Gx

120
_ uzvS CnP \k. QR, SP [P x \ Gx
\kv. H, Cu [P Pu zvS CnP
CUS. PQ, RS UP[P PuzvS \[SzuP CUS.
PQ = RS = l, _ }
PS = QR = b, _ AP BS.
PQ x \k \ F = BI (PQ) = BIl.
[Q ChxP vi, C\ _ uzvS SzuP
|UQ \k.
RS x \k \ F = BI (RS) = BIl.
C\ u uzvSU SzuP E|UQa \k. Cu
Csk \, Gvv PkP Pa \k
\P J Cmh (couple) Hkzv _ UPha
\. _ n _P Cu,
Cmh v \ = n BIl b = nBIA
(h 3.29 x PnUQhkQx)

Pa _ P Ahx, u[Phmh P UPk.

m] s PnP \ ES. Cmh v \,
P US A zux. Pa _ P G

P S

F F
I

B
B P S
b
F

R F
Q
<

_ u v\
h 3.28 h 3.29
Cmh v \ = C
C Gx KS PUS Cmh v \
\{, Cmh v \ = Cmh v \
nBIA = C

121
 C
I =
nBA
C
C[S I = K Cv K = , Pmh
nBA
Aux I
Pa _ UP Au \ mhzvS
|zuP A. kzuk AP |iP
mhzv Gs v AhmiUS.
3.7.2 S P C[S _ P mh
u[Phmh _ P P mh En ~m P
AvP. CuU Psk 10-8 B A mh[P
AUP. G, CU PPU P sk. BPzv
mh \a _ BPUS Cu A En ~m
A]. G S P Pmh kzukQx.
CP Pa _x ] C SskP x zumk,
\ AU S CnUPmk, mh \x
AP x C[S AUPmiUS. Cmhx
_ (Spring) J AUPk.
3.7.3 Pmh mh En ~m (Current
sensitivity of galvanometer)
Pmh KS mh x Hk
P mh En ~m Gk. J Pmhx
Su mhzvS AvP P EshUS, En ~m
Pshx G.
C
Pmh, I=
nBA
nBA
mh En ~m, = (1)
I C
mh En ~mzv P AvPUP.
(i) Pa _ _P GsoUP AvPzu
(ii) Puz ysh AvPzu
(iii) _ AvPzu

122
 (iv) u[Phmh P KS PUP v \U
Szu
JS PUP v \ v &sP
PUS PU S Gu, Au Pmh kzu.
3.7.4 Pmh zu En ~m (voltage
sensitivity of galvanometer)
KS zuzvP P zu En ~m G.
zu En ~m,
nBA
= =
V IG CG
C[S G Gx Pmh uh.
C[S mh En ~mzv Ezx x, zu
En ~m E GU T Cx Gu PUP sk.
Pa _ _P GsoUP (n) Ch[PUPkx,
mh En ~m Ch[PS (\k & 1). B _UP
GsoUP Ex, uh (G) E, G zu En
~m x.
3.7.5 Pmh AmhP (ammeter) u
J _ mh
u A Eu P
Pmh. mhz I Ig I
G
va \x P Hmh,
AP AP B I-Ig
SUPmiUPx. En ~m S
UP P Gu Au
AvP mhzv \zuU
Thx. H, Pa _
Amh
vUPh. C UP
Cn Su uh S h 3.30 P mh
J Cnu AmhP u
Pmh AmhP
(h 3.30). UP Cn uh Cnzuh (shunt)
Gk. A P B AhmiUS.
Cnzuhzv uh, Pmh si

123
mhzv A zux. Ig Gx Pmh
si mh G. CmhzvS A
P P Hk.
P mh uh = G
Cnzuh uh = S
_ mh = I
Cnzuh mh = Is = (IIg)
Pmhh, Cnzuh UP Cn Eu,
zu \.
Ig . G = (I- Ig)S
Ig
S = G I-I ...(1)
g

Ig Gx I& ]Sv. G, Cnzuhzv uh PU

SP CUS. Amh uh (G Eh S UP
Cn) Ra G
1 1 1
Ra = G + S
GS
Ra = G + S

Ra v PU SP Cu, _ Amh
uhn mk CnUP sk. uhn
CnUSx _ uh AvP Hhx. G ]u
Amh Gx _ uhU PsiUS.
3.7.6 Pmh mmhP u
mh Phzv C PUQh E
zu mi AUS P m mh BS.
P mhh
uhn E uh
Cnu mmh R
(h 3.31). AP G
AP mi SUPmiUS. Ig
uhn CnUPk
uh v U Psk m mh
m mh |kUP (range) h 3.31 Pmh
A. m mhP u

124
 Pmh uh = G
Pmh P Hkzx mh = Ig
mmh |kUP = V
uh = R
Pmhh uh R uhP Eu, Pmh
mh
V
Ig = R + G

V
R = I G
g

Cvx, uhn CnUP si uh

vU PnUQh. m mh uh,
Rv = G + R
Rv v P AvP Gu, _x, m mh PU
Su mhzu . G, m mh UP Cn
CnUP sk. Aux, zu AUP si PUQh
E uhU Pmi, m mh uh P AvPP
CUP sk. C AvP mhzv m mh
U Psk, _ Gg] Sv mhzv vU
Szxk. C{ Es zu mi h PU
Su zu mi AUP C. m mh AvP
uh PshuP Cu mk Cu z uUP.
uh D vP C, AUP J ]u m mhS.
3.8 mh Pu CPa \ku
Smh mh, a_ x u Pu
\U PkP, \mh Puzv u \UPkP J
v G B Pshu. C Pa _ Pu
F]U Psk \ J v PU Pn.
Csk {PP E Jzu sP Bx, mh
\ \mh Pu \k G UQ, CuU Pu
{PP Azx _ (circulating) mhzvu
Gx B Pzx.
mh Pa _ Aa] E J
Puz ysh,
o nIa 2
B =
2( a 2 + x 2 )3 /2
125
 Cu Puzv v\, _ Aa] A Gu xP
v A. _ zvx AvP u E
PUS, x>>a, G a2 PU SP Cu \mi
Sv E a2 UPoUPzuUPuS. CzuP P
o nIa 2
B =
2x 3
J _ mk Pv n = 1, A = a2
o IA
B = ...(1)
2 x 3
] \mh Puzv Aa_UPmi J Puz
ysh
o 2M o M
B = . 3 = . 3 ...(2)
4 x 2 x
\k (1) (2)I Jh
M = IA ...(3)
G, mh x M G vzv Psh Pu
CUSa \. M = IA
mh zv C UP
mh zv vzv G UP. Czvzv
zv uzvS SzuPa \k.
3.9 _ GUm Pu Cz vz v
} Aqvi, | mh Psh AqUPa
_ r B Psh mhu Gvmh Psh GUm _
. Cu, mh EshS. Chg_Pa \ GUm,
g_ v\ mhzv EshUS.
e
mh, i = . C[S T Gx GUm _UP.
T
_u GUm v\P v, G
2 r
T =
v
ev
i =
2 r
mh u GUm CUP PnP, l G _u
Puz vz v (orbital magnetic moment) .

126
 l = i A, C[S A Gx mh u
ev
l = . r2
2 r
evr
l =
2
GUm { m G,
e
l = (mvr) (m B UP, m B SUP)
2m
mvr = l Gx AqUPa \u Pn Eu
e
l = l (1)
2m
l e
= Gx J BS.
l 2m
_ Pu Qu (gyro magnetic ratio) Gk Cu
v 8.8 1010 C kg-1. Pn Eux Smh Gs
vP Gx Pzx Aux,
nh
l= ...(2)
2
n Gx C Gs, [U , h = 6.626 1034 J s
\k (2)I (1) vh
e nh neh
l = . =
2m 2 4m
Puz vz v ] v
eh
(l)] = , n = 1
4m

eh
Gx Umh (Bohr magneton) Gk.
4m
e, h, m vP vh, Umh v 9.27 1024
Am2 GU PnUQhmhx.
GUm _u CUPzv Pn _u Puz
vzvh, u_] PnP J Puz vzv CUS.
G J GUm Puz vz vx _u Puz
vzv u_] Puz vzv C Uh
TkuUSa \.

127
 wUPmh PnUSP
3.1 B J _ PUS Ch 6V zu E
x 30 {h[PUS mh \zu, { 5oC
EQx. Au mhzv _ SUP 9V zu
E x 20 {h[PUS \zv Hk { E
G?
uP : V1 = 6V, t1 = 30 60 s, 2 1 = d = 50C
V2 = 9V, t2 = 20 60 s, d = ?

V12
w : t = w d
R 1
V 22
t = w d
R 2
V22 t 2 d
=
V12 t1 d

V 22 t 2
d = d
V 12 t 1

(9)2 2060
= 2
5
(6) 3060
d = 7.5oC.
3.2 100 W, 220 V J uhU
PnUQkP.
uP : P = 100 W, V = 220 V, R = ?
V2
w : P =
R

V2 (220)2
R = = = 484
P 100
3.3 } `h J 1500 W, 220 V G SUPmkx. zu
180 V BPU Su kzv v G?
uP : P1 = 1500 W, V1 = 220 V, V2 = 180 V, P2 = ?
V12
w : (i) P1 =
R

128
 V12 (220)2
R = P = = 32.26
1 1500

V22 (180)2
P2 = =
R 32.26
P2 = 1004 Watt

V12 V2
P1 = , P2 = 2
R R
P1 V2
= 12
P2 V2
V22 (180)2
P2 = P 1 = 1500
V12 (220)2
P2 = 1004 Watt.
3.4 mh }sh |UPhzvx 15 cm u
Hk Puz ysh v 4 10-6T G, mhzvU
PnUQk.
uP : B = 4 10-6T, a=15 x 10-2m, I=?
o I
w : B =
2 a
B 2 a 4 10 6 2 15 10 2
I = =
o 4 10 7
I = 3A
3.5 200 _P, 20 cm B Psh Pa _ 5A
mh Qx. _ Aa]x Bzu h[S
u E Puz yshU PnUQk.
uP : n = 200; a = 20cm = 2 10-1m; I = 5A; x = 3a; B = ?
o nIa 2
w : B =
2(a 2 + x 2 )3 /2
o nIa 2 onIa 2 o nI
B = 2 2 3 /2 = =
2(a + 9a ) 2(10a 2 )3 /2 a 20 10

o nI 10 4 10 7 200 5 10
B = =
a 200 2 101 200
B = 9.9 x 10-5 T

129
3.6 30 cm mh, 5 _P Psh hm Pmh
4A mh \zukQx. PuU QhzuUT
v 4 10-5 T G, Hk P vU PnUQkP.
uP : n = 5; I = 4A; d = 3 101 m; Bh = 4 105 T;
a = 1.5 101 m; = ?

2aBh
w : I = tan
on

o nI 4 107 5 4
tan = =
2aB h 2 1.5 101 4 105
tan = 2.093
= 64o 28
3.7 J hm Pmh 1A mh 30 o P
EshUSQx. 60o P EshUS mhzvU
PnUQkP.
uP : I1 = 1A; 1 = 300; 2 = 600; I2 = ?
I1 = k tan 1
I2 = k tan 2

I 2 tan 2
=
I1 tan 1

tan 2
I2 = I1 tan
1

tan60o 1 3
I2 = I1 = = 3 3 = 3A
tan30o 1
3

I2 = 3A

3.8 J a _ } 2m, mh 3 cm. Ca_ 1000 _PU

Psh 5 HkPU Pshx. mh 5A G, _
zv Au Aa] Hk Puz yshU PnUQk.

uP : l= 2m, N = 5 1000 _P I = 5A, B = ?

130
 N
w : B = o nI = o .I
l
4 10 7 5000 5
B =
2
B = 1.57 x 10-2 T
3.9 10-4 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zxh 30o Pnzv B
xP J 5 105 ms-1 Pzv C[SQx G, xP x
\k \U PnUQkP. ( xPx 2e |mh
Pshx)
uP : B = 10-4 T, q = 2e, v = 5 105 ms-1, = 300, F = ?
w : F = Bqv sin
= B(2e) v sin 30o
1
=10-4 2 1.6 10-19 5 105
2
F = 8 10-18N
3.10 XY uzv im P 104 ms-1 Pzv \zukQx. Z
v\ \k Puz ysh v 10-3 T. xP C[S
mh u BzvU PnUQk. (im {
3.32 10-27 kg mh 1.6 x 10-19C)
uP : v = 104 ms1, B = 103T, m = 3.32 1027 kg
e = 1.6 x 10-19C, r = ?
mv 2
w : Bev =
r
mv 3.32 1027 104
r= = = 2.08 101
Be 103 1.6 1019
r = 0.208m
3.11 \Um jUP S \[SzuP 0.5 T Puz ysh
Psh Pu \zukQx. mhP kUPz
u A AvsnU PnUQkP. (mh
{ = 1.67 10-27 kg)
uP : B = 0.5 T, mp = 1.67 10-27 kg, q= 1.6 10-19C, = ?
Bq
w : = 2 m
p

0.5 1.6 1019

= = 0.763 107= 7.63 106 Hz
2 3.14 1.67 1027
= 7.63 MHz

131
3.12 5A mh 50 cm } J Phzv 2 10-3 T Puz
ysh Psh Pu zvSa \[SzuP UPkQx.
Phzv x \k \ G?
uP : l= 50 cm = 510-1m, I= 5A, B = 210-3T ; = 90o, F = ?
w : F = BIl sin
= 2 10-3 5 5 10-1 sin 900
F = 5 10-3 N
3.13 P 10 cm Ch 5 m } C PhzvP CnP
UPmk. Csi J A mh, J
v\ x 3.6 10-4 N Pa] \ \mh,
Phzv mh[PU PnUQkP.
uP : I1 = I2= I, l= 5m, a =10-1 m, F = 3.610-4N, I = ?
o I1I 2l
w : F =
2 a
2 107 I 2l
F =
a
F .a 3.6 104 101
I2 = = = 36
2 10 7 l 2 107 5
I = 6A
3.14 J 10 m }h, mh A, B, C G
PhzvP hzv Pmhmk UPmk. B x
\k uS \U PnUQkP.
w : A US B US Ch
Pa] \ Hk.
F1 Chx |UQ \k.
F1 F2
2 107 I1I 2l 2107 3 410
F1 = =
a 101 4A 5A
F1 = 24 10-5 N
3A

B , C PhzvPh Pa] \ 10 cm
CUS. 10 cm
F2 x Pa \k.

2 107 I1I 2l 2107 4510 A B C

F2 = =
a 101

132
 F2 = 40 10-5 N
F2 F1 = 16 10-5 N
F2 F1 = 16 10-5 N.
Phzv B Bx Phzv CI |UQ 16 10-5 N \h Pk.
3.15 20 cm 10 cm Psh Pa _ 100 _PU
Pskx. 5 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zv
u[PhkQx. 1mA mhzvS 150 PU Pmi,
Pa _ u[Phmh P US \ U
PnUQk.
uP : n = 100, A = 20 cm 10 cm = 2 10-1 10-1 m2
B = 5 10-3 T, = 150, I = 1mA = 10-3A, C = ?

w : = 150 = 15 = rad
180 12
nBIA = C

nBIA 102 5 10-3 10-3 2 10-1 10-1

C = =


12
C = 3.82 10-5 N m rad-1
3.16 20 uh Psh Pmh J 50 mA mhzvS
PU PkUS. Cu (i) 20 A AUS AmhP,
(ii) 120 V AUS m mhP G ?
uP : G = 20 ; Ig = 50 x 10-3 A ; I = 20 A, S = ?
V = 120 V, R = ?
Ig 20 50 10-3 1
w : (i) S = G . I-I = -3 =
g 20 - 50 10 20 - 0.05
S = 0.05
Pmhh 0.05 Psh uh UP Cn
CnUP sk.
V
(ii) R = I G
g

133
 120
= 20 = 2400-20 = 2380
50 10-3
R = 2380
2380 uh Pmhh uh Cn
CnUP sk.
3.17 J Pmhh 12 uh UP Cn CnUP
kx, Pmk P 50 Px 10 PPU SQx.
P mh uh G?
uP : 1 = 50 P, g = 10 P, S = 12, G = ?

w : I 1
Ig g
UP Cn zu \.
G. Ig = S (I-Ig)

S (I - Ig ) 12 (50 - 10)
G = =
Ig 10
G = 48
3.18 m Aq GUm 0.5 B Psh u
iUS 1016 _P HkzxQx. mh u
CUPzv GUm Puz vz vU PnUQkP.
uP : r = 0.5 = 0.5x10-10 m, n = 1016 s-1
w : mh u Pu vzv l = i.A ...(1)

e
i = = e.n ...(2)
T
A = r2 ...(3)
\k (2), (3) I \k (1) vh,
l = e.n. r2
= 1.6 10-19 1016 3.14 (0.5 10-10)2
= 1.256 10-23
l = 1.256 10-23 A m2

134
 u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP
PnUSP vP. C, h Sv Gu J
Ax PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk
Svx mk, h x iUPhU Ti
UPUS PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

3.1 v
I2
(a) H = t (b) H = V2 Rt
R
(c) H = VIt (d) H = IR2t
3.2 `h CP {U kzukQx. H Ax
(a) Su uh Gs Pshx.
(b) Su ES{ Pshx.
(c) AvP uh Gs Pshx.
(d) AvP Phzx Gs Pshx.
3.3 mh \v i SnP Gua \ux?
(a) mh E mh.
(b) mh |.
(c) \v {.
(d) mh mh.
3.4 J mh S\v { 20oC. v
{ 270oC G mk {x
(a) 520oC (b) 540oC
(c) 500oC (d) 510oC
3.5 m &\m v \k
o Idl o Idl sin
(a) dB = 2 (b) dB =
4 r 4 r2
JJJG G JJJG G
o Idl r o Idl r
(c) dB = (d) dB =
4 r2 4 r3
3.6 EmSzv Psh FhPzv D |Phzv J
mh x J Pu Ahzv ....... BS.
o I o I
(a) (b)
4 a 2 a
I I
(c) (d)
4 a 2 a

135
3.7 hm Pmh, Smh mhzvS P 30o.
Pa _ uzv 900 v Au mhzvS
Hk P
(a) 300 (b) 600
(c) 900 (d) 00
3.8 \Um kUPk mh xP _UPU
P Gua \uu?
(a) Puz ysh (b) xP mh
(c) xP v\P (d) xP {
3.9 ^ Pu zv UPmh \PU Pa _ x
\k v \ P CUP,
(a) _UP GsoUP AvPP CUP sk
(b) _UP GsoUP SP CUP sk
(c) _ u Pu zvS \[SzuP CUP sk
(d) _ SP CUP sk
3.10 C[S _ Pmh Pa _ u[Ph
&sPU PU P kzuU Pn
(a) Phzx v AvP
(b) uhGs AvP
(c) KS Pn PUP v \ AvP
(d) KS Pn PUP v \ S
3.11 \u[P J uh PU S
(a) C[S _ Pmh
(b) 0 1A Amh
(c) 010 A Amh
(d) m mh
3.12 G uh Psh Pmhh S uh Psh Cnzuh
CnUPkQx. C uh Ra G
T Gx \x?
(a) G Bx S&I hU S.
(b) S Bx Ra&I hU S. B, G h AvP
(c) Ra Bx G, S&I hU S
(d) S Bx G, Ra&I hU S

136
3.13 ]u m mh s.
(a) _ uh
(b) _ vS GUS Ch Smh uh
(c) G h AvPP B D v h Su uh
(d) D h
3.14 vU TP.
3.15 v {US \u .
3.16 i SnP .
3.17 : u\ SnP.
3.18 m&\m vU TP.
3.19 mh }sh, |, D Phzv J
Hk Puz ysh vP P P.
3.20 mh Pa _ Aa] x Hk
Puz yshUP uh P.
3.21 hm P mh uzx, A, CUP BQ
.
3.22 B _ vU TP.
3.23 B _vU kzv a_ Hk Puz
ysh v P.
3.24 B & .
3.25 Pu zv mh Phzv x \k
\ P P.
3.26 C[S _ Pmh uzx, A, C[S u
BQ .
3.27 J Pmh G (i) AmhP (ii) m mhP
?

