Usm-Icoss 2015 Proceedings PDF

USM INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES (USM-ICOSS) 2015
27th 28th AUGUST 2015

eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3
Copyright 2015 by School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other
non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the
publisher, addressed Attention: Permissions Coordinator, at the address below.
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Available in CD Format.
First Edition, December 2015
COMPILED BY
Muhammad Fikri Ali Yasah
Mitshel Lino
Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim
Details of Publisher
School of Social Sciences

Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 Pulau Pinang Malaysia
Tel: 04-6533888
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table of Content
Economic Growth Economic Growth Page Number
Lean Hooi Hooi

Gerai atau Premis: Pengaruh Medium untuk Mengurangkan Ketidakpastian dalam 14
Tanjung
Keputusan1 Pembelian
Noraihan Mohamad and Mohd Sobhi Ishak

The Impact of Wage Structure on Industrial Competitiveness 24
Joko Susanto and Purwiyanta

Income Distribution and Environment: Empirical Evidence from Malaysia, Indonesia 34
and Singapore
Abdul Rahim Ridzuan, Nor Asmat Ismail, Abdul Fatah Che Hamat, Abu Hassan Shaari
Mohd Nor and Elsadig Musa Ahmed
The Impact of a Dynamic Environment on Budgetary Participation with Information 44
Processing as a Mediating Variable (An Empirical Study on Public SOE Managers
and Staff Perception in Indonesia)
Dian Indri Purnamasari, Rahmawati and Mulyanto

MESSAGE FROM
Youth and Psychology And Psychology
Balaraju
HappinessNikku
and Meaningful Engagement through Teaching and Learning English 58
Workshop: A UNHCR Community-Based Project
Tanjung 2
M. Lee, S. Tan and S. Woo
Students Self-Efficacy: Does Work Integrated Learning Matter? 66
Hazril Izwar Ibrahim, Abdul Hadi Zulkafli, Khairul Annuar Mohammad Shah dan
Azlan Amran
Cyberbullying Behavior among Teens Moslem in Pekalongan Indonesia 74
Rita Rahmawati
Permissive Parenting Style and Psychotic Personality Trait among Delinquent 81
Children in Sabah
Siti Noor Fazariah Suis @ Mohd Rusdy Zulkarnaen Ahmad Hatta, Ferlis Bullare @
Bahari
2
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
DD
Development Planning and Management Page Number
Bojonegoro District, The Best Governance Role in Indonesias Economic 89

Development and Poverty Alleviation
Sri Suryaningsum, Moch. Irhas Effendi, and R. Hendri Gusaptono

Kemampuan Memiliki Rumah dalam Kalangan Keluarga Bandar di Malaysia 97
Nor Malina Malek, Parthiban S. Gopal, Khoo Suet Leng, Mohamad Shaharudin
Samsurijan, Zahri Hamat
Kualiti Hidup dalam Pembangunan Kolej Kediaman Lestari: Satu Tinjauan Literatur 106
Mohd Reduan Buyung and Haryati Shafii

Matching Development Plan, Resources and Sustainable Livelihood in The Case of 114
Coastal Fishery Industry, Pangkor Island
Ho Siew Neo, Stella, Jamilah Mohamad and Nurulhuda Mohd Satar
Pogereha Razaligara
Politics and Government
eatraealau 2garar
The Evaluation of The Implementation of Regional Autonomy in Indonesia 121

Rudy Badrudin and Baldric Siregar
Formulation of The Service Delivery Democratic Model (Case Study Implementation 129
of the Citizens Charter in Public Health Service in Jayapura District, Papua Province,
Indonesia)
Soemedi Hadiyanto and Agustinus Fatem

Analysis of Financial Statements Disclosure of Local Government on The Level of 138
Corruption in Indonesia
Sucahyo Heriningsih, Rusherlistyani and Agussalim
3
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Vulnegarewarerable Groups Page Number

Vulnerable Groups
Nurdin
Pengalaman dan Sumber Maklumat Berkait Seks dalam Kalangan Penghuni Institusi 148
Perlindungan
Tanjung 1 dan Pemulihan
Noor Azizah Ahmad, Rusimah Sayuti, Zakiyah Jamaluddin, Abdul Razak Abd Manaf,
dan Rajwani Md Zain
Residential Child Care and Foster Care: Critical Comparative Analysis on Literature 156
Chan Cheong Chong

Sokongan Sosial dalam Kalangan Remaja Hamil Tanpa Nikah 166
Zakiyah Jamaluddin, Abdul Razak Abd Manaf dan Rusimah Sayuti
Issues in Sociology
Household Behaviour and Malaria Control: A Conceptual Overview 174
Ahmad Yahaya Maigemu and Kalthum Bt Haji Hassan

Some Empirical Responses to the McDonaldization Thesis 180
Ong Beng Kok

The Capability Approach: Comparing Sen and Nussbaum 190
Nithiya Guna Saigaran, Premalatha Karupiah and Parthiban S. Gopal

The Experience of Work of Kindergarten Teachers: A Critical Review of the 198
Literature and Some Preliminary Findings
Nurshakirin Sulaiman and Ong Beng Kok

The Role of Prison Criminogenic Experience and Social Stigma Towards Criminal 205
Recidivism: A Qualitative Approach
Aminu Musa Ahmed and Abd Halim Ahmad
4
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Page Number
Positive Psychology
sagaeitaggaraive Psychology
Emotional Experiences during a Spiritual Journey 214
Shiagang
Zhooriyati, S. M, Intan, H. M. Hashim, & Zulkarnain, A. H.
Pulau 1
Racial Microaggression among Malaysian University Students: Exploring the Themes 222
Mitshel Lino and Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim

Brainwave Theta Signal Responses during Receptive Auditory Quranic and Non- 230
Quranic Stimulation: A Pilot Study
Nur Syairah Ab Rani, Muzaimi Mustapha, Faruque Reza, & Muhammad Amiri Ab
Ghani
Urban And Rural Development

Urban and Rural Development
Khoo Suet Leng
Cabaran Kehidupan Penduduk Kampung Bandar dan Persekitarannya 238
Pulau 2
Mohamad Shaharudin Samsurijan, Mohd Shukri Hanapi and Azahan Awang
The Local Perception on Social Impact of Indonesian Workers in the Rural Areas 248
Suziana Mat Yasin and Ibrahim Ngah

Potensi dan Pendekatan dalam Perancangan Pembangunan Pelancongan Pacuan 256
Komuniti di bawah Inisiatif Pusat Transformasi Luar Bandar (RTC) Kedah, Malaysia
Hartini Ahmad, Azhari Md Hashim and Nor Intan Saniah Sulaiman
5
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Methods, Identity and Social Capital Page Number
hods, Identity And Social Capital

Disability and Self-Identity: Auto-Ethnography Study 264
Ong Beng Kok
Khu Li Huang
Two Conceptions
Tanjung 1 of Social Capital in Malaysia 272
Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid and Noor Azizah Ahmad

Teaching Research Methods: Common Problems and Misconceptions related to 280
Random Sampling
Premalatha Karupiah
Financial And Monetary Economics

Financial and Monetary Economics
or Asmat Ismail
Does Financial Development Promote Output Growth in West Africa? Evidence 284
from Cote
Tanjung 2 DIvoire and Nigeria
Kizito Uyi Ehigiamusoe and Hooi Hooi Lean

An Islamic Based Human Development Index with Special Reference to Debt 291
Indicators
Nor Asmat Ismail

Foreign Direct Investment led Sustainable Development in Malaysia: An Application 303
of The Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model
Abdul Rahim Ridzuan, Nor Asmat Ismail, Abdul Fatah Che Hamat, Abu Hassan Shaari
Mohd Nor and Elsadig Musa Ahmed
6
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
IInterdisciplinary Page Number
Satisfaction
Balaraju and Perception of Residents with Bioclimatic Design Strategies A
Nikku 314
Discovery from Racial and Ethnic Perspectives
Pulau 1
Adi Ainurzaman Jamaludin
F
Gender
Gender
Double Abandoned: Experiences and Narratives of Single Mothers de facto 343
Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaluddin
Nor Hafizah Selamat, Farah Syazwani Hayrol Aziz and Noraida Endut
Pulau 2
Am I in Bad Company? The Narrative of Feeling of Misery Amongst Psychiatric 351
Patients
Nur Zafifa Kamarunzaman and Nor Hafizah Selamat

Analysing Travel Experiences of Young Travelers at Penang Island using Netnography 359
Approach
Farah Syazwani Hayrol Aziz and Nor Hafizah Selamat

Kill me but make me beautiful: Cosmetic Nose Surgery and Embodiment of Pain 367
Reihaneh Attaran and Datin Rashidah Shuib

Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran. Kajian di Negeri Perlis 373
Abdul Jalil Ramli, Noor Salwani Hussin, Shuhairimi Abdullah, Jamsari Jamaluddin,
Mohd Kasturi Nor Abdul Aziz dan Norhudiìn Danu
7
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Politics and Administration Page Number

Politics And Administration
Linking Fairness
Benny Teh Chengto Performance
Guan A View from Budget Setting Perspective 382
Mohd Nor Yahaya and Jegak Uli

Tanjung 1
Pampasan Gantirugi dalam Kes-kes Kemalangan Jalan Raya di Malaysia dalam 390
Perundangan Sivil dan Islam: Suatu Kajian Kes
Siti Khadijah Mohd Khaira, & Nuarrual Hilal Md Dahlan

Getting the Right Candidate: A Case Study of Five Public Sector Organizations 398
Selection Criteria
Noreha Hashim
An Identification of the Likely Policy Consequences of the Sarawak Corridor of 404
Renewable Energy (SCORE) on the Affected Agricultural Areas in Central Sarawak
Noreha Hashim & Daniel Ugih Echoh

The Ambiguous Political System: The Case of Malaysias Hybrid Regime 411
Siti Zuliha Razali
Labour Economics
abour EcoLim Ee Shiang
Term Time
Tanjung 2 Employment among Tertiary Students: Evidence from Universiti Sains 421
Malaysia
Tong Sheng Tan, Eivon Lim and Yiing Jia Loke

The Influence of Need for Achievement and Risk Propensity on Income Increasing 431
Earnings Management
Eko Widodo Lo
Challenges of Private Retirement Scheme (PRS) in Malaysia 439
Azlin Namili. Mohd. Ali @ Ramli, Asmah Laili Yeon, dan Mohammad Azam Hussain
Unemployment among Graduates of Public and Private Universities in The Klang 445
Valley
Cheong Jia Qi
8
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Emotion and Aggression Page Number
Recovery Experience of Young Depressed Females in Malaysia: A Microsystemic 455

Perspective
Jin Kuan Kok, Pei Yii Woon, and Kai Shuen Pheh
Mediators Involved in The Relation Between Vulnerability and Depression in Married 464
Women of Malaysia
Nor Bayah Abdul KadirSession 4
Chairperson
Muslimah Women and Moneylenders (Legal Cultural Study about The Loan 471
Agreement between Muslimah Women and Moneylenders in Indonesia)
Room
Triana Sofiani
Rights And Health
Does Perceived Racial Discrimination Increase Aggression? 480
Premalatha Karupiah
Chng Bao Zhong and Chee-Seng Tan
Pulau 2 Budaya Hedonisme Dalam Kalangan Remaja: Penyelesaian Dari
Menerokai 488
Sudut Agama
Abdul Jalil Ramli, Shuhairimi Abdullah, Jamsari Jamaluddin, Mohd Kasturi Nor
Abdul Aziz dan Noor Salwani Hussin
9.00 AM 10.30 AM
Kebebasan Beragama: Hak Peribadi atau Hak Negara?
Rohizan Halim dan Yuhanif Yusof
A Conceptual Study of Breastfeeding and Postpartum Mothers: A Malaysian

Perspective
Maria Aloysius, and Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin
Digital Identity, Digital Other, Digital Community: Malaysian Youths Experience

with Social Networking Sites
Azrina Husin
9
Womens Public Office Positions in Islmic Jurisprudence: The Case of Malaysia
Asar Ak, Bouhedda Ghalia and Mohd Rashid Bin Ab Hamid

eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Rights and Health Page Number
malatha Karupiah 498

Pulau 2
Rohizan Halim dan Yuhanif Yusof
A Conceptual Study of Breastfeeding and Postpartum Mothers: A Malaysian 506
Perspective
Maria Aloysius, and Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin

Digital Identity, Digital Other, Digital Community: Malaysian Youths Experience 516
with Social Networking Sites
Azrina Husin
Womens Public Office Positions in Islmic Jurisprudence: The Case of Malaysia 526
Asar Ak, Bouhedda Ghalia and Mohd Rashid Bin Ab Hamid

Empowering Local Knowledge: Perception of Postpartum Mothers on Food Served
535
in the Maternity Ward, Government Hospital
Sharifah Suraya. Syed Jamaludin
Interventions In Social Work
Bantuan Demokrasi di Malaysia: Satu Sorotan Preliminari 545
Muhamad Takiyuddin Ismail dan Muhammad Febriansyah

Clinical Trials: The Conflict between the Doctors Financial Interests of in 555
Recruiting Patients and The Patients Best Interests in Malaysia
Yuhanif Yusof, Rohizan Halim and Ahmad Masum
Hukuman Jenayah dan Preventasi HIV/AIDS: Satu Tinjauan 562
Marina Hj Hashim dan Anita Abd. Rahim
Corporate Social Responsibility for Childrens Education in the Rural Areas: 571
Insights from Literature Review
Athirah Azhar
Pengertian Hidup Golongan Gelandangan: Satu Kajian di Kuala Lumpur 580
Farrah Wahida Mustafar dan Faudziah Yusof
10
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Science And Social Perspectives Page Number

Science And Social Perspectives
Conceptual Analysis of E-recruitment; The Role of Web-Site Usability and 593
Mohamad Shaharudin
Organizational AttractionSamsurijan
of Personnel in Nigeria
Tanjung
Naziru 2
Mohammed Musalli, Azhar Harun and Ruslan Zainuddin
Risk Assessment on General Safety in Air Separation Unit of a Gas Process Plant 600
Nurul Muhayuni Mahayuddin and Fathiah Mohamed Zuki
Stress And Anxiety

Stress and Anxiety
araju Nikku
Personality and Commitment : A Case Study at Ahmad Dahlan University 609
Pulau 1
Erita Yuliasesti Diahsaria and Tristiadi Ardi Ardani
Psychological Empowerment, Work Stress and Organizational Commitment among 616
Academic Staff in Malaysian Public Universities
Farah Lina Azizan, Aflah Isa and Noor Afzainiza Afendi

Validation of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety in a 624
Sample of Malaysian Undergraduates
Tan Chee Seng, Lim Jia Wei, Low Mei Yan, Phang Joo Yee and Tan Ting Ying
The Reliability and Factor Analysis of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) 633
Uma Devi Nagalingam , Fatimah Omar, Nor Bayah Abdul Kadir and Suzana Mohd.
Hoesni
11
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Industrial Economics Page Number

Industrial Economics
ean Hooi Hooi
Pulau 2
The Relationship between Market Concentration and Performance: Evidence from 640
Malaysian General Insurance Industry
Chia Sin Yee, Keoh Leong Yong and Lim Ee Shiang

Knowledge Sources and In-House R&D Among Small and Medium Sized 650
Enterprises: Evidence from The Malaysian Manufacturing Sector
Lim Ee Shiang and Jacqueline Fernandez

The Process of Developing Cost Management Skills Curriculum for Small and 660
Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Training Programmes
Muhammad Rosni Amir Hussin, Kamariah Ismail and Rose Alinda Alias
Issues Affecting The Adoption of HRIS in Banks 669
Abdul Kadar Muhammad Masum, Md. Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. Loo-See Beh
12
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ECONOMIC GROWTH
13
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Gerai atau Premis: Pengaruh Medium untuk Mengurangkan Ketidakpastian
dalam Keputusan Pembelian
Noraihan Mohamada,*, Mohd Sobhi Ishakb

