Superconductivity, Superfluidity and

Bose-Einstein Condensation

Project Report Submitted By Komal Sah PHYS2186-I

Performed under the guidance of

Professor V.B.Shenoy

Indian Institute of Science

8-05-2017 to 5-07-2017

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Contents:
1. Introduction..3
2. Bose -Einstein condensation.4
3. Relevance of Bose-Einstein condensation to Superconductivity and
Superfluidity.6
4. Superconductivity
a) Phenomena..7
b) Phenomenalogical models
i. Londons Equation9
ii. Ginzburg-Landau theory.11

5. Microscopic Theory Of Superconductivity- BCS Theory14

6. Superfluidity..18

7.Refrences..21

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Superconductivity, Super fluidity and
Bose Einstein condensation
Introduction:

The objective of this project was to achieve an understanding of superconductivity,

superfluidity and Bose Einstein condensates. Superconductivity and superfluidity show
quantum mechanisms on a macroscopic scale. However this behavior could not be explained
without taking into account the Bose-Einstein statistics.

Starting from its discovery in 1911, a number of phenomenological models were proposed to
explain superconductivity-which is the phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance,
expulsion of magnetic flux (perfect diamagnetism) and currents that do not decay with time.
The most important of which was the Londons equations and Ginzburg-Landau theory which is
still used to predict properties of superconductors without getting into the intricacies of the
microscopic model. The microscopic theory explaining the phenomena was proposed only in
1954 by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer who applied quantum mechanics of many bodies to
explain superconductivity.

Superfluidity or frictionless flow of a fluid was discovered by Allen, Misener and Kapitza in 1938
in liquid Helium (He4). This discovery was made three decades after the first time liquefaction of
Helium (He4) had been achieved. Just like superconductivity, superfluidity also showed
quantum mechanics on a macroscopic scale. Fritz London proposed that Superfluidity had some
connection with Bose-Einstein condensation. This was later discovered as true as Helium (He4)
is actually a spin zero boson which forms condensates below critical temperature responsible
for superfluidity.

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Bose -Einstein condensation:
Bose Einstein condensation is a phase transition due to the statistics of the particles rather than the
interaction between them. As in the case of any phase transition we see an abrupt change in properties
of the substance. In a Bose-Einstein condensate, the majority of the particles occupy the "zero
momentum state".

The particles that follow the Bose- Einstein statistics are called as bosons. They are indistinguishable
particles with symmetric wave functions which imply that the wave function remains unchanged on
exchange of two identical particles.

(r1, ..... ri, ......... rj, ...... ) = (r1, ..... rj, ......... ri, ...... )

These particles have full integer spins and do not follow the Pauli Exclusion Principle i.e. many particles
can collect in a single energy state at a time. Bose-Einstein condensation occurs when a large fraction of
particles occupies the zero momentum state in the momentum space.

Considering, the indistinguishablity of the particles, the number of bosons in a given energy state can be
derived by maximizing the entropy of the system.

Considering Ns bosons and Ms available quantum states the number of possible configurations is
possible configurations is

( + 1)!
Ws =
!( 1)!
Entropy of the system is thus given as S = klnW (where k is the boltzmann constant and W is W= s Ws).
Assuming N is large we can use the sterling approximation and entropy can be given as:

S= ks [(Ns + Ms)ln(Ns + Ms) Ns ln Ns Ms ln Ms].

This entropy is maximized taking into account that the total energy and the number of particles in the
system remains constant i.e, N = s Ns total number of particles, U = s s Ns total energy of the system.
Thus using these two constraints entropy is maximized using Lagrange multipliers.

+ =0

ln( + ) ln( ) + = 0

This on simplifying gives the average number of particles occupying a single state as;
1
() = ()1 Equaition-1

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Here and are two Lagrange multiplier constants which are identified as = 1/kT and is the
chemical potential of the gas. From the distribution of particles given by bose-einstein statistics we can
find the chemical potential and the temperature distribution of particles.
1
= where N is the total number of particles. Considering the thermodynamic limit that
( ) 1
V we can replace k values with a continuum and equation can be rewritten as;

3
=
23 ( ) 1

This transformation can be inferred from the figure below;