PnUSP
3.28 J mh S \v { 20oC, mk
{ 600oC. S \v { 20oC G, mk
{U PsP.
3.29 }sh |UPhzv 10A mh x Avx
10 cm u Puz yshU PnUQk.

137
3.30 100 _P, 20 cm B Psh Pa _ ,
5A mh Qx. Pa _ Aa] x Au
zvx 20 cm u Puz ysh vU
PnUQkP.
3.31 _P GsoUP 2 : 3 : 5 G Quzv E hm
PmhP uhn CnUPmk mh
\zukx 30o, 45o, 60o PP HkQ.
Pa_P B[P QuzuU PnUQk.
3.32 1 m } 2 uh Psh | Phzv
12V zu Psh Ph CnUPkQx. CU Phzv
x 5 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Puzv \[SzuP
UPk x Au x \k \U PnUQk.
3.33 25 cm B, 50 _P Psh Pa _ 6A
mh Qx. 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zv
CUPa _ u[PhkQx. Pa _ uzvS
k \[SzxUPk Pu zxh 600 Pnzv
Au, _ Hk v \U PnUQkP.
3.34 \Um jUPUS \[SzuP 0.5 T Puz ysh Psh
^ Pu \zukQx. imP kUPz u
v\ zuzv A|zvU PnUQk. (im
{ 3.3 10-27 kg mh 1.6 10-19C).
3.35 500 _P, 6 10-4 m2SUS Psh \PU Pa
_ 10-4 T Puz ysh Psh B Pu zv
u[PhkQx. u[Phmh P US\
5 10-10 N m /degree G 10o P Hkzx
mhzvU PnUQk.
3.36 Csk Cn D PhzvP J A
mh \zukQx. PhzvPUQh u 20 cm.
KS }zvS PPh \k Pa] \ 4.9 10-5 N
G mhzvU PnUQkP.
3.37 3m } Psh a_ 4000 _P E. _ zv
Aa] x 8 10-3 T Puz ysh EshUPz u
mhzuU PnUQk.
3.38 J Pmh uh 100 . Czxh UP Cn 1
uh CnUPkQx. zu mhzv G Sv
P mh a \?

138
3.39 J Pmh uh 40 . Cx 2 mA mhzvS
PU PkUS. Cu 0 x 20V
zuzv AUS m mhP G ?
3.40 J Pmh AP 50 P E. Au
mh En ~m 0.1 m A/division P mh uh
40 . Czxh 0.1 uh UP Cn CnUPmh,
AUPk mh v G?

hP
3.1 (c) 3.2 (c) 3.3 (c) 3.4 (a) 3.5 (d)

3.6 (d) 3.7 (d) 3.8 (c) 3.9 (a) 3.10 (d)

3.11 (c) 3.12 (c) 3.13 (d)

o -5
3.28 560 C 3.29 2 10 T
-4
3.30 5.55 10 T 3.31 6 : 3 3 : 5
-2 -2
3.32 3 10 N 3.33 5.1 10 Nm
-7
3.34 2.6 10 s 3.35 0.166 m A

3.36 7 A 3.37 4.77 A

3.38 1/101 3.39 9960 uhP

3.40 2 A

139
 4. Puz ysh v\ mh

1820 B Bsi Qi Jhm G, mh

Phzva _ Pu ES Gua \u
\x Pmi. Au Cu uP Puzv
yshmh US \ EUSuP ]P
Pmh.
4.1 Puz ysh
Jhm \u u UP Lh \u
\x Pmi. J Phzvh uh Psh Pu zu
u AUPhzv PUQh US \
yskuP UQ. Cx Puz ysh G
AUPmhx. Puz ysh Pskix Ezv
J m] Hkzvx.
4.1.1 Pu
^
n
Pu B& UPmh
h uh Psh Pu
(), hmh (A)
Phx \ Pu\ PkP
GsoUP G UP A B
kQx (h 4.1). Gx Pu
zv v\US, S
mh SzxUPmiS Ch
E Pn G,
= B . A
h 4.1 Pu
= BA cos
4.1.2 yshmh US \ mh & Puz
ysh
J hmh _h uh Psh Pu zv Hk
x Aa_ J US \ EQx. Cx yshmh
US \ G Au hmh u mh
yshmh mh G AUPkQ. J hmh

140
_h uh Psh Pu
zv [P Hk x
US \ yshk {P
G
Puz ysh GkQx.
C
Lh \uP
\uu Puz ysh
Pskizu.
h 4.2 E C G N
Ei Pa _, Phmh
u PP _PP _
S
EUPmhuS. Cx EnUP
G G P mhh uhP h 4.2 Puz
CnUPmkx. NS G ysh
\mhU Pu Au h Pa _ |UQ CUS
zx , RP |PzukQx. Cvx Lh RPq
iP zu.
(i) Pa _US PuzvS Ch J CUP E
u P mh E S P Ah. Cx _
yshmh mh uU PmkQx.
(ii) P mh Hk P Pn |zvS {PU Tix
(momentary). Cu P Pa _US, PuzvS Ch
\UP E mk }iUS.
(iii) Puzu, Pa _ |UQ Pa _ mk
S |Pzv mh v\ Qx.
(iv) Puzu PP |Pzv P AvPP, Puzu
xP |Pzv P SP CUS.
(v) Puzv P , Aux u Pa _
|UQ CUS zx |Pzv Au iP u kQ.
B mh Gv v\ Qx.
Lh, Puz ysh \u P \x
Pmi.
C1 C2 G C Pa _P JUP AQ
UPmku h 4.3 PmkQx. C1 G Pa_ Bt G
Pzxh \ K uh Rh P CnUPmkx.
C2 G Pa _ G G EnUP P mhh CnUPmk

141
C1 US AQ UPmkx. K G \ Azx x C2G
_h CnUPmk P mh Pn| UPzuU Pmk.
Cx C2 G _ mh yshkuU SUQx. Cx G
{PQx G, mh C1 P z x[Q _ u J u
v Ah EQx. Cu C1 G _h uh
Psh Pu C 1 C2

AvPUQx. G C2
G Pa _h
uh Psh
P u
AvPUQx. Cx C2 G
C mhzuz
ysi, P mh K
()
Rh
P HhU PnP Bt
AQx (h 4.3). h 4.3 Puz ysh
K G \ Azuku {zv, P mh E
S Gvv\ P Ah. Cx C2 sk mh
yshkuU PmkQx. Cx G {PQx G, C1 C
mh vx _US S x C1 C uh
Psh Pu S, G C2 C uh Psh Pu
SQx. Cx P mh Gv v\ P Aha \Qx.
4.1.3 Puz ysh Lh vP
Puz ysh ux BP Aih Lh
RUPsh Csk vP {.
u v
J hmh _k uh Psh Pu x
Au _ US \ yshkQx. Pu zv {Px
PsiUS mk yshmh US \ }iUS.
Csh v
hmh _ yshmh US \ Gs v, _h
uh Psh Pu uzvS |zuP CUS.
Pa _h uh Psh Pu zv uhUP v 1
G t PzvS Ax 2 uP Psh Pu
2 1
u =
t

142
 Lh vi, yshmh US \ Gsv,
2 1
e .
t
dt G Pzv Hk Pu d G, Psh
d
\mh e G Gu.
dt
4.1.4 v
A u H.F. G 1835 B Bsi, J
_ yshmh mhzv v\U Sk G
vU Pskizu.
J _ yshmh mhzv v\, Gx Au
EUPU PnP Cu Pu zu GvUS P
A.
J Pa_ N _PU PsiuP, J _h
uh Psk Pu G Psh Gu J Pnzv
Pa _k uh Psh zu Pu N BS.
d Nd N (2 1 )
e = (N), e = =
dt dt t
B A v Aih
v S

E i uizu Amh x
_mk uU Pa _ C P N
EnUP P mhh CnUPkQ.
h 4.4 Pmi J \mh Pu Pa _
|UQ |PzukQx. Pa _ Pu
h Qx.
Cu P Puzu, mk \US
GvP |Pzu \ six. \mh G
Puzu Pa _ mk S | |Pzx
x Pa _ Pu uP
Qx. Cx Puzu |Pzu Pa] \US
GvP \ sk. Pu
|Pzukx Pa _h uh Psh h 4.4
Pu\U PkP GsoUP Qx. Cu v

143
Pu u Pa _ ysh mhzu EshUSQx.
vi yshmh mhzv v\ Gx Pu
C[Su GvUS P CUS. G, Puzu |Pzu
\k P kQx. Cu Pa
_ BP nQx. CuS P, Pa _
yshmh mhzv v\, Puzv CUPzvS Eu P
CUS Pu P |PvUS. BP, Pa
_k uh Psh Pu zv AvPUS. G,
yshmh mhzv A AvPzvUS. BP, x
\h CUP B EQUS.
B, Cx |h Cu {P BS. G, yshmh
mhzv v\ Gx Au EUPU PnP Cu \
GvUPU Ti P A. CP B A v
Aih v UP C.
4.1.5 L[ xP v
x P BPmi , |k BQ
JUP \[SzuP zxU Psk, BPmi
Puzv v\, Phzv C[S v\ SuPU
Psh |kx yshmh mhzv v\U SUS
Gu L[ xP vS. Cx v G
AUPkQx.
4.2 u ysh
J Pa _ mhzv Hkx
AUPa _ J Gv US\ yshk {P u
ysh Gk.
h 4.5 C Pmi Pa _ J P Bt \
K Eh uh Cn CnUPkQx. \ Azuk
x Pa _
mh, Au vS
AvPUQx. AuS H Pa _k
uh Psh Pu AvPUQx.
G yshmh mh Pa
_ Qx.
K
vi, yshmh ( )
mhx, Pzvx Bt
mhzvS Gv v\ x, h 4.5 u ysh

144
Pa _ mh AvPu GvUQx. \ Azuku
{zv Pa _ mh _US S. G Pa
_h uh Psh Pu S. vi,
yshmh mhx, Pzvx mhzvS
Gv v\ x, Pa _ mh Su GvUQx.
4.2.1 u ysh Gs
I G mh J Pa _ x Pa _k
uh Psh Pu , mhzvS |UuP CUS.
I or = LI
Cv L Gx Qu BS. Cx u { Gs Ax u
ysh Gs GkQx.
I = 1A G = L 1 Ax L = G, KS mh
J Pa _ x, AUPa _k uh
Psh Pu, AUPa _ u ysh Gs GkQx.
Puz ysh vPi
d d dI
e = = (LI ) Ax e = L
dt dt dt
dI
= 1 A s1 G, L = e BS
dt
Pa _ J mh J |iUS J B G
uzv x AUPa _ yshk Gv US \
Gsn Aa_ u ysh GsoSa \ BS. u
ysh Gso AS henry (H) BS.
Pa _ J mh J iUS J B
G uzv x, AUP yshk Gv US \
1 m G A, Aa_ uysh Gs 1 G
UPkQx.
4.2.2 }sh a_ u ysh Gs
l G }zu A G SUS Psh N _PU
Psh J a_U Px. Cv I G mh uPU
P. a_ Gu J Pu B G
J _UP Pu = B J _
oNI
B, B=
l

145
 o NIA
J _UP Pu =
l
G, a_k uh Psh Pu () Gx
J _ Pu zu _P GsoUP
BQ UPU QhUS vS.
o NIA
= N
l
N2IA
Aux, = o ...(1)
l
L Gx a_ u ysh Gs G
= LI ...(2)
\kP (1) (2)x
o N2IA
LI =
l
2

L =
l
Pa _ EP G Pu EmSv Psh
{kQx G
2
L= BS.
l
4.2.3 J ysih (Inductor) uh Psh B
Pa _ J mh x Au u {
mh a] GvUS. G, Pa _ mhzu {
[P \h sk. e Gx yshmh US
\ G
dI
e = L
dt
dt G P Ch \mh ] dw G
dw = e.I dt
dI
= L I.dt
dt
mh _x vUS (Io) AvPUP \k

Io

w = dw = L I dI
0

146
 Cu x _ {P \zx UPkQx.
_ \UPmh B
Io
1
= L IdI = L I o2
0 2
\mi E GvUS v Aihx.
1
G, Gsn ysi \UPmh B L Io2BS.
2
4.2.4 ysh
JUP APP E C Pa _P, J _h
uh Psh Pu x _ Pu
. Cu Cshx _ US
\ yshk. J _
G
mhzv Hkx
_ US\ yshk
S
{P ysh Gk.
h 4.6& P S G
JUP AP UPmk Pa P
_P BS. P G _ K G \ P mh
P Pzxh CnUPmkx.
+ - ( )
S G Pa _ G G P mhh K
CnUPmkx. K G \ Azx h 4.6
x P G _ mh ysh
_x vUS AvPUS. mh AvPUS x
Ph Cnu Pu AvPUS. G S Eh Cnu
Pu AvPUS. Cu S C US \ yshk.
Cx P mh P Hk. vi S C
yshk mh, P C mhzvS GvP x P
C mh zvS AvPu uukzx. K G
\ Azuku {zv P mh zvx _
|UQ S. Cu P Ph uh Psh Pu
S. vi S C yshk mhzv v\x P
mh Su GvUS P A. G P C
mh Su uukzx.
4.2.5 ysh Gs
IP Gx P G _ mh G, s Gx P G
_ mhzv S G _k uhh Pu
147
G Psh
s IP Ax s = M IP
Cv M Gx Qu BS. Cx { Gs Ax
ysh Gs G AUPkQx.
IP = 1A, G M = s
G, _ J KS mh x
_ yshk Pu Gsn A _PUS Ch
E ysh GsoSa \S. Gu J Pnzv S G
_ yshk US \ es G, Puz ysh
vPi,
ds d dI P
es = = (MIP) = M
dt dt dt
es
M =
dI P
dt

dI P
= 1 A s1, G, M = es G A.
dt
G, _ J mh J |iUS J B
G uzv x, _ yshk GvUS
\ Gsn A _P ysh GsoSa \ .
ysh Gso AS henry BS.
J _ mh J |iUS J B G
uzv x _ yshk Gv US\
J m G, A _PUQh E ysh
Gs J BS.
C Pa _PUQh E ysh Gs
a \xx.
(i) _ n, i, _P GsoUP EPP
k Pu EmSv BQa \ux.
(ii) Pa _P JUP G AQ E Gua
\ux.
P S G C _P Aa_P h 4.7a C Pmi
JUP |USzuP Au P G _ mh
x S G _h uh Psh Pu SP
CUS. G A _PUS Ch E ysh

148
 P P
P S

S
S

(a) (b) (c)

h 4.7 ysh
Gs SuP CUS.
Csk _P J x Aa\U PsiUS zx P
_ mhzua \zx x S _h uh Psh
Pu AvPP CUS (h 4.7b). G, C _PUS Ch
E ysh Gs AvPP CUS.
Csk Pa _P u EPzv x _mi,
(h 4.7c) ysh Gs P AvPS.
4.2.6 C }sh a_P ysh
h 4.8C Pmi S1 S1
S2 G l } C a_P BS.
S2
S2 G a_ S1 G a_ x P
|UPP _mkx. h 4.8 C }sh
a_P
N1 N2 G S1
ysh
S2 G a_P E _P
GsoUPPS. C a_P J SUS A Psh
G, A Jh J P |UPP _mk G
Px. S1 G a_ I1 G hzv
Aa_ Gu J ES Pu B1 GU Psh

B1 = o N 1 I1 ...(1)
l
S2 & J _h uh Psh Pu B1A BS.
N2 _PU Psh S2 G a_h uh Psh zu
Pu
2 = B1AN2
B1 v \k (1)x vk \,

N
2 = o 1 I 1 A N2
l

149
 o N 1N 2 AI 1
2 = ...(2)
l
B 2 = MI1 ...(3)
Cv M Gx S1 S2 G a_PUQh E
ysh Gs BS.
\kP (2) (3)x
o N 1N 2 AI 1
MI1 =
l
o N 1N 2 A
M =
l
EP G Pu EmSv Psh {kQx
G
N1N 2 A
M =
l
4.3 yshmh US \ EUS P
yshmh US \UP \k
d d
e = = (NBA cos ) Gx uuu.
dt dt
G, (i) Puz ysh (B) u , (ii) _ EhUQ
(A) u (iii) Puzu zx _
v\ A () u yshmh UP \
.
4.3.1 Puz ysh u US \z
ysku
J Puzu Pa _ |UQ Ax Pa _mk
Qa \ |Pzxu Puz ysh . Cu
Pa _ yshmh US\ EUPkQx.
AQ E Pa _ mhzu u J
_h uh Psh Puz ysh . Au Aa_
yshmh US \ ES.
dB
e = NA cos
dt
4.3.2 _ Eh[Q u US
\z ysku
PQRS G Phzv h 4.9 Pmi izv
UPmkx. L1 M1 Gx l }h | PhzvS. Cx PQ

150
 B

Q L1 L2
P
l

S
R M1 M2
dx

h 4.9 u US
\ yshku

RS G [P x UPmkx. B G ^ Pu
Phzv uzvS SzuPa \kQx. Phzv hmh
L1QRM1 BS. L1M1 G | Phzv dt P A dx u
|PQx G Phzv EhUS v L2QRM2 BS. Phzv
EhUS L2L1M1M2 G A ku Phzvh uh
Psh Pu Qx. G Phzv yshmh US
\ EUPkQx (h 4.9).
k, dA = L2L1M1M2
dA = l dx
Pu , d = B.dA = Bl dx
d
B e =
dt

Bldx
e = = Bl v
dt
Cv v Gx | Phzv |P v\P BS.
4.3.3 Puzv _ v\ () u
US \z ysku
PQRS Gx N _P A SUS Psh \P
i Pa _ BS. Cx B G ^ Pu zv UPmkx
(h 4.10). CuU Pa _, PuzvS \[SzuP Au
Aa\ G Pnzv\Pzxh g_P _kQx.
uhUPzv Pa _ \[Szu { Ex GU Psh
_ SzxUPk Puzxh Hkzx Pn _ BS. t G

151
Pzv _x (=t) Pn _kQx. Ax _h
uh Psh Pu G
= NBA cos
d d
yshmh US \, e = = NBA cos (t)
dt dt
e = NBA sin t ...(1)
yshmh US \ v Eo = NAB
G yshmh US \ e = Eo sin t GU
Sh.
P t I zx yshk US \ e x \ A

izv Qx. Au Avs = _P / i BS.
2
(i) t = 0 G {, _ u, B G PuzvS SzuP
Ex. G e = 0.
t = /2 G {, _ u, B G PuzvS
(ii)
CnP Ex G e = Eo.