a&bUniversiti
Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
Email: noraihanmohamad@gmail.coma, msobhi@uum.edu.myb
Abstrak
Berpandukan kepada Teori Kekayaan Media, kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat pengaruh jalinan
antara medium sebagai elemen yang dapat mengukuhkan pengetahuan dan kefahaman pengguna
mengenai produk perkomputeran yang akhirnya mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian mereka di
gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan. Fokus diberikan kepada elemen risalah, media sosial,
rakan-rakan, perniagaan alternatif dan perniagaan sasaran sebagai medium maklumat yang akan
menjelaskan ketidakpastian pengguna tentang harga, jenama, kualiti, jaminan, fungsi dan reka
bentuk produk. Kajian tinjauan keratan rentas dijalankan melalui edaran borang soal selidik
terhadap 75 orang pengguna yang membeli produk perkomputeran di gerai jualan dan premis
perniagaan. Analisis deskriptif menunjukkan jalinan antara risalah, perniagaan sasaran dan
perniagaan alternatif adalah medium utama yang dapat mengurangkan ketidakpastian pengguna
mengenai produk di gerai jualan. Manakala jalinan antara rakan-rakan, media sosial dan
perniagaan sasaran menjadi keutamaan pengguna yang membeli di premis perniagaan.
Kesimpulannya, wujud pengaruh antara jalinan pelbagai media dengan keputusan pembelian
pengguna sama ada di gerai jualan atau premis perniagaan iaitu melalui maklumat-maklumat yang
dapat mengukuhkan pengetahuan dan kefahaman pengguna mengenai produk.
Kata kunci: Teori Kekayaan Media; Jalinan media; Keputusan pembelian.
1. Pengenalan
Pembuatan keputusan pembelian menjelaskan tentang proses kognitif individu dalam membuat
pemilihan terhadap suatu produk berbanding produk alternatif. Ia boleh dipengaruhi oleh banyak
perkara seperti elemen pengiklanan, pemasaran, media, faktor persekitaran dan sebagainya
(Huang dan Ho, 2015). Salah satu daripada faktor yang memberi pengaruh ialah medium carian
maklumat yang digunakan individu untuk mengenal pasti ciri-ciri dan nilai bagi suatu produk.
Medium seperti keluarga, rakan-rakan, internet, jurujual, risalah dan sebagainya adalah antara
yang sering menjadi rujukan pengguna dalam membuat penilaian terhadap produk sebelum
membuat keputusan untuk membeli (Hamilton, Richards dan Stiegert, 2013). Setiap daripada
medium ini mempunyai jalinan yang memberi pengaruh secara berbeza terhadap sikap dan
tingkah laku pembelian pengguna di mana, ia menyampaikan maklumat, memberi kesedaran dan
14
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
menggalakkan penggunaan atau pembelian pengguna terhadap produk yang disampaikan (Gluck
dan Bruner, 2005; Schoon dan van Velzen, 2008; Awais, Samin dan Bilal, 2012). Jalinan antara
pelbagai medium menunjukkan bahawa penyebaran maklumat boleh berlaku dalam pelbagai
bentuk yang melangkaui batasan masa dan lokasi. Sebagai contoh, komunikasi dari mulut ke
mulut (Word-of-Mouth WOM) yang mana ia boleh berlaku secara komunikasi bersemuka
(Face-to-Face) mahupun secara dalam talian (electronic Word-of-Mouth eWOM). Dalam
konteks penggunaan, pendedahan pengguna terhadap pelbagai maklumat daripada pelbagai media
secara tidak langsung akan mempengaruhi sikap dan tingkah laku pembeliannya (Pavlou dan
Stewart, 2010). Bermaksud, jalinan antara medium maklumat dapat membantu pengguna untuk
membina kefahaman mengenai suatu produk sebelum membuat keputusan pembelian.
1.1 Latar belakang Kajian
Media merujuk kepada medium penyebaran maklumat yang berperanan sebagai medan yang
menghubungkan antara penyampai dan penerima maklumat (Huang dan Ho, 2015). Dalam
konteks kajian, media merujuk kepada medium yang berada di sekeliling individu pengguna yang
sering menjadi rujukan mereka untuk mencari informasi, menilai dan membina kefahaman
mengenai produk sebelum membuat keputusan pembelian. Berdasarkan itu, kajian mencadangkan
bahawa jalinan antara medium yang dicirikan kepada risalah, media sosial, rakan-rakan,
perniagaan alternatif dan perniagaan sasaran mampu untuk mengukuhkan kefahaman pengguna
mengenai produk perkomputeran yang akhirnya mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian mereka.
Realitinya, keputusan pengguna untuk membeli suatu produk tidak hanya bergantung kepada
maklumat yang bersumberkan kepada satu medium sahaja. Sebaliknya, kecenderungan untuk
mengurangkan risiko atau ketidakpastian dalam pembelian akan mendorong mereka untuk
mengukuhkan kefahaman mengenai produk. Justeru, pengguna akan bertindak mencari informasi
tambahan dari satu medium ke medium yang lain di sekeliling mereka agar kefahaman yang
terbina bukan sahaja dapat menjelaskan ketidakpastian malah mampu membentuk keyakinan
dalam membuat keputusan pembelian.
Penerapan kajian terhadap konsep jalinan antara medium risalah, media sosial, rakan-rakan,
perniagaan alternatif dan perniagaan sasaran adalah berdasarkan kepada medium yang menjadi
kebiasaan bagi seseorang pengguna dalam mendapatkan maklumat mengenai suatu produk. Bagi
menjelaskan lagi konsep tersebut, kajian melihat pengaruhnya terhadap kumpulan pengguna yang
membeli produk perkomputeran di gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan iaitu sebagai medium yang
menjelaskan ketidakpastian pengguna dari sudut harga, jenama, kualiti, jaminan, fungsi dan reka
bentuk produk perkomputeran yang terdiri daripada komputer dan pencetak. Menurut kajian oleh
Martz dan Reddy (2005), pencarian maklumat melalui medium yang pelbagai juga menerangkan
tentang kekayaan media berbanding pencarian yang hanya melibatkan satu medium sahaja.
Justeru, kajian mengemukakan bahawa, konsep jalinan antara pelbagai medium ini adalah
spektrum kepada konsep kekayaan media.
15
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Teori Kekayaan Media
Asas kepada pembangunan Teori Kekayaan Media (Media Richness Theory MRT) oleh Daft
dan Lengel (1984) adalah untuk meneroka hubungan antara kekayaan media dengan prestasi kerja
individu dalam melaksanakan tugas organisasi. Kekayaan media didefinisikan sebagai media
yang berpotensi iaitu keupayaan media untuk membawa data atau maklumat tertentu (Daft dan
Lengel, 1984; Mandal dan McQueen, 2013). Konsep asas MRT ialah tahap kekayaan suatu media
itu bergantung kepada tahap keupayaannya untuk mengurangkan ketidakpastian (uncertainty) dan
keraguan (equivocality) dalam maklumat (Daft dan Lengel, 1984; Yue, 2014). Terdapat empat
indikator yang dikemukakan dalam menentukan tahap kekayaan suatu media iaitu memberi
maklum balas segera, menyediakan isyarat pelbagai, menggunakan bahasa yang natural dan fokus
kepada personal individu (Daft dan Lengel, 1984). Berdasarkan itu, komunikasi bersemuka
diposisikan sebagai medium yang memiliki tahap kekayaan tertinggi berbanding emel, memo,
buletin dan sebagainya. Pengaruh MRT telah diuji dalam pelbagai konteks kajian. Antaranya ialah
laman web korporat (Cho et al., 2009), pendidikan jarak jauh (Martz dan Reddy, 2005),
pengiklanan (Schoon dan van Velzen, 2008; Chi-Lun, 2014), komunikasi dan hubungan sosial
individu (Sheer, 2011; Liu, Rau dan Wendler, 2014; Yue, 2014) dan sebagainya.
Pengaplikasian MRT oleh kajian lalu kebanyakannya membandingkan tahap kekayaan antara
media seperti tahap kekayaan antara komunikasi bersemuka, video dan medium berkomputer
(Rockman dan Northcraft, 2008), video, teks dan audio (Otondo et al., 2008), komunikasi,
videokonferensi dan perbualan dalam talian (Dickinson, 2012; Liu, Rau dan Wendler, 2014), emel
dan WeChat (Yue, 2014) dan sebagainya. Penumpuan terhadap elemen kekayaan media melalui
konsep jalinan antara medium dilihat kurang mendapat perhatian kajian terdahulu sama ada dalam
konteks media mahupun penggunaan. Justeru itu, MRT diaplikasikan untuk melihat bagaimana
konsep jalinan antara medium dapat menjelaskan tekanan ketidakpastian pengguna berkenaan
produk yang dicirikan kepada harga, jenama, kualiti, jaminan, fungsi dan reka bentuk akhirnya
dapat mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian mereka.
3. Sorotan Literatur
Konsep jalinan antara medium menjelaskan bahawa kefahaman pengguna terbina daripada satu
medium ke medium yang lain. Bermula daripada medium asas pengiklanan iaitu risalah, jalinan
antara medium turut memperlihatkan pengaruh media sosial, rakan-rakan, perniagaan alternatif
dan perniagaan sasaran sebagai medium maklumat kepada pengguna berkenaan produk. Risalah
adalah medium pengiklanan yang biasa digunakan oleh sesebuah perniagaan khususnya
perniagaan perkomputeran dalam menyampaikan maklumat berkenaan produk kepada pengguna
(Seymour, 2006). Bermaksud, ia adalah medium pengiklanan terawal yang diterima pengguna
yang menyediakan asas mengenai produk. Keterbatasan ciri-ciri kekayaan yang dimilikinya
menyebabkan wujud tekanan ketidakpastian (Daft dan Lengel, 1984) yang memerlukan pengguna
untuk menjalinkannya dengan medium-medium yang lain. Dalam fasa perkembangan teknologi
16
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
hari ini, kecenderungan pengguna untuk membina pengetahuan mengenai suatu produk
kebanyakannya terarah kepada medium secara atas talian khususnya media sosial.
Media sosial adalah rangkaian internet yang terdiri daripada Facebook, Instagram, blog, Twitter
dan sebagainya yang sentiasa menjadi rujukan individu dalam pelbagai perkara (Hoffman dan
Novak, 2012). Kefahaman pengguna mengenai produk boleh terbina melalui maklumat yang
dikongsikan oleh perniagaan perkomputeran lain dan perkongsian pengalaman dalam kalangan
pengguna internet. Berdasarkan kepada hierarki kekayaan media, medium atas talian seperti
Facebook emel dan laman web berkeupayaan rendah dalam mengurangkan tekanan
ketidakpastian (Simon dan Peppas, 2004; Manda dan McQueen, 2013; Yue, 2014). Apatah lagi, ia
sering dikaitkan dengan isu kredibiliti yang mana akan mempengaruhi tahap kepercayaan
pengguna. Ini memperlihatkan bahawa pengguna memerlukan jalinan daripada rangkaian medium
lain yang dapat menyokong proses pengukuhan kefahaman dengan lebih baik. Rakan-rakan
adalah individu terdekat dengan pengguna yang mempunyai keterikatan dari sudut emosi dan
sosial yang mempengaruhi kepercayaan dan keputusan pengguna terhadap produk (Chi-Lun,
2014). Komunikasi antara pengguna dengan rakan-rakan boleh berlaku sama ada secara
bersemuka atau atas talian. Kefahaman pengguna terbina apabila rakan-rakan memberi isyarat
sosial kepada pengguna iaitu melalui perkongsian maklumat, pandangan dan pengalaman
mengenai produk. Isyarat sosial oleh medium rakan-rakan ini juga akan membentuk persepsi
pengguna terhadap produk yang mana akan mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian mereka
(Thorson dan Rodgers, 2010).
Walau bagaimanapun, maklumat daripada medium rakan-rakan ini hanya berdasarkan kepada
pengalaman dan pengetahuan asas mereka mengenai produk. Pengguna yang masih tidak jelas
ketidakpastiannya terdorong untuk mendapatkan spesifikasi produk dengan lebih terperinci
melalui perniagaan alternatif iaitu perniagaan lain di dalam pasaran yang menawarkan produk
dalam satu kategori yang sama. Carian maklumat melalui perniagaan alternatif adalah tindakan
pengguna untuk membina keyakinan sebelum membuat keputusan pembelian dengan perniagaan
sasaran. Perniagaan sasaran merujuk kepada perniagaan yang mengiklankan produk melalui
risalah yang diterima pengguna. Komunikasi bersemuka antara pengguna dengan perniagaan
alternatif dan perniagaan sasaran akan menjelaskan ketidakpastian melalui penilaian terhadap
produk secara langsung dengan berasaskan kepada pengetahuan dan kefahaman yang telah terbina
melalui jalinan antara medium sebelumnya. Hierarki kekayaan menunjukkan komunikasi
bersemuka mempunyai tahap kekayaan tertinggi kerana ciri-ciri kekayaannya membolehkan
ketidakpastian pengguna dijelaskan dalam masa yang singkat (Daft dan Lengel, 1984).
4. Metodologi Kajian
Kajian berbentuk tinjauan keratan rentas (cross-sectional) ini dijalankan melalui edaran borang
soal selidik kepada responden. Berdasarkan teknik persampelan bertujuan (purposive sampling),
sebanyak 80 borang kaji selidik telah diedarkan kepada pengguna yang membeli produk
17
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
perkomputeran di gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan. Daripada jumlah itu, hanya 75 borang soal
selidik sahaja yang lengkap untuk dianalisis iaitu 35 dari gerai jualan dan 40 dari premis
perniagaan.
Instrumen kajian dibangunkan berdasarkan kepada konsep kekayaan media dan tingkah laku
pembelian pengguna. Bahagian pertama dalam borang soal selidik bertujuan untuk mendapatkan
maklumat demografi responden. Bahagian kedua adalah untuk meneroka tingkah laku pembelian
responden. Manakala, bahagian ketiga bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti pengaruh jalinan antara
medium terhadap pengukuhan kefahaman dan keputusan pembelian pengguna. Persoalan
berbentuk kedudukan (ranking) diaplikasikan yang memerlukan responden untuk menentukan
tahap keutamaan bagi medium maklumat dan faktor ketidakpastian. Hanya persoalan mengenai
pengaruh medium terhadap keputusan pembelian responden yang menggunakan skala Likert tujuh
tahap (1=sangat tidak mempengaruhi, 7=sangat mempengaruhi).
Analisis statistik deskriptif dijalankan melalui perisian IBM SPSS Statistics 21.0 untuk
memperihalkan maklumat demografi responden, pengaruh jalinan antara medium dan faktor
ketidakpastian responden mengenai produk. Jantina responden diperihalkan dalam bentuk
kekerapan dan peratus manakala, umur diperihalkan dalam bentuk nilai min dan sisihan piawai.
Bagi persoalan yang berbentuk kedudukan, kekerapan dan peratusan digunakan untuk
menentukan jumlah skor tertinggi. Jumlah skor akan menentukan tahap keutamaan bagi medium
maklumat, jalinan antara medium yang mengukuhkan kefahaman responden dan faktor
ketidakpastian responden mengenai produk.
5. Hasil Kajian
5.1 Profil Demografi

Sebanyak 75 borang soal selidik telah dijawab oleh responden yang membeli produk
perkomputeran dengan 35 daripadanya diperolehi di gerai pameran manakala baki 40 di premis
perniagaan. Daripada jumlah itu, 28 orang (37.3%) adalah lelaki dan 47 orang (62.7%) adalah
perempuan dengan purata umur adalah 25 tahun. Pembelian di gerai pameran menunjukkan
majoriti pengguna membeli produk pencetak (60%) berbanding produk komputer (40%).
Manakala, pembelian di premis perniagaan menunjukkan majoriti pembelian melibatkan produk
komputer (67.5%) berbanding produk pencetak (32.5%).
5.2 Medium Maklumat Pengguna

Medium maklumat pengguna menjelaskan tentang bagaimana jalinan antara medium dapat
menyediakan informasi kepada pengguna mengenai produk. Jadual 1 menunjukkan medium yang
menjadi keutamaan pengguna untuk mendapatkan informasi mengenai produk perkomputeran di
gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan. Hasil analisis menunjukkan jalinan antara risalah, perniagaan
sasaran dan perniagaan alternatif berpengaruh sebagai medium yang menyediakan informasi
kepada pengguna yang membeli produk perkomputeran di gerai jualan. Manakala pengetahuan
18
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
pengguna yang membeli di premis perniagaan disokong oleh jalinan antara medium rakan-rakan,
media sosial dan perniagaan sasaran.
Jadual 1: Medium Maklumat Pengguna Mengikut Keutamaan

Gerai Jualan Premis Perniagaan
Tahap R MS Rk PA PS R MS Rk PA PS
Keutamaan (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 62.9 2.9 5.7 11.4 14.3 5.0 12.5 50.0 7.5 25.0
2 28.6 11.4 8.6 2.9 48.6 2.5 35.0 27.5 10.0 22.5
3 8.6 5.7 28.6 40.0 17.1 2.5 32.5 17.5 20.0 40.0
4 - 17.1 48.6 22.9 8.6 10.0 15.0 5.0 50.0 7.5
5 - 62.9 8.6 22.9 8.6 80.0 5.0 - 12.5 5.0
1=Keutamaan tinggi, 5=Keutamaan rendah; R=Risalah; MS=Media sosial; Rk=Rakan; PA=Perniagaan alternatif;
PS=Perniagaan sasaran.
5.3 Faktor Ketidakpastian dan Medium Pengukuhan Kefahaman Pengguna

Ketidakpastian pengguna mengenai produk akan mempengaruhi pertimbangannya dalam
membuat keputusan. Jadual 2 menunjukkan faktor ketidakpastian terhadap ciri-ciri produk yang
menjadi keutamaan pengguna. Analisis deskriptif menunjukkan faktor harga produk menjadi
keutamaan pengguna yang membeli produk perkomputeran di gerai jualan diikuti oleh fungsi dan
kualiti produk. Dapatan yang hampir serupa turut diperolehi daripada pengguna yang membeli di
premis perniagaan di mana, keutamaan tertumpu kepada harga produk diikuti oleh kualiti dan
fungsi produk.
Jadual 2: Faktor Ketidakpastian Pengguna Terhadap Produk

Tahap H Jn K J F Rk H Jn K J F Rk
Keutamaan (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%)
1 51.4 5.7 22.9 5.7 17.1 - 45.0 5.0 35.0 - 15.0 -
2 25.7 8.6 22.9 5.7 37.4 - 25.0 7.5 37.5 12.5 15.0 2.5
3 17.1 17.1 40.0 8.6 14.3 2.9 12.5 25.0 15.0 12.5 30.0 5.0
4 2.9 40.0 11.4 22.9 20.0 8.6 10.0 15.0 12.5 27.5 20.0 15.0
5 2.9 20.0 2.9 48.6 5.7 14.3 7.5 12.5 - 17.5 17.5 45.0
6 - 8.6 - 8.6 5.7 74.3 - 35.0 - 30.0 2.5 32.5
1=Keutamaan tinggi, 6=Keutamaan rendah; H=Harga; Jn=Jenama; K=Kualiti; J=Jaminan; F=Fungsi; Rk=Reka
bentuk
Jadual 3 menunjukkan pengaruh medium yang dapat mengukuhkan kefahaman pengguna

mengenai produk secara khusus. Analisis terhadap pengguna yang membeli di gerai jualan
19
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
mendapati ketidakpastian pengguna berkenaan harga dan jenama produk diperkukuhkan oleh
jalinan antara perniagaan sasaran, risalah dan perniagaan alternatif. Manakala, jalinan antara
perniagaan sasaran, perniagaan alternatif dan rakan-rakan mengukuhkan kefahaman pengguna
dari sudut jaminan, fungsi dan reka bentuk produk. Bagi pengguna yang membeli di premis
perniagaan, ketidakpastian dari sudut harga, jenama, kualiti, jaminan, fungsi dan reka bentuk
produk telah diperkukuhkan oleh maklumat yang diperolehi melalui jalinan antara perniagaan
sasaran, rakan-rakan dan perniagaan alternatif
Jadual 3: Medium Pengukuhan Kefahaman Pengguna Mengenai Produk

R MS Rk PA PS R MS Rk PA PS
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Harga 54.3 25.7 28.6 37.1 57.1 20.0 17.5 42.5 15.0 62.5
Jenama 31.4 17.1 31.4 37.1 51.4 10.0 17.5 45.0 30.0 62.5
Kualiti 37.1 8.6 45.7 31.4 71.4 - 7.5 47.5 42.5 72.5
Jaminan 17.1 5.7 34.3 42.9 68.6 - - 7.5 27.5 87.5
Fungsi 20.0 20.0 40.0 42.9 62.9 2.5 15.0 55.0 37.5 85.0
Reka bentuk 11.4 17.1 40.0 51.4 54.3 7.5 15.0 45.0 32.5 70.0
R=Risalah; MS=Media sosial; Rk=Rakan; PA=Perniagaan alternatif; PS=Perniagaan sasaran.
5.4 Pengaruh Medium Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Pengguna