Figure-1: Athinshellofstatesofwavevectorsbetween ks and ks +

ks .Thenumberof quantumstatesintheshellis
4 2 /(2)3

2 2
Energy of each of the state is given as = . Thus by changing the integration over k to
2
integral over the energy and dividing by the volume we can rewrite the particle density as;

()
= 0 where g() is ;
()1

3/2 1/2
() =
2 2 3

On complete integration of this we get, = ( 22 )3/2 3/2 () where 3 () =
=1 3/2 and =

2

This series diverges for mod(z)>1, converges for mod(z) < 1 and just converges at z = 1 to 2.612. The
equation can be modified to obtain the chemical potential.
3
22 2
3 ( ) = ( ) At high temperature and low density this equation can be approximated as:
2

3
ln( 2 ). However at lower temperatures and increasing value of z chemical potential
2
22 3
becomes zero and z=1. The temperature at which this happens is called BEC temperature and is given
22
as; = (2.612). Also the number of particles in the lower most state becomes infinite as chemical

potential becomes zero. This is called Bose-Einstein condensation.

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Thus the number density of particles has to be corrected and written as;
0
= 0 + 2.612( 22 )3/2 or
= 1 ( )3/2

From this we infer that at T=0 all the particles are in the ground state and this fraction decreases as the
temperature increases to T c , above this the equation is not valid.

Using the Bose Einstein distribution, the internal energy of the particles can also be evaluated.

T >Tc
3 5/2 () () 3
= 2 3/2 ()
at large T 5/2 () = 1 thus = 2
and bose-Einstein statistics is not relevant.
3/2

T < Tc
3 5/2 (1)
=
2 3/2 (1)

Relevance of Bose-Einstein condensation to Superconductivity and

Superfluidity:
At temperatures below a certain critical temperature Bosons condense to a single state-the lowest
energy state as seen above. Thus the wave functions of all particles in this state can be represented by a
single state 0.

The current density of the system can thus be given as:

= [ ()0 () 0 ()0 ()
2 0

Considering 0 () = we have,

=
0

From the equation above we see that the current density for such systems depends only on the phase
difference and there is no resistance present. Thus this explains why current and liquid flow is without
resistance below Tc in certain materials.

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Superconductivity:

Phenomena:
Superconductivity was discovered in 1911, by H. Kammerlingh Onnes when he cooled mercury below
4.1K and observed that the resistivity of mercury abruptly dropped to zero. This observation of
resistivity falling to zero below a certain critical temperature was also made in certain other metals. It
was also observed that materials remained superconducting only to a critical magnetic field HC. This
observation showed that superconducting state is just a thermodynamic phase and superconductivity
can be studied from the point of view of thermodynamics. This was done by Ginzburg and Landau.

Figure -2: Phase diagram of type I and type II superconductors

Zero Electrical Resistance:

There is an absence of voltage drop across two points in a superconductor even in the presence of an
electrical current. Also, superconductor rings can sustain currents without showing any decay for billions
of years due to zero resistivity of the material.

Miessner effect:
It was also observed that on making the transition from normal to superconducting state the material
actively excluded any magnetic field from its interior. If the material had magnetic field in its normal
state, upon transition to superconducting state this magnetic field is removed from the interior of the
material. It is this active exclusion below the critical temperature that distinguishes the superconductors
from perfect conductors.

Figure-3: A perfect conductor retains its

magnetization even after cooling below Tc whereas a
superconductor excludes all magnetic field below Tc.

The zero magnetic field is due to the superconducting state

also being a perfectly diamagnetic state i.e. = -1.

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Super currents:
Zero- resistivity coupled with perfect diamagnetism leads to the setting up of persistent currents in a
superconducting ring called as super currents.

= .


= 0 everywhere inside the superconductor. Therefore,
= 0. Thus if an external magnetic field is
applied to the superconductor above Tc upon cooling below Tc and removing the magnetic field
persistent currents will be set up as flux has to be kept a constant .

Flux Quantization:

It was also observed that the flux enclosed by a superconductor was always an integral multiple of 2
.

Josephsons effect:
Josephson predicted that a current would flow through a weak insulating link between two
superconductors even in the absence of any voltage difference. This current is proportional to the
sine of the phase difference across the insulator, and may take values between I and I. This current
is also very sensitive to change in magnetic field through the circular loop and can be used as a
sensitive magnetometer.