Q R Q
R Q Q R
R Q R

P S P

S P P S
N S P S S

e +E0

O
_ 3_
_ 2 t
2
2
-E0

h 4.10 v\ u US
\ yshku

152
 (iii) t = G {, _ u, B G PuzvS
\[Pnzv Ex G e = 0.
(iv) t = 3/2 G { _ u sk PuzvS
CnP Ex. G e = Eo.
(v) t = 2 G {, _ } sk B G PuzvS
\[SzuP Ex. G e = 0.
_ P R G uh P a _h CnUPk
x Aa_ mh \ PhP A.

4.4 AC (h) J Pmh (single phase)

Cv B P Eu P ac S.
P A u {S h G u u
iUPmhx.
uzx
Pa _ J ^ Puzv _k x Av
US \ yshk G Puz ysh uzxzv
Aih \kQx.
AC UQ P[P
(i) _ _
_ _ Gx uPkP B u EP Ax
zv x AvP GsoUP Ph uU P
_mh \P i Pa _ BS. u EP, Pa _
P Puzu AvPuk _ _ u[SuS
EuQx.
(ii) U Pu
B C
v Su h
J { Puzv
u Pu
EUPkQx. AvP v
Psh h Puzv N S
A D
u Pu
B1 R1
EUPkQx. _ _x v
PuzvS SzuP Au AkUS B R2
2

Aa\ Pu PUS
Ch _Qx. h 4.11 AC h

153
(iii) | [P
_ _ Csk P R1 R2 G Csk Eh
EP [Ph CnUPmk. Cu [P __
_a \ Aa_z ushk zu mku _ _h \x
| [P _Q.
(iv) yPP
B1 B2 G Csk |Qz uh EPz uPkP
Ax P yPP BS. AP, | [Ph
Azumh { Cu Ah Cn HkzxQ.
yPP, _ _ ES mhzu | [P P
a_ \ EuQ.
\ u
Puzu zx Pa _ v\ x
AUPa _k uh Psh Pu Qx. Au, Pa
_ US\ yshkQx. yshmh mhzv
v\ L[ x P vx A.
_ _ ABCD uhUPzv \[Szu { Ex GU
Px. Cx Chg_P _kQx. _ AB G Sv
R|UQ DC G Sv |UQ |P (h 4.11). L[
x P vi AB G zv yshk mh B x
A US, CD yshmh mh D x CUS . G
Pa _ mh DCBA G v\ . a_
mh B1 x B2US .
_ _ _kx, _ AB |UQ
DC R|UQ |P. Cx, _ _ mh ABCD G
v\ . a_ mh B2 x B1US . _
_] uh x a_ t
sin
mh, _ e=E 0
J Aa _US u e
v\ U Psh CUS. 3
__ 7__
2 3 2 4
G yshmh mh _ 2 5__ t
2
CP A (h 2
4.12). _ _ J i
_]P iUS _P /
|i Avs Psh v\ h 4.12 \ A izv
mh EUPk. US \ u

154
 Gu J Pnzv yshmh US \ e = Eo sin t
US \ v Eo = NBA
Cv N Gx _ E _P GsoUP
A Gx _ Eh[S
B Gx Pu
Gx _ Pnzv\PS.
4.4.1 AC (Alternator) Pmh
J Pmh J J __U PsiUS. J
_ _P kzv, Ax Pmh
(Polyphase alternator) Gk. Pmh , Gzu _P
Ax Pmh[P PsiUQ Azu zu A
i[Pz uUS. Pmh A H
_P, J Aa_h u Pmh[PUS H \ Pn A
\x CUS zumiUS. Su \, AvP vh
(efficiency), AvP A Khzvx ChzvS
A Pmh P AvP A kzukQ.
Pmh US \ Ezv
Pmh Pa _P EvP Jh
J 120o Pn A \vUS \zx UPmk. Cu
A PuzvS SzuP Au Aa\ _kQx.
J _ uzu | [P, yPP Psh
APU Psk.
J _ 120o Pmh mi
N
US \ yshkQx. a1 a2, b1 b2
c1 c2 BQ _P J Aa_h
120o Pn A \x CUS c2 b2
zumk Puzv Chg_P
_kQ (h 4.13a). B A
a1 a2
a1 a2 G Pa _ AB G {
Ex Av yshk US \ b1 c1
_S. Cx |zv\ AvPUPz
uh[S. Au \zv b1 b2 G _ S
a1 a2US 120o u[Q CUS. G, Cv
yshmh US \ Gvzv\ h 4.13 a 3 Pmh ac
v |UQ . , c1 c2 G _

155
a1 a2 _h 240o
Pn A u[Q emf Ea a Eb b
1 2Ec c 1 2 1 2

CUS. G, Cv
yshmh US
\ |zv\ O 2 3
t
vU Phx Sx
PsiUS. CP 120 o
120 o o
120
Pa _P
yshk US
h 4.13 b 3 Pmh US \
\P Gsn
\P J Avsn PshuP CUS. _P
yshmh US \P Ec c 1 2

e = Eo sin t
a1 a2
e = Eo sin (t 2/3)
b1 b2
e = Eo sin (t 4/3)
c1 c2 240
a1 a2, b1 b2 c1 c2 G Pa
120
_P yshmh US \P
Eb b Ea1a2
Pmh kP h 4.13b h 4.13c. 1 2

h 4.13 c _
BQ Pmhmk.
_UQh
4.5 _ mh[P Pn Cha]
EPU Pmi J
Puzv C[S
x Ax {P
E EPU Pmi
\ Pu
x EPU
Pmi mh S N
yshkQx Gu 1895
B Bsi Pm h 4.14 _ mh
G Psh. EPU
Phzv ysh k Cu mh, _ P Ax }a_
(eddies or whirl pool) hmh u Qx. G,
CP mh _ m h G AUPkQx. _
mhzv v\ vU Psk Ax P.
mhzumk Phzv Ax EPzuPk, Puzv (h 4.14)
PUQh A x uPmiS _ mh

156
EQx. C mhzv v\x, Gv \h
Phzv CUPzu GvUS P A. G Phzvx
Qmhzumh Av {US xk. EPzuPmi xP
Hkzv Au Pu zv Aa \u _
mhzv SUPk. Au P uPk
Puzv uh A. EPU PmiUSvP
uPkP kzxu _ mhzuU SUP.
_ mhzv P
(i) A P mh (Dead beat galvanometer)
J P mh mhzua \zv Pa_
Av {US uS |k{ PU Psk
A. Pa_ EhiP Av {US Psk uPP
PU _x J EPa \mhzv x _kQx. Cx,
Pa_ P Ah x EPa \mhzv _ mh[P
ES. Cua _ mh[P, Pa _ Au
GvUS. Cx Pa_ Hzu EhiP \{ Aha \.
Pa _ AP EhiP { ku Cu P mh
A P mh GkQx.
(ii) ysh E (Induction furnace)
ysh E, E {x _ mh[P
Hkzxu EUPkQx. kzuh si
AvP Avs Psh Ch Puzv UPkQx.
G A _ mh EQx.
mhzv EP ESQx.
(iii) ysh mhP (Induction motors)
_ (rotor) GUPk EP E _Q Puzv
UPkx Av _ mh[P EUPkQ. _
mh, uhUPzv EUS _ PuzvS Ch
E \UPzu SUP Qx. Pu uhx _Psh
Cu EP E uhx _kQx. CP mh
]P kQx.
(iv) Puz uhP (Electro magnetic brakes)
C si \UP[Ph J Eh EP E
CnUPmkx. C si CUPzv Ex \UPzxh
E \x _. uh \kzxx
Pu EUPmk E _ mh[P
EUPkQ. Cu _ mh[P E CUPzu

157
GvUS. G, C si K {US Qx.
(v) P Pmk P (Speedometer)
P Pmk P, Pu J Pzv PzvS H
_Qx. _P (hair springs) Eu J Smh
{ UPmk A E Pu _Qx.
Puzv _] E _ mh[P
EUPkQ. Cu mh[P _ Puzv CUPzu
GvUQ. Cu, E x J v \ Hmk Pzv
PzvS H J Smh Pn AS vQx. Eh
zumk S, Sk \ A P x |Px
Pzv PzuU Pmk.
4.6 (Transformer)
Su v\ zuzu AvP v\ zuP,
AvP v\ zuzu Su v\ zuP
Eu \u GkQx. Cx, J _x
_US Qx. x Puz ysh uzxzv
Aih \kQx.
u EPzv x _mh Jh J
uh A u xna _P E (h 4.15). _
mh[PU SUP uPkP B u EP
kzukQx. v\ Ek zu ua_US
ukQx. ua_ uhx hx Psh CUS
mh, k Puzu ua _ EshUS. Cx
xna _ Pu zu Hkzx. Cu xna _
US\ yshkQx. u
EP ES G EP
u xna _P

yshk US \P
G, NP NS G
u xna
_P E _P
GsoUP G P. xa_
ua_
u xna
h 4.15
_Ph J A
Pu uh Psku Csk _P _ JP
yshk US \ \P CUP sk.

158
 E E
Aux N = N
P s

P s

Es N s
Ax = (1)
EP N p

J | US (ideal transformer) Ek v
k v \.
Ep Ip = Es Is
Cv Ip Is G u xna _P
mh[P BS.
E I
Aux E = I
s P
...(2)
P s

\kP (1) (2) x

Es N s I P
= =
EP N p I S = k

Cv k Gx Qu GkQx.
[H US k > 1; CUS US k < 1]
H Es > Ep Gx Is < Ip G A GuU
SUS. G H , mhzuU Su
zuzu AvPUQx. Cx B A v Aih
Axx. Cx CUS mhzu AvPu
zuzuU SUQx.
v
v Gx k vUS Ek
vUS E uP G UPkQx.

k v Es I s
= = E I
Ek v P P

v CP Hx Cu J | US v
= 1 (Aux 100 %).
B, |h v CP
Hku Au v Gx Jh SP CUS.

159
 Hk v CP
(1) uUP C
Ek v\ mh, C EPzu vz v
PuUSu, Puzu CUPa \u Hk v
C uUP C Gk. Su uUP CU Psk
EP[P kzv CzuP v CU SUP.
mh ]UP j P EP[P kzv
uUP CU SUP.
(2) u C
u xna _P mh
Hkzx. G, ]x B, B i
CUPkQx. Su A uh Psh ui PP
kzxu CzuP CU SUP.
(3) _ mh C (C C)
k Pu, EPzv _ mhzu HkzxQx.
Cu, B C i HkQx. GLQ P EP
h G EPU P EUPmh uPkP
EPzu Au Cu CU SUP.
(4) C
ua _ ES Pu x, U P]
PnP, xna _h uh Pv. Cx B C
HkzxQx. TkP EPzu kzx CzuP
CU SUP.
Psh CPh, EPzv AvP PnP Hk J
B C HkzxQx.
4.6.1 }sh uS v Au
JxUS Ch[P Ax Ezv {[P
EzvS v, kP u\P EPzvPP
SvPUS AkQx. }sh uS v A
A Phzx P B \ CnUS
PP AUPkQ. Cu CnU PP v CP
HkQ.
R G uh Eh P mh I G,
ShzuUP A I2R G v BP nQx.
G, kzx k v, uUPmh

160
 CnU P

H CUS
Ezv { xn {
h 4.16 }sh uS v Au

v h PUSP CUS. B v E
zuzv A v C Po\PU SUP Gu
RUPq Csk {PP A (h 4.16).
{P (i) 11,000 W v 220 V, zuzv AkQx
G
B P = VI
P 11, 000
I = = = 50A
V 220
R Gx CnU P uh G, v C = I2R =
502R = 2500 R watts
{P (ii) 11,000 W v 22,000 V ; zuzv
AkQx G
P 11,000
I = = = 0.5 A
V 22,000
v C = I2R = (0.5)2 R = (0.25) R watts
G, E zuzv v A BP
v C HkuU Po\P SUP Gx uQx.
11,000 W v, 220 V zuzv A sk
CnU P mh u[S 50A BP CUPsk.
B 22,000 V zuzv A x Auv 0.5 A. G
AvP mhzu (50A) Gkzxa\ ui PP EP
kzu sk. Cx, v AuP \ AvPkzx.
Cuz ui PPz u[P P[P G
sk. Cx \ AvPUS. CuS P v AvP
zuzv A EPkzuk PPUS Su
mh u[S \Uv Cu x. ui PPUS
vP PP kzu. Cx v AuS BS
\ Po\PU SUS.

161
 GkzxUPmhP, 400MW v, 15,000 V A |
E Ezv {zv Ezv \kQx. Cx
AkuS uP 230,000 V BP H
EzukQx. Cu v \ Qi (Grid) J SvP
A PP AkQx. Cu \ Qm |mi
SvP CnUQx. |P[PUS CUS PU
Psk zux 110,000 V BP SUPkQx. sk,
vx P 11,000 V BP SUPkQx.
mhPUS (user) [PkuS AP uUS
H 230 V Ax 440 V AUS zu SUPmk
[PkQx.
4.7. v\ mh
Puzv _ Pa _, v\ US \,
G v\ mhzu EUS. _ yshk
US \ Gsv v\ Pzu zx
UPsh Cu Cx v\ US \ G
AUPkQx. v\ US\ P kzv
UPU Ti P \vUS H Su zuP Ax
AvP zuP U P C Gx Cu ]
A\S. yshmh US \ Avsn, _ _
_] Pzu u AUP i. Cx Pu
{ E AvsP |UP[PUPP |
kzvU P \zvQx. GkzxUPmhP, Cv kPUS
50 Hz Avs Psh v [PkQx. J Pm]UP
\PP A 100 KHz u 100 MHz AvsP Psh
v\ mh u. H kP PnP
|kP v\ mhzu kzxQ.
4.7.1 v\ mhzu Aku
v\ mh Pzu zx uhx UPsh
Cu, J a _UP \\ v _S. G Cu
v\ mhzv v Ah kQx.
v\ mhzv RMS v
v\ mhx J uhUQ J P
Smh | x EUS B, Au |zv
Au uh EUS u |mhzv v, v\
mhzv v rms v GkQx.

162
 v \
mhzv rms v I02
Gx v\
mhzv +I0
v G AUP Irms
kQx. Cu Irms
0 t
Ax I G
Sh.
-I0
i=Io sin t
G
v\ mh G h 4.17 I, I2, Irms Pzua \x
uh R P ku.
x (dt) G ]
P A uh EUS
dH = i2 R dt
J a _US uh ES zu
T T

i R dt = (I sin2 t ) R dt
2 2
H = o
O O
T
1 cos 2 t ) I o 2R T T

= Io 2R
O dt = 2 dt cos 2 t .dt
2 O 0

{ }
T
I o 2R sin 2 t I o 2R sin 4 2
= t = T 2 T =
2 2 0 2
I o 2RT
H =
2
Cu x, Au uhUQ (R) Au Pzv (T)
mhzv v EUS zvSa \.
Aux, H = I2rms RT
I o 2RT
I2rms RT =
2
Io
Irms = = 0.707 I0
2

Cu
Eo
Erms = GU PnUQh.
2

163
 v\ mhzv rms v, v\ mhzv
v 0.707 h[PP CUS. P, Cx v
70.7 % CUS GU T.

4.7.2 uhUQ mk Eh AC _
R uhh uhUQh J v\ US
\ CnUPmkx GU P. Gu J Pnzv
\kzuk US \
e = Eo sin t ...(1)
t G Pzv, _ mh i G R G
uhUQ, SUP zu k e = i R
zu k, \zuk US \USa \.

R e

i
e,i

O
2
e=E0 sin t
(a)
i
eR
(c) (b)

h 4.18 uhUQ Eh AC _

G, iR = Eo sin t
Eo
i= sin t
R
i = Io sin t ...(2)

E0
Cv Io = Gx _ v\ mhzv v
R
BS. uhUQ CnUPmh _ Pn|
mhzu \k (2) PmkQx. zu
mhzvP \kP (1) (2) x zu,
mh J Pmhzv E Gx Qx (h 4.18b).