Pengaruh jalinan antara medium dalam menyampaikan maklumat mengenai produk
mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian pengguna. Skala Likert tujuh tahap (1=sangat tidak
mempengaruhi, 7=sangat mempengaruhi) diaplikasikan untuk mengukur pengaruh medium
maklumat terhadap keputusan pembelian pengguna. Jadual 4 menunjukkan medium yang
mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian pengguna terhadap produk perkomputeran di gerai jualan
dan premis perniagaan. Perniagaan sasaran didapati menjadi medium utama yang mempengaruhi
keputusan pengguna di kedua-dua pusat pembelian. Walau bagaimanapun, medium seperti
perniagaan alternatif, rakan-rakan, media sosial dan risalah memperlihatkan pengaruh yang
berbeza terhadap pengguna yang membeli di gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan.
Jadual 4: Medium Berpengaruh Terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Pengguna

Medium Berpengaruh Purata Sisihan Purata Sisihan
Piawai Piawai
Perniagaan sasaran 0.608 6.48 0.716
6.57
Perniagaan alternatif 0.963 5.65 1.145
5.69
Rakan-rakan 0.769 5.70 1.091
20
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5.69
Risalah 5.63 0.690 3.65 1.350
Media sosial 3.37 0.690 4.75 1.296
5. Kesimpulan dan Cadangan
Secara keseluruhan, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti pengaruh jalinan antara beberapa
medium komunikasi terhadap tingkah laku dan keputusan pembelian pengguna. Dalam kemajuan
teknologi komunikasi masa kini, medium Internet khususnya media sosial adalah sumber
maklumat yang menjadi kebiasaan bagi seseorang pengguna. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan media
sosial adalah antara medium yang menjadi rujukan utama pengguna mengenai produk. Namun,
ciri-ciri kekayaannya tidak cukup untuk mengukuhkan pengetahuan dan kefahaman pengguna
mengenai produk secara khusus, selain tidak mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian pengguna.
Hasil analisis mendapati, jalinan antara perniagaan sasaran, perniagaan alternatif dan rakan-rakan
berperanan sebagai medium yang mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian pengguna yang membeli
di gerai jualan mahupun premis perniagaan. Jalinan antara medium ini didapati turut
mengukuhkan ketidakpastian pengguna di premis perniagaan dari sudut harga, jenama, kualiti,
jaminan, fungsi dan reka bentuk produk. Dapatan kajian ini mengukuhkan konsep yang
diketengahkan oleh MRT iaitu komunikasi secara bersemuka adalah medium yang mempunyai
hierarki kekayaan tertinggi berbanding medium-medium yang lain (Daft dan Lengel, 1986).
Justeru, dapat disimpulkan bahawa keputusan pengguna dalam pembelian produk perkomputeran
di gerai jualan dan premis perniagaan banyak dipengaruhi oleh jalinan antara medium yang
melibatkan komunikasi interpersonal secara bersemuka berbanding medium yang lain. Keputusan
pembelian yang berasaskan jalinan antara beberapa medium maklumat juga adalah lebih berkesan
berbanding keputusan yang hanya berasaskan satu medium maklumat sahaja. Kajian lanjutan
dicadangkan untuk melihat lain-lain medium secara terperinci dan mengukur kredibilitinya dalam
mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian seseorang pengguna.
6. Rujukan
Awais, M., Samin, T., dan Bilal, M., 2012. Valuable internet advertising and customer satisfaction
cycle (VIACSC). International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(1), pp. 375-80.
Chi-Lun, L., 2014. The impact of social cues and effectiveness in check-in advertising.
Kybernetes, [e-jurnal] 43(7). Didapati melalui: Laman web Perpustakaan Universiti Utara
Malaysia <http://www.lib.uum.edu.my/psb/> [Diakses 25 Disember 2014].
Cho, C., H., Phillips, J., R., Hageman, A., M., dan Patten, D., M., 2009. Media richness, user trust,
and perceptions of corporate social responsibility. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability
Journal, [e-jurnal] 22(6). Didapati melalui: Laman web Perpustakaan Universiti Utara Malaysia
<http://www.lib.uum.edu.my/psb/> [Diakses 28 November 2014].
21
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Daft, R., L., dan Lengel, R., H., 1984. Information richness: A new approach to managerial
behavior and organization design. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in
Organizational Behavior, 6, pp. 191-233. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Dickinson, T., M., 2012. An inefficient choice: An empirical test of media richness and electronic
propinquity. DEd. Ohio State University. Didapati di: <https://etd.ohiolink.edu/> [Diakses 30
Disember 2014].
Gluck, M., dan Bruner., R., E., 2005. The evolution of rich media advertising: Current market
trends, success metrics and best practices. [pdf] New York: DoubleClick. Didapati di:
<static.googleusercontent.com/media/> [Diakses 3 Januari 2015].
Hamilton, S., F., Richards, T., J., dan Stiegert, K., W., 2013. How does advertising affect market
performance? A Note on generic advertising. Economic Inquiry, 51(2), [atas talian] Didapati di
<http://ssrn.com/abstract=2225672> [Diakses 3 May 2015].
Hoffman, D. L. dan Novak, T. P., 2012. Why do people use social media? Empirical findings and
a new theoretical framework for social media goal pursuit. Research Supported by The National
Science Foundation, [atas talian] Didapati di <http://ssrn.com/abstract=1989586> [Diakses 28
Oktober 2013].
Huang, W., T., dan Ho, H., F., 2015. Media effectiveness on comodity purchase behavior of
university student in Taiwan. Asian Social Science, 11(4), pp. 378-85.
Liu, J., Rau., P., L., P., dan Wendler, N., 2014. Trust and online information-sharing in close
relationships: a cross-cultural perspective. Behaviour & Information Technology, [e-jurnal].
Didapati melalui: Laman web Perpustakaan Universiti Utara Malaysia
Mandal, D., dan McQueen, R., J., 2013. Extending media richness theory to explain social media
adoption by microbusinesses. Te Kura Kete Aronui, [atas talian] Didapati di <http://
www.waikato.ac.nz> [Diakses 19 November 2014].
Martz, W., B., dan Reddy, V., K., 2005. Looking for indicators of media richness theory in
distance education. Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
Hawaii, 3-6 January 2005. United State. IEEE.
Otondo, R., F., Van Scotter, J., R., Allen, D., G., dan Palvia., P., 2008. The complexity of
richness: Media, message, and communication outcomes. Information & Management, 40(2008),
pp. 21-30.
Pavlou, P., A., dan Stewart, D., W., 2010. Measuring the effects and effectiveness of interactive
advertising: A research agenda. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 1(1), pp. 62-78.
22
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Rockmann, K., W., dan Northcraft, G., B., 2008. To be or not to be trusted: The influence of media
richness on defection and deception. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
[atas talian] 107(2008),
Didapati di: <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597808000149> pp.
106-122.
Schoon, M., dan van Velzen, C., 2008. Rich media effect: Three theories reviewed based upon 3D
advertising. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 1(6).
Seymour, T., 2006. How to advertise with flyers? Small Business Articles, [atas talian] Didapati
di: < http://www.smallbusinessbrief.com> [Diakses 10 May 2015].
Sheer, V., C., 2011. Teenagers Use of MSN Features, Discussion Topics, and Online Friendship
Development: The Impact of Media Richness and Communication Control. Communication
Quarterly, [e-jurnal] 59(1). Didapati melalui: Laman web Perpustakaan Universiti Utara Malaysia
Simon, S., J., dan Peppas, S., C., 2004. An examination of media richness theory in product web
site design: an empirical study. Info, 6(4), pp. 270-81.
Thorson, K., S., dan Rodgers, S., 2010. Relationships between blogs as eWOM and interactivity,
perceived interactivity, and parasocial interaction. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 6(2), pp.
34-44.
Yue, Z., Z., 2014. Which will you choose, email or WeChat? Media richness, social presense,
self-esteem and media preference among Chinese young people. DEd. Chinese University of
Hong Kong. Didapati di: <pg.com.cuhk.edu.hk/pgp_nm/projects/2014/YUEzhiying> [Diakses 22
November 2014].
23
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Impact of Wage Structure on Industrial Competitiveness

Joko Susantoa, Purwiyantab
a
UPN Veteran Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia
Email: jk.susanto.68@gmail.coma, purwiyanta@gmail.comb
Abstract
There is an indirect relation between wage structure and industrial competitiveness. The
wage structure reflects wage dispersion among worker in the firm or industry, and
determines worker productivity. Furthermore, worker productivity determines industrial
competitiveness. The impact of wage structure, measured by wage dispersion, on worker
productivity is ambiguous. Based on tournament model, an increase of wage dispersion
leads to an increase of worker productivity. Conversely, in the perspective of fair wage
effort hypothesis, higher wage dispersion is followed by lower worker productivity. This
study analysis the impact of wage structure on Indonesia industrial competitiveness
through worker productivity as intervening variable. The industrial workers includes both
blue collar worker and white collar worker. This study uses secondary data published by
Statistics Indonesia. In the first equation, we regress labor productivity on wage dispersion
and institutional variabel. Hereafter, in the second equation, we regress industrial
competitiveness on fitted value of labor productivity and infrastructure. The results show
that for blue collar workers, there is a negative impact of wage dispersion on labor
productivity so its impact on industrial competitiveness is also negative. However, for
white collar workers, wage dispersion has a positive impact on labor productivity and
industrial competitiveness.
Keywords : wage, structure, dispersion, industrial, competitiveness
1. Introduction
The influence of pay systems on workers productivity is discussed recently in labor economics.
Workers effort not only determined by wage but also by relative wage (Lallemand et al., 2004).
Relative wages are considered play a key role in determining workers effort. Workers
compare their wages with those of their co-worker. Relative wage is reflected on wage structure
that describe the level of job and pay ranges. Wage dispersion depict a schedule of wage
differentials among jobs in a firm or an industry.
There is an impact of wage dispersion on worker effort. If wage dispersion is perceived as fair so
workers would respond it by higher effort, and vice versa. Workers realize that wages will vary
according to the job. But the problem is whether a wage structure considered as fair. In line
with wage dispersion, there is no clear theoretical consensus on the characteristics of this
relationship. There are two theoretical framework, tournament model and fair wage effort
hypothesis, discuss the impact of wage dispersion on workerseffort. The tournament model
24
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
stresses that a more differentiated wage structure stimulates workers effort. Workers competed
each other in order to get largest award so the higher the pay spread, the higher the workers
effort. Conversely, the fair wage effort hypothesis argue that wage compression reinforces
worker by improving labor relations and stimulating cohesiveness among workers (Mahy et
al., 2009).
A growing research is devoted recently to analyzing the relationship between wage dispersion
and industrial competitiveness. Industrial competitiveness is depend on labor productivity, and
then the latter is determined by wage dispersion. There is no clear theoretical consensus on the
characteristics of the relationship between wage structure and labor productivity (Martin, 2008),
therefore the impact of wage structure on industrial competitiveness still remains unclear as both
negative impact or positive impact are suggested (Mahy et al., 2009). Studies analyzing this
relationship might be influenced by specific industrial environment. Therefore the impact of
wage structure on industrial competitiveness will vary according to industry.
Meanwhile, the impact of wage structure on industrial competitiveness will also vary according
to type of workers. Industrial workers consist of blue collar and white collar workers. A
blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs manual labor. They are involve both
skilled and unskilled labor such as worker under supervisor, supervisor, and experts. In contrast,
the white-collar workers performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a
computer or desk. White collar involve administration staff, sales staff, accountant and manajer.
Blue collar and white collar face a different environment, therefore they can respond differently
to wage structure.
If the wage structure, reflected by wage dispersion, is perceived as fair then workers respond it
by higher effort. Higher effort will be followed by higher productivity. Productivity is a key
factor that determined industrial competitiveness. With higher productivity, a firm or an industry
can produce some goods by lower cost, therefore increase their competitiveness. They have an
ability to face competition and to be successful when facing competition. They can sell products
that meet demand requirements (price, quality, quantity) and, at the same time, ensure profits
over time that enable the firm to thrive (Latruffe, 2010). Then, the problem is which the wage
structure do workers want; the tournament model or the fair wage hypothesis model. This paper
want to analyze the relationship between wage structure and industrial competitiveness, and to
examine whether this relationship varies across different working environments
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the literature regarding
the relationship between wage dispersion and industrial competitiveness. We describe our
methodology in Section 3. Section 4 reviews the empirical results and analyze the impact of
wage dispersion on labor productivity and industrial competitiveness. Section 6 concludes.
2. Literature Review
25
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Based on neoclassical economics, it is developed a wage structure called tournament model. In

order to maintain company efficiency, employers pay the wage as high as value marginal product.
This framework assumes that workers has no emotion, and then like the other input, he receive
wage as high as his value marginal product. Wage will vary according to workers productivity.
Highly productive firms pay largest wages to their most productive workers, which in turn leads
to more wage dispersion. This model points out that a more differentiated wage structure
stimulates workers effort through the incentive resulting from awarding the largest prize to the
most productive workers (Heyman, 2005).
The introduction of performance-related pay systems typically leads to an increase in wages

dispersion. This result is due to the fact that there is a greater underlying variation in the
individual endowments that determine worker performance (Belfield and Marsden, 2003). High
wage dispersion lead to a high competition among worker which in turn has a negative impact
on company competitiveness. Some workers fell they are treated unfair and tend to do
uncooperative behavior. High wage differential motivate to make a worker look good or to make
a colleague look bad neither of which is support company performance. Unwillingness of
workers to cooperate hamper a company effort to increase its competitiveness.
To minimize uncooperative behavior, employer must reduce pay differential. This is the
theoretical argument of fair wage effort hypothesis stated by Edward Lazear. This framework
point out that workers effort not only depend on wage but also on relative wage that depict
wage distribution in a company or an industry. Workers will reduce their effort if their wage is
perceived unfair. Wage is considered as fair if the pay spread is lower than the performance
differential. Lazear points out that a compressed wage structure should be preferred when the
initial incentive effect of a performance-related pay system is offset by a lower degree of work
cohesion due to the sabotage behavior of some workers (Mahy et al, 2009). Pay compression
within a company is essential when the job must be done by a team work. In this case, lower
wage dispersion stimulate cohesiveness among worker which in turn increase the company
performance.
Another important issue is whether the relationship between wage dispersion and labor
productivity depends on the industrial relations regime. Unions tend to reduce the use of
pay-for-performance mechanisms (and wage dispersion) because of the increased risk of
discrimination and the greater solidarity between workers (Lemieux et al, 2009). In line with the
stipulation of The Republic of Indonesia Act Number 13 Year 2003 Concerning Manpower,
there is an effort to secure the implementation of equal opportunity and equal treatment. The
wage structure compress wage differential so there is a lower wage dispersion. Workers consider
that wage structure is fair and respond it by increasing their effort.
There is no clear theoretical consensus on the relationship between wage structure and
productivity so the impact of wage structure on industrial competitiveness still remains unclear
26
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
as both a negative impact or a positive impact. Wage leveling within workplaces and industry
may enhance productivity (Hibb and Locking, 2000). There is a positive relationship between
wage inequality and firm performance. Moreover, the intensity of this relationship is stronger for
blue-collar workers and within firms with a high degree of monitoring. These findings confirm
the tournament models than with the fairness, morale and cohesiveness models (Lallemand et
al, 2004). But some researchers find different results that support fair wage effort hypothesis
rather than tournament model. This result states that large dispersion of wage within firms is
generally connected with low firm performance (Grund and Nielson, 2008). When the wage
structure study focuses on low or high skill worker only, there is a different results. For
high-skilled workers, wage paid according to performance than their low-skilled counterparts
because the former might increase their productivity more easily than the latter.
3. Methodology
The secondary data published by Indonesian Statistics is used in this research. Data involves
wage dispersion, labor productivity, industrial competitiveness and infrastructure in Indonesia
during 2001-2013. The data is supplemented by institutional factor i.e. The Republic of
Indonesia Act Number 13 Year 2003 Concerning Manpower. The industrial data cover four
manufacturing industries including food, textile, ceramic and basic metal, and, paper and
chemical. Wage structure involves wage dispersion for blue collar and white collar worker. For
blue collar worker, wage structure is measured by the difference between wage of experts and
worker below supervisor, meanwhile for white collar worker, wage structure is measured by the
difference between wage of manager and administration staff. Furthermore, labor productivity is
expressed as the ratio of output to the number of employee. The ratio of value added to the
number of employee is used as proxy for industrial competitiveness. As a proxy for
infrastructure, we used the length of road per 1,000 km2 land area. Then, the Act Number 13
Year 2003 Concerning Manpower is used for dummy variable that takes on the values 1 and 0; 1
refers the period of time after 2003 and 0 refers otherwise.
The data covers four industry during 2001-2013, and known as panel data. The panel data is
a data sets that combine time series and cross sections. This data sets provide rich sources of
information about the economy. Panel data give more informative data, more variability, less
collinearity among the variables, more degrees of freedom and more efficiency (Baltagi, 2003).
It is crucial in panel framework to decide which of the two estimators, fixed effects or random
effects models will be used. The Hausman specification test is usually used to decide whether
to use fixed effects or random effects model. A rejection of the null hypothesis leads to the
adoption of fixed effects model, and vice versa.
First, this paper examines the response of wage structure to a change of labor productivity.
Therefore, in the first equation, we regress wage structure on labor productivity and the Act
27
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Number 13 Year 2003 Concerning Manpower as dummy variabel. The first equation can be
written in dynamic panel data as follows:
k k k
Yit 1it 2ijYit j 3ij X 1,it j 4ij ACTit eit (1)
j 1 j 0 j 1
Where Y represent labour productivity, X1 and ACT respectively represent wage structure and the
Act Number 13 Year 2003 Concerning Manpower.
Second, this study want to examine the effects of wage structure on industrial competiveness
through labor productivity as intervening variable. Thus the effect of wage structure on industrial
competitiveness will depend on its effect on the labor productivity. In the second equation, we
regress industrial performance on wage structure, fitted value of labor productivity and
infrastructure. The second equation can be written in dynamic panel data as follows:
k k k k
Qit 1i 2ijQit j 3 X 1,it j 4ij X 3,it j 5ijYit j it (2)
j 1 j 1 j 0 j 1
Where Q represent industrial competitiveness, where as X3 and Y respectively represent

infrastructure and labor productivity.
4. Empirical Results and Discussion
1. Impact of Wage Structure on Labour Productivity
In line with co-integration principle, we use the Pedroni co-integration test to examine whether
there is a co-integration relationship among variables in the model. The results show that the null
hypothesis of no co-integration can be rejected (Table 1). Therefore, there is a long run
relationship between wage structure and labor productivity both for blue collar and white collar.
Likewise to the first results, the second result also exhibits a long run relationship among wage
structure, labor productivity, infrastructure and industrial competitiveness. This cointegration
implies that the variables have a stable long-run (equilibrium) relation and any deviation from
this relation reflected just short-run (temporary) disequilibrium.
In order to obtain parsimonious model, we use lag length selection criteria based on Akaikes
Information Criteria (Liew, 2004). Both for blue collar and white collar, the optimum lag length is 1
year. Furthermore, in this case we cannot apply Hausman specification test because random
effects estimation requires the number of cross section exceed the number of coefficient.
Therefore, we assume that fixed effects model is an appropriate model. Then, based on
estimation of the fixed effects model and reduction to insignificant parameters, we obtain a
parsimony model (Table 2).
28
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 1: The Results of Pedroni Cointegration Test (Labour Productivity Model)