Figure-4: Magnetic flux through a ring

with a thin insulator in its arm

Type I and Type II superconductivity:

It was also observed that superconductivity is sustained only upto a critical magnetic field Hc after which
the material ceases to be perfectly diamagnetic or superconducting.

Type-1 superconductors: These materials cease to be superconducting on reaching a critical

magnetic field Hc.
Type-2 superconductors: These materials have two critical magnetic fields, upto the lower
magnetic field HC1 the material is purely superconducting i.e. the material actively excludes all
magnetic fields. The material is partially superconducting upto the higher critical field HC2 after
which it ceases to be superconducting.

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 Figure-5b: Type II Superconductor
Figure-5a: Type I Superconductor
magnetization v/s magnetic field
magnetization v/s magnetic field

Phenomenalogical models:
The Londons equation:
The Londons equation was proposed by the London brothers and was the first theory to account for the
Meissner effect and predict flux quantization in superconductors.

Meissner effect had established superconductor as a distinct thermodynamic phase of the material. The
London brothers hypothesized that in a superconductor, the current density is proportional to the
magnetic vector potential A.

This can be obtained from the equation of when electrons are accelerated in an electric field.

Multiplying the above equation with nse on both sides we get,

2
= Where js = nsev.

Using the relation = we get,

2
=

Meissner effect from the Londons equation:

Consider a constant magnetic field along the z-direction (0,0,B0). Using Amperes law in the Londons
equation above we have;

2
( ) = [ ] 0

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If a superconductor is placed in the field considered above at z=0, then using the londons equation
given above magnetic field in the superconductor is given as;

() 0 2
= ()
2

This equation has a solution;

= 0 0 ( /)

The decay length , is a measure of the distance to which the magnetic field penetrates, and is called the
London penetration depth. Inside the superconductor for z >> , the field is zero. Thus Londons
equation gives us a detailed theory for Meissner effect.

Predicting Flux Quantization:

Magnetic flux passing through a superconducting ring penetrates only to a depth . This means the
phase of electrons deep in the superconductor is unaffected. Rate of change of momentum in a
magnetic field is given as,

Phase of the electron and momentum are related as shown below.

Thus we have,

2
= [ ]

Since the phase remains unchanged in a closed path we have,

2 2
. =
(where is the magnetic flux) and 2 =
.

Thus we have,

= .

It was later shown that it was the cooper pair e=2e whose phase remained a constant.

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Ginzburg-Landau theory:
The theory of superconductivity proposed by Ginzburg and Landau in 1950, described superconductivity
from the thermodynamic point of view as the change from normal to superconducting state can be seen
as a thermodynamic phase change.

Ginzburg and London proposed that a complex quantity which represented an order parameter
characterized the superconducting state. The fact that is complex allows an infinite set of minima
points corresponding to all possible values of the phase (this is analogous to how different directions
of magnetization in a ferromagnet can have the same energy)i.e.

= ||

0, >
={
() 0, <

Ginzburg and London assumed that free energy of superconductor must depend on the parameter||
and since goes to zero at Tc we can Taylor expand free energy fs(T) in terms of .
()
() = () + ()||2 + 2
||4 +

This theory also tells us that the order parameter can depend on the position thus introducing a term
depending on the gradient of (r).i.e.

2 ()
() = () + 2 |()|2 + ()|()|2 + 2
|()|4

At equilibrium the free energy of the system is minimized (or entropy of the system is maximized). The
condition for (r) to minimize free energy is when it satisfies the equation below:

2 2
() + ( + |()|2 )() = 0
2

Meissner effect and London equation:

If the particle is charged then we have to make the following replacement,

(q in case of superconductivity is -2e)

The free energy of the system is

2 2 2 2
4 3
1
() = () + ( | + | () + || + || ) + ()2 3
2 2 20

Thus the free energy equation to be minimized then becomes:

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 2 2
2 ( +
)2 () + ( + |()|2 )() = 0

The current density can be found by taking the derivative of free energy with respect to vector potential
A. i.e.

= () which gives

2 ()
(2)2
= [ ()() () ||2
2

If the order parameter is changed by a phase then the free energy of the system is given as

2 2 2
= 0 + 3 ( +
) where = 2 ||2

Thus to minimize free energy we must minimize the gradient of (r) and make it as constant as possible.
Since the system can choose an arbitrary phase which is constant everywhere we say that the system
has long ranged order in order parameter phase. Applying this to the current density equation we get

2 2
= ( )

Thus we get the London equation and hence the Meissner effect.