164
 h 4.18c, mhzvS zuzvS E uhU
Pmk PmhhS. (Phasor diagram)
4.7.3 ysi (Inductor) mk Eh AC _
J v\ US \zv US \, L G
u ysh Gs Eh y ysiUS ukQx GU P.
UPoUPzuUP AUS Su uh PsiUS ysi,
uPkP B C EPzv x _miUS. ysiUS
v\ US \ AUPku \zuk zuzu
GvUPUTi u ysh US \, Av EUPkQx.
GkzxUPmk Aha _ (choke coil).
Gu J Pnzv \zuk US \
e = Eo sin t ...(1)
di
ysh US \ e = L .
dt
Cv L Gx Pa _ u ysh Gs BS. J |
ysiUS yshmh US \, \kzuk
zuzvS \P GvP CUS.
G e = e
di
Eo sin t = L
dt
di
Eo sin t =L
dt e=E0 sin t
Eo (a)
di = sin t dt
L
e
C[P uP Pn,
Eo
i =
L sin t dt
e,i

Eo cos t O
= 2 t
L
E o cos t
=
L
Eo (b)
i = sin (t )
L 2 h 4.19 ysi _

165

i = Io . sin (t ) ...(2)
2
Eo
Cv Io = .
L
C[S L Gx Pa_ u uh BS. Cx ysi
G AUPkQx. Cu AS Ohm BS.
\kP (1) (2)x, y ysi mk E ac
_, mh zuzu h /2 Pmh A
u[Q CUS Gx uQx. Aux ysiUS
SUP E zu, mhzuU Pmi /2
Pmh A UQ CUS. Cx h 4.19b C E
hzv Pmhmkx.
h 4.19c, L mk Eh ac _U SUS
Pmhh (Phasor Diagram) BS. h 4.19c
Pmhh
ysi
XL = L = 2 L, Cv Gx \zuk a.c zuzv
Avs BS. |v\ mhzvS = 0; XL = 0 CP y
ysi |v\ mhzvS _ uh PkUS. B a.c.
_ Pa _ Avsn zx AvPUS.
4.7.4 uUQ mk E _
v\ US \, C G uUSz v Eh
uUQ SUP CnUPkQx (h 4.20a). Cu uUQ u
J v\ Gvz v\ AhQx.
Gu J Pnzv, \kzuk US \
e = Eo sin t ...(1)
Y
e
i
e,i

i
C O X

90
e=E0 sin t Y/
ec
(a) (b) (c)
h 4.20 uUQ _

166
 Gu J Pnzv, uUQ SUP E zu k
\kzuk US \USa \.
e = q/C, Cv q Gx uUQ E mh.

dq d
B i = = (Ce)
dt dt
d
i = (C Eo sin t) = CEo. cos t
dt
Eo
i = (1/C ) sin t + 2

i = Io sin t + ...(2)
2
Eo
Cv Io = ( C )
1/

1
= XC Gx uUQ u uh BS. Cx uUQ
C
GkQx. Cu AS K.
uUQ mk E J a.c. _ mhx
zuzuh /2 G Pmh A v CUS G \kP (1)
(2)x uQx. Ax zu mhzuh /2 G
Pmh A u[Q Ex G T. Cx h 4.20b C
PkP P Pmhmkx.
h 4.20c, uUQ C mk Eh J a.c. _ Pmh h
(Phasor diagram) BS.
1 1
XC = =
C 2 C
Cv Gx a.c. zv Avs BS. |mh _
= 0

XC =

G, JuUQ |v\ mhzvS i (infinity)

uhz u. uUQ a.c. zuzv
AvsqUS Gvz uP CUS. uUQ Au
uUSz vUS GvzuP CUS.

167
4.7.5 uhUQ, ysi uUQ BQ uh
Cn
R G uh uhUQ, L G ysh Gs Psh
ysi C G uUSz v Psh uUQ BQk e
G US \h v\ US \ uh
Cn CnUPkuPU P h (4.21a).
VL
R L C
VL-VC B
VR VL VC
90 V
I
O
90 VR A I
e=E0 sin t
h 4.21a RLC uh _ h 4.21b.
VC
zu Pmh h
_ mh I GU P.
uhUS SUP E zu k VR = I R
(Cx I-h J Pmhzv CUS)
ysiUS SUP E zuk VL = I XL
(I-I h VL&Bx /2 Pmh v CUS)
uUQUS SUP E zu k VC = I XC
(I-I h VC&Bx /2 Pmh u[Q CUS)
EPUS SUP E zu kP
h 4.21b&C E zu Pmhhzv (voltage phasor)
Pmhmkx.
VL VC G JUP
180oPmh mi E. _ XL
{z u EhuPU Pv VL
B
VC C uS (VL VC) G XL-XC
A. \kzuk zu Z
XL-XC
VR, VL VC BQ Uh
O
TkuP A. R A
OB2 = OA2 + AB2 ;
XC
V2 = VR2 + (VL VC)2
h 4.22 v h

168
 VR 2 + (VL VC )
2
V =

V = (IR )2 (IX L IXC )2

= I R 2 + (X L XC )2

V
= Z = R 2 + (X L X C )2
I

R 2 + ( X L X C )2 Gx uhUQ, ysi uUQ

BQ \|u A uS Gv (effective opposition) BS.
Cx v Gk. , Cx Z G SUPkQx. Cu AS
BS. C vP h 4.22 E v hzv
SUPmk.
zuzvS, mhzvS Ch E Pmh Pn
(phase angle) I RUPq \mi Pn.

VL VC I XL I XC
tan = =
VR IR

X L XC uS
tan = =
R uh

X L XC
= tan1 R

Io sin (t + ) Gx Gu J Pnzv _
mhS.
RLC _ uh Jzv\ Ax zu Jzv\
Gu J Pnzv uh RLC _ mh
V V V
I = = =
Z 2
R + (X L X C )2
1
R2 + (L )2
C
Pn Avso J Smh vS ysi
uUQ JUP \P CUS.

169
 1
L = , G v ]P , Ax Z = R G
C
A. Aux I, Vh J Pmhzv CUS. Gu J Smh
AvsqUS _ (o) v ]P, mh
P Au Smh Avs _ Jzv\
Avs Gk. mhzu AvUS CzuP _P
uh Jzv\a _ Ax Ha _ G AUPkQx.
V
Jzv\ { _ mh Io =
R
_ v, _ uhUQ uhUSa \ BS.
Aux Z = R. G, _ mh .
1
L =
C
1
= 2 o =
LC
1
o =
2 LC
Ha _ (Acceptor circuit)
Ha_ Gk uh Jzv\a _x, mhzvS
Su vz uu AvsPx J
Smh Avsn EhiP uukUP Ax HUP
CQx.
i HP, _ Jzv\ Avs, HP si
\P Avsqh C\ (tune) \kQx. UPP
uUQ uUSz v u u Avs
Eh \P HPkQx.
Q- Po
Jzv\a _ uukUS v Ax Tzv Gx
uUPo (Quality factor) Ax Q Po AhkQx.
uh Jzv\a _ Q Pox Pa _ Ax
uUQ SUP E zu miS, \zuk
zuzvS E uP G UPkQx.
L Ax C C SUP E zu
Q = ...(1)
\zuk zu
L US SUP E zu = I oL (2)

170
 Cv o Jzv\ x v\ mhzv Pn
Avs BS.
Jzv\x \kzumh zux R- SUP
Hk zuU SS. H, L- SUP Hk zuU
S. C- SUP Hk zuUS JUP \P
180o Pmh mi CUS. G A J J \ \x
P. R- SUP E zu k mk CUS.
\zuk zu = IR ...(3)
(2) (3)x \kP \k (1)C vk \,
I o L oL
Q = =
IR R
1 L 1 L 1
Q = = o =
LC R R C LC

Q Gx C
AvsPUS 10 u 100 Q-iux
vP Psh J Gs R-_
BS. AvP Q v Psh
Q-AvP
_P PU SP (R-S)
Avs a_US \PP
I
HS. Su Q v _P
}sh Avs a_US Q-S
\PP HS. (R-AvP)

G, AvP Q v
0

Frequency
Psh _P TP
h 4.23 Avsna \x
C\ \. Su Q
mh
v Psh _P
umh Jzv\ US. AvP ysh Gsq, Su
uh Psh Pa _ kzv Q Po AvPUP
C.
mh Avs Pk AvP uh vPUS \
umhP CUS. uh v Su Ax P TP
. h 4.23 Pmhmk u Pk Avs Env
Pk G AUPkQx.
4.7.6 A.C _ v
a.c _ mh, US \ Pzua \x
uhx . G J Smh Pnzv vU PnUQmk,

171
J a _US \\ v PnUQhkQx. G, Gu J Pnzv
AC _ v Gx, AUPnzv US \US, _
mhzvS E UP G UPkQx.
Gu J Pnzv, US \ mhzu
RUPsh Gu.
e = Eo sin t
i = Io sin (t + )
Cv Gx a.c. _ US \US mhzvS
E Pmh k BS. J a _ kzuk \\ v
T

ie dt T

Pav = 0
T
= [I
0
o sin(t + )Eo sin t ] dt
.
dt
0
T

Cua _UP,
Eo I o
Pav = cos
2
Eo Io
Pav = . .cos = Erms I rms cos
2 2
Pav = u v v Po
Cv u v = Erms Irms, v Po = cos
J ac _ \\ v, _ Eszv G AUP
kQx.
Aha _ (choke coil)
Aha _ Gx Su uhU Psh J Pa _
BS. Cx ac _ mhzuU Pmkkzu kQx.
mhzuU Pmkkzu uhUQ kzv
PnP B C Hk. CuSP y ysi
mh x B C Hkx C.
A
u EPzv x, Phmh
uU P AvP GsoUP _ miUS.
_ mhzuU SuPP
uPkP B EP kzukQx
h 4.24 Aha
(h 4.24).
_

172
\k u
Pa _ { XL = L

J | ysi, mh zuzu h
2
G Pmh A u[Q CUS.
J a _US Aha _ kzx \\ v,
Pav = Erms Irms cos /2 = 0
C |h L G ysh Gs Psh Aha
_ r G ] uh US. G, Cx ysi
uh r E uh Cn Au J AP Puk. Cu
{ J a _US Aha _ GkzxU P v
Pav = E rms Irms cos
r
Pav = Erms Irms ...(1)
r 2 + 2 L2
r
Cv Gx v Po BS.
r 2 + 2 L2
\k (1)x nS \\ v, uh Hk v
C I2R I h PU SP CuU Pn.

h 4.24a A.F Aha _ h 4.24b R.F Aha _

Su Avs _P kzuk Aha _
u EPzuu u Cu ysh Gs AvPP
CUS. CP Aha _P \n Avs (AF) Aha
_P GkQ. i AvsPUS P EP Aha
_P kzukQ. H CUS Su ysh Gs
xuP Ex. C i Avs (RF) Ax E Avs
(HF) Aha _P G AUPkQ. C P H
_P kQ (h 4.24a h 4.24b).
v\ mh[P \k J USP (fluorescent
tubes) Aha _P kQ.

173
 wUPmh PnUSP
4.1 200 _P, 0.04 m2 SUS Psk Pa _
\ Pu 0.02 |i 0.1 Wb m2 x
0.04 Wb m2 BP Qx G Av yshk US
\U PnUQkP.
uP : N = 200, A = 0.04 m2, B1 = 0.1 Wb m2,
B2 = 0.04 Wb m2, t = 0.02 s, e = ?
d d
w : e = = ( )
dt dt
d dB (B 2 B1 )
e = (NBA) = NA . = NA.
dt dt dt
(0.04 0.1)
e = 200 4 102
0.02
e = 24 V
4.2 J zv CUP PUQh E y 20.48 m.
Cx hUS |UQ 40 ms1 G Pzv UQx. Pu zv
\[SzxU T Ahzv 2 105 T G, CUP
PUQh yshk US \U PnUQkP.
uP : l = 20.48 m; v = 40 ms1; B = 2 105T; e = ?
w : e =Blv
= 2 105 20.48 40
e = - 0.0164 volt
4.3 1 m } 0.05 m mh Psh a_ 500 _PU
Pskx. Pa _ 2 A mh Qx G
(i) Pa _ u ysh Gs (ii) Pa _k
uh Psh Pu BQU PnUQkP.
uP : l = 1 m; d = 0.05 m; r = 0.025 m; N = 500 ; I = 2A ;
(i) L = ? (ii) = ?

o N 2 A o N 2 r 2
w : : (i) L = =
l l

4 107 (5 102 )2 3.14(0.025)2

= = 0.616 103
1
L = 0.616 mH

174
 (ii) Pu = LI
= 0.616 103 2 = 1.232 103
= 1.232 m Wb
4.4 J _ 4A mh 0.5 S Pzv 8A BP x
_ 50 mV US \ yshkQx G,
A _PUQh E ysh GsnU
PnUQkP.
uP : I1 = 4A; I2 = 8A; dt = 0.5s;
e = 50 mV = 50 103V, M = ?
dI
w : e = M .
dt

e e 50 103
M = = = 84 = 6.25 103
dI I 2 I1

dt dt 0.5

M = 6.25 mH
4.5 J v\ mh 10,000 _P, 100 cm2
Pskx. 3.6 102 T A ^
Puzv Pa _x 140 rpm G Pnzv\ Pzv
_Qx. yshk US \ vU PsP.
uP : N = 10,000 A = 102 cm2 = 102 m2,
rpm Gx J {hzvP _]P GsoUP
rps Gx J i _]P GsoUP
140
= 140 rpm = rps, B = 3.6 102T Eo = ?
60
w : Eo = NAB = NAB 2
7
= 104 102 3.6 102 2
3
Eo = 52.75 V
4.6 25 _]PU Psh \ Ai mhzv rms v
30A G AuP \mh GxP.
uP : = 25 Hz, Irms = 30A

175
 w : i = Io sin t
= Irms 2 sin 2t

i = 30 2 sin2 25 t
i = 42.42 sin 157 t
4.7 1000 Hz
Avs Psh v\ mh _
CnUPmk uUQ uUSz v 2 F. \kzu
k US \ rms v 10 V, G _
uS mhzuU PsP.
uP : C = 2F, = 1000 Hz, Eeff = 10V
1 1
w : Xc = =
C C 2 v
1
Xc = 6 = 79.6
2 10 2 103
E eff 10
Irms = =
XC 7 9 .6

Irms = 0.126 A
4.8 J Pa _, 250 V, 50 Hz zu zxh CnUPk
x, Au 2.5 A mh 400 W v kzvU
PQx, G _ u ysh Gsn v
Po PnUQkP.
uP : Erms = 250 V. = 50 Hz; Irms = 2.5A; P = 400 W;
L = ?, cos = ?
w : v P = Erms Irms cos
P
cos = E
rms I rms

400
=
250 2.5
cos = 0.64

rms E 250
=
v Z = I
rms 2.5 = 100

Pmhhzvx

176
 XL
sin =
Z

XL = Z . sin = Z (1 cos2 )

= 100 [1 (0.64)2]
XL = 76.8
B XL = L = L 2
XL 76.8
L = =
2 v 2 50
L = 0.244 H
4.9 J \ 50 V, DC zxh CnUPk x 20 W
v kzvU PQx. Ax 250 V, 50 Hz v\
US \ zxh E uUQh CnUPkQx.
\ Au A mhzu GkzxU P uUQ
uUSz v G CUP sk GuU PnUQkP.
uP : P = 20 W; V = 50 V; = 50 Hz; C= ?
w : P = VI
P 20
I = = = 0.4 A
V 50

V 50
uh R = = = 125
I 0.4
V 250
v, Z = = = 625
I 0.4

2 2
1 1
Z = R2 + = R2 +
c 2C

1
Z2 = R2 + 2 2 2
4 C
1
C =
2 Z 2 R 2

177
 1 1
C = =
2
2 50 (625) (125) 2 2 50 612.37

C = 5.198 F
4.10 e = 310 sin 314 t G \mi SUPk AC zu
24 uhUQ 0.1 H ysi 25 F uUQ
BQh uh Cn CnUPkQx. zuzv
v, rms zu, Avs, _ , _
v mhzv PmhU Pn BQ
PnUQkP.
uP : R = 24 , L = 0.1 H, C = 25 106F
w : e = 310 sin 314 t ... (1)
e = Eo sin t ... (2)
\k (1) \k (2) BQ Jh
Eo = 310 V
Eo 310
Erms = = = 219.2 V
2 2
t = 314 t
2 = 314
314
= = 50 Hz
2 3.14
1 1
= XL XC = L = L.2v
C C .2 v
1
= 0.1 2 50 6
25 10 2 50
= 31.4 127.4 = 96
XL XC = 96
XC XL = 96

R 2 + ( XC X L )
2
Z =

= 242 + 962

= 576 + 9216
= 98.9

178
 XC X L
tan =
R

127.4 31.4
=
24

96
tan = = 4
24
= 76o
uUQ AvPP Cu mh, US
\ h 76o Pmh A va \.

uvk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP
PnUSP vP. C, h Sv Gu J
Ax PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk
Svx mk, h x iUPhU Ti
UPUS PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

4.1 Puz ysh kzuhux

(a) (b) A `h
(c) AC (d) Aha _
4.2 0.5 m2 10 _P Psh J Pa _ u
0.2 Wb/m2 PuzvS SzuP Ex Pa _
Pu...
(a) 100 Wb (b) 10 Wb
(c) 1 Wb (d) _
4.3 v ................................. v Aihx
(a) mh A (b) A
(c) Eu A (d) B A
4.4 |UPhzv u ysh Gs......
(a) _ (b) i
(c) P AvP (d) P ]x

179
4.5 G AQ Ci Gu
(a) Vs A1 (b) Wb A1
(c) s (d) Azx
4.6 J Pa _ mh iUS 40 As1 G uzv
x, yshk US \ 12 V G, Pa _
u ysh Gs........
(a) 0.3 H (b) 0.003 H
(c) 30 H (d) 4.8 H
4.7 5A DC mh EUS Au A
EUS v\ mhzv A.......
(a) 50 A rms mh
(b) 5 A mh
(c) 5A rms mh
(d) Psh Gx C
4.8 \kx
(a) AC mk
(b) DC mk
(c) AC DC
(d) DCI Pmi AC vh \k
4.9 Pa _ Cx a_US mhzu a \
v\ E
(a) UPu (b) mh
(c) | VU (d) yP
4.10 J v\ _ \kzuk US \
e = Eo sin (t + 2), I = Io sin (t /2) G mhzuh ..........
/

G Pmh A va \.
(a) /2 (b) /4
(c) (d) 0
4.11 RUPsh Gu kzv Ezu ix?
(a) Ek mh (b) Ek zu
(c) Ek v (d) Azu

180
4.12 AmkU PP Hk v C Gx SP
CUS?
(a) zu SP mh AvPP Ex
(b) zu mh Csk AvPP Ex
(c) zu AvPP mh SP Ex
(d) zu mh CskSP E x
4.13 |v\ mhzu u AvUPu P Gx?
(a) uh (b) uUQ
(c) ysi (d) Psh Azx
4.14 J AC _
(a) mhzv \\ v _
(b) mh[P Cia \\ v _
(c) \\ v C _
(d) rms mhzv v, mhzv Ea\ v
2 h[S

4.15 Puz ysh G G?

4.16 Puz ysh Lh vPU TP.
4.17 u ysh Gs Gu . Au AS x?
4.18 u ysh Gso AP .
4.19 ysh Gs Gu .
4.20 u ysh |h TP.
4.21 L[ x P vU TP.
4.22 v\ mhzv rms () v G G?
4.23 yshmh US \ uUS P ?
4.24 Pmh AC G G?
4.25 ysi G G?
4.26 v\ mh G G? Au \mh GxP.
4.27 uUQ G G?
4.28 H CUS PUQh E kP GxP.