Statistic Panel Blue Collar White Collar
Statistic Prob. Statistic Prob.
Panel v-Statistic 6.026* 0.000 1.958* 0.025
Panel rho-Statistic 0.641 1.078 0.859
0.359
Panel PP-Statistic -2.474* 0.007 -2.452* 0.007
Panel ADF-Statistic -2.233* 0.013 -1.840* 0.033
Group rho-Statistic 0.812 1.071 0.858
0.887
Group PP-Statistic -12.565* 0.000 -13.078* 0.000
Group ADF-Statistic -2.376* 0.009 -4.629* 0.000
*significant at 5%
Table 2: Wage Structure and Labor Productivity : OLS Results

Coefficient Prob. Coefficient Prob.
Intercept 72.285* 0.000 -6.348 0.891
Labor Productivity t-1 0.901* 0.000 0.000
0.898*
Wage Structure t-1 -0.001* 0.007 -0.076 0.104
Act No. 13/2003 22.847* 0.000 13.982 0.670
Wage Structure t 0.028
0.102*
Adjusted R2 0.958 0.964
*significant at 5%
For blue collar, all of regression coefficients are statistically significant. This results show that if
the previous labor productivity increase by 1 million rupiahs, current labor productivity up by
0.901 million rupiahs (cetiris paribus). This means that these industry always improve their
labor productivity. Meanwhile, there is no impact of stipulation the Act No. 13/2003 on labor
productivity. This is indicate that stipulation this Act does not implement optimally. This is,
probably, due to the completion of government regulations as a further elaboration of the Act
No. 13/2003.
Furthermore, there is a negative impact of wage structure on labor productivity. An increase in

wage dispersion, leads to a decline in labor productivity. An increase in wage dispersion by 1
thousand rupiahs, on average, labour productivity down by 0.001 million rupiahs. For blue
collar workers, the job usually must be done by a team work so pay compression within a
29
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
company is essential to increase cohesiveness among workers. Higher wage dispersion deters
industrial relations and hamper cohesiveness among workers which in turn decline labor
productivity. Higher wage differential leave a group of workers dissatisfied with their relative
wage, and then can results in unwanted behavior. Wage structure that suitable for blue collar
workers must be designed based on fairness consideration. In line with the finding of Grund and
Nielson (2004), this result support fair wage effort hypothesis rather than tournament model.
Large dispersion of wage within firms is associated with low labor productivity.
On the other hand, for white collar model there is only two explanatory variables that
statistically significant. The previous wage structure and Act No. 13/2003 has no impact on labor
productivity. The previous wage structure that not significant indicate that white collar workers
directly respond to a change of wage structure. Furthermore, the stipulation of the Act No.
13/2003 has no impact on labor productivity, and this is probably due to the completion of
government regulations as a further elaboration of the Act No. 13/2003. The coefficient of
previous labor productivity is positive and significant. This means that if the previous labor
productivity increase by 1 million rupiahs, current labor productivity up by 0.898 million rupiahs
(cetiris paribus). This condition implies that these industry always improve their labor
productivity.
Unlike blue collar workers, for white collar workers the current wage dispersion has a positive
impact on labor productivity. Higher wage dispersion lead to an increase of labor productivity.
An increase in wage dispersion by 1 thousand rupiahs, on average, labour productivity up by
0.102 million rupiahs (cetiris paribus).This result suggest that for white collar workers, a
differentiated wage structure is good for labor productivity. The wage structure that suitable for
white collar worker is performance-related pay systems. Employers stimulates workers effort
through the incentive resulting from awarding the largest prize to the most productive worker. It
encourages workers to perform better than their peers in order to increase their earnings. This
empirical result supports the finding of Hibb and Locking (2000) that wage leveling within
workplaces and industry may enhance productivity.
2.Impact of Labour Productivity on Industrial Competitiveness

By applying Pedroni panel co-integration test, we check whether the variables have a long
run relationship or not. The result give strong evidence that the null hypothesis of no
co-integration can be rejected so these variables have a long run equilibrium (Table 3). A
deviation from this relation, if any, reflected just short-run (temporary) disequilibrium.
Table 3: The Results of Pedroni Cointegration Test (Industrial Competitiveness Model)

Statistic Prob. Statistic Prob.
Panel v-Statistic 1.822* 0.034 1.216 0.112
30
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Panel rho-Statistic -0.077 0.469 -0.068 0.473

Panel PP-Statistic -1.345 0.089 -3.143* 0.001
Panel ADF-Statistic -1.637* 0.050 -2.736* 0.003
Group rho-Statistic 0.151 0.559 1.088 0.862
Group PP-Statistic -1.912* 0.028 -3.832* 0.000
Group ADF-Statistic -2.015* 0.022 -3.059* 0.001
*significant at 5%
Furthermore, lag selection is crucial issue in the dynamic modeling. Model with too long lag
can lead to diminish degree of freedom, where as model with too short lag can lead to a miss
specified model. In order to obtain optimum lag, we apply Akaikes Information Criteria (Liew,
2004). Based on this criteria, the optimum lag length is 1 year. In this case, however, Hausman
test cannot be applied because random effects estimation requires number of cross section
exceed number of coefficient. Therefore, we assume that fixed effects model is an appropriate
model. Based on estimation of the fixed effects model, we apply redundant variables test to
obtain a parsimony model as follow (Table 4).
Table 4: Wage Structure and Industrial Competitiveness with Labor Productivity as

Intervening Variable : OLS Results
Coefficient Prob. Coefficient Prob.
Intercept -125.159* 0.014 -98.96* 0.002
Industrial Competitiveness t-1 0.744* 0.000 0.776* 0.000
Labor Productivity t-1 (Fitted) 0.142* 0.050 0.084* 0.050
Wage Structure t 0.005 0.486
Wage Structure t-1 -0.013 0.380
Infrastructure t 5.443* 0.038 3.951* 0.004
Adjusted R2 0.971
0.925
*significant at 5%
Table 4 show that both for blue collar and white collar model all variables included in the model
are statistically significant, except wage structure. This is indicate that there is an indirect
relationship between wage structure and industrial competitiveness. The wage structure has
direct impact on worker productivity, then the later act as intervening variable. In the blue collar
worker, the coefficient of previous industrial competitiveness is about 0.744. It means that an
increase in the previous industrial competitiveness of 1 million rupiahs, on average, leads to
about 0.744 million rupiahs increase in current industrial competitiveness. This condition
exhibits that there is a continuous improvement in the industrial sector. Further, infrastructure
has a positive impact on industrial competitiveness. An increase in the length of road by 1
kilometer (per 1,000 km2 land area), on average, industrial competitiveness goes up by 5.443
31
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
million rupiahs. Infrastructure accelerates industrial development so better infrastructure leads to

a higher industrial competitiveness.
Furthermore, in the blue collar worker model, labor productivity has a positive impact on
industrial competitiveness. An increase in labor productivity by 1 million rupiah, leads to an
increase in industrial competitiveness by 0.142 million rupiahs. Labour productivity is the
cornerstone of industrial competitiveness and the source of competitive advantage for company.
The labor productivity variable in second equation is a fitted value of labor productivity that
resulted in the first equation. For blue collar worker the impact of wage structure on labor
productivity is negative so its impact on industrial competitiveness is also negative. This means
that an increase of wage dispersion leads to a decline of industrial competitiveness through its
negative impact on labor productivity. This result support fair wage effort hypothesis and
confirm the study of Grund and Nielson (2004) that the large dispersion of wage within firms is
connected with low firm performance.
Meanwhile, the white collar model shows that wage structure has no direct impact on industrial
competitiveness. This means that there is an indirect impact of wage dispersion on industrial
competitiveness through labor productivity as intervening variable. Therefore, an increase in the
previous industrial competitiveness of 1 million rupiahs, on average, leads to about 0.776 million
rupiahs increase in current industrial competitiveness. The industry always makes a continuous
improvement. Furthermore, infrastructure has a positive impact on industrial competitiveness.
An increase in the length of road by 1 kilometer (per 1,000 km2 land area) leads to an increase of
industrial competitiveness by 3.951 million rupiahs.
Labor productivity has a positive impact on industrial competitiveness. An increase in labor

productivity by 1 million rupiah, leads to an increase in industrial competitiveness by 0.084
million rupiahs. Labour productivity is a source of competitive advantage. For white collar
worker, the impact of wage structure on labor productivity is positive as stated in the first
equation, so its impact on industrial competitiveness is also positive. An increase of wage
dispersion leads to an increase of industrial competitiveness through its positive impact on labor
productivity. Large dispersion of wage within firms is connected with high firm performance.
This finding support turnamen model and confirm the studies of Hibb and Locking (2000) that
wage leveling within workplaces and industry may enhance productivity.
5. Conclusion
There is an indirect relationship between wage structure, reflected by wage dispersion, and
industrial competitiveness. The impact of wage dispersion on industrial competitiveness depend
its impact on labor productivity. For blue collar worker, there is a negative impact of wage
dispersion on labor productivity. Higher wage dispersion leads to lower labor productivity, so its
impact on industrial competitiveness is also negative. Conversely, for white collar worker the
impact of wage dispersion on labor productivity is positive so its indirect impact on industrial
32
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
competitiveness is also positive. Higher wage dispersion indirectly leads to higher industrial
competitiveness. Based on these results, for blue collar worker, it is recommended to apply
fairness consideration in wage determination. However for white collar worker, employer must
apply a performance-related pay system.
6. References
Baltagi, Badi., H., 2003. Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, John Wiley and Sons.
Belfield, R and Marsden, D, 2003, Performance pay, monitoring environments, and
establishment performance. International Journal of Manpower, 24, pp 452-471.
Grund, C and Westergaard-Nielsen, N. 2008. The dispersion of employees wage increasesand
firm performance. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 61, pp 485-501.
Heyman, Fredrik, 2005. Pay Inequality and Firm Performance : Evidence From Matched
Employer-Employee Data, Applied Economics, 37, pp 1313-1327.
Hibbs, Douglas, Jr. dan Hakan Locking, 2000. Wage Dispersion and Productive Efficiency:
Evidence for Sweden, Journal of Labor Economics, 12, pp 775782.
Lallemand, Thierry, Robert Plasman and Franois Rycx, 2004. Intra-Firm Wage Dispersion and
Firm Performance: Evidence from Linked Employer-Employee Data, Kyklos, 57, pp
541-566.
Latruffe, L. 2010. Competitiveness, Productivity and Efficiency in the Agricultural and
Agri-Food Sectors, OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, No. 30, OECD
Publishing.
Liew, Venus KhimSen, 2004. "Which Lag Length Selection Criteria Should We Employ?."
Economics Bulletin, 33, pp 19.
Lemieux, T, MacLeod, B and Parent, D., 2009. Performance pay and wage inequality. The
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124, pp 1-49.
Mahy, B, F. Rycx and M. Volral, 2009. Wage Dispersion and Firm Productivity in Different
Working Environments, CEB Working Paper No. 09/012.
Martins, P., 2008, Dispersion in wage premiums and firm performance. Economics Letters, 101,
pp 63-65.
33
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Income Distribution and Environment: Empirical Evidence from Malaysia,
Indonesia and Singapore

Abdul Rahim Ridzuana*, Nor Asmat Ismailb, Abdul Fatah Che Hamatc,
Abu Hassan Shaari Mohd Nord, Elsadig Musa Ahmede
a
Faculty Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Melaka City Campus, Malaysia
aimaz84@yahoo.com
b,c
School of Social Science, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
norasmat@usm.my, abdfatah@usm.my
d
School of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi, Malaysia
ahassan@ukm.edu.my
e
Economics Unit, Faculty Business, Universiti Multimedia, Melaka, Malaysia
elsadig1965@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper examines the income distribution-environment nexus in the context of

country-specific time series data. The short run and long run effects of income inequality,
economic growth and energy consumption on CO2 emissions in Malaysia, Indonesia and
Singapore were examined by using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach. Annual
data for the period of 1971 2011 is used. The empirical findings based on ARDL and the
dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) indicate that more equitable income distribution results in
better environmental quality for Malaysia and Singapore. On the other hand, better income
distribution worsens the environmental quality in the case of Indonesia. It is also found that
domestic investment, trade openness and national income have beneficial effects on
environmental quality in Singapore whereas energy consumption has a detrimental effect on
pollution. As for Malaysia and Indonesia, most of the variables used in the model worsen the air
quality in these countries.
Keywords: Income distribution, ASEAN, ARDL
1. Introduction
The studies on environmental consequences of economic development also known by

environmental Kuznet curve (EKC) was one of the interesting topics that have been discussed by
many past researchers. Many countries are particularly interested in this area of studies due to
34
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
increasing concerns about the environmental degradation issues which cause global warming
through their greenhouse effects. Earlier studies done by Grossman and Kruger (1991), Syafiq
(1994), Agras and Chapman (1999) have proposed that there is an inverse U shaped relationship
between economic growth (GDP) and environmental quality (e.g CO2) in which environmental
quality worsens at low levels of income, and then improves as income increases. However, many
of these studies may suffer from the omitted variables bias because factors other than economic
growth could also be important determinants of environmental quality (Iwata et al, 2010; Kim
and Baek, 2011). In recent EKC literature, several new determinants are proposed such as
energy consumption, foreign direct investment and trade openness in addition to economic
growth or income (Jalil and Mahmud, 2009; Iwata et. al, 2010; Kim and Baek, 2011). However,
this list of new determinants does not include income distribution (inequality) as one of the
potential determinants of environmental quality. According to Torras and Boyce (1998), greater
income equality will lead to lower levels of environmental degradation. Boyce (1994) argued
that better income distribution will cause society to demand for better environmental quality.
Meanwhile, Heerink et al (2001) shows that redistributing income has a detrimental effect on the
environment. Thus, according to political economy argument, income inequality should be
included as one of the determinants when testing the EKC hypothesis. Most of the existing
studies applied panel data of a group of countries for their empirical analyses, however the
studies that adopted country-specific time series data to examine the effect of economic growth
on environment by including income distribution into the model is very limited. In this paper, we
attempt to extend the existing literature by re-examining income inequality-environment nexus
in the context of country specific time series data for Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. Table
1 below shows the trend for income distribution and level of pollution, CO2 for the respective
countries from 1980 to 2010.
Table 1 : GINI index and CO2 emission (metric ton percapita)

Malaysia Indonesia Singapore
GINI C02 GINI CO2 GINI CO2

Year
coefficient coefficient coefficient
1980 38.57 2.02 38.28 0.65 38.11 13.02
1985 42.04 2.29 48.85 0.74 38.65 12.21
1990 40.33 3.10 35.47 0.83 36.39 15.40
1995 38.05 5.84 47.17 1.15 35.38 13.36
2000 37.76 5.40 45.24 1.26 38.10 12.16
2005 37.9 6.86 34.3 1.52 47 7.11
2010 43 7.66 38 1.80 46 2.66
Source: University of Texas income Inequality Project (UTIP)
The country-specific analysis will enable us to capture and account for complexities of the
economic environment and its determinants in the respective countries, of which panel analysis
35
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
is unable to capture. Empirical focus is on the assessment of the short run and long run effects
tested using Autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach to co-integration developed by
Pesaran et al, (2001). Besides, the dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) introduced by
Saikkonen (1988) and Stock and Watson (1993) was tested to serve as a robustness check on
their long run relationship. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly
reviews the relevant literature, while Section 3 presents the model and describes the empirical
framework used in this analysis. Section 4 presents the sources of data. In section 5, the main
empirical findings are reported and elaborated. Finally, section 6 concludes the paper.
Literature examining pollution haven hypothesis for Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore based
on individual time series analysis are scarce. There are only few studies which tested this
hypothesis on these countries as a group of economies known as ASEAN (Association of South
East Asian Nations) countries using panel data estimation. Lee and Smyth (2010) tests EKC
hypothesis on ASEAN5 (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippine and Singapore) using panel
co-integration technique based on pooled sample. This study finds that the hypothesis is only
validated for ASEAN5 as a group but the evidence based on individual countries are varied.
With the exception of Philippines, no evidence of EKC is found for Malaysia, Singapore and
Thailand. In the case of Indonesia, income seems to increase monotonically with CO2 emissions.
Next, Narayan and Narayan (2010) argued that EKC hypothesis is not supported for developing
countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand. However, based on long run
relationship, the error correction term (ECT) for Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand are found to
be negative and significant, thus confirming the existence of long run relationships between
income and CO2. As a whole, while the income-CO2 emissions nexus is supported in general,
the EKC is not supported for ASEAN especially Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. Hossain
(2011) examined the relationship between CO2, energy consumption, economic growth, trade
openness and urbanization for a panel of nine newly industrialized countries that included
Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines. The outcome showed that income and energy consumption
have a significant long run impact on CO2 emissions in Thailand and Philippines. Based on
panel granger causality test, there is no long run causality between income, energy consumption
and CO2 emissions. However, in the short run, the causality runs from income to CO2
emissions. Based on country specific analysis on Malaysia, Ang (2008) finds that CO2 and
energy consumption are positively related to GDP in the long run. Besides, the granger causality
test shows that there is evidence of unidirectional causality running from GDP to energy
consumption in the long run.
3. The model
The empirical model used in this research is basically a modified version of theoretical
framework developed by Torras and Boyce (1998), Heerink et.al (2001) and Jungho Baek and
36
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Guankerwon Gweisah (2013), which is used to represent the long run relationship between CO2
emissions and its major determinants in a linear logarithmic form (LN) as follows:
LNCO2t = + 1LNGNIt-1 + 2LNIDt-1 + 3LNENt-1 + ut -----------------(1)
Income level (output) represented by GNI per capita are proxied in accordance with the United
Nations and the World Banks new measurement of national income known as gross national
product (GNP) per capita. Many past studies were unanimous in identifying income per capita as a
major predictor of pollution levels (Taludkar and Meisner, 2001 and Cole, 2004). None of the
studies on the determinants of pollution levels omitted income as an explanatory variable because
most of the expected environmental effects included the scale effect or simply the expansion of
economic output (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and development, OECD 2002).We
rearranged and extended the model by including another two determinants as follows:
LNCO2t = + 1LNGDIt-1 + 2LNTOt-1 + 3LNIDt-1 + 4LNGNIt-1 + 5LNENt-1 + ut ------(2)