Flux Quantization:

If we apply the Ginzburg-Landau theory to a superconducting ring, then the order parameter has to be
periodic in angle i.e.

(, , ) = (, + 2, ) Neglecting the r and z dependence of the order parameter we have,

0 () = 0 where n is an integer

Assuming a magnetic vector potential in the ring we can write A as

=
2

The corresponding free energy can be given as

2 2 2 1
() = 0 () + | + | ||2 + ()2 3
2 2 20

The second term in the free energy above can be expressed as,

2
||2 ( /2)2
2 2

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 () = 0 () + ( /2)2 + 2

Free energy is minimized only when, = /2. Thus we arrive at flux quantization from the
Ginzburg- Landau theory.

The Abrikosov Flux Lattice:

Abrikosov found an exact solution to the GL equation just below HC2. This solution was an exact solution
for the type II superconductor as it predicted the presence of periodic vortices in the mixed state
between HC1 and HC2. A vortex is formed when a supercurrent circulates around a normal region which
thus encloses magnetic flux.

Figure-6: Vortices are observed in type II superconductors in the intermediate state between H C1 and
HC2. The packing becomes closer with increase in temperature until Tc when they cease to exist

Abrikosov made the assumption that below HC2 the order parameter almost reaches zero thus the higher
terms in the GL equation can be neglected. Also A=(0,xB,0) which is also called as Landau Gauge.

Thus the GL equation becomes,

2 4 (2)2
(2 + 2 ) () + () = 0 where a(T)>0 above Tc.
2 2

This equation can be rewritten as,

2 c 2 2 2
(2 2 c 2
) () = || where , c =

This is the Schrodinger equation of a particle in a magnetic field and it has solutions of the form

() = ( +) ()

To find f(x) we insert the solution in the above equation

2 2 c 2 2 2
+ ( 0 )2 = (|| ) where 0 =
2 2 2 2 c

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This is the Schrodingers equation for a simple harmonic oscillator whose origin of coordinates has been
shifted by xo. Thus the function f(x) is the wave function of a simple harmonic oscillator shifted by xo.

We also get the following relation,

1 ( )2
c (n + 2) = |a| c
which on simplification gives

1 ( )2
c (n + ) + = ( )
2 c

This equation is satisfied only at T< Tc as the RHS is always positive. The lowest possible solution is
c 2
= ( ). If we start from a field above HC2 and decrease it to HC2 until we satisfy =
2 2m
( ) on rearranging we get,

2m ( )
2 =
2 2
0
2 = 2()2

1/2
2
where 0 = 2 and () = (2 |()|) is the coherence length.

This result tells us that at the critical field Hc2 there is one flux quantum per unit area 2()2 .

Thus the Ginzburg-Landau theory not only explains the Meissner effect and flux quantization but also
predicts the presence of vortices in the intermediate state between HC1 and HC2.

Microscopic theory of superconductivity:

The first theory to explain conduction in metals at a microscopic level considered electrons as classical
particles and kinetic theory of gases was applied to predict the transport properties of electrons in
metals. The model assumed that

collisions and scattering of electrons was only due to the ionic centers
the scattered path was a straight line
1
frequency of collisions was
,where is the time period of the free path
electrons assume thermal equilibrium with their surrounding

Current density as a function of time

= (())/

p(t) is the momentum of the electron at time t, n is the electron density of the given metal, e is the
charge per electron, m is the mass of the electron.

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( + ) = (1
) ( () + () + ( 2 ))

(1
) is the probability that electron does not undergo any collisions , f(t) is the force experienced by
the electron

Solving this, we get the Drudes equation for free electron gas,

()

=
+ ()

The equation does not take into account that the electrons are fermions. This is taken into account by
the Sommerfield theory of conduction in metals. The figure below shows the Fermi sphere in the
momentum space with the system in its lowest energy state. Excitations are possible only at the Fermi
surface. The radius of the sphere is called as Fermi radius and the energy at this radius is Fermi energy.

The conduction electrons in metals are fermions which

are filled according to Fermi statistics as shown in the
figure. Any excitation takes place on the Fermi surface.
This is the reason why the specific heat of the metals still
saturates at 3R instead of greater than R as predicted by
the Drudes theory of conduction in metals.