181
4.29 LCR _ Jzv\ Avs G G?
4.30 v Po Gu .
4.31 DC Amh v\ mhzu Ahx. H?
4.32 v\ mhzv rms vUP \mh P.
4.33 uUPo Gu .
4.34 J uUQ DC I ukUS. B AC I AvUS. USP.
4.35 RLC uh _ zuzv Avsn AvPzu
mhzv v GS?
4.36 vU TP. v J \u
USP. Cx B A v Aih Ex
Gu .
4.37 u ysh Gs ysh Gs BQ
kzxP.
4.38 J }sh a_ u ysh GsoP \mh
P.
4.39 Csk }sh a_US Ch ysh .
Au ysh GsoP \mh P.
4.40 J _ Eh[S u US \
yshk uzu USP.
4.41 Pu zv v\ zx JPa _ v\ A
u Av US \ ysk
Pzv UP[Ph .
4.42 _ mh[P G G? A kPz uP.
A G SUPkQ?
4.43 }sh uS v G vh Ak \ i
Gu .
4.44 v\ US \ \kzuk uhUQ mk
Eh J ac _ mhzvP \mh P.
zuzvS mhzvS E Pmhz uhU PsP.
4.45 y ysi mk Eh J v\ _
mhzvP \mhz u. zu

182
 mhzvS Ch E Pmhz uhU PsP.
4.46 v\ US\ \ kzuk, uUQ mk
Eh J _ mhzvP \mh P.
mhzvS zuzvS E Pmhz uhU PsP.
4.47 J AC _ \\ vUP \mhz u.
4.48 Aha _ (choke coil) uzx, A \k
u BQ .
4.49 ac zu dc zuzuU Pmi Gu P
]uuP, Gu P Sk EhuP Ex Gu
B \P.
4.50 J Pmh AC uzx, A \
uzu .
4.51 Pmh AC uzx, A \
uzu .
4.52 uzxzu . Au A \
uzu USP.
4.53 v\ US\ J uh Cn E
uhUQ (R) ysi (L) uUQ (C) BQh
CnUPmkx. Uh h v h
BQU Psk (i) uS zu (ii) v
(iii) mh zu Ch Pmhz uh
BQUP \kP .
PnUSP
4.54 100 uh 100 _P Psh Pa _ J
100 uhh P mhh uhP CnUPmk
J Pu zv UPkQx. Pa _h uh Psh
Pu 0.1 |i 103 Wb x 2 104 Wb US Qx
G yshmh US \, mhzu
PnUQkP.
4.55 uh JUP P \mh Csk
ush[P J mmhh CnUPkQ.
Cx 180 Km/hr Pzv KkuP, Puzv
\[SzxU T 0.2 104 Wb/m2 G, ush[P

183
 1m Chz u E G Psk m mh E
S Pmk AU PnUQkP.
4.56 P EPzuU Psh a_ J 4 cm mhzu 60 cm
}zu 4000 _P Pskx. a_ 5A
mh uPU Psk Av \UPmh BU
PnUQkP.
4.57 5cm mh, 100cm } Psh C E x 3000
_P J AkUQ E _mk. Cshx AkUQ
P PP u AkUQ x Au zvS AQ 100
_PP _mk. Csk _PUS Ch
ysh GsnU PnUQkP. (EPzv J Pu
EmSv = 500)
4.58 J n, [P P }sh P EPzuU Psh
Pa _ 100 V DC zu zxh Cnzx Av
mh 1.5A G v \Q. Au Pa _ 100V, 50 Hz
a.c. zxh CnUPk x mh 1 A G SQx.
Pa _ ysh Gs BQ
PnUQkP.
4.59 e = 100 sin 200 t G US \h 0.1F uUQ
v 500 uh uhP Cnzu _ v
PoU PnUQkP.
4.60 J ua _ 400 _P xna _ 2000
_P E. xna _x1100 V A 12.1 KW
v GkUPkQx. ua _ uh 0.2
xna _ uh 2 v 90%
GU Psk (i) ua _ Hk B C
(ii) xna _ Hk B C BQU
PnUQkP.
4.61 50 , uh 0.5 H { 5 F uUQ BQ,
e = 311 sin (314t). G US \h v\ US
\ zxh uhP CnUPmk G RUPsh
PnUQkP.
(i) v\ mhzv Avs
(ii) zu

184
 (iii) {zv
(iv) uUQ
(v) v
4.62 800 KHz u 1200 KHz |kUP Eh J mhUS
C\ \UTiuP i H J Ex. LC _
ysh Gs 200 H G uUQ uUSv
|kUP (range) x?
4.63 J v 80%, Cx 4 KW, 100 V Ek vh
CnUPkQx. xna _ zu 240 VG u
xna _P mh[P PnUQkP.
4.64 US J 80 V, 10A DC \hU Tix. Cx
100 V, 50 Hz v\ mhzxh CnUPk x Au
10A mhzu GkzxU P Azxh CnUP si
Aha _ (choke) ysh GsnU PnUQkP.

hP
4.1 (b) 4.2 (c) 4.3 (d) 4.4 (a) 4.5 (d)

4.6 (a) 4.7 (c) 4.8 (a) 4.9 (d) 4.10 (c)

4.11 (c) 4.12(c) 4.13 (b) 4.14 (a)

4.54 0.8 V 4 mA 4.55 1 mV

4.56 0.52575 J 4.57 0.37 H

4.58 74.54 0.237 H 4.59 0.0314

4.60 220V, (i) 747 W (ii) 242 W

4.61 (i) 50 Hz (ii) 311 V (iii) 157 (iv) 636.9 (v) 482.5

4.62 87.9 pF x198 pF

4.63 40 A, 13.3 A

4.64 0.019 H

185
C x | _

\ \v\P [Ph
KL., MA., Ph.D., D.Sc., L.L.D., F.R.S.

186
 \v\P [Ph 1888B Bsk | H |
u|mi E va] u. Ah uu v
C.\v\P I J B]. u uu \Pmizv C
P ou [Ph A[P u
i izu. A 1904 B Bsk \ E {U P
uh BA mh i ]z uSvh izu. [Ph u
xP mh i Au P uhu. 1907B Bsk
MA mhi u G h[P \u
vsP u S ua] .
1907 B Bsk {vzx u Gv Av uh
. 1907 B Bsk uzv PPzu E PnUSz x
u AP ux UPz xUQ. A {vzx
AP ou v AP | uzx P
|[P C BU Th[P Pzu. u mi J Sv
BU ThP Qhzu PU Psk EUPmh
PP zxU Psk BP Psh. 1917 B Bsk
uzv A_ o xx PPzu PU PPzv C
]Pa \u. 1929 B Bsk B[Q A\[P AUS "\'
mh `mix. B A u US "\' mhzu
kzu .
A Pskizu "C ' u\P PskiUPmhu,
Hzu H BskPP uhx h \u B
BS.
1921 B Bsi PhU Pzv, A u u IS
Ph n \uxu Cu BP x[Q. BPh }x
mh AQ } { C PzuU Pux. A sk
Cv vh P, }, UPmi Sm J
Fk FhP[P UTP Hk Ja]u Pzv
\u C BP Psh. ] C \u
\u ]u Jx kQ Jx mhx GuU
Pmix. Cx v PskiUP Szux. Ja]u
BP PshUPP, Ah [Pk
C PskizuUP CUS 1930 B Bsk i\
u 10 B uv | _ [Pmhx.
1933 B Bsi [P E Cv A
u~mU PP G {zv u Cv CUS|P o
\u. 1943 B Bsk "C {' G Ba] BPzu
{. ux Ba]P 82 B x uhx |hzv. Ax
n Ax Ba]PUS zux.

187
 5. Pu AP, A J

Lh Puz ysh {Px Pzu zx J

Hk Pu k, Au J zu
EUS G UQx. U, 1865 CP J Jzu A
(symmetry in nature) Ex G _miU Pmi. Aux Pzu
zx J Hk k Au
Puzu EUS. CuS Pzu zx J zv (
Ax Pu) Hk k zu EUS GuS.
JUP \[SzuP Hk Pu kP Pu
kP (space) EUS G i U
P Smh Pzx P \ux. CzuP kP,
AP sPU Psk FhPzv (Material Medium)
Eu Q. CS Pu AP G .
5.1.1 Pu AP (Electromagnetic waves)
U Ti, Y
k U S U P m h B B
E E
mh[P Pu
Pva] [P BS.
Pu AP X
Hk Pu
UhP JUP E E
Z B B
\[SzuP Auk
mk Csk h 5.1 Pu AP
CUP v\US SzuP
A. Cu kP, AP sPU Psk
FhPz v Eu (Free space) Q. Cu Pu
AP SUPPS.

h 5.1 Pmii k (E) Y v\, Pu

k (B) Z v\ A x +X v\P
Pmhk.

188
5.1.2 Pu AP ]P (Characteristics of
electromagnetic waves)
(i) kUSUPmh mh[P Pu AP EQ.
(ii) C uS FhP u.

(iii) Pu AP Hk (E) Pu (B) UhP
JUP \[SzuP Auk mk CUP v\US SzuP
A. G Pu AP SUPP BS.

(iv) E B kP ] vP J Pzv
Q.
(v) C hzv (vaccum) Ax 3108 m s1
1
v\Pzv \Q. CuP uh c = . ( hzv
o o o

EmSv (permeability) o & hzv kv (permittivity).

(vi) Pu A B, Pu UhP
\P [Qhmkx.
(vii) Pu AP mh Au, A z
u, Puzu P Ahv.
5.1.3 m B (Hertz experiment)
1888 Pu AP
Cu ux B A

m Ev \u. A
ysk _
mh, Pu AP S1
k G Aihz S2
uzxzv B Aux. En
A mhzv CUP B
B PnP Cu A B
HkQx. h 5.2 m B
B A h 5.2 Pmhmkx. Cv A B G
C EPz uPkP JUP 60 cm u UPkQ.
Cu EPz uPkP, S1 S2 G UPmh C EPU
P[Ph ui uUP Psk CnUPmk. ysk
_ J , E zu hx C P[PUS
Ch E ] ChUS AUP kQx.
Ezu mi PnP S1 S2US Ch ]
189
Sv E P AUP Ahx uPkPUQh J US
{P P \Qx. S1 S2 US Ch HkQx.
E Avs Pu AP ES. Cu B 5 107
Hz Avs Psh Pu AP m EUQ.
A B G uPkP Su uUS v (C) Eh
uUQP, CnU PP, Su u ysh Gs (L) Eh
ysiP \kQ. uPkPUQh mh[P
Ax, E Avs v
1
= BS.
2 LC
Avs
A} Hz
PvP
22
10
1021
20
10
19
X-PvP 10
1A
1018
1 nm 17
10
Fu 1016
15
10
1 m 14
10
Psq J
APa ]
Apa ] 1013
12
10
11
10
1 cm U AP 10
10
9
10
1m
TV. FM 108
7
i AP 10
6
vmh J
vmh
10
1 km
105
4
10
}sh AP 103

h 5.3 Pu {

190
5.1.4 Pu { (Electromagnetic spectrum)
m, Pu AP EUQU PmiS, P
Qa]P (excitation) P, A} SvP Pu
AP uUPmh.
A}[P Ax AvsPU Psk P
Pkzumh Pu AP Pu { Gk.
Pu { AP |kUP Psh A}[P Ax
AvsPU Pshx. Pu {P Azx
PP, xn PP, Qa] {USz uUP
A}zv H \ PkUPmk. Azx Pu
AP J v\Pzv \Q. Pu AP
CsP, Au A}zu zx A. B Qa]
{ u zx Ax. ] { \P J x
xx, A P Eu SUQx.
Amhn 5.1 Pu { Ah[Q
Pu AP [P, A} Avs |kUP[P
PkUPmkx.
Amhn 5.1
(uS Eu)
. [P A} |kUP Avs
Gs (m) |kUP (Hz)
1. PvP
PvUPz u[P 1014 1010 3 1022 3x 1018
AqUP
AqUP \Px
2. X-PvP AvP 1 10103 108 3 1018 1 1016
GUmP
EPzu
ukUPk x
3. Fu UPzv 6 x 10104 107 5 x 1017 8 1014
(UV) AqUP
UTP
4. Psq s_h { vh 4 x 107 8 x 107 8 x 1014 4 x 1014
J , J USP
5. APa] P 8 x 107 3x 105 4 x 1014 1 1013
UTP
6. U GUm PP 103 0.3 3 x 1011 1 x 109
AP (hU S)
7. i Phzx PP 10104 3 x 107 3 x 104
Avs mh[P kUS
AP u

191
5.1.5 Pu AP P
Pu AP ] P PkUPmk.
1. i AP : Cu AP i uUPm]
\vz uhUS kQx. 530 kHz u 1710 kHz
AP AM \, 54 MHz AvP Avs AP
Su A \ kQ.
uUPm] (TV) A |kUP 54 MHz u 890 MHz
FM \ 88 MHz u 108 MHz \P
E Avs (ultra high frequency) \ i AP
kQ.
2. U AP : PU Su A} Eu Cu AP
h \vz uhUS kQ. mk EP
U A \PP, Cu AP ]u k
BS.
3. APa] PvP :
(i) APa] USP h}US ]Qa\US kQ.
(ii) APa] Jh um US
kQx.
(iii) P, Ah (thick fog), k APa]U
PvP EmPv. Cu u E {hkUP
C kQ.
(iv)APa] EmP {, UT PmhP
BuS kQ.
4. Psq J : Px Ek Ax
GvUPk Psq JU Psk |a _
|h UP A iQx. Cu A} |kUP
4000 u 8000 Ex
5. FuU PvP :
(i) UjUP AuS zx EPn[P E
~sq QPU P (sterilization) kQ.
(ii) Cu PU PvP zv[PU Psh, PP
vPU Psh uh BP[P (Forensic lab)
kQ.
(iii) En P Ph xPUP kQ.
(iv) Aq PmhU Psh kQ.

192
 6. X PvP
(i) zxz x | Pskn PP kQ.
(ii) vs[P iP Pmh BuS kQ.
7. PvP :
AqUP Pmh uPPz uQ.
| ]Qa\US kQ.

5.2 {P PP (Types of spectra)

{ UPmh, mhPx
kx, A}[P Eh APP v\P
v\ AhQ. u|UQ GUS
[P sn[P QhUS. CzuP [P {
GQ.
\i B UQ Jmhk x Csk
[P { g\ {Sv QhUQ. Cu \i
k P A}[P 5896 5890. Cx
\izv { G AUPkQx.
Px {P (i) k {
(emission spectra) (ii) EmP { (absorption spectra) G Csk
PPP UP.
(i) k { (Emission spectrum)
J Jx |iP hk J
{U Psk B x k { .
J J Au ]US H k {
US.
k { SvPP UP. A :
1. uh { 2. { 3. mh {
1. uh { (Continuous spectrum)
uh { Gx Ch C G A}[P
Eh Jmhmh mhS. Cx Fu u ]
{[PU Pshx Cu { J zv { zx
mk A. Jzv u zx Ax.
E { vhP, } P, P
(carbon arc) CUS (electric filament lamp) Cx
uh { .

193
2. {
{ Gx UPmh A }[PU Psh
T PS. { P k ]
PshuS. C uU Psh kQ.
{
AqUP Aux Qa]
Ahu Pmh AqUP (free
H H H H
atoms) { h 5.4 m {
kQ. Aq{
P \i B UQ \i, u\ B
UQ u\. UPU SP E Pmh AqUP
BQx { (h 5.4).
3. mh { (Band spectrum)
C, J TP ]x ]uP |UP Sx
Psh x [PP CUQ
mhP B.
UTPx mh { . Cx k
UT ] zx A. P] Ax
EP \ _h UQ P&h&BU\k, A
|m { UPU S mh
{ PkUQ. Cu mhP P AvP Sv (resolving
power) { U Psk Bx J mh,
T (u) AvP |UPP, |UP
Sx Pnk. AvP A PU PskuU
Pn. mh {U Psk J uzv UT Pmh
A.
(ii) EmP {
J Jx hk Jx K EmP
\zumh {U Psk Bx
EmP { QhUQx. J Au ]US
H EmP { US.
k { EmP { PP
Pshx. C : 1. uh EmP { 2. EmP {
3. mh EmP {.