CO2 emissions is measured in metric tons per capita; GDI is gross domestic investment (measured
in gross fixed capital formation); TO is trade openness (measured in trade share of GDP); ID is
income distribution (gini coefficient); GNI is gross national income per capita (2005=100) and EN
is energy consumption (measured in kg oil equivalent per capita).With respect to the signs of the
coefficient in equation (2), 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are expected to be positive. Finally, equation 2 is
transformed into Bound testing approach as follows:
LNCO2t = + =1 LNCO2t-i + =1 iLNGNIt-i + =1 iLNTOt-i + =1 i LNIDt-i
+ =1 i LNGNIt-i + =1 i LNENt-i + 0LNCO2t-1 + 1LNGDIt-1 + 2LNTOt-1 +
3LNIDt-1 + 4LNGNIt-1 + 5LNENt-1 + ut -----------------(3)

where is the first-difference operator, ut is a white-noise disturbance term. This final model can
also be viewed as an ARDL of order, (v s r q t p). The model indicates that in order for
environmental quality (CO2) to be influenced and explained by its past values, it it has to involve
other disturbances or shocks. From the estimation of ECMs, the long-run elasticities are the
coefficient of the one lagged explanatory variable (multiplied by a negative sign) divided by the
coefficient of the one lagged dependent variable (Bardsen, 1989). The long-run elasticities for
GDI, TO, ID, GNI and EN are (2 / 1), (3 / 1) , (4 / 1), (5 / 1) and (6 / 1) respectively.
The short-run effects are captured by the coefficients of the first-differenced variables. The null
hypothesis of no co-integration in the long run relationship, defined by: H0 : 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 =
5 = 6 = 0 is tested against the alternative of H1 : 1 2 3 4 5 6 0, by using the
familiar F-test. However, the asymptotic distribution of this F-statistics is non-standard
irrespective of whether the variables are I(0) or I(1). For a small sample size study ranging from 30
to 80 obervations, Narayan (2004) has tabulated two sets of appropriate critical values. One set
assumes all variables are I(1) and another assumes that they are all I(0).
Meanwhile, the DOLS methods extend equation (2) to include leads and lags of first differenced
non-stationary variables as
LNCO2t= +1LNGDIt + 2LNTOt + 3LNIDt + 4LNGNIt + 5LNENt +

=+ t-1+ ut--(4)
37
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
where X is a vector of included non-stationary variables. As mentioned earlier, the purpose of

running DOLS is to serve as robustness checking because the DOLS is able to provide control for
regressor endogeneity since ARDL tends to have regressor endogeneity problems.
4. Data
The annual data used in this studies covers the period from 1971 until 2011.The data span has
been chosen based on availability of the data for all series. The sources of data were collected
from World Development Indicator (WDI) 2015 released by World Bank. The GINI coefficient
is used as a proxy for income inequality and is obtained from University of Texas Income
Inequality Project (UTIP). The estimation was run by using the E-views version 9.
5. Empirical Results
The analysis began by performing unit root tests for all variables using data from Indonesia,
Malaysia and Singapore. The two types of unit root test used here are Augmented Dickey Fuller
(ADF) and Philipp Perron (PP). Table 2 shows a mix of stationarities at I(0) and I(1) for the
variables tested. ID for Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore were found to be stationary even at
level. Besides, Singapores GDI was also found to be stationary at level. Meanwhile, testing at
first difference using PP unit root test finds that all variables are stationary between 1 to 5%
significance levels. The mix of stationarities at both I(0) and I(1) confirms the suitability of the
model for further analysis using ARDL estimation technique.
Table 2: Results of ADF and PP unit root tests

Country Variable ADF test statistic PP test statistic
Intercept Trend and Intercept Trend and
intercept intercept
Indonesia Level LCO2 -1.557 (0) -2.975 (0) -2.086 (11) -2.777 (6)
LGDI -2.219 (1) -2.434 (1) -1.870 (1) -1.992 (1)
LTO -2.385 (0) -2.374 (0) -2.518 (4) -2.531 (4)
LID -2.179 (2) -3.147 (3) -6.815 (5)*** -10.853 (5)***
LGNI -0.868 (0) -2.505 (1) -0.856 (2) -2.281 (3)
LEN -0.910 (0) -1.392 (0) -0.938 (3) -1.417 (1)
First difference LCO2 -5.962 (0)*** -5.990 (0)*** -6.296 (9)*** -7.175 (11)***
LGDI -4.325 (0)*** -4.271 (0)*** -4.206 (6)*** -4.148 (6)**
LTO -8.078 (0)*** -7.988 (0)*** -8.256 (2)*** -8.184 (2)***
LID -17.052 (1)*** -16.945 (1)*** -19.589 (6)*** -19.613 (6)***
LGNI -4.950 (0)*** -4.905 (0)*** -4.920 (2)*** -4.917 (1)***
LEN -6.184 (0)*** -6.186 (0)*** -6.181 (2)*** -6.192 (3)***
Malaysia Level LCO2 -0.818 (0) -2.175 (0) -0.818 (0) -2.204 (2)
LGDI -2.261 (1) -2.343 (1) -1.924 (1) -1.821 (0)
38
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
LTO -0.814 (0) -1.37 (0) -0.804 (3) -1.370 (0)

LID -6.604 (0)*** -6.688 (0)*** -6.594 (2)*** -6.683 (2)***
LGNI -1.329 (0) -2.680 (1) -1.244 (2) -2.378 (2)
LEN -1.032 (0) -2.122 (0) -1.545 (11) -2.191 (1)
First difference LCO2 -7.535 (0)*** -7.455 (0)*** -7.522 (1)*** -7.445 (1)***
LGDI -4.494 (0)*** -4.494 (0)*** -4.429 (3)*** -4.361 (4)***
LTO -6.235 (0)*** -6.296 (0)*** -6.251 (5)*** -6.334 (6)***
LID -7.102 (2)*** -7.236 (2)*** -31.726 (38)*** -42.450 (23)***
LGNI -4.778 (0)*** -4.768 (0)*** -4.784 (1)*** -4.780 (1)***
LEN -6.630 (0)*** -6.718 (0)*** -6.973 (7)*** -9.632 (14)***
Singapore Level LCO2 2.29(2) 1.43(2) 1.19(3) -0.30(1)
LGDI -1.68(1) -2.75(1) -1.31(2) -2.11(1)
LTO 03.11(0)** -3.75(2)** -2.94(3)** -2.76(5)
LID -0.71(0) -1.70(0) -1.01(3) -1.70(1)
LGNI -3.90(0)*** -3.40(0)** -5.60(15)*** -9.87(39)***
LEN -1.51(0) -2.19(0) -1.52(2) -2.23(1)
First difference LCO2 -0.63(4) -8.59(1)*** -6.16(3)*** -7.95(3)***
LGDI -4.11(0)*** -4.07(0)** -4.13(3)*** -4.09(3)**
LTO -4.81(0)*** -5.28(0)*** -4.71(5)*** -5.20(6)***
LID -5.56(0)*** -6.37(0)*** -5.58(2)*** -6.37(0)***
LGNI -3.53(1)** -4.05(1)** -5.13(1)*** -5.74(0)***
LEN -6.55(0)*** -6.50(0)*** -6.58(2)*** -6.54(3)***
Note: 1. ***, ** and * are 1%, 5% and 10% levels of significance, respectively. 2. The optimal lag length is selected
automatically using the Schwarz information criteria for ADF test and the bandwidth is selected using the NeweyWest method
for the PP test. 3. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors
Next, to check the existence of long run relationships between the variables for all three
countries, the analysis proceeded with the F-tests and the results are as shown in Table 3. The
maximum lag of 4 was imposed in each model using Schwarz Bayesian criterion (SIC). The F
statistics for Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore (respectively, 13.08, 7.88 and 5.19) are higher
than the upper I(1) critical value (significant at 1% level), thus confirming the existence of long
run relationships.
Table 3: Results of ARDL co-integration tests

Model maximum SIC-lag order F Statistic at
lag [v,s,r,q,t,p] SIC
Indonesia 4 (2,0,4,1,1,0) 13.08***
Malaysia 4 (4,4,3,4,4,3) 7.88***
Singapore 4 (4,4,4,0,4,4) 5.19***
#
Critical Values for F-statistics Lower I(0) Upper I(1)
1% 3.41 4.68
39
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
k=5 5% 2.62 3.79

10% 2.26 3.35
Note: # The critical values are obtained from Narayan (??), k is number of variables, critical values for the bounds test: case III:
unrestricted intercept and no trend. *, **, and *** represent 10%, 5% and 1% levels of significance, respectively.
Results from Table 4 confirm that all the countries models passed all diagnostic checks which
render the long term estimates of these models to be reliable. In summary, the models have no
evidence of serial correlation and heteroscedasticity effect in disturbances. Besides, those
models also passed the Jarque-Bera normality test which suggest that the errors are normally
distributed and all models are well specified. The models used also meet the stability
requirements based on cumulative sum of recursive residuals (CUSUM) and CUSUM of squares
(CUSUMSQ).
Table 4: Results of Diagnostic Checking

Serial Functional
Normality Heteroscedasticity
correlation form
Country (2)
2
2 (1) CUSUM CUSUMSQ
2 (1) 2 (1)
[p-value] [p-value]
[p-value] [p-value]
Indonesia 2.53[0.10] 2.42[0.13] 0.64[0.72] 0.62[0.81] S S
Malaysia 0.18[0.83] 0.07[0.79] 0.79[0.67] 0.54[0.89] S S
Singapore 1.94[0.19] 1.94[0.19] 0.75[0.68] 1.60[0.20] S S
Note. S signifies stable model. The graphs can be requested from author. The numbers in brackets [ ] are p-values.
Table 5 presents the estimates of the long run parameters from ARDL and DOLS analyses.
Generally, the results from both ARDL and DOLS are consistent in term of the expected signs
for all three countries. TO (significant at 1% level) is found to have a positive influence on CO2
for both Indonesia and Malaysia. On the other hand, TO in Singapore is significant (at 5 and
10%) and negative. The positive influence of TO on CO2 for both Indonesia and Malaysia
implies that trade liberalisation that encourages exports may incur higher level of pollution rate
for these two countries. This finding is supported theoretically by Grossman and Kruger (1991).
Similar expected signs are detected for GNI influence on CO2 in Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore. GDI is found to be not significant for both ARDL and DOLS estimations in
Indonesia. This means that the level of domestic investment does not influence the CO2 level in
this country. The only difference is that the impact of economic development based on DOLS
estimation is not significant for both Indonesia and Singapore. The negative influence of
economic development on CO2 in Singapore means that with higher level of development, it
increases the standard of living of the people and therefore raises the demand for better
environment quality. Meanwhile, GDI is found to be positive in Malaysia but negative according
to Singapore estimation. The positive value of GDI in Malaysia means that domestic
investment is harmful for the environment in Malaysia. This is not surprising because production
technologies in Malaysia may not have fully adopted greener technology to reduce the CO2
40
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
release, therefore polluting the environment. As for Singapore, the domestic investment faces
much stricter environmental controls by the government and thus reducing the environmental
degradation. Energy consumption (EN) in Indonesia and Singapore worsen the environment
quality while in Malaysia, energy consumption helps to improve the environment quality. The
remaining interest of the paper is the coefficient on income inequality (grey area). The estimate
is found to be negative for Indonesia. This negative sign means that higher GINI coefficient
(lower income equality) is associated with higher CO2 emissions or from the result, a 1%
increase in GINI will increase the environmental degradation by 0.27% (0.63%). As for
Malaysia and Singapore, the positive signs indicate that low GINI (greater income equality)
decreases CO2 emissions. In other words, 1% decrease in GINI will decrease the pollution by
0.61% (0.35%) for Malaysia and 3.44% (4.82%) for Singapore. This finding supported the
political economy argument that more equal distribution of power and income in Malaysia and
Singapore over the past four decades has increased demand by Malaysian and Singaporean
citizens for cleaner environment and induced policy responses, which in turn has led to more
stringent environmental standards and stricter enforcement of environmental laws, thereby
enhancing environmental quality. The above outcome for Malaysia and Singapore was similar to
the studies done in United States (Baek and Gweisah, 2013).
Table 5: Estimation of Long Run Elasticities

Indonesia Malaysia Singapore
LNCO2 LNCO2 LNCO2
(2,0,4,1,1,0) (4,4,3,4,4,3) (4,4,4,0,4,4)
Variables ARDL DOLS ARDL DOLS ARDL DOLS
Constant -6.69*** -3.43 -13.05*** -11.91*** 37.18*** 53.32***
LNGDI -0.07 0.07 0.11** 0.15*** -0.52* -1.70***
LNTO 0.35*** 0.26** 1.06*** 0.47*** -0.96* -1.43**
LNID -0.27*** -0.63** 0.61* 0.35* 3.44*** 4.82***
LNGNI 0.52** 0.19 0.79** 1.00*** -0.71*** 0.07
LNEN 0.65*** 0.94 -0.38 -0.09*** 0.98*** 0.28
Note: (*),(**),(***) indicate significant at 10%,5% and 1% significance level respectively. Number in parentheses
is standard errors.
Lastly, Table 6 below reveals the outcome for the estimation of short run elasticities. Based on
lag 0 (grey area) for Indonesia, GNI and EN are positive and significant at 1% level. This means
that in the short run, increase in both GNI and EN lead to environmental degradation in
Indonesia. GDI and ID are found to be not significant and thus have no influence on Indonesias
environment. On the other hand, TO has a significant and negative effect on CO2 emission. As
for Malaysia, only ID and GNI are found to have positive influence on CO2. The results are
more favorable for Singapore. The short run estimation shows that TO, ID and GNI have
significant negative influence on CO2 emission in Singapore while EN is found to be positively
related to the environment. The long run relationship based on ECM model are also supported
41
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
via the negative and significant values of error correction term (ECT) obtained for each model.
ECT reflect the speed of adjustment for each model and the negative value mean that the
variables in the model will converge in the long run. The highest speed of adjustment is detected
for Singapore (-1.85), followed by Malaysia (-1.56) and Indonesia (-0.86). Approximately,
185%, 156% and 86% disequilibria from the previous years shock converge back to the long
run equilibrium in the current year. The high R squares for all three models suggest that almost
95% and above of the pollution in the countries studied are explained by the independent
variables in the model.
Table 6: Estimation of Short Run Restricted Error Correction Model (ECM)

Indonesia Malaysia Singapore
Variables Coefficient Variables Coefficient Variables Coefficient
D(LNCO2(-1)) 0.56*** D(LNCO2(-1)) 0.21 D(LNCO2(-1)) 1.06*
D(LNGDI) -0.06 D(LNCO2(-2)) 0.15 D(LNCO2(-2)) 0.39
D(LNTO) -0.25*** D(LNCO2(-3)) 0.38* D(LNCO2(-3)) 0.73**
D(LNTO(-1)) 0.24** D(LNGDI) -0.09 D(LNGDI) -0.14
D(LNTO(-2)) -0.11 D(LNGDI(-1)) 0.55** D(LNGDI(-1)) 0.40
D(LNTO(-3)) -0.25*** D(LNGDI(-2)) 0.46* D(LNGDI(-2)) 1.14
D(LNID) -0.06 D(LNGDI(-3)) -0.41** D(LNGDI(-3)) -0.79
D(LNGDP) 0.91*** D(LNTO) 0.06 D(LNTO) -1.79**
D(LNEN) 0.56*** D(LNTO(-1)) 0.45 D(LNID) -1.85**
ECT(-1) -0.86*** D(LNTO(-2)) -1.01** D(LNID(-1)) -0.46
D(LNID) 0.65*** D(LNID(-2)) 0.39
D(LNID(-1)) -0.29 D(LNID(-3)) 4.39***
D(LNID(-2)) 0.58** D(LNGDP) -1.54**
D(LNID(-3)) 0.51** D(LNGDP(-1)) 0.10
D(LNGDP) 2.12** D(LNGDP(-2)) 0.03
D(LNGDP(-1)) 0.65 D(LNGDP(-3)) -0.299
D(LNGDP(-2)) -2.36*** D(LNEN) 0.58**
D(LNGDP(-3)) 1.13** D(LNEN(-1)) -0.51
D(LNEN) 0.13 D(LNEN(-2)) -0.48*
D(LNEN(-1)) -0.97** D(LNEN(-3)) -0.52**
D(LNEN(-2)) 0.89*** ECT(-1) -1.85***
ECT(-1) -1.56**
R square 0.98 R aquare 0.99 R square 0.95
Note: Dependent variable is D(LNCO2). (*),(**),(***) indicate significance at 10%,5% and 1% levels.
6. Conclusion
The primary objective of this study is to assess the short and long run effects of income inequality,
domestic investment, trade openness, per capita real income and energy consumption on CO2
emission in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore using an ARDL and DOLS techniques. The results
42
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
of ARDL show that income inequality and CO2 emission for both Malaysia and Singapore have
positive relationships suggesting that greater equality distribution of income in these countries has
a beneficial effect on environmental quality. This finding is consistent with the results of Magnani
(2000). As for the case of Indonesia, there is a negative relationship between income distributions
on CO2 emissions suggesting that higher income distribution worsens the pollution level. GDI,
TO and GNI have beneficial effects on environmental quality in Singapore whereas EN has a
detrimental effect on pollution. As for Malaysia and Indonesia, higher TO and GNI are found to
increase the air pollution in these countries. Besides, higher usage of EN in Indonesia increases
the environmental problem while in Malaysia, EN was not suitable to explain the model as it is
not statistically significant.
7. References
Ang, J.,2008.Economic development,pollutant emissions and energy consumption in Malaysia .Journal of