Figure -7: Fermi sphere

However the theory still treated electrons as classical particles. To explain superconductivity, the
particles had to be treated quantum mechanically. This was done by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
who explained superconductivity using quantum mechanics of many body particles i.e. second
quantization theory.

The BCS theory of Superconductivity:

The BCS theory proposed that at temperatures below the critical temperature the conducting electrons
formed Cooper pairs which is two electrons of opposite spins paired together to form a spin zero
particle or boson. This weak electron-electron attractive interaction is mediated by an electron-phonon
interaction. The interaction can be depicted as shown below:

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 Figure-8a: Cooper Pair moving in a lattice Figure-8b: Interaction between a Cooper Pair

The phonon mediated electron-electron interaction is not seen at high temperatures because at these
temperatures the electrons also have thermal energy and can overcome the force due to the distortion
in the lattice. Thermal energy is absent at low temperatures.

The experimental evidence that motivated the BCS theory was that- the critical temperature decreased
with the increase in isotopic mass of the crystals of the substance. This observation was evidence for the
electron-phonon interaction proposed by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer.

The BCS theory also predicted the existence of an energy gap 2 at the Fermi level. Below Tc in
superconductors there is a small energy gap between the occupied states and the unoccupied states
which is fixed at the Fermi energy level allowing conduction of electrons.

The energy gap predicted by the BCS theory and the experimental values were in agreement with each
other. Gorkov was also able to derive the Ginzburg Landau equations from the BCS theory and give a
microscopic explanation of the order parameter . He found that was related to the wave function
of Cooper pairs and the energy gap .

Cooper Pair:
Cooper pairs is two electrons of opposite spins paired
together to form a spin zero particle or boson.

The electrons in the Fermi Sea can interact only via the
cooper interaction and the Pauli-exclusion principle.
The interaction takes place on the Fermi surface only.
This behavior is represented in the diagram on the
right.

Figure- :9

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Cooper showed that at low temperatures the energy of cooper pairs was less than the Fermi energy
thus allowing formation of cooper pairs below the Fermi level. This implies at low temperatures all the
electrons will rearrange themselves to form cooper pairs
The wave function for the corresponding cooper pair is given as:

(, 1 ) = .( ) ( )

Anti-symmetry of the wave function demands gk = g-k . Inserting this wave function in the Schrodinger
equation we have,

(E 2 ) g k = k >kf Vkk g k

Using the mean field approximation we have,

, < < +
= { where c is the characteristic frequency of the material
0, <

Thus the equation can be rewritten as:

1 1
=

(E 2k )
k >kf
Taking the limit we can take continuum of the k states thus the above equation can be written
as;

1 +
= which upon integration gives ,
2

1 2 +

= 2
ln( 2 ) simplifying this we get;

= 2 2 2/ < Energy of the cooper pair is less than the Fermi energy.
The BCS model:

The Hamilton equation for the superconducting phase using second quantization and mean field
approximation is given as:

Where () is the energy of k state, -V is the attractive potential and are annihilation and
creation operators that satisfy the following properties:

{ } = 3 ( )

{ } = 0 = { }

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The solution of this Hamiltonian gave the following results:

The ground state of this Hamiltonian is the vacuum state in which no particles are present while
the excited states corresponds to particles being added to this state.
The energy of the system is lowest when each pair has the same total momentum, k = 0, which
is the single quantum state to which all the cooper pairs condense.
Since the electrons are bound it requires energy to excite a single electron and this energy is
equal to the binding energy= 2/ . The binding energy is experimentally observed
while measuring the specific heat of the superconductor which is given as
= (/ )
It also established that the order parameter was the probability of finding a cooper pair at any
point r.
The phase of the order parameter is important because it is proportional to the net total
momentum of the cooper pairs.

The BCS theory predicted accurately the properties of conventional superconductors however failed
to explain the high temperature superconductors (Tc>100K) which have been discovered since.

Superfluidity:
Superfluidity is observed when a fluid with zero viscosity flows without loss of kinetic energy. When
stirred, a superfluid forms cellular vortices that continue to rotate indefinitely. These substances
continue to remain in liquid state even at absolute zero temperature.