194
1. uh EmP {
Ju UPmh a\U Psni J a\
snzuz u sn[P EmPx, uh EmP
{ EQx.
2. EmP {

5896 A
5890 A
5896 A
5890 A

h 5.5 \izv k EmP {

P x J \i B P Avzx
Au {U Psk Bx QhUS
uh{ Csk P P g\ Sv h 5.5
Pmi QhUS.
3. mh EmP { (Band absorption spectrum)
J Ai B Ax }zu { Czu
Ax S (Chlorophyll) Ax ] P P P\P
\zxx uha]P Jmhmh o P
mhP Pnk. \[P uUP mh EmP {
kQx.
5.2.1 L P (Fraunhofer lines)
` { E |US x Ax P PU
PskuU Pn. ` { E Cu P PUS
L P G . ` {, EmP {US
J GkzxUPmhS.
` EmSv J sh (Photosphere) P AvPP
14 106 K { Ex. Cx uh { k.
` Sv { sh (Chromosphere) EmSv Jh
Su v 6000 K { Pskx. u[P C[S
{ E.
Em mix J, ` Sv
x {shzv E u[P ] A}[P
EmPmk, { C P HkQ.
P EmP {a ` {
L Ph Jmk, ` shzv Pnk
u[P PshkQ.

195
5.2.2 Ju (Fluorescence)
J Aq Ax UT A, B EmPx Qa]
Ahx E B mhzua \h. A \hu, A
10&5 |iUSU S PzvS Su B mhzvS
vx AvP A} Pva_P E. Cu A Cx
JuU Pn.
UV Pv ] u[Px kx Psq J k.
kPv UV PvP Au uzv x k mk Ju
ES. k J {h J { k.
5.2.3 {u (Phosphorescence)
] u[P E UTP kQ UV PvP EmPu
Qa] AhQ. C EhiP uh { Ahx
C. Qa]ha \ Pva] {zv S Th
Ju uhQx. C Hk u[Q Ju {u
GQ.
5.3 J PPP (Theories of light)
J u Gu PP J sP UPU
TiuP CUP sk. J, J P B Gu Khzvx
ChzvS sk. J FhP
u.
Bx Csk P K Chzvx ChzvS
Qx. (i) Smh v\Pzv \ ~s xPP Qx.
(ii) A izv Qx. A izv Phzuk x A
FhP |Pv. J C P
T PPP R PkUPmk.

5.3.1 ~sxP PP (Corpuscular Theory)

{mh CUPPi, J JP
~so, { (UPoUPzuUP Pa ] {), uha]P,
m] ~s xPP EQ. C ~so[P Gk.
AzxPP Jizu (homogeneous) FhPzv Gz v\P
J v\Pzxh |UPmi C[SQ.
Cu ~s xPP Pa]P Cv C k
J P }sh PzvS J Eu A {P
C Hkv.

196
 J B, C~sxPP CUP BS. Cu ~s
xPP Pso zv xu HkQx.
~sxPP k PnP {[P EshQ.
P PPa \u C D \ vUPh
|UPmk u \Q. Csk FhP[P US uzu
Cu ~sxPP Ah x PkQ Ax
mhkQ. xPP mhk x Gv, Pk
x J P HkQ.
CUPPi, J v\P AhS FhPzv AvPP
CUS. B LPm UP\ (Focault and Michelson)
BP J v\P, AhS FhPzu h Ah S FhPzv
AvPP CUS G PmkQ. ~sxP PP
SURmk , , u BQ UP
i.
5.3.2 AU PP (Wave theory)
Ti Jx uh FhPzv APP
Qx. PsqUS Pu m]z u v Du G FhP
x {xuPU Pv. J zvx
kP Ai uk, B Azx
UP[P \P PhzxQ.
Cu AP |mhP G Pv. u, J
|UPmk CUPzu AUPP Aih UP
i. B |, [ GP Jx SUPP u
G T S \\mhx. AUPPx ~sxP PP
UQ Aih sP UQx mk, SURmk
, , u BQ vvPP
UQx.
Ti AhS FhPzv J v\P,
AhS FhPzuU Pmi S. CUPzx Pm \u
iPh Jzvux.
5.3.3. PuU PP (Electromagnetic theory)
, | Tx Jx Gv B
\, Pu B \ Pu AP
G U {. Pua \P k
P, SUPP uP G UQ. Pu
AP FhP u Gu U UQ.

197
5.3.4. Ssh PP (Quantum theory)
PuU PPx, J G {P UP
C. Ek Ax EmPk Bx uha]P

h 5.6 A Ssh PP

A, SUP Cu, Ssh Gk. B voUPmh

]] ][P h[SPP CUQ G 1900& L[
Pv. CUPzu, 1905& Ij, kzv, JP
G B voUPmh ]] mhP[P G A
LmhP G UQ. J Lmhh uhh
B, E = h . Cv h Gx [ (h = 6.626 1034 J s),
Gx PuU Pva] Avs BS.
G, J Lmh Cmh s x G
{kQx. AvP B Sv, A xPPP Su B
Sv APP \kQ (h 5.6).

5.4 Ja]u (Scattering of light)

u u m G sh UTP Ja]u
U T. shzv UTP ` J
]uh {P Ja]u BS.
Ja]u Aih, UTP EmPu
v\P kx BS. ]uh A, J
A}zu ]u Hkzx xP A (size) \ux.
Ja]u Ax, Au A}zv |Si vUS Gv
Quzv Ex. Cu Ja]u v (Rayleighs Scattering law)
GQ. G, Su A}[P, }sh A}[P h
AvPP ]u AhQ. sh Ja]u PnP
}{Pz (blue) uUQx. Ja]u vi } { J
] { J h AvPP ]uiUPkQx. Cu Ja]u PnP
198
 }{P Pm]UQx.
|sP h ` Eu x ` JUPvP
shzv }sh uSa \ six. Cv }{
xP ]uiUPkv SP ]uiUPkQ ]U
PvP mk AhQx. G ` Eu,
] {P uUQx.

5.4.1. ih Ja]u (Tyndal Scattering)

JUP J TU P\ (Colloidal) Pa \ x
Au u uP Qx. CuSU Pn TzxP, ux k
Ja ]ua \u BS. TzxPP J ]uiUPk {P
ih Ja]u Gk.
5.4.2. C (Raman effect)
J{ J \ x ]uhQx G
1928&B Bsk \.]..C \u Pshu. ]uhu
J, kQ Avsn mk ] v AvsP
Psiux. Cu C GQ.
C Ahu Avs Psh P C
P GQ. kQ Avsn h S Avs Psh
P hU P (Stokes lines) BS. kQ Avsn h
AvPP Avs Psh P BsmihU PS
(Antistokes lines). AqUP UTP ]uiUPmh J
QhUS Cuz uh P C { Gk.
AqUP Ax UTP x mk ]uhu J
LmhPU Psk C GuP x P i.
kQ J ho B Psh LmhPU PshuPU Px.
1. J Lmh, vzv Aq Ax UT x x
x, kQ Lmh B J Sv, vzv Aq Ax
UT Qa]a \ kQx. Sv ]uhQx. Cu
{ Su Avs Psh P u. C hU
P BS.
2. J Lmh, Qa] { Aq Ax UT
x xx, ]uiUPmh Lmh AvP B Qx.
Cu { AvP Avs Psh P u. C
BsmihU P BS.

199
 3. ] {PP, J LmhP, AqUP Ax UTP
x x x LmhP ]uuPU Psh. m]
s Lmh B C H {Pv. Cu
{ hu Avso PnkQx.
o Gx kQ Pva] Avs s Gx v
(sample) UT ]uhu Pva] Avs G Psh
C Cha] Ax C Avs UP uh
= s.
C Cha], kQ J Avsna \ux A.
B, C Hkzx ua \ux.
hU PUS | CP (positive), BsihU
PUS Gv CP (negative) CUS.
hU P \ (intensity) BsihU P
\ h Gx AvPP AQx. h 5.7. P.
hU P Bsi hU P u P
PkUPmh.
J A 0 G Avs Psh Pva_h
x (Interacts) |UQ |Px B mhzvS {Qx.
B mh UTP { B mh A.
Ja]ui UTP B mhzvx
{
{ {

ho hS hAS

3 3 3
ho 2 ho 2 ho 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
hU Bsi hU
( = 0, 1, 2 .... G Ai{ GUmU mhzv E Av {P BS)
h 5.7 C {

200
{ u B mhzvS v kQ. ] UTP mk
AvP Ax Su B mh[PUS v hU
BihU P EUSQ.

5.4.3 C { P
(i) A Azx P kQ.
(ii) C { Euh UT AP UPmk
u[P PkzukQ.
(iii) u x, C { Psk P
sP AkQ.
(iv) va \UP B kQx.
5.5 AP (wave front)
} P J a \u }
AP } Azxz
v\P J v\Pzxh \uU
Pn. } Azx
xPP AvQ. h 5.8
Pmhmk Phzv }
S (disturbance) P E
Ch[P mh [P UP. h 5.8 } AP
zvx \ u Eu Au mhzv x Azxz
xPP J Pmhzv AvhQ. } Jzu Pmhzv
Avhx PsiUS Azxz xPP CnUS E,
AP Gk. Gu Pnzv ES AP Gx
Jzu Pmhzv Avh Azx xPP CnUS E G
UPkQx.
J Smh u Jx v\ J
s FhPzv (*Isotropic medium) k A P PP
A PS (h 5.9a). Dz u J J v\
J s FhPzv k AP \u AP Gk
(h 5.9b). Jmhmh |US (linear) J
EUSx E i A PS (5.9c).

* FhP J, Jx Azxz v\P \ v\Pzv \

Au v\ J FhP G.

201
 Source
J
Rays
PvP

J
Source

(a) (b)
(c)
h 5.9 AP
5.5.1 uzx
AP u { izuU Psk,
Gu Pnzv A P v { izu A
uzx kQx. Aux, J AP Au FhPzv
a \u USQx.
uzxzv i (i) AP J xP
Au FhPzv J v\Pzv \UTi Csh {
AUSmiP (wavelets) EUS J [PS. (ii) Au
Pnzv Csh { ASmiP E v
APS.
EUQ PP AP h 5.10a&
Pmhmkx. t = 0 G J Smh Pnzv AB Gx
APS. uzxzvi AB C E J xP
JPa \mk Csh { AU SmiP EQ. Cu
A A1

A1
A P

P
Q
Q

R
R
B
B1

B B1
(a) (b)
h 5.10 uzx

202
Csh { AUSmiP J v\ Pzv (c) FhPzv
\Q. t P Pzx A P v { AuS AB
x P, Q, R _ _ _ _ G P PU Psk ctI BPU
Psk ] mh[P P. C AUSmiP _kPS. ]
mh[P uk EP E mh A1B1 v APS.
J, Dz uu (h 5.10b Pmii) \u
AP A1B1 ES.

5.5.2 \uzv GvUPmh \u AP

XY Gx GvUS uzuU SUS. , Au x
AC \u AP AB SUS. PA, QBC A B
ABUS SzuP AQ. G A kPvP BQ. AN G
SzxUPk mkx. AP, u u uzvS SzuP
Ax (h 5.11 Pmi i).
Q
N
M
D
B
P E
i r
i r
X Y
A C
h 5.11 \uzv GvUPmh \u AP
uzxzvi AP J xP
Csh { AUSmi EUS J S.
AP AB C E B G CI Ahx A Cx
Csh { AUSmiP EQ BC u \UPU Tk.
AI P BCI BP Psk mh P. Cx
AS J ukPk CD P. Cu CD G ukPk CUS
AUS Chx uUPmh Csh { AUSmiP
PS.
G CD Gx GvUPmh AP AD
GvU Pv BS.

Gv vP
(i) kQ AP AB, Gv AP CD
Gv u XY BQ J uzv AQ.

203
 (ii) kPn i = PAN = 900 NAB = BAC
GvU Pn = r = NAD = 900 DAC = DCA
\[Pn UPn[P ABC ADC&
B = D = 900
BC = AD AC xx
Au Csk UPn[P Jzu UPnVP (Congruent)

BAC = DCA
Aux i = r
kPn GvU Pn \.
5.5.3. \uzv JP Ahu \u AP
h 5.12 Pmii XY Q
N
Gx 1 2 G JP
1
Gs Psh Csk FhP[P, 1
2 I US \u. Cu P C1
B
C FhP[P J v\
P C1 C2 BS. AB i
i C
G \u AP Azuzv X A r Y
A G Qx. PA r
D
QBC A B 2
ABUS SzuP P.
N1 C2
G, C kPvP BQ.
uzxUS SzuP NAN1-I P. h 5.12 \uzv JP
A P u u Ahu \u AP
uzvS SzuP AQ.
uzxzvi, AP J xP
Csh { ASmiP EUS S. AP B
G CI Ah Pzv Ax k Csh {
AUSmi, AD=C2t G u \US. Cv t Gx, BC
uU PhUP, AUSmi GkzxU P | BS.
BC BC
BC = C1t AD=C2t= C2 . AI P, C2 &I
C1 C1
BP Psk Csh FhPzv mh J P. Cx
Cu mhSz ukPk CD P. CzukPk C A

204
x mh JP AUSmiPUS EP Auk
mk C u A Azx AUSmiPUS EP
AQx. G CD Gx JS APS. AD P
Ahu PvS.

JP vP
(i) kQ AP AB, JP Ahu AP CD
JP u XY BQP J uzv AQ.
(ii) kPn i = PAN = 900 NAB = BAC
J P Pn r = N1AD = 900 DAC = ACD

sin i BC / AC BC BC C
= = = = 1 = 12
sin r AD / AC AD C2 C2
BC .
C1

12 Gx u FhPzua \u Cshx FhPzv JP

Gs. Cx | v (Snells law) BS.
Aux 12 > 1 G, u FhP Ah Sux (rarer)
C1
Cshx FhP AhSux (denser) . G C > 1. Aux
2
Jx, Ah S FhPzv-, Ah Su FhPzv \uh
AvP v\Pzxh \ GkQx. AU PP
Ai Pm \u iPh Jzvx PUPzuUPx.
T PzxP i FhPzv JP Gs m Gx
hzv J v\P Ca
m= =
FhPzv J v\P Cm

A Gvu Ax JP Ahu A
Avs v. B, J P Ahu A} Qx.
Ca a a
Aux, m = C = =
m m m

a
m =
m

C[S a m G P FhPzv J
A}[PS.

205
5.5.4 AU PPi AP Gv
XY Gx, Ah Su FhPzu (P) AhS
FhPzu US \u. Cu FhP[P AP v\
P[P Ca Cm BS.
J \u AP, Ah S FhPzvx Ah Su
FhPzvS ~Qx GU Px. Au kPv, uzxh Hkzx
kPn i r Gx SPn GP.

sin i (BC / AC ) BC c m t c m
= = = =
sin r ( AD / AC ) AD c a t ca

RARER
AhS D
r r =90 D
r C A
i Y
X A X A i C Y YX C Y
i i>C
B
i=C
B B
D
AhS
DENSER

(a) (b) (c)

h 5.13 AP Gv
cm
< 1 Gu, i < r, Phu AP xy G uzu
ca
mk Qa \Qx. \[Pn UPn ADC |P
A. (i) AD < AC (ii) AD = AC (iii) AD > AC
(i) AD < AC : i ] v Psiu, BC ]uP A.
G AD > BC. B, ACIh SP A (h 5.13a).
AD
sin r =
, Cx J hU S
AC
Aux r < 900
r < 900, GuU Psk, J i vUS J Phu
AP \zv G A.
(ii) AD = AC : i AvPS x r AvPS.
AD = ACG A x, sin r = 1 Ax r = 90o. Aux J
Phu AP Qhx \zv (h 5.13b). Cx S
Pv C FhP[P US uzu \ umka \. Gu kPn

206
vUS S Pn v 90o G AQu AkPn {U
Pn (critical angle) C Gk.
(iii) AD > AC : AD > ACG A x, sin r > 1. Cx
|hUS \zv (h 5.13c). G, kPn v {U
Pnzu h AvPP C Phu AP QhUPx. k
AP xP AP Gv Ahx AhS FhPzv
A. Cu AP Gv GQ.
APGv |h sk (i) J AhS
FhPzvx Ah S FhPzvSa \ sk (ii) k Pn
v Ah S FhPzxUS {U Pnzuh AvPP A
sk. Aux i > c.
5.6 xu uzx
Csk Ax AuS mh AP J[Qnu K
FhPzv \ x, K A u
vUPh, J Au v Hkzx. J
zu Cha] uz u AP Cha]
UhP TkuUSa \S.Cu xu uzx
GQ.
Y
Y2
Y2
Y
Y1

Y1

h 5.14 xu uzx

Y1 Y2 G u Cha]PPU Psh

uS Cha], Y = Y1 + Y2
5.6.1 K [P
\ A}, Jzu Pmh Ax J Pmhmkh Csk
AP kzx J [P K [PS.
Csk uzu J{ J[P J A} Psh
AP k. B, AP J Pmhzv Ax. CP
[P K [P BPx. H, AqUP, Jzu Pmhzv
J AP h ix. CzuP J[P K [P
Gk.

207
5.6.2 Pmh k u k
} J A Pmh 2. G uP Pmh
2
= BS.