Policy Modeling, 30,pp271278.
Agras, J.,Chapman,D.,1999.A dynamic approach to the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Ecological
Economics 28,pp.267277.
Bardsen G.1989.Estimation of long run coefficients in error correction models. Oxford Bulletin of Economics &
Statistics,51,pp.34550.
Baek, J. & Gweisah, G., 2013. Does income inequality harm the environment?: Empirical evidence from the
United States. Energy Policy, 62, pp.14341437.
Boyce,J.K.,1994.Inequality as a cause of environmental degradation.Ecological Economics, 11,pp169178.
Cole,M.A.,2004. Trade, the pollution haven hypothesis and the environmental kuznet curve: examining the
linkages. Ecological Economica, 7(1).pp.44-57.
Heerink, N.,Mulatu,A.,Bulte,E.,2001.Income inequality and the environment: aggregation bias in
environmental Kuznets curves.Ecological Economics, 38,pp.359367.
Hossain MS.2001.Panel estimation for CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth,trade openness
and urbanization of newly industrialized countries. Energy Policy,39,pp.69916999.
Grossman, G.,Krueger,A.,1991.Environmental Impacts of the North America Free Trade
Agreement.NBERWorking Paper no.3914.
Iwata,H.,Okada,K.,Samreth,S.,2010.Empirical study on the environmental Kuznets curve for CO2 in France:the
role of nuclear energy.Energy Policy, 38,pp.40574063.
Jalil, A.,Mahmud,S.F.,2009.Environment Kuznets curve for CO2 emissions: a cointegration analysis for
China.Energy Policy, 37,pp.51675172.
Kim, H.S.,Baek,J.,2011.The environmental consequences of economic growth revisited .Economics Bulletin,
31,pp.11981211.
Lean HH,SmythR.,2010.CO2 emissions, electricity consumption and output in ASEAN. Applied Energy,
87,pp.185864.
Magnani, E.,2000.The Environmental Kuznets Curve,environmental protection policy and income
distribution.Ecological Economics 32,pp43143.
43
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Narayan, P.K. 2004. Reformulating Critical Values for the Bound F-Statitistic Approach to Cointegration: An
application to the Tourism demand model for Fiji, Discussion Paper, Department of Economic, Monash
University, Australia
Narayan PK,Narayan S, 2010.Carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth: panel data evidence from
developing countries.Energy Policy,38,pp.6616666.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2002. Environmental benefits of foreign
direct investment: A literature review. OECD Global forum on International Investment.
Pesaran,M.H.,Shin,Y.,Smith,R.J.,2001.Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships.Journal
of Applied Econometrics,16,pp.289326.
Saikkonen,P. 1991.Asymptotically efficient estimation of cointegrating regressions. Econometric
Theory,7,pp.1-21.
Shafik, N.,1994.Economic development and environmental quality:an economic analysis. Oxford Economic,
46,pp.757773.
StockJH,WatsonMW.1993.A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order integrated
systems.Econometrica,61,pp.783820.
Talukdar,D.,&Meisner,C.M., 2001. Does the private sector help or hurt the environment? Evidence from carbon
dioxide pollution in developing countries. World Development, 29(5),pp.827-840.
Torras,M.,Boyce,J.K.,1998.Income,inequality,and pollution:An assessment of the environmental Kuznets
curve.Ecological Economics,25,pp.147160.
University of Texas Income Inequality Project (UTIP), 2005. Retrived on May, 2014, from
http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/data.html.
44
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Impact of a Dynamic Environment on Budgetary Participation with
Information Processing as a Mediating Variable (An Empirical Study on
Public SOE Managers and Staff Perception in Indonesia)
Dian Indri Purnamasaria, Rahmawatib, Mulyantoc
a
Universitas Pembangunan Nasional Veteran Yogyakarta-Indonesia
e-mail: indri_mtc@yahoo.com
b,c
Universitas Sebelas Maret-Indonesia
Abstract
The study aims to find empirical evidence and to assess the factors influencing budgetary
participation, which are the impacts of: (i) a dynamic environment on budgetary participation, (ii)
a dynamic environment on information processesing (task exceptions, task analysis, information
technology, and information system), (iii) information processesing on budgetary participation,
and (iv) information processesing that mediates the impact of a dynamic environment on
budgetary participaion. The study uses primary data from mail survey on the perception of
Planning and Budgeting staff in 19 public SOEs in Indonesia. The study used path analysis to
identify several factors that influence budgetary participation.
The results indicate that (i) a dynamic environment has a positive impact on budgetary
participation, (ii) a dynamic environment has a positive impact on information processes (task
exception, task analysis, information technology, and information system), (iii) information
processesing has a positive impact on budgetary participatio, and (iv) information processesing
mediates the impact of dynamic environment on budgetary participation.
Keywords: dynamic environment, information processesing, budgetary participation, task

analysis, technology
1. Introduction Background of the Problem
State-Owned Enterprise (SOE), by definition, is a business entity that is either wholly or largely
owned by the government through direct investments from separated state assets (Act 19, 2003).
SOEs are expected to survive and remain competitive in the era of globalization. SOEs tend to be
less prepared or slower to respond to the dynamic environment. They felt that they are part
ofgovernment asset, therefore competitive capacity is unnecessary and, consequently, they are
fairly poor in efficiency and performance. Thus, compared to private enterprises, SOEs are still
lagging far behind them in term of professionalism (Iskan, 2012).
45
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
SOEs are required to implement governance through the issuance of Decree of the Minister of
State-Owned Enterprises No. 117 of 2002 on the Implementation of Corporate Governance
(CG) Practices for SOEs. The implementation of CG underlies the realization of budgetary
participation in the enterprises. This was the case because the CG elements provide support for
the budgetary participation. These elements are: (i) transparency, related to unveiling the
budgetary issues in SOEs, (ii) accountability, all activities in budgeting can be calculated and
taken into account, (iii) responsibility, all activities can be outlined and accounted for,
including those processes of budgetary participation, (iv) independence, and (v) fairness.
Budgetary participation is basically a manifestation of independence of a division or unit of
organization to take part in the budgeting, while the principle of fairness is a form of prudence
in budgetary participation to determine the reasonable number. Budgetary participation is
manifested in the Work Plan and Budget developed by the directors annually, that is detailed
business budget for scheduled activities.
The question then arise is whether the company budgeting that reflects the program or
scheduled activities in the RKAP (Rencana Kerja dan Anggaran Perusahaan) has implemented
the components of budgetary participation? Iskan (2012) admitted that the 2012 draft budget of
the Ministry of SOE is a mere plagiary (cut-n-paste) of earlier draft, and, in fact, the budget
allocation also tends to be not creative and less productive, with a slight change in year and
figures. It is interesting to take his statement into consideration by asking the following
questions: Is it true that budgetary participation remains nonexistent in SOEs? What are the
factors that influence budgetary participation in a dynamic economic environment system?
A turbulent dynamic environment causes various changes such as technological shift to
smarter one require preparedness in Information Processing Theory (IPT), including
information in budgeting (Mulyadi, 2005). IPT is used in this study in an attempt to overcome
the gap between the dynamic environment, information management, and budgetaru
participation. This study attempts to analyze how the role or the influence IPT have on
information in a dynamic environment correlates to budgetary participation.
2. Hypothesis Development
2.1 Dynamic Environment and Budgetary Participation
A dynamic environment put manager under pressure to obtain information in an anticipation of

the unexpected events (Brownell and Hirst, 1986). Shields and Shields (1998), in their study,
concluded that a dynamic environment affects budgetary participation. Wing et al. (2010) also
concluded that a dynamic environment influences budgetary participation. In a dynamic
environment as reflected in high uncertainty and centrality, it is highly likely that information
discrepancy existed. Larger organizations require decentralization because top management
can not sort the overloaded information and making far too many decisions, therefore
centralization simply does not fit larger organizations.
The motivation theory is used in Wing et al. (2010) as the variable that mediates the
relationship between organizational commitment and dynamic enviroment with the budgetary
participation and performance. The dynamic environment in the study is negatively correlated
to budgetary participation, meaning that when the respondents aware that their environment is
dynamic their budgetary participation rate will decrease. This is because the respondents have
minimum information or knowledge about when their environment is dynamic, thus prefer not
to take part in the budgeting process.
Previous studies discussed budgetary participation as being influenced by many factors, and
the dynamic of an environment or change will increase the needs for participation in budgeting
46
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
process. This is because the subordinates are quicker to update their information due to a
dynamic environment and in need to do revision in budgeting; therefore budgetary
participation rate increase is necessary.
Based on the above description, we formulate the following hypothesis:

H1: A dynamic environment positively affects budgetary participation.
2.2. IPT Mediates the Relationship between Dynamic Environment and Budgetary
Participation
Dynamic Environment (DE) plays significant role in information processing (Edmonds, 2001).
DE tends to have information complexity and managers need a good IPT for that complexity to
provide information needed in budgetary participation. DE is also associated with the level of
task uncertainty since it will adopt the change in environment that eventually requires
involvement in the form of budgetary participation. Task uncertainty is associated with
budgetary participation; when task uncertainty increases, budgetary participation is necessary
to anticipate the uncertainties.
Task analysis (TA) is a process that allows task completion using the existing procedures and
rules so as to make all things properly programmed. It takes more time for employees to use TA
to find solutions to allow for proper task pogramming, and this requires more information.
Dynamic environment poses a challenge for users of information in order to regulate the
activities properly and to be able to adapt to any changes. DE makes tasks increasingly
unpredictable and complex; thereby demands various kinds of information. One aspect of task
uncertainty is the task frequency that is increasingly unequal and turned out to be requiring
more information that poses challenges to process the task analysis (Bystrom, 1999).
DE needs task analysis to overcome uncertainties and to increase employees involvement in

the next things to come, including participation in budgeting. Managers need information
concerning task uncertainty in their unit. Higher level of uncertainty will lead to an increased
need for information, and higher level of uncertainty in organization can also increase the need
for budgetary participation (Tushman and Nadler, 1978). Tara (2007) described that a properly
analyzed task will increase budgetary participation rate because of favorable condition and the
fact that the analysis motivates subordinates to take part in budgeting process.
DE must be balanced with the availability of Information Technology (IT) that supports the
acquisition of information, as a consequence of the dynamics in the information. Information
technology required in the information processing may reduce inefficiency and gap in many
respects (Gattiker, 2007), including budgetary participation. Information technology can
improve the absorption of fluctuating information as a consequence of the increasingly
dynamic environment (Song et al., 2005) and improve the efficiency in budgetary
participation.
DE is closely associated with the information system in organizations. Companies

well-prepared to confront the dynamic environment are those equipped with visionary
information system and well prepared structure to anticipate any changes. Changes in a
dynamic environment may also transform the information in order to adapt to a more complex
situation. Complexity of information systems represents a degree of uncertainty in an
organization, meaning that the organization is in a competitive and dynamic environment. The
47
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
higher the complexity of an environment, the higher the uncertainty or dynamics in an

organization, and it requires good management of information system (Nobre et al., 2009).
Based on the above description, we formulate the following hypotheses:

H4a: Task exceptions mediate the dynamic environmental influence on budgetary
participation.
H4b: Task analysis mediates the dynamic environmental influence on budgetary participation.
H4c: Information technology mediates the dynamic environmental influence on budgetary
participation.
H4d: Information system mediates the dynamic environmental influence on budgetary
participation.
3. Research Method
3.1 Sampling
We use saturation sampling technique in this study, which means that all populations serve as
the sample of this study. As for the population, they consist of: (i) manager of financial
planning, and (ii) managers experienced in budgeting process in his or her division as indicated
by his or her work experience in budgeting for minimally a year or in such position for a year.
One year experience is included upon consideration that after one year of experience the
manager had already went through various phases in budgeting processes.
3.2 Operational Definition and Variable Measurement
Budgetary Participation (BP) is defined as the involvement of subordinates in budgeting

processes (Wing et al., 2010). This variable is measured using 6 instruments developed by
Milani (1975). Dynamic Environment (DE) is a state of uncertainty of change that is
fluctuative from both within and without organizations (Wing et al., 2010). The dynamic
environment is measured using 12 instruments devised by Duncan (1972). Task
Exceptions(TE) constitute the frequency of unpredicted or unexpected events in a conversion
process (Brownell and Dunk, 1991). This variable is measured using 5 instruments developed
by Whitney et al. (1983). Task Analysis (TA) is defined as the extent to which activity or work
can be reduced to scheduled technical steps (Brownell and Dunk, 1991). This variable is
measured using 5 instruments developed by Whitney et al. (1983. Information Technology
(IT) is the availability of facilities and infrastructures for processing available data (Song et
al., 2005). This variable is measured using 3 instruments developed by Song et al. (2005).
Information System (IS) is how the existing system in organizations properly developed for the
present and future purposes (Osborne, 1994). This variable is measured using 10 questions
devised by Osborne (1994).
4. Results and Discussion

The Influence of Dynamic Environment on Budgetary Participation (H1)
The following hypothesis testing determines the influence of the independent variable on
dependent variable; i.e. dynamic environment and budgetary participation, respectively.
48
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 2. H1 Testing Summary

Equation
PA=+b1LD+e1
Description Results
Constant 1.337
Dynamic Environment 0.424 0.000***
F Test 45.309 0.000***
Adjusted R2 0.176
Note: *** significant at =1%
Source : Processed data
It can be concluded from Table 2 that statistically, at a significance level of 5%, dynamic
environment does influence the budgetary participation with a positive coefficient of 0.424.
With such results, H1, stating dynamic environment affect positively the budgetary
participation, is supported. It is expressed in probability value of 0.000*** and positive
coefficient value, which means that the higher the dynamic level of an environment, the higher
the budgetary participation rate will be.
The above hypothesis testing indicates that statistically H1 is supported; that is, dynamic
environment positively influence budgetary participation, the higher the dynamic level of an
environment, the higher the budgetary participation rate will be. The results coincide with
those of previous study stating that dynamic environment as reflected in unpredictable changes
will increase the demand for budgetary participation as an effort to respond immediately any
environmental change in budgeting processes.
Dynamic environment accustoms managers to dealing with various unpredictable situations

and anticipate them, and, therefore, managers are also under pressure to perform budgetary
participation. This proved to be true because managers are in a position that makes them more
aware of the dynamic of their organizational environment. While SOEs are owned by the
government, their management is expected to be equal to that of private companies so as to
make them more capable of competing and profit making for public, especially Public SOEs
supervised by various parties. A continually dynamic environment is inevitably confronted by
SOEs, especially the dynamic in business competition and changes in the existing customer
demand.
SOEs as state owned organizations do not necessarily safe from volatile environments because
their products are also consumed by general public that undergo a dramatic change in demand
and needs. Such changes in society are followed by changes in competition in private sectors
that are more responsive to market demand. Private sectors are quick to adapt to any changes
because of flexibility in budgeting process, unlike SOEs that are stuck with the applicable
legislation. A dynamic environment proved to increase budgetary participation rate in SOEs as
a manifestation of competitive strategy in the marketplace.
Considering the dynamic environment, it is irrelevant for the SOEs to continually using
cut-n-paste method in devising their budget from earlier year budget with slight adaptation
and increase in percent, or even reusing budget with certain interest as a consequence of
demand for transparency in implementing CG in SOEs. This makes demand for budgetary
participation keep increasing as the environment becomes even more dynamic, and anything
could occur unpredictably. In such a situation budgeting processes cannot be implemented
rigidly, it requires participation instead. The results of this study coincide with those conducted
49
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
by Hopwood (1976), Govindarajan (1986), Kren (1992), Shields and Shields (1998), and Wing
et al. (2010).
Task Exceptions (H2a) Mediation

The following hypothesis testing is of the task exceptions that mediate the influence of
dynamic environment on budgetary participation.
Table 3. Summary of H4a Testing
Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4
Description
PA=+b1LD+e1 TE=+b1LD+e1 PA=+b1TE+e1 PA=+b1LD+b2TE+e1
Constant 1.337 2.544 3.299 1.021
Dynamic 0.424 0.000*** 0.252 0.000*** 0.395 0.000***
Environment
Task 0.213 0.002*** 0.114 0.008***
Exceptions
F Test 45.309 0.000*** 14.029*** 0.000*** 9.870 0.002*** 24.429*** 0.000***
Adjusted R2 0.176 0.059 0.041 0.184
Note: *** significant at =1%
Regression analysis of fist equation in Table 3 indicates that statistically dynamic environment
significantly affects budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.424. Regression
analysis of second equation demonstrates statistically that dynamic environment significantly
affects task exceptions (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.252, which means that the dynamic
environment positively affect the task exceptions; the more dynamic an environment, the more
task exceptions. Regression analysis of third equation statistically indicates that task
exceptions significantly affects budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.213,
meaning that task exceptions have positive influence on budgetary participation; the more task
exceptions, the higher the budgetary participation rate. Finally, the regression analysis of
fourth equation statistically indicates that task exceptions affect budgetary participation after
controlling dynamic environment (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.395.
We can see from the Table that the coefficient of direct influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation in mediating equation of 0.395 is lower than the coefficient of direct
influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation in the first equation of 0.424.
This, according to Baron and Kenny (1986), can be concluded that the effect of dynamic
environment on budgetary participation is in part mediated by task exceptions. The results
demonstrate that task exceptions mediate partially the influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation. The partial mediation with a positive coefficient indicates that the
more dynamic the environment, the more the task exceptions, and the more the task exceptios,
the higher the budgetary participation rate. Thus, it can be concluded that H2, stating that task
exceptions partially mediate the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation,
is supported.
Task Analysis Mediation (H2b)

The following hypothesis testing is of the task analysis that mediates the influence of
Table 4. H2b Testing Summary
Description
PA=+b1LD+e1 AT=+b1LD+e1 PA=+b1AT+e1 PA=+b1LD+b2AT+e1
Constant 1.337 1.629 2.740 0.998
50
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
LD 0.424 0.000*** 0.399 0.000*** 0.335 0.000***

AT 0.357 0.000*** 0.223 0.001***
F Test 45.309 0.000*** 39.086 0.000*** 30.147 0.000*** 29.296 0.000***
Ajusted R2 0.176 0.155 0.123 0.214
Note : *** significant at =1%
Regression analysis of first equation in Table 4 indicates that, statistically, dynamic
environment significantly influence budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of
0.424; that is, dynamic environment positively influence budgetary participation, the more
dynamic an environment, the more task analyses will be. Regression analysis of second
equation demonstrates that, statistically, dynamic environment significantly influence
budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.399. Thus, dynamic environment
positively influence task analysis; that is, the dynamic an environment, the more task analyses
will be. Regression analysis of third equation demonstrates that, statistically, task analysis
significantly influence budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.357. This
means that task analysis positively influences budgetary participation; that is, the more task
analyses, the higher the budgetary participation rate will be. As for the regression analysis of
the fourth equation, it indicates that task analysis influence budgetary participation after
controlling the dynamic environment (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.335.
We can see from the table that the coefficient of direct influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation in mediation equation of 0.335 is smaller than that of direct influence
of dynamic environment on budgetary participation in the first equation of 0.424. From these
results, according to Baron and Kenny (1986), it can be concluded that task analysis partially
mediates the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation. By the partial
mediation and positive coefficient it can be stated that the more dynamic an environment, the
more task analyses there will be, and the more task analyses, the higher the budgetary
participation rate will be. Therefore, it can be concluded that H2b, stating that task analysis
partially mediates the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation, is
supported.
Information Technology Mediation (H2c)