Figure- 11: Phase diagram of Helium-4

Superfluids like Helium-4continues to remain in liquid state at even low temperatures due to quantum
mechanical effects hence, they are also called quantum fluids. Quantum fluids have zero point motion
thus allowing them to have non-zero kinetic energy even at low temperatures. The uncertainty in
position x causes an uncertainty in momentum leading to some finite kinetic energy. In the case of
Helium-4 this energy is equal to 7 meV at low temperatures. This energy is equivalent to thermal energy
of the molecule at 70K which is why Helium-4 continues to remain liquid even at low temperatures.

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Superfluid Properties of Helium-4:
Superflow:
In a superfluid Bose-Einstein condensation takes place. This occurs when a single particle wave function
k=0 becomes occupied with a macroscopic number of particles. Superflow arises when the condensate
phase varies in space (r). The current density of the particle flow can be given as:

= [0 ()0 () 0 ()0 () here 0 =0 where no is the density of the condensate.
2
Substituting for the wave function in the current equation we get,

= . Thus particle velocity in a condensate is given as = which is a constant that does
0
not decrease with time.

Zero viscosity:
Kapista showed that liquid helium could flow through narrow capillaries without resistance because it
had zero viscosity. The liquid flow in a capillary depends on dimensions of the tube and is given as,


~ 2 . For helium-4 = 0 always leading to conclude that the viscosity, =0.

Because of zero viscosity Helium-4 empties itself when placed in an container. The interaction energy
with the wall of the container allow it to climb up the walls of the container and since the liquid has zero
viscosity and hence no drag from below it continues to do so until it spills out of the container.

Figure-11: Shows liquid helium-4 climbing up the

walls of the container and spilling over

Flow quantization and vortices:

The existence of macroscopic wave function in Helium-II leads to quantization of the superflow. Since

the velocity of a superfluid is given as = we observe that,

Circulation is defined by the integral

= evaluating which we get,

19

= =

is the change in phase after going once around a tube which implies = 2.

Experimentally it has been observed that on rotating a superfluid and then cooling it below critical

temperature the circulation always jumps by a factor of indicating quantization of flow. The circular
flow of particles is also persistent as there is no viscosity.

Also = 0 i.e. the flow is irrotational. This implies that

= 0 which would be true if = 2 . The flow quantization property ensures that n is an
integer and hence vortices are observed. = 0 is not valid only at r = 0 which is the vortex core
where the macroscopic wave function is not defined.

Conclusion:
Superconductivity and superfluidity are electrical and mechanical manifestation of the same
phenomenon. Resistance and viscosity are analogous quantities that go to zero at critical temperatures.
Quantum mechanical phenomena such as the quantization of flux and circulation, formation of vortices
are observed in superconductors and superfluids. Superconductivity arises as a result of the formation
of cooper pairs which act as spin zero bosons while superfluidity arises as a result of the substance, like
helium-4 being bosons that occupy macroscopically a single quantum state-the zero energy state at low
temperatures.

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References:
1. Solid state Physics- by Ashcroft and Mermin

2. Superconductivity Today- by T.V.Ramakrishnan and C.N.R Rao

3. Condensed Matter Field Theory-by A.Altland and Ben Simons

4. Superconductivity, Super fluidity and Condensates by J.F.Annett

5. Courses-Phy4523 University of Florida

Figures:
1. Figure-1: Superconductivity, Super fluidity and Condensates by J.F.Annett

2. Figure-2: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/scbc.html

3. Figure-3: http://users-phys.au.dk/philip/pictures/physicsfigures/node12.html

4. Figure-4a: http://www7b.biglobe.ne.jp/~kcy05t/planck.html

5. Figure-5a,b: https://mediatoget.blogspot.in/2011/08/types-of-super-conductors.html

6. Figure-6: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/scbc.html

7. Figure-7: Condensed Matter Field Theory-by A.Altland and Ben Simons

8. Figure-8a: http://www.rebresearch.com/blog/tag/superconductivity/

9. Figure-8b: Condensed Matter Field Theory-by A.Altland and Ben Simons

10. Figure-9: Superconductivity, Super fluidity and Condensates by J.F.Annett

13. Figure-10: http://ltl.tkk.fi/research/theory/helium.html

14. Figure-11: http://currentearthscience.blogspot.in/2015/05/superfluid-helium-climbs-up-

walls.html

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