5.6.3 SURmk
S G Jzu Jmh A, B G
Csk J[P K [PPa \kQ.
Cu Csk K AP J FhPzv \x
P xx h 5.15 Pmhmkx.
hzv, AP PkP, uha] Pmi, APkP, kmh
PkP Pmhmh. Pk Pk
Ax APk APk \vUQ
P AP Jzu
Pmhzv AQ, Ch
a] . G,
AP h
u. CuP (X) A
Smh PmhkQ.
S
CP SURmk B
BUPU SURmk
(constructive interference)
Gk.
J A Pk
A APk h 5.15 SURmk
\vUQ P AP Gvv Pmhzv AQ, Cha]
_. G, AP PPz u. Cu P ] mh
O-B SUPmk. Cu P SURmk AU SURmk
(destructive interference) G T. G, XY G v
J \ ] G z u. Aux,
SURmk mhP mh Pmh G AQ.
AP xu PnP Ja \ Hk Q SURmk
Gk.
Aa_ (a) (amplitude) PnP J Smh Ja
\ I G, I a2
a1 a2 G Csk SURk Ahu AP Aa_
G

208
 I1 a12 I2 a22

I1 a12
=
I 2 a22

BUPU SURmk S I (a1 + a2)2 AU SURmk

S, I] (a1 a2)2

I (a1 + a2 )2
=
I] (a1 a2 )2

5.6.4 {{zumh SURmk Hh {u

SURmk ] Ja \ {, Pzu
zx {P A AzuP SURmk
{{zumh Ax {u SURmk G.
1) C [P KP CUP sk.
2) C [P PU SPP A sk.
3) uzu, AP mhP uS C [P
JUP P AQ A sk.
5.6.5 [ Cmh a \u
1801& u [ G, u, J SURmk U
Pshx, K B UQ. Cu B h 5.16
Pmhmkx.
J{ J zvx Y
J S G SQ P
JUP P AQ Ax A
A
B G Csk PU SQ
P x Qx. Cu P P
J AP 0.03 mm S
B
APUS Ch E u
0.3 mm. A B S x
\u Eu, S x X
J AP A B x \ Pmhzv h 5.16 [ Cmh
Q. G, A, B K a \u
[PPa \kQ.
uzxzvi, A, Bx kQ AUSmiP
A, B zv Jh xQ. Px

209
_ 1 mh u J v XY AUPmh \ AP Psh
J P, C P v uQ. CP
SURmk P Ax mhP GkQ. Ps (eye-piece)
J SURmk mhP, vUS vP zx UP.
P G , A B x \ u Phx AP J
Pmhzv uhQ. Cu Csk AP BUPU SURmk
Ahu P G mh QhUQx. Cu
mh G.
P J imh, Cu mhP x v ^
\h J Hk. Cvx, mhP, SURmk
HkQ Gx [S.
5.6.6 mh APzvP P
X

P
Dark fringe
Pmh
x
A
Central

d C bright
O mh
fringe
M
B
Bright fringe
mh
D
Y
h 5.17 SURmk mh
A} E A B G C K [PUS Chmh
u d GP. XY G v AB [PUS CnP D u
Ex. A, BUS C BS. v O x A
Bx \ u Ex. h 5.17 Pmi P G O
x x u Axx. A Bx AP P
\vUS x Jzu Pmhzv Ax Pmhzv Ax
C AP u mh zx A.
BPUS \[SzuP AM P.
u k = BP AP
AP = MP
= BP AP = BP MP = BM

210
 \[Pn UPn ABM BM = d sin
] vP Au, sin =
u k = .d
OP x
\[Pn COP, tan = =
CO D
] vPUS, tan =

xd
u k, =
D
mhP
SURmk z uzxzvi, BUPU SURmk UP
{u. u k = n
xd
= n
D
C[S n = 0,1,2 Gx mhP \U SUS.
D
x = n
d
Cua \k O x nx mh
uU PkUQx.
P mh
SURmk z uzxzvi, AU SURmk UP

{u, u k = (2n1)
2
D
x = (2n 1)
d 2
C[S n = 1,2,3 Gx P mhP \U SUS.
Cua \k O x nx P mh uU
PkUQx. C, v mhUS C
P mhP, mhP uQ.
)
mh AP (
Csk Akzukzu mh Ax PmhPUS
Chmh u mh AP GkQx.

211
 (n+1) n-x mhP uP O-x
, x(n+1), xn BP Cu
D D D
x(n+1) xn =(n + 1) n =
d d d
D
mh AP, =
d
Cu C Akzukzu PmhPUS Chmh u
D
G {UP. mhP, P mhP J AP
d
Pshu x CUP C \ u
A.
u AP SURmk mhP {uP
(i) J zvx v u Tk AvPP CUP
sk.
(ii) J A} AvPuP CUP sk.
(iii) Csk J [PUS Ch u PU SP
CUP sk.
5.6.7 HkP sn[P
} uUS Gsn Hk, \U S u
sn[P Pnku | |P A. Hmi
Ru[P GvUPk J SURmk
Csn[P uQ. Jx Hmi x
kx Ami sn[P HkQ. Cu sn[P
Hmi ui,
C
k J kPnzu M
A F
zux.
i
HkP L i
K
Hk SURmk B E
t r

r
h 5.18 Pmii H
K
^ ui t D
JP Gs Psh J
J FkUTi N
k, K K G G
C \uzvS h 5.18 HkP SURmk
AhuPU PxP.

212
 J { J J Pv AB, K G Hmi x
mk J Sv BC P Gv J Sv BD P
P AhQx. K Ax D G JUPv J
Sv DE P Gv Ahx J Sv DG P
mh mk Qx. Gv Ahu Pv, EF P
BCUS CnP P ~Qx. EH Pv H Phu , CvP
HJP Qx.
BC EF BQ JUP CnP Au Gv
U PvPS. DG HJ BQ Fk u PvP
JUP CnP AQ. PvP BC EF u[PUS
SURk AhQ. Ax DG HJ SURk AhQ.
Gv Ahu PvP SURmk
E x EM G SzxUPk BC US kQx. Cx BC
EF CS Ch E u k
= (BD+DE) (BM)
mi P
P u Gsn, FhPzv u h[SUS \
Gu A.
= (BD + DE) BM
hzvx, BD = DE
= (2 . BD) BM
BM sin i
BME, sin i =
BE = sin r
BM = BE sin i = BE . sin r
BM = . BE sin r
1
BE
BL
BDL, sin r = = 2
BD BD
BE = 2 (BD) sin r
BM = (2BD) sin2r
= 2BD 2BD sin2r
= 2BD cos2r
DL t
BDL, cos r = =
BD BD
= 2t cos r

213
 P \ PsiUS J JUPv, AhS FhPzv
GvUPk x ua\ Pmh HkQx. Ax
Tku u k /2 AhQx.

B Hk Gv AhS FhPzv uzv {Pu
2
u k AvPQx.

zu u k, = 2t cos r +
2
(i) BUPU SURmk S u k = n,
C[S n = 0,1,2,3 k h PnkQx.

2t cos r + = n
2

2t cos r = (2n1)
2

(ii) AU SURmk S u k = (2n+1)
2
C[S n = 0, 1, 2, 3 k PPU PnkQx.

2t cos r + = (2n+1)
2 2
2t cos r = n

kQ J, SzuP C i = 0. G, r = 0 Cx

mhUP {u 2t = (2n1) PmhUP {u
2
2t = n.
Fk Pv SURmk
DG HJ PvPUP u k, = 2t cos r.
D E Hk Gv P FhPzv |hu Guu
Tku u k HPhx.
G, P {u 2 t cos r = n PUP

{u 2t cos r = (2n 1)
2
5.6.8 {mh [P
kP Hk SURmk J UQ k
{mh [P BS. AvP B J umhU S,
J \u Psni x UPk x ]
AiS, Psniz umi S Ch P k
(air film) J HkQx. uk P mi ui _

214
v Qx. zvx \a \ ui AvPQx.
P k J { J SzuP Jmhh, U
Pa _ P [P J
mh [PP A. Cu {mh [P GQ.
J kzv mhP sn[P J.
(Cu h P Amh PsUPmkx).
\u
{mh [P {mh BP A
h 5.19 Pmhmkx. J { J S,< CnUS _ L1
Sz uzv UPkQx. _ L1 Cx CnP Q
JUPvP 45o \P AUPmh Psniz uPk G Q.
Psniz uPk, J J Sv Gvzx, |SzuP R|UQ,
umhU S L \uU Psni PUS Ch EUPmh.
P mi x a \Qx. P Hmh GvUPmhU
Pvx ~snUQ |UPkQx. U P
PPU Psk [P P [P
AuU Pn.
UP
Pmi uzvx GvUPk J
A J SvUS, Rz uzvx GvUPk J A
SvUS Ch {P SURmk AihPU
Psk {mh [P uu UP. u

L1

45
S

L Air film
Pk
P
O
h 5.19 {mh [P

215
Chzv, P mi ui t GP. x P Ahx
mi ~ AUSmi t u \, Psniz umi
Gvzx, sk t u vU Phx, uhUP
Ah.
G, Ax Phu zu u 2t BQx. Csk GvP
J AhS FhPzv Hku, AvPi Pmh k
HkQx Ax Csk AUSmiPUS Ch u k /2
HkQx.
P {ui,

u k = 2t + = n
2

2t = (2n1)
2
C[S n = 1, 2, 3 Gx J A} BS.
PUP {ui

u k = 2t + = (2n+1)
2 2
2t = n
C[S n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....
L Psniz uPk P uk Pmi ui
_Qx. G SURmk Hkzx APUS u
k C. G, A h u sk. AhS
Psni GvUPmh Ax Pmh k AhQx.
B PP GvUPmh A Pmh k
Hx Hh. G, O PP A. A
a _ Akzukzu P [P EQ.
5.6.9 nBx P zv BzvP
P N

h 5.20& Pmii SOP Gx J umhU

S] SzxSvP C Gx PP C
Sv P P. R Gx S A P
] B G, Psnih _ t
uk O BP P. S P- t T O Q
Gu Pmi uiPU P. \u h 5.20 {mh
BiUS SzuP ST PQ P. zv B

216
 G, ST = AO = PQ = t
rn B Psh n-x P S P P P
\uPU P.
G SA = AP = rn
ON Gx mhzv \[Szx mhP C, |s mkz xsk
vi (Law of segments)
SA. AP = OA. AN
rn2 = t(2Rt)
rn2 = 2 Rt (2RI Jk x t2 P ]x
BP t2 I UPoUP)
2
rn
2t =
R
PUP {ui,
2t = n
rn 2
= n
R
rn2 = nR or rn = nR
R P Gu, P zv B, Au
\ Ci zvS |Quzv CUS Gx u Qx.
Aux r1 1, r2 2, r3 3, ....

n AvPS x Akzukzu [P JUP

|UPQU Psh Gu A.
5.6.10 {mh [P kP
(i) {mh [P kzv J { J
A}zuU Pn. nBx P zv B (n+m)x
P zv B,
rn2 = nR r2n+m = (n+m) R G,
rn+m2 rn2 = mR
rn +m 2 rn 2
=
mR

217
 rn+m, rn R BQ uu APU Psk J A
}zuU PnUQh.
(ii) {mh [P kzv vzv JP
GsnU PnUQh. P J A} a vzv
J A} m GP. nx P zv B, P rn
G vzv rn G Psh,
rn 2 = nR a
nR a a
r n
2
= nR m = [ = ]
m

rn 2
= 1
2
r n

5.7
J, APP Q. AQUS A EUPk
J. _P P x | x AhQx. Cx
} x AP, J uh P x Au
Sv Q. uh P AP x \
C Gk. , AP ]
BS. J A A} uh Ah Jzvu
mk A, Ah.
L| G uh A Q Ax
kQ A A}zua \ux G Pmi. J AP
A} AvPP Eu uP, AvPP
HkQx. J A} J AP A}zu h PU
SP Cv Pa ] A J AP
A}zxh Jk x uP Cv J,
PU SP Hk.
J J xo P US x
U Pn. \P sn [P uuU
Pn.
5.7.1 L| L
xP, C PPP UP. (1) L|
(Fresnel diffraction) (2) L
(Fraunhofer diffraction). L| J , v
Hkzx uhx J Smmhz

218
uUS. Cv S Emk AP PP
i Ax E i CUS. L
J , v Hkzx
uhx Dz uUS. Cv S
Emkzuk A P \u A PP CUS.
Hmh PvP JUP CnP CUS. C S
Psk SUPkQx. J { L
A GuPU Pn i.
5.7.2 U Ro
U Ro Gx P AvP GsoUP, \ AP
Psh, Cn, SQ P Au GsoUP JPu
PkP UPmhx AS.
J \u U Ro Gx \u, JS
x F] J PU PkP x AS. uPzv
kzukQ | Ro 1 cm APzvS 6000 PkP
kQ.
J b AP Eh PkP uhPP
J a AP Eh P JS SvPP E. J
Pk J zu AP Ro e Gk. Akzukzu
P Ro zvSa \ Chzu Eh P Jzu
P G AUPkQ.
UP
MN Gx \u U Ro JSv. AB, CD, EF
...... G \AP a Psh P BC, DE ...... G \ AP b
Psh PkP SUQ (h 5.21). Ro , e = a+b GP.

M P2
A
P1
a B
b C
G
D O
E

F P1

P2
N

h 5.21 U Ro

219
 A} Psh J { J \u AP, Ro x
SzuP uPU P. PPi, P AB,
CD u E P Csh { [PPa \mk
Csh { AUSmiPz uzxU Ro UPzv
AP, Gz v\P a \Q.
Ro x SzuP J u v\US Pn \vUS v\
, Csh { AUSmiPU
Px. A C G J \i (Pair) Jzu x k
AUSmiPUS Ch u k CG = (a + b) sin . Cu
G \i Jzu Px Ch u k (a + b)
sin G A.
Px , J v\ \Q
AUSmiP, P1 G S Psk SUPkQ.
C SURmk Hkzv, Au Jk J mi,
a \ HkzxQ.
P G h uuP {u
(a + b) sin = m Cv m = 0, 1, 2, 3
u { = 0. G, sin = 0.
(a + b) sin = 0 Cx P {u m = 0 Jzx
AQ. G, kPv v\ \Q G AUSmiP
a \ v O G HkzxQ. Cu _
\ Ax GQ.
(a + b) sin 1 = G, kPvUSU Pn 1 \u v\
A AUSmi u \
QhUQx.
Cx (a + b) sin 2 = 2 G, Csh \
QhUS.
zv C[Q \
[P P1, P2 G P ES.
xP (a + b) sin = m Gx a \UP {u
BS. C[S m Gx J Gs a \ \ Gs BS.
m
sin = Ax sin = Nm
a +b
1
Cv N = Gx Ro [P GsoUPS. Cx
a +b
Ro J AS }zv PkP GsoUPS.

220
 kzumh, \
sP Au C[P uha]
{[P Psh [P ES.
Ahu { = 0 sin = 0 BS. G
G vPUS m= 0 G A sin = Nm G \k
{P A. Cu O G G A}[P Jh
J v G AP \ EUS. G
{P Ahu QhUQx.
v AvPUS x (a + b) sin , Fu uh[Q ]

{ G {[PUP v Phx \u
2
PQx. AvPUS x (a + b) sin G {[PUP
v \u QhUQx. C
Fu uh[Q ] {P US. Cu
{ J C UP[P A.
5.7.3 \u Fk Ro kzv J
S
{ J A}zuU PsuP B
J { U
Ro kzv {P A}[
Pz xPU Pn. C

u { B Pmh
^P \kQ. A}
Ahh si K J{ Jzu
CnUQ Jmhh sk.
CnUQ Aa_h x u
|UQ zx | zu UP sk. 2 2
CnUQx kPvPUS SzuP 1 1
\ x Ro UPkQx. u |UQ
J UP |Pzv u
T T
Gs \h zu u|UQ Psk, Direct
|Pv
ray
Ax Ps SUSU P x J h 5.22 J {
\ sk. Cu { u|UQ u J
AmhU Szx P sk (h 5.22).
Cx zv UPzv u Gs \
zuU Psk AuP AmhU SzxU P sk.
Csk AkPUS E k 2 G, Au v , u
\ zvP U Pn BS.
221
 sin
= G \mh kzv J A} Psh
Nm
kQx. C[S N Gx Ro J mh }zv PkP BS.
5.7.4 { P A} Pqu
J { J zvS vP (Source)
UPkQx. A }[P Pva_P
EuPU Psh, Ro AuU Px UPkQx.
G A}[P Psh { QhUQx (h 5.23).
R2 Csh \
Second Order
Grating
Ro
V2
R1
First
u Order
\
2 V1

1 _ \
Zero Order
1 (Central
Maximum)

2 V1
First Order
R1 u \
V2

R2 Second Order
Csh \

h 5.23
sin
N v uu S, G PUS A}[P, =
Nm
G uh PshkQ.
5.7.5 SURmk , kP
SURmk
1. C Csk K [P C J AP
Cx E C Px
A Px u u AU SmiP
AU SmiP xu xu HkQx.
HkQx.
2. mhP \Ch Eh. mhP \Ch A.
3. mhP Azx \ \ PP S.
\h.
4. h Jk C S A
x C AvP GsoUP mhP Psh
mhP Psh.