The following hypothesis testing is of the information technology that mediates the influence
of dynamic environment on budgetary participation.
Table 5. H2c Testing Summary
Description
PA=+b1LD+e1 TI=+b1LD+e1 PA=+b1TI+e1 PA=+b1LD+b2TI+e1
Constant 1.337 1.367 2.294 0.932
LD 0.424 0.000*** 0.472 0.000*** 0.290 0.000***
TI 0.421 0.000*** 0.284 0.000***
F Test 45.309 0.000*** 59.183 0.000*** 44.493 0.000*** 32.932 0.000***
Ajusted R2 0.176 0.219 0.173 0.235
Regression analysis of first equation in Table 5 demonstrates that, statistically, dynamic

0.424. This means that the dynamic environment positively influences budgetary participation;
that is, the more dynamic an environment, the higher the budgetary participation rate will be.
Regression analysis of second equation indicates that, statistically, dynamic environment
significantly influence information technology (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.472. This
51
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
means that the dynamic environment positively influences the information technology; i.e., the
more dynamic an environment, the higher the information technology. Regression analysis of
third equation demonstrates that, statistically, information technology significantly influences
budgetary participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.421. This means that information
technology positively influences budgetary participation; that is, the higher the information
technology, the higher the budgetary participation rate. Finally, the regression analysis of
fourth equation indicates that information technology significantly influences budgetary
participation after controlling dynamic environment (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.290.
From the table we can see that the coefficient of direct influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation in mediation equation of 0.290 is lower than that of direct influence of
dynamic environment on budgetary participation in the first equation of 0.424. Baron and
Kenny (1986) concluded, from the results, that the influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation is partially mediated by information technology. The results tell us that
information technology partially mediates the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary
participation with a positive coefficient. Thus, it can be stated that the more dynamic an
environment, the higher the information technology, and the higher the information
technology, the higher the budgetary participation rate. Thus, we can conclude that H2c, stating
that information technology partially mediates the influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation, is supported.
Information System Mediation (H2d)

The following hypothesis testing is of the information system that mediates the influence of
Table 6. H2d Testing Summary
Description
PA=+b1LD+e1 SI=+b1LD+e1 PA=+b1SI+e1 PA=+b1LD+b2SI+e1
Constant 1.337 3.586 2.670 0.213
LD 0.424 0.000*** 0.120 0.004*** 0.384 0.000***
SI 0.379 0.000*** 0.333 0.000***
F Test 45.309 0.000*** 3.019 0.004*** 34.822 0.000*** 32.932 0.000***
Ajusted R2 0.176 0.010 0.14
Regression analysis of first equation in Table 6 demonstrates that, statistically, dynamic

0.424. This means that dynamic environment positively influence budgetary participation; that
is, the more dynamic an environment, the higher the budgetary participation rate there will be.
Regression analysis of second equation indicates that, statistically, dynamic environment
significantly influences information system (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.120, which
means that a dynamic environment positively influences information system; that is, the more
dynamic an environment, the higher the budgetary participation. Regression analysis of third
equation indicates that, statistically, information system significantly affects budgetary
participation (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.379. This means that information system
positively affects budgetary participation; that is, more sophisticated information system will
increase budgetary participation rate. Regression analysis of fourth equation indicates that
information system significantly influences budgetary participation after controlling the
dynamic environment (Sig.<0.05) with a coefficient of 0.384.
52
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
We can see from the table that the coefficient of direct influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation in mediation equation of 0.384 is smaller than that of direct influence
of dynamic environment on budgetary participation in the first equation of 0.424. From these
results, according to Baron and Kenny (1986), it can be concluded that the influence of
dynamic environment on budgetary participation is partially mediated by information system.
The results tell us that information system partially mediates the influence of dynamic
environment on budgetary participation with a positive coefficient. This means that the more
dynamic an environment, the more sophisticated the information system and that more
sophisticated information system will increase budgetary participation rate. Thus, it can be
concluded that H2d, stating that information system partially mediates the influence of
dynamic environment on budgetary participation, is supported.
The results of H2 testing indicate that statistically H2a, H2b, H2c, and H2d are supported, which
means that IPT (task exceptions, task analysis, information technology, and information
system) mediates the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation. The
results indicate that dynamic environment positively influence IPT (task exceptions, task
analysis, information technology, and information system), and that more dynamic an
environment will increasingly improve IPT. To put it another way, H2 is supported and IPT
(task exceptions, task analysis, information technology, and information system) is positively
influence budgetary participation; that is, the improved IPT will increase budgetary
participation, or that H3 is supported. The study conducted subsequent analysis of whether IPT
mediates the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation.
The results of this study coincide with those of previous studies by Tushman and Nadler
(1978), Edmonds (2001), Song et al. (2005), and Tara (2007). Dynamic environment in SOEs
makes it difficult to predict the activities to be implemented, therefore increases task
exceptions. Such an increase motivates managers to participate in budgeting as a consequence
of unpredictable events in the budgeting, therefore requires higher participation rate. Managers
are motivated to take part in budgeting process in the hope that the dynamic environment and
task exceptions will not impede the activities that should be implemented by their companies.
A dynamic environment motivates managers of SOE to conduct more task analyses in order to
properly manage anything dynamic. Improved task analysis will invite budgetary participation
because it facilitates managers in implementing the scheduled activities. From the above
description we see that task analysis can mediate the influence of dynamic environment on
budgetary participation.
A dynamic environment creates volatile and fluctuating situation that increases the need for IT
as an effort to adapt to the existing changes. Proper IT will motivate managers to participate
in budgeting processes. SOEs in Indonesia implement their activities throughout the regions
with various islands and vast range that can only be achieved by information technology,
especially in dynamic environments. This will increase the managers demand for information
technology to facilitate them in searching and managing information, as well as in taking part
in budgeting processes. Likewise, a dynamic environemnt influences information system. The
dynamic environment requires managers or companies to have a visionary information system
that is capable of adapting to any changes in information and environment, and it is necessary
to improve the budgeting participation processes.
5. Conclusion, Implication, and Suggestion
53
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The study on the influence of dynamic environment on budgetary participation with

information processes as mediating variables and empirical study on Public SOE managers
perception concluded that:
1. A dynamic environment influences positively budgetary participation; the more dynamic
an environment, the higher the budgetary participation rate.
2. IPT (task exceptions, task analysis, information technology, and information system)
mediates the influence of a dynamic environment on budgetary participation.
These findings have several significant implications for various parties, such as: (i) The
government, especially SOEs, can find out how Good Corporate Governance (GCG) is
implemented in Public SOEs from the results of this study. The government can also take the
factors influencing budgeting participation into account, in view of information processes in
SOEs so that they can be used for future policy making relevant to the process or system of
information for SOEs, and (ii) Public SOEs, to support policies relevant to information
processing for budgetary participation, such as devising task analyses continually to find the
standardized pattern for operating system and procedure, as well as creation or improvement of
technology and information system.
The study recommends several things as follow-ups for the researcher and other policy makers:
(i) to conduct similar study in other public sectors, such as Regionally-Owned Enterprises.
Both Regional and Central Governments are expected to measure the implementation of CGC
at their respective departments in compliance with the applicable regulations. Such an
assessment may serve as an objective barometer as it is to be conducted by researchers as the
external parties without any conflict of interest, (ii) to conduct follow-up research to measure
the quality of CGC implementation in SOEs, either Perum, Persero, or Public Persero, for
future comparative studies, and (iii) to add more variables relevant to the study on dynamic
environment, information-processing theory, and budgetary participation: for example,
leadership in business organizations.
6. References
Badrudin, Rudy. 2013. Analisis: Kongkalikong Anggaran, Kedaulatan Rakyat, 8 Maret 2013.
Baron, R. M. dan Kenny, D. A. 1986. The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social

Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51. No. 6, p. 1173-1182.
Brownell, P dan Dunk, A.S. 1991. Task Uncertainty and Its Interaction with Budgetary
Participation and Budget Emphasis: Some Methodological Issues and Empirical
Investigation, Accounting, Organizations and Society. Vol. 16, No. 8, p. 693-793.
Brownell, P dan Hirst, M. 1986. Reliance on Accounting Information, Budgetary

Participation, and Task Uncertainty, Journal of accounting Research. Vol 24, p. 241-249
Bystrm, K. 1999. Information seekers in context: an analysis of the doer in INSU studies. In
(eds.) Wilson, T.D.. & Allen, D.K. Exploring the Contexts of Information Behaviour.
Taylor Graham: London, UK.
Duncan, R. B. 1972. Multiple Decision-Making Structures in Adapting to Environment
Uncertainty: The Impact on Organizational Effectiveness, Human Relations. Vol 26, No. 3,
p. 273-291.
54
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Edmonds, T. P. 2001. The Effect of Environmental Complexity on the Level of Information

Processing by Introductory Accounting Students, Issues in Accounting Education. p. 29-37.
Gattiker, T. F. 2007. Enterprise Resources Planning (ERP) Systems and the

Manufacturing-Marketing Interface: An Information-Processing Theory View,
International Journal of Production Research. Vol. 45., No. 13, 1 July, p. 2895-2917.
Govindarajan, V. 1986. Impact of Participation in The Budgetary Process on Managerial

Attitudes and Performance: Universalistic and Contingency Perspective, Decision Sciences.
Vol 17, p. 496-516.
Hopwood, A. 1976. Accounting and Human Behavior, England Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall.
Iskan, Dahlan. 2012. Dahlan Akui Rancangan Anggaran BUMN Copy Paste, 29 Maret,
Detik.com.
Iskan, Dahlan. 2012. Menteri BUMN: Berpikir out of the box ala Dahlan Iskan, 18 April,
Bisnis Indonesia.
Kren, Leslie. 1992. Budgetary Participation and Managerial Performance: The Impact of
Information and Environment Volatility, The Accounting Review. Vol. 67, No. 3, July, p.
511-526
Lord R. G, dan Maher K. J. 1990. Alternative information-processing models and their

implications for theory, research, and practice. Academy of Management Review. 15, p.
9-28.
Milani, K. 1975. Budget-Setting, Performance and Attitudes, The Accounting Review. 50,
April, p. 274-284.
Mulyadi. 2005. Sistem manajemen Strategik Berbasis Balanced Scorecard, Yogyakarta: UPP
AMP YKPN.
Nobre, F.S., Tobias, A.M, dan Walker, D. 2009. Organizational and Techological Implications
of Cognitive Machines: Designing Future Information Management Systems, ISBN:
978-1-60566-302-9, IGI Global, USA.
Osborne, T. 1994. Current Portfolio Questionnaire, Working Paper, Glaxo Wellcome

Operations.
Rankin, F.W., Schwartz, S. T. dan Young, R. A. 2008. The Effect of Honesty and Superior
Authority on Budget Proposals, The Accounting Review. Volume 83, No. 4, p. 1083-1099.
Shields, J.F. dan Shields, M.D. 1998. Antecedents of Budgetary Participation, Accounting,
Organizations and Society. Vol 23, No. 1, p. 49-76.
Song, M., Hans van der Bij, dan M. Weggeman. 2005. Determinants of the Level of
Knowledge Application: A Knowledge-Based and Information-Processing Perspective, J
Product Innovation Management. 22, p. 430-444.
55
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Tara, Leweling A. 2007. Extending Organizational Contingency Theory to Team

Performance-An Information Processing and Knowledge Flows Perspective, Dissertation.
Naval Postgraduate School, California.
Wing, B.W., Guo, L. dan Lui, G. 2010. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Participation in
Budgeting: Antecedents and Consequences, Behavioral Research in Accounting. Vol. 22,
No. 2, p. 133-153.
Withey , M., Daft, R.L. dan Cooper, W.H. 1983. Measures of Perrows Work-Unit
Technology: An Empirical Assessment and A New Scale, Academy of Management
Journal. p. 45-63.
56
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
YOUTH AND PSYCHOLOGY
57
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Happiness and Meaningful Engagement through Teaching & Learning

English Workshop: A UNHCR Community-Based Project
M. Leea, S. Tanb, S. Wooc
a
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
leemn@utar.edu.my; mandy.siewmin@gmail.com
b
Taylor's University, Malaysia
serzian.tan@taylors.edu.my
Abstract
Limited research has focused on youths perspectives of engagement in meaningful activities
and happiness, particularly in the Asia Pacific region using mixed-method approach. Results
from Phase One of the quantitative study (N=338) showed significant relationship between
youth engagement in meaningful activities and their happiness level that derives from the
outcome of their activities. Among the activities cited, both volunteering work and organized
community activities appeared to be the factors that constitute engagement in meaningful
activities and happiness to the youth. This paper focuses qualitatively on a group of student
volunteers who were involved in the UNHCR Community-based project. Through follow-up
interview sessions with the student volunteers, results showed that the students cited that the
teaching and learning English through the UNHCR Community-based project was indeed
meaningful. In examining the connections between happiness and the UNHCR
Community-based projects, three overarching domains of the community service-learning
experience, that is, their project mission, project commitment, and the caring relationships
among the community members were identified. Insight into how engagement in meaningful
activities has been found to positively influence youth happiness may hold significance to
organizations or institutions in developing more youth-initiative programmes for positive
youth development.
Keywords: happiness, meaningful engagement, teaching and learning, community-based

project, positive youth development
1. Introduction
Positive psychology defines three hierarchical pathways to happiness: the pleasant life, the
engaged life and the meaningful life. Pleasant life suggests life filled with pleasures;
however, this kind of happiness will fade quickly. In order to achieve long lasting happiness,
an engaged and meaningful life should be implemented. We need to be engaged our daily
activities using our own signature strengths and connect with something bigger than
ourselves, such as our community (Phelps, 2008). The statement has clearly shown that
meaningful engagement in life establishes longer lasting happiness. Numerous studies
(Biswas-Diener, Kashdan and King, 2009; Yeager and Bundick, 2009; Lyubomirsky and
Layous, 2013) explored the meaning of happiness and ways to improve a persons happiness
level. Yet, little effort was found to have studied the relationship between happiness and
meaningful engagement from a positive psychology perspective.
Bundick (2009) found out that there is a strong relationship among meaningful engagement,
purpose, and psychological well-being. Bundick (2011) examined the role of meaningful
engagement toward positive youth development through extracurricular activities. He
58
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
believes that extracurricular activities such as community service and volunteering work
stimulate greater life satisfaction and overall positive development (Bundick, 2011). As in
the case of UNHCR project - Community-Based English Language Workshop, student
volunteers engage in teaching and interaction with the refugee teachers may find it
meaningful as their efforts are valued by others while they get to practise what they have
learnt in school. As asserted by Seligman (as cited in Cherubini, 2009), the meaningful of
life involves the pursuit of happiness outside of oneself, with an emphasis on the greater good
of society. Of course, the meaning of engagement does not lie upon to one side but the other.
The orientation is based upon a student-centered approach where lessons are planned to
encourage active participation among refugee teachers. After all, the purpose of community
service focuses on the reflection of those serving (student volunteers) and those served
(refugee teachers) (Bailey and Fernando, 2012). With goal-oriented task, student volunteers
see their engagement matter to others, which later led them to develop a meaningful life and
happiness as one of the positive outcomes. The concept of well-being has not been critically
discussed till recent years.
As of 2013, it was reported that there are 101,290 refugees and asylum-seekers registered
with UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee) in Malaysia with 91.58%
(92,760) from Myanmar, encompassing 32,260 Chins, 26,300 Rohingyas, 10,550 Myanmar
Muslims, 7,080 Rakhine, 3,580 Mon, and other ethnicities from Myanmar (UNHCR
Factsheet, 2013). As there are no refugee camps and neither legislative provisions in place to
address the situation of refugees in Malaysia, UNHCR thereby plays a vital role for dealing
with all matters related to the registration, documentation and statue determination of
asylum-seekers and refugees (UNHCR, 2012a). In many occasions, UNHCR works with
government agencies, non-government organizations and volunteers in safeguarding
refugees welfare needs during their temporary stay in Malaysia.
Thus, the UNHCR partnered with Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) in running the
Community-Based English Language Workshop for the Refugee Teachers. UTAR students
worked as volunteers by sharing their knowledge and skills to teach the refugee teachers on
English language. In the Community-Based English Language Workshop, the student
volunteers took part in preparing the teaching, planning and delivering the lessons. A series
of engaging-activities learning approach like story-telling, treasure hunt and role play was
adopted in the teaching of English language while the refugee teachers learned to respond to
and express greetings, make and accept an offers, apologies and requests by happily
immerging themselves into the learning activities. The lessons were not only aimed at
improving English proficiency skills, they also suggested various teaching approaches that
supported meaningful engagement with refugee children, which the refugee teachers could
adopt. Throughout the workshop, the teachers (student volunteers) as well as the learners
(refugee teachers) engaged in learning activities that might lead them to find meaning in life
and eventually contributes to higher life satisfaction and happiness.
This research aimed to find out whether happiness and meaningful engagement could be
achieved through teaching and learning in a comunity-based English Language Workshop for
the Refugee Teachers. Specifically, the study examined the participants perspective as to
what constitute happiness and meaningful engagement for those involved in the teaching and
learning of the English language at the workshop. It is hoped that through focusing on the
positive emotions of the participants, the participants were able to focus on their strength and
virtues and discuss what they had benefited from their experience in the Community-Based
English Language Workshop for the Refugee Teachers.
59
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Methodology
Research Design
This research utilizes the mixed method approach. For quantitative method, survey as a
scientific tool was utilized to collect data from the samples. Whereas for the qualitative
method, open-ended questions was added in the questionnaire to get the perspectives and
opinions of youth regarding what constitute happiness and meaningful engagement in
activities.
Participants
For Phase One, a total of 338 undergraduate students who were involved in community-based
activities answered the survey and opened-ended questions. Phase Two focused on the
qualitative study in which the target group was the five UTAR students who were involved in
the Community-Based English Language Workshop for the Refugee Teachers.
Measurement
The Authentic Happiness Inventory. The Authentic Happiness Inventory questionnaire is a
new 24-item measure of general happiness that includes general life satisfaction, feelings
about oneself, enjoyment of day-to-day experience, and optimism for the future (Peterson,
Park, & Seligman, 2006). It consists of 24 items on a Likert scale of 1 5 with an average
mean score for each participant. The higher the mean score indicated the happier the person.
The developers reported high internal reliability for the Authentic Happiness Inventory which
is alpha of .95 (Peterson, et al., 2005).
The Engagement in Meaningful Activity Survey (EMAS).The Engagement in Meaningful
Activity Survey (EMAS) is a 12-item scale questionnaire that purported to reflect the
construct of meaningful activity participation (Golberg, Brintnell, & Goldberg, 2002). The
survey has been further revised by Eakman in the year 2011 to further explore the age
diversity in using this set of questionnaire. It is a 4-point scale questionnaire, each point
representing different options: 1(rarely), 2(sometimes), 3(usually) and 4(always). By
summing the scoring of the respondents, it would be able to determine the level of perceiving
the meaningfulness of their activities. Higher score indicates higher level of perceiving the
meaningfulness of the activities. The internal consistency of the survey is =.88 (Eakman,
2011).
Opened-ended question/Interview Questions for the UNHCR Project Participants. To explore
the perspectives of the participants on what constitute to happiness and meaningful
engagement in activities, open-ended questions will be included together in the set of
questionnaire. Examples of the questions for the student volunteers in the UNHCR Project
were as follow:
1) Why the UNHCR project is deemed meaningful to you?
2) Is there a connection between your involvement in the recent activity and happiness?
Please elaborate.
3. Findings
Pearson correlation analysis was employed to examine the relationship between engagement
in meaningful activities and happiness in Phase 1. The result shows that the mean scores of
Engagement in Meaningful Activities was positively and significantly correlated with the
mean scores of Happiness Scale where r(336) = .50 at p<.01 as shown in Table 2.
60
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 1. Correlation between Engagement in Meaningful Activities and Happiness