222
5.8 u
Gvzu, J P, SURmk , u BQ
sP SU PPUS |mhPUS x . B,
J SUP s u mk UP i.
5.8.1 SUPP u
AB G J P S1 S2G CnP UPmh C
\[Szx P Pa \uPU Px. P B G
J PmhmkuPU P. A izxU
Psk ABUS SzuP R CUQ, P SUPP
Hkzv Ax, S1 P, Cn Avh PhUQx.
S1, S2US CnP CUS x mk AP PhUQ
(h 5.24a). B S2 Bx S1US SzuP A u
A \uz ukzx {zv k. Cu a_ _ v
(h 5.24b)C S2B Sv P A i |P CuU
Pn.
P |Pzv |mhPz uzu, S1,S2
P Gu {u AP A PU Phx \.
C v x
P v\
|m h v
Gu v D B
Hkzx v A C
G uQx. B,
P JU P
CnP Au S1 S2
(a)
{ SU PP
x vU
Pku A.
Cx u D B
{P, Jx A C
l (tourmaline)
iPzv
S1 S2
\ x
HkQx. (b)
h 5.24 SUPP u
(Cv AP)

223
 J
Source
Polarised LightJ
u Polarised LightJ
u

A (a) B
Source
J
J
u J
Polarised Light k
No Light
v

(b)
A B
h 5.25 SUPP u (K AP)
J Aa_US CnP mhmh J l iPzv
J \zukQx (h 5.25a).
CiPzvx J, iPzv C {zuU
PsiUS. A iPzua _ \ Gu
Pnkv. B G iPzu A.US CnP .
C iP[P A Aa_PUS CnPa _ Cshx
iP, Bx \ Guu Pnkv.
iP B I mk _, Bx J \ ]x
]uPU Sx BBx AUS SzuP x, J x x
{ k (h 5.25b).
iPzu _ Bx J \ ]x
]uP AvPzx, Csk iP[P CnP CUS x a
\ AhQx.
Cu {Ph CuS \u Cv A Jmk,
J |UP, J AP SUPP u G A.
A G l iPzvx J AP, J
\Q v\US SzuP E J v\ mk AvhQx. Cu
J AP u BS. J AP iPzv Aa_US
CnP J uzv mk AvP Hkzv A, u
J Gk. CP J uzv mk AvP
Hkzx Cu u Gk.
224
5.8.2 u Avzu u z u
J Aa\U
P
PsiUS uzv S
AvP Hmh Ax H G
u Avz u G
kQx. u Avz uz
vS SzuP u
E F
J
R
v\ A u, Q
u zu G h 5.26 u Av u
k. u z z u[P
uzv Gu Av
Hhx.
h 5.26 PQRS G u u Avzu EFGH G u
u z u BS.
5.8.3 J AvP SUPku
u Ahu J, G
UP Av Psku A
JUP \[Szu AvPPU
SUP. Cu Cmh AUS
Psk PU Psk h 5.27 J AvP
Pmh (h 5.27).
JU P, u uzvS Cn AvP Cmh AU
S, u uzvS Szu AvP P Pmh
miUQ.
5.8.4 u UQ S
Ju Jz uQ \u uUQ BS.
Jx uu C G \vUS \u S
Gk. uUQ SP S uUQP
\h C.
J JUPx S P \zukQx. S
_kx \ Cx Cu Au kQ J
u J BS. S 90o _ x QhUQ Ja
\, zvS _US Ch Au Ax u J
BS. S 90o _x JUP a
\ ]a \ (_ v) Psiu Sv u
J Gk.
225
5.8.5 Gv uUP
Gv
u G
EUP. \un J, Incident GvU
kP
beam Reflected
P
J FkUTi Psni A beam
C
Ax } mk ip ip
Gv Ah x u
X B Y
AhQx G
G Pshu. J,
r
u AhQ A, P
J kPnzua Ahu
Refracted
beam
P
\ux.
XY G Psniz D
uzv, AB G u h 5.28 Gv
J kQx. h 5.28 uUP
Pmii hzv (u)
uzvS CnP AB AvP AUS Pmhmk.
hzv uzvS SzuP AvP, Gvz uzvS CnP
A. C P SUPmk.
kQ J J Sv BC P Gv Ah
Sv BD P Ph. J S Psk Gvzu Pv
\vUS x Ax Sv uuP AuU Pn.
J Smh kPnzv (PsniUS 57.5o) J kx,
GvUPmh Pv xP u JP CUS.
GvUPmh P Pz u x E
kPnzu uU Pn (ip) GQ.
5.8.6 h v (Brewsters law)
\ hm h G Gvz u[P
Psk uh BP |hzv , uU PnzvS J
P GsoS Ch E G uhU Pshu.
B uU Pnzv JUP kx
GvUS Pv, Phu Pv JUP SzuP A G
Pshmhx.
h 5.28 i, ip +900 + r = 1800
r = 900 ip

226
 sin i p
| vi, =
sin r
C[S Gx FhPzv (Psni) J P Gs BS.
r C v Cv Dk \
sin i p sin i p
= ; =
sin(90 i )
p cos i p

tan ip =
u Pnzv hg\m v Gsn Au FhPzv
JP GsoSa \.
5.8.7 umhkUS
Gv Hk u kzv umhkUS
AUPkQx. \ A J S Psniz umkP
CnP J x J zukQ (h 5.29). C S
Aa_US 32.5o \x CUS. S Aa] \ J {
JUPv \ umhkUQ . Cx kPn 57.5o
BQx. Cx Psni u U Pn BS.
kuzvSa
\[Szu AvP,
J
GvUPk
Cn Fka
\. u[P
GsoUP AvP,
Gv Ahu u
J
\ AvPS.
umhkUS uUQ h 5.29 umhkUS
P SP
\k (h 5.29).
5.8.8 Cmh J P
zu G, P\m iPzv u JUPv
x, Ax iPzv C PvPP x \Qx GuU
Pskizu. Cu {P Cmh P Gk (h 5.30a). G J
US Csk [P ES. Cu P {P, Sm, UP
iP[P |h.

227
 E E

O
O

(a) (b)
h 5.30 Cmh J P
J PQuz xsi mk P\m iPzv P,
Au |UQ C [P u
(h 5.30b). iPzua _ J {P CUS.
Cua _ . { \un (O) Gk. J
P vPUS Emk S PvP, C EQx.
CUPvP \unU PvP G. _ A\un (E)
Gk. J P vPUS Emhu S PvP, C
EQx. CUPvP A\unU PvP G.
Cmh P Hkzx iPzv \unU Pv
v\zxh Gz v\P \Qx. A\unU Pv
v\P v\ Pzxh \Qx.
Cmh P Hkzx iP J UPmh
J, \unU PvUS PP AP A\unU PvUS
}mh (elliptical) A P Hkzx.
iPzv J Smh v\ \unU Pv, A\unU Pv
\ v\Pzv \Q. Czv\ iPzv J Aa_ G
AUQ. Cuz v\ Csk PvUP J P Gs \
v . Cmh JP Czv\ |hx.

5.8.9 iPzv PP
P\m, Sm, I l iP[P J J
J Aa\ u Ka_ iP[P G AUPkQ.
UP, mP (topaz), PUP (selenite) AP|m
(aragonite) iP[P Csk J Aa_UP u
Da_ iP[P G AUPkQ.

228
5.8.10 |UP mhP
|UP G |UP mhPzu izu.
|UP mhPx P\m iPzuU Psk
iUPkQx. APzu h[S } 72o
108o Pn[P Psh P\m iP Csk SvPP, mh
AB P mhmk sk Jh Ph \ G J
Fk ]sm Psk JmhkQx (h 5.31). \i JUS
\unU Pv JP Gs 1.658 A\unU PvUS 1.486.
Ph \ JP Gs 1.550. Cx Csk PvUS JP
Au Ph \ u J uv.
A

108 E

72 O
B
h 5.31 |UP mhP
u J Cu |UP mhPzv k
\mh Cmh JP Hmk, \unU PvP A\unU
PvP Qx. \unU Pv Ph \zu ukUPmk AP
Gv Ahu Fk v. CP Ph \
P Fk A\unU Pv u PvP CUS. |UP
mhP u UQP, SP \kQx.
5.8.11 kP
k Gx u J EUP kQx.
u EmPu (selective absorption) G {P Aih
kP iUPkQ. kP PP E.
J k ~so um (S Ah\m)
iP[PU Pskx. J iP Cmh J P
Hkzv \unU Pv EmPx A\unU Pv Fk
\Q. | kP ~so um iP[P
A J Aa_P CnP CUS, |m&\
zx iUPkQ.
\PP kP, BP mh
mix uUPkQ. Cu { iP[P J AvP
Fka \xh u u Jz uQ.

229
5.8.12 kP P
1. BU Th[P u J EUP
uhu J B kQ.
2. kP PU PsniPP kQ.
3. P P[P zuk Jzv PsP
T_uz uUP kP kQ.
4. Gsn Kzv {[P miz u
kzu kQ.
5. k h n |P [P uUP
kQx.
6. CP BP [P Ja \U Pmkkzu
\ PsniPP kzukQ. BP [P J
k {P Akzux _ AUPmku,
u Ja\ E i ^zxU P.
7. zv\ Pn[P x R|UQ GkUPk
Ph, kPU Psk US x Pz uP
u.
8. PoP (calculators) PiP[P E GzxP
GsP, u J Psh v iP k (LCD)
EUPkQ.
9. UTP AP i[P B u
kQx.
5.8.13 J (Optical activity)
Ju J ] P x kx,
Q J u zu, kJ uz uzu
A, ] Pn A vmk AQx. Cu
J (\) GQ. u z uzu vQ Cu
P P J UQ P BS.
G.P.: Sm, \UP iP[P, hh Gsn, \i
Sk u.
J \v Psh P C Pk.
(i) hUm-&_] (x) Gx, zu (source) |USx,
uz u g_Pa _uS. (ii) _] (Chx)
Gx, zu |USx, uzu Chg_Pa _uS.
S G J { J, uUQ P \zukQx.
u J uUQUS SUPP UPmh J S

230
 P A

S
No light
J
k
v
P A
S

Light
J
Optically
J \v
active
UP
substance
kQx
h 5.32 J
A AkQx. Ax Gu J . u
UQUS SUS |k Sm umk UPh,
Sx ]x J Qx. S A& ]x Pn
_ J x { kQx (h 5.32).
Sm P J uuP Au,
uz u ]x Pn _mk Au C{Pa]USU
Pn BS.
J _]x, (i) iPzv ui, (ii) iPzv Ahzv
Ax P\ Ah, (iii) k J A}
(iv) P\ { PoPa \ux.
5.8.14 _]zv Gs (Specific rotation)
_]z v GsnU Psk J zv Psh
P _] Jh.
J Smh {, J A}zv _]z v Gs
Gx J h]mh } 1cc P\ E 1 g v
Hk _]BS.
J h] mh } v A Ah[Q c G Ah
Psh P\ 1ccUS 1g Hkzv _]U Pn G, A}
G, { t G Psh _]z v Gs

S =
t.c
J J _] |huU Psh Eu P
u Gk.
\unP, \UPx J \v UP S.
uz uzv _] Auu P, \UPU P\
AhzvU PnUQh i.

231
 wUPmh PnUSP
5.1 [ Cmh B Csk K [P \P uP
64 : 1. Cu v SURmk mhP uQ.
]a \UP uP PsP.
I
uP : I1 : I2 : : 64 : 1 = ?
I]

I1 a12 64
w : = =
I 2 a22 1

a1 8
= ; a = 8a2
a2 1 1

I (a1 + a 2 )2 (8a 2 + a 2 )2
= =
I] (a1 a 2 )2 (8a 2 a 2 )2

(9a 2 )2 81
= =
(7a2 )2 49

I : I] : : 81 : 49

5.2 [ Cmh B 6000 A} J kzu

k x QhUS mh AP 2 mm. Cu B, JP
Gs 1.33 Psh vzv Pmh, QhUS mh
AP G?
uP : = 6000 = 6 107 m; = 2mm = 2 103 m
= 1.33; = ?

D D
w : = d = d = =

2 103
= = 1.5 10-3 m Ax 1.5 mm
1.33

232
5.3 , JP Gs 1.33 Psh J \ hzv x
30o Pnzv kQx. GvU Pv { Psk
B 6000 A} Psh Pmh uQx G, \
hzv Pa ] ui G?
uP : = 1.33; i = 30o; = 6000 = 6 107 m
n = 1 (Pa ] ui); t = ?

sin i
w : =
sin r
sini sin 30o 0.5
sin r = = = = 0.3759
1.33 1.33

cos r = 1 (0.3759)2 = 0.9267

2 t cos r = n

n 1 6 10 7
t = =
2 cos r 2 1.33 0.9267

6 107
t =
2.465
t = 2.434 107 m

5.4 3 m B J umhU S\x umh Psniz uPmi

x UPmk, J { J JmhkQx. 8x P
zv B 3.6 m m G, J A} G?
uP : R = 3m ; n = 8 ; r8 = 3.6 mm = 3.6 103 m ; = ?
w : rn = nR
rn2 = nR
rn 2 (3.6 103 )2
= = = 5400 1010 m (or) 5400
nR 83
5.5 {mh B Smh \ E P
zv mh, Cshx zv mhzuh Csk
h[S AvP G, Au zv \ G?
uP : dn = 2d2 ; n = ?

233
 w : dn2 = 4nR ...(1)
d22 = 8R ...(2)
2
(1) d n
n2 =
(2) d2 2

4d22 n
=
d 22 2

n = 8.

5.6 0.3 mm Chzu Psh C P 4500 A}

J JmhkQx. PUS, vUS Ch
u 1 m. x C E Cshx
mhPUS Chmh u x?
uP : d = 0.3 mm = 0.3 103 m ; = 4500 = 4.5 107 m,
D = 1 m ; n = 2 ; 2x = ?
D
w : 2x = 2 n
d
2 1 2 4.5 107
=
0.3 103
3
2x = 6 10 m (or) 6 mm
5.7 1 cm APzv 5000 PkP mh U
Ro x K zv Cx CnP Jx ki
UPkQx. Csh \ 30o Pnzv Hmh
J A} G?
uP : N = 5000 PkP / cm = 5000 102 PkP / m
m = 2 ; = 30o ; = ?
sin
w : sin = Nm =
Nm

sin 30o 0.5

= =
5 10 2 5 105 2
5

= 5 107 m = 5000 .

234
5.8 u 60 cc \UPU P\ 300 mm } Psh
\uU S UPk x 9o _kQx. _]z
v Gs 60o G P\ E \UP A G?
uP : l = 300 mm = 30 cm = 3 decimetre
= 9o ; s = 60o ; v = 60 cc

m = ?

w : s = l c = l (m /v )

.v
m =
l s

9 60
=
3 60

m = 3 g

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)
5.1 Pu AP, B
(a) zvS Pu zvS J AP
Q.
(b) C [PUS \[SzuP Q.
(c) zv Qx.
(d) Pu zv Qx
5.2 Pu AP
(a) SUPP BS.
(b) |mhP BS.
(c) SUPPP Ax |mhPP CUP.
(d) SUPP A; |mhP A.

235
5.3 Psni JP Gs 1.5. ui 10 cm Eh Psniz
uPmi J \uS BS P.
(a) 2 108 s (b) 2 1010 s
(c) 5 108 s (d) 5 1010 s

5.4 Pu AP, E Pu B US Ch
E Pmh k
(a) /4 (b) /2
(c) (d) _
5.5 Aq { Gx
(a) y { (b) k mh {
(c) EmP { (d) EmP mh {
5.6 {mh z uSv, Psniz umkUS umhU
S_US Ch J x } UPmh, z uSv
(a) _[S (b) h
(c) x (d) u h _[S
5.7 J { JP, hzvx JP Gs Psh
FhPzvS ~Qx. k Phu AP
A}[P uP
(a) : 1 (b) 1 :
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
5.8 J J A} |S h[PPU Su Au ]u A
(a) 16 h[S AvPUS (b) 16 h[S S
(c) 256 h[S AvPUS (b) 256 h[S S
5.9 {mh B m&Bx (m + 4) x P
B[P 5 mm 7 mm G m- v G?
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (b) 10
5.10 4000 A} C J{ J APUS Ch E
u k 2 107 m. AS Ch E Pmh k.
(a) (b) 2

3
(c) (d) /2
2

236
5.11 [ B, 6000 A} J 3x mh
zv 4x mhh xQx G,
Au J zv A} G?
(a) 4500 (b) 6000
(c) 5000 (d) 4000
5.12 0.005 m APzv 2500 PkP E Ro x 6000
A} Jx |USzuP kQx. Au \
G?
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) 4
5.13 J ] JU Px kQx.
] JUS vP } J kzv Hkx G?
(a) mhP xk.
(b) Gx x.
(c) SPh TmhP J \.
(d) APh Jmk J .
5.14 60o u PnzvP J P Gs G?
(a) 1.732 (b) 1.414
(c) 1.5 (d) 1.468

5.15 Pu AP G G?
5.16 Pu AP ]PU TP.
5.17 Pu AP [P P GxP.
5.18 k {, EmP { C .
5.19 Ju {u G G?
5.20 ~s xP Lmh & kzx.
5.21 ish Ja]u G G?
5.22 hU P BihU P G
EQ?
5.23 } {zv uU Pn G?
5.24 C Ja ]u USP.

237
5.25 uzxzu USP.
5.26 AU PP kzv AP Gv .
5.27 AP xu uzx x?
5.28 {{zumh SURmk UP {uP ?
5.29 [ Cmh B SURmk Hk mh
APzvP P P.
5.30 Fk hzv J Gvu Hk SURmk
. ] Ja \UP {uP
GxP.
5.31 {mh [P G G? {mh [P
PP AU Pn x?
5.32 L|, L & kzxP.
5.33 \u U RoUP UPzuU TP.
5.34 J SUPPP Qx GuP B .
5.35 u u u J & kzx.
5.36 Lh vU T USP.
5.37 \un JUS A\un JUS Ch E kPz
uP.
5.38 (a) |UP mhP (b) kP U S uP.
5.39 J _] G G? Ax \x PoP ?
PnUSP
5.40 AP Hkzx LC Jzv\a _ J Hh (antenna)
CnUPmkx. _ 400 pF uUQ, 100 H ysi
C, ES Pu A A}zuU PnUQkP.
5.41 [ Cmh a \u, C K [P \
Qu 81 : 1 G, ]a \P Qu G?
5.42 JP Gs 1.33 Eh } x 589 nm A}h J{
J kQx. } J v\P, Avs
A}zuU PnUQkP.

238
5.43 [ \u 6 10 14 Hz Avs Eh J
kzukQx. Akzukzu C mhP [PUS
Chmh u 0.75 mm. 1.5 m u v C,
PUS Chmh uU PnUQkP.
5.44 [ Cmh a \u 5000 A} J
kzx x Hk mh AP 0.6 cm. S
vUS Ch u vPU Szu, Hk
mh APzuU PnUQkP.
5.45 Pmi x 6000 A}h J SzuP
kx, C PUQh 6 PmhP EQ.
Pmi uiU PnUQkP.
5.46 J P Gs 4/3 ui 1.5 104 cm Eh \
hzv x 60o Pnzv kQx. Gvzu J
|USx, 5000 A}zvS Pmh uQx G,
Au Pmh \ Gs G?
5.47 {mh [P \u J 20&x P zv
mh 5.82 mm 10&x P zv mh 3.36 mm
G AhkQx. umhU S] B 1 m G,
J A}zuU PnUQkP.
5.48 \u U Ro J 5000 PkP/cm E.
Csh \ , 7070 A} ] { US
5000 A} }{ US Ch Pn PU
PnUQkP.

5.49 JP Gs 3 Eh FhP Jx u Jx
uU Pnzv kx, S PnzuU PnUQkP.
5.50 20 cm } S \UPU P\ Ex. u
P |USx, uz u 10 o _x
AkQx. \UP _]zv Gs 60o/h]mh/KS
Ahzv G, \UPU P\ Ahzv g/cc& PnUQkP.

239
 hP
5.1 (b) 5.2 (a) 5.3 (d) 5.4 (d) 5.5 (a)

5.6 (a) 5.7 (a) 5.8 (c) 5.9 (d) 5.10 (a)

5.11 (a) 5.12 (a) 5.13 (c) 5.14 (a)

5.40 377 m 5.41 25 : 16

5.42 2.26 108 m s1, 5.09 1014 Hz, 4429

5.43 1 mm 5.44 3 mm

5.45 18 107 m 5.46 6

5.47 5645 5.48 15o

5.49 30o 5.50 0.0833 g/cc

240