(N=338)
Measure 1 2
1. Engagement in - .50**
Meaningful Activities
2. Happiness .50** -
Mean 2.95 2.88

SD .50 .54
Note: **Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2 tailed)
Among the activities cited, both volunteering work (20.7%) and organized community
activities (20.7%) appeared to be the factors that constitute engagement in meaningful
activities and happiness to the youth.
For the UNHCR Community-based project, through follow-up interview sessions with the
student volunteers, results showed that the students cited that the teaching and learning English
workshop was indeed meaningful. We wanted to help the refugees and to gain some
experience from it. Its about serving and learning a sense of achievement upon
completion of project, confidence gained and the impact of the refugees on me. It is a way
to help unfortunate people to make them feel good, and the project is meaningful because it
comes from your heart; thus I should render genuinely as much as I can.
In other words, the student volunteers realized the importance of genuinely helping the
refugees. We brought them joy and happiness ... make their simple life more fun. The
feedback from the officials was very touching in terms of benefits the refugee teachers have
gained. They earnestly invite us to return again.
In examining the connections between happiness and the UNHCR Community-based projects,
three overarching domains of the community service-learning experience, that is, their project
mission, project commitment, and the caring relationships among the community members
were identified.
Project Mission. The student volunteers knew that their mission to help others and to learn
from the others. We know that this is a meaningful activity, thus we meet the goal, that is to
be able to serve others by putting others before yourself and having the courage, strength and
responsibility to do so as well, and it is to help people and try to give some hope.
Project Commitment. In project commitment, the researcher examined their connection to

meaningful engagement in activity. As one participant posited We came here willingly to
participate in this teaching and learning at the English workshop and we enjoyed doing it
without expecting any external motivational reward. We went with a purpose and we
achieved the goal. We are satisfied with the outcome. It brings satisfaction that cannot be
bought by anything else.
The UNHCR Project indeed entailed a lot of planning and managing prior and during the
project proper. During the daytime we spent our time at UNHCR and by night time we
61
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
gathered to discuss what to teach for the next day. In short, the participants realized that
commitment and sharing was needed in planning in order to achieve their goals. Thus, their
attention, personal interest and intensity of involvement were clearly indicated when the
participants expressed that they could identify happiness and meaningful engagement in their
project work. The participants realized that to be engaged meaningfully in an activity was a
good experience gained. They had to articulate ideas, take the perspective of others, and
cooperate.
Caring Relationships. Several of the participants indicated that they could connect happiness
as in caring relationships within team members and to the outside community people. The
participants indicated that it was fun and memorable working together. We stayed together
and we got to know each other better. During the 3-day training workshop, we spent our time
together for almost 24 hoursTherefore, we get closer as we always talking about this
project and share it with other friends. Thus, caring relationship that was formed seemed
to be one of the major factors that contribute to happiness as a result of this meaningful
engagement in activities.
The participants indicated that they learned how to interact with people from different
background. As they are from different culture, we learn a lot from them. I find it
meaningful as I learn that the refugees were happy with even simple things in their lives.
One of the participants responded:
The refugees were so grateful to us; they kept saying thank you and they felt very
happy that they had benefited from us. Some of the refugee teachers actually just
started their centre and they had no experience in conducting the English classes to
the refugee children yet. So by attending this workshop, they indicated that they learnt
some teaching skills from us. This has helped them gain more confidence and higher
sense of self-esteem.
4. Discussions
Results from the findings suggest that there is significant relationship between students
engagement in meaningful activities and happiness as reflected by where r(338) = .50 at
p<.01. The finding is consistent with Larson (2000) and Rich (2003) who reported that
students who are engaged in meaningful activities such as sports, arts, hobbies, and
organizations experience high levels of intrinsic motivation amounting to happiness. Thus,
these activities not only motivate youth to be more interested in others but also improve
their sense of how effective they can be in helping others.
For the UNHCR project participants, the caring relationships were not only confined within
group members but to the outside people in the community. The service-learners showed
their understanding and empathy to the refugees. The participants indicated that they could
connect happiness as in caring relationships within team members and to the people in the
community. In other words, results show that as a result of the meaningful engagement in
the community service experience, the participants were able to relate to others in a positive
manner. Participants appeared to build relationships and a network of support for each
other. In the case of UNHCR project, the student volunteers actually came from the
Psychology discipline. They acquired the skill and knowledge in dealing with social issues
and hold concerns to others. For them, the project was a form of volunteering work which
they initiated to participate with. As noted by Bundick (2011), the participants who were
involved perceived the volunteering works as an opportunity to perform civic responsibility
62
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and their ability to facilitate social engagement promotes a greater sense of well-being and
meaningfulness.
Both the student volunteers and refugee teachers who participated in the UNHCR project
were intrinsically motivated and felt that the learning and teaching process was meaningful.
They felt that their contribution mattered to others, which in turn had an impact to the world
beyond the self. This aligned to Bundicks (2009) work on purposeful work goals, where a
person who perceives that his/her actions to be impactful and significant to others. This in
turn will lead that person to develop a life purpose. He believes that the meaning of life and
happiness are meticulously tied to a goal-directed task. The sense of satisfaction achieved
when one meets those goals in life will then contributes to the meaning of life and happiness.
The findings from this study hope to contribute to the awareness and understanding of
positive psychology in the context of refugees. It is hoped that the negative affection that the
refugees experienced in relation to resettlement would decrease by reinforcing the positive
feelings, which were acknowledged through the meaningful engagement with both the local
student volunteers as well as the refugee children. The Community-Based English Language
Workshop is a good example of meaningful engagement project where the student volunteers
felt empowered and being valued. They felt joyful because they were given the responsibility
and opportunity to influence the refugee childrens life. On the other hand, the student
volunteers who were engaged in this goal-directed task (community service) were reported to
obtain bigger gain in happiness in addition to their self-actualization goal (carry civic duty).
Importantly, this research may offer some empirical insights into how youth perceive as
engagement in meaningful activities and happiness. Indeed among the structured
out-of-school engagements, extracurricular activities involvement may provide opportunities
for positive youth development (Bundick, 2011; Larson, 2000). Researchers and practitioners
generally agree that thriving youth who have a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives as
well as they are living to their true potentials are reasonably happy with their lives (Bundick,
2011;Ryan &Deci, 2001).
The present study may fill in the void in the study of engagement in meaningful activities and
happiness particularly from the positive psychology perspective which is lacking in the Asian
context. Very limited studies have explored the factors that constitute as meaningful activities
to the youth and their happiness. Thus, this study may contribute to the gaps in the literature
by comparing youths perspective of engagement in meaningful activities and happiness in
Malaysia. In short, the degree to which an activity is seen as meaningful may reflect the
degree to which engagement in that activity which allows one to put into action ones
mastery towards valued ends (Bundick, 2011).
In summary, three overarching domains of the meaningful participation of the UNHCR

project: project mission, project commitment, and the caring relationships that enhanced the
process of meaningful engagement and happiness of the participants were investigated.
The shared experiences among participation greatly influence the sense of community, which
proven to have influenced ones happiness as well as life meaning (Bailey and Fernando,
2012). The close relationship between meaningful engagement and happiness is indisputable.
A higher degree of happiness is reported when a person engaged regularly in social activities
(Bailey and Fernando, 2012). The more one engages in positive activities, the greater he or
she feels gratifying and amplifies the level of happiness.
63
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5. Acknowledgement
This research was supported by UNHCR-Frederick Fund, Malaysia, under grant

IPSR/UTARRF/4429/000.
6. References
Bailey, A. W. and Fernando, I. K. 2012. Routine and project-based leisure, happiness, and
meaning in life. Journal of Leisure Research, 44, pp. 139-154.
Biswas-Diener, R., Kashdan, T. B., and King, L. A. 2009. Two traditions of happiness
research, not two distinct types of happiness. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(3),
pp. 208-211.
Bundick, M.J. 2009. Pursuing the good life: An examination of purpose, meaningful
engagement, and psychological well-being in emerging adulthood. Available at
https://stacks.standford.edu/file/druid:cb008zb6473/Bundick_dissertation-augmented.p
df
Bundick, M. J. 2011. Extracurricular activities, positive youth development, and the role of
meaningfulness of engagement.The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6, pp. 57-74.
Chan, D. W. 2009. Orientations to happiness and subjective well-being among Chinese

prospective and in-service teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 29 (2), pp.
139-151.
Cherubini, J. 2009. Positive Psychology and Quality Physical Education. Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance, 80 (7), pp. 42-47.
Eakman, A.M. 2011. Convergent validity of the engagement in meaningful activities survey
in a college sample. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 30, pp. 2332.
Golberg,B., Brintnell, E.S., & Goldberg, J. 2002. The relationship between engagement in
meaningful activities and quality of life in persons disabled by mental illness.
Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 18 (2), pp. 17-44.
Kavi, T., and Avsec, A. 2014. Happiness and pathways to reach it: Dimension-centred
versus person centred approach. Social Indicators Research, 118, pp. 141-156.
Larson , R.W. 2000. Towards a psychology of positive youth development. American

Psychologist, 55(1), pp. 170-183.
Lyubomirsky, S., and Layous, K. 2013. How do simple positive activities increase
well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22 (1), pp. 57-62.
Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M.E.P. 2005. Orientations to happiness and life
satisfaction: The full life versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, p .
25-61.
64
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Phelps, L.B. 2008, January 10. Which positive pathway will you follow? New
psychological theories examine points of pleasurable, engaged and meaningful
lifestyles. Recorder Community Newspapers. Available at:
http://www.drbecker-phelps.com/ article_engagement_pf.html
Rich, G.J. 2003. The positive psychology of youth and adolescence. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 32(1), pp. 1-3.
Ryan, R. M. and Deci, E. L. 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being.American Psychologist, 55(1), pp.
68-78.
Seligman, M. E. P. 2002. Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize
your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: The Free Press.
UNHCR, 2012a. UNHCR Statistical Online Population Database. Available at:

<www.unhcr.org/statistics/populationdatabase>. [Accessed 24 December 2014].
UNHCR Factsheet 2013, Refugees in Malaysia, United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees. Available at: <http://www.unhcr.org.my>. [Accessed 23 December 2014].
Yeager, D. S., and Bundick, M. J. 2009. The role of purposeful work goals in promoting
meaning in life and in schoolwork during adolescence.Journal of Adolescence
Research, 24(4), pp. 423-452.
65
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Students Self-Efficacy: Does Work-Integrated Learning Matter?

Hazril Izwar Ibrahim, 1*, Abdul Hadi Zulkafli, 2, Khairul Annuar Mohammad Shah, 3,
Azlan Amranb
1, 2, 3
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia
E-mail: hazrili@yahoo.com, a, 2 hadi_zml@usm.my, a, 3 khairulms@usm.my
a,1
b
Graduate School of Business, Universiti Sains Malaysia
E-mail:azlan_amran@usm.my
Abstract
Work Integrated Learning (WIL) has been empirically proven to provide graduating
university students with the necessary soft skills for employability. This paper attempts to
provide an empirical investigation into the impact of soft skills, acquired by university
students during their Work Integrated Learning (WIL) programs on the students
psychological attributes, specifically, the students self-esteem and self-efficacy. The study
also investigates the mediating role of self-esteem between the soft skills and self-efficacy.
By utilising purposive sampling, data was collected from 205 accounting students of four
public universities, the studys findings indicate that there is significant relationship as both
thinking skills and communication skills predict self-efficacy. The results also revealed that
self-esteem is significant as a mediator between the IVs and self-efficacy. Hence, the paper
bridges the existing literature on soft skills and self-efficacy with self-esteem playing a
significant role as a mediator.
Keywords: Work integrated learning, soft skills, self-efficacy, self-esteem.
1. Introduction
The Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) process supports student in developing the ability to
analyse, evaluate, reflect and resolve a range of issues that occur during their experiential
lifecycle. The value of WIL to the students is the learning experience itself, which integrates
all of the knowledge that the student has acquired from the program and enables the student
to develop and demonstrate analytical, judgmental, presentation and communication skills
(Tucker, 2006; Burkle, 2010). WIL is generally accepted as a powerful vehicle for
developing generic and professional skills, consequently, providing students with the
opportunity to improve their employability and work readiness (Freudenberg et al., 2011;
Harvey, Geall and Moon, 1998; Subramaniam and Freudenberg, 2007; Yorke, 2011). The
growth of WIL in universities reflects both government and industry concern about
addressing skill shortages as well as making students more employable upon graduation.
Embedding WIL in the curriculum offers universities an alternative way in which to enable
all students to enhance their employability skills.
2.1 Soft Skills

Soft skills are defined as the interpersonal, human, people or behavioural skills needed to
apply technical skills and knowledge in the workplace (Weber et al. 2009). Moss and Tilly
(1996) define soft skills as: Skills, abilities, and traits that pertain to personality, attitude
66
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and behaviour rather than to formal or technical knowledge. Hurrell (2009), for example,
defined soft skills as involving interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities to facilitate mastered
performance in particular contexts, for example, the ability to manage their own and
customers emotion. According to Rainsbury et al. (2002) soft skills are skills often referred
to as interpersonal, human, people, or behavioural skills, and placed emphasis on personal
behaviour and managing relationships between people. From employers perspective, soft
skills are seen as being deficient in graduates, relative to hard skills (Arnold and Davey,
1994; Mullen, 1997). Similarly, soft skills are generally viewed as less important by
academics in comparison with workplace professionals (Page, Wilson and Kolb, 1993).
Interestingly, Arnold and Davey (1994) noted that as graduates spend longer time in the
industry, they rate themselves as more competent in their hard skills but not soft skills.
Research shows that employees had been able to improve their soft skills with experience and
practice (Hager, Crowley and Garrick, 2000). According to Andrews and Higson (2010),
excellent verbal communication skills are also necessary in order for graduates to feel
confidence in their abilities to communicate the knowledge they have attained during their
studies. Studies have also emphasized that effective communication skills are essential for
career success (Baker and McGregor, 2000; Borzi and Mills, 2001; Johnson and Johnson,
1995; Morgan, 1997). In their survey of Fortune 500 executives, Lee and Blaszczynski
(1999) found that, in the long run, the perceived importance of technical skills decreased
while the perceived importance of communication skills, computer skills, and group skills
increased (Lin, Krishan and Grace, 2014).
According to Kennedy (2010) higher-order thinking skills act as enabler for developing
employability skills, for transferability of such skills, and for continuing further development
of employability skills across the lifespan. Critical thinking or higher-order cognitive skills
enable individuals to participate actively in knowledge development and to become
independent lifelong learners (Tsui, 2002; MacLellan, 2004). The development of thinking
skills has long been considered to be a core outcome of education and a stated objective of
higher education (Tsui, 2002).
2.2 Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem as a personality variable has been widely researched, perhaps because of the
belief that it can influence how we as individuals think, feel and accordingly behave
(Brockner, 1988). As described by Korman (1970), self-esteem is an overall evaluation of our
self-worth and the extent to which an individual sees himself or herself as a competent need
satisfying individual (p. 32). The primacy of personal self-esteem in popular and academic
circles has accorded it relative super status among psychological constructs (Kling, Hyde,
Showers and Buswell, 1999, p. 472). Social identity theory, however, asserts that there are
two primary aspects to the self: personal identity and social (or collective) identity (e.g.,
Tajfel, 1982; Tajfel and Turner, 1986). An individuals collective identity is reflected in her
or his collective self-esteem (Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990; Luhtanen and Crocker, 1992).
Furthermore, persons with high organization based self-esteem display a stronger career
orientation or are less interested in slowing down on the job compared to individuals with
low self-esteem (Carson, Carson, Lanford and Roe, 1997). Typically, such opinions evoke
the notion that individuals with high self-esteem are motivated to do well on the job to
maintain cognitive consistency with their high self-evaluations (Brockner, 1988), which
provides a buffer against role stressors that would otherwise impede workplace motivation
67
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and performance. However, belief in the positive power of high self-esteem and the results
of empirical research on high self-esteems benecial effects has been decidedly mixed.
2.3 Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a type of internal confidence of oneself towards his or her ability to achieve
goals. It drives the motivational development of a person that allows him to achieve his
objective. The inter-relationship between individual absorptive capacity and self-efficacy is
obvious since the level of confidence of oneself towards his ability is related to the perceived
capabilities that he has. Without prior related knowledge or experience in any related areas, it
is hard for any individual to believe in their ability in achieving any goal in a particular
discipline, since the confidence level of oneself comes from their absorptive capacity level
(Fakhrorazi, 2014). Self-efficacy appears to be a core motivational element that leads to
better achievement of a task. As it plays an important role in personal motivation, well-being,
and accomplishment; self-efficacy can act as an inducement for individual to take action or
persist when facing difficulties; if they believe that their action will result in the desired
outcomes (Pajeras, 2002). Bandura (1986) also added that self-efficacy will determine the
depth of the effort of an individual that they can perform, in addition to the length of the time
that they can persevere to face obstacles. Furthermore, self-efficacy also determines the
extent of effort and perseverance that individuals can take to overcome any obstacles and
difficulties that they face. This statement is clearly supported by Bandura (1986) as he stated
"what people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave" (p. 25).
In social science, self-efficacy is the motivational force that can influence someone to
perform certain behaviour, to endure the challenges, obstacles, and difficulties (Stajkovic and
Luthans, 1982). Moreover, the existence of self-efficacy in oneself also increases the
tendency of oneself to perform a specific challenging behaviour (Bandura, 1997) especially if
it involves acquisition of new knowledge and performing an innovative behaviour in an
organization. Acquiring new knowledge is considered as a challenging behaviour for an
individual since the process of knowledge acquisition involves sophisticated learning
activities that require integration between both cognitive and behavioural elements during the
learning process. According to Komaraju and Dial (2014) empirical evidence suggested that
students who feel more competent tend to experience greater self-determined motivation and
show greater persistence; in contrast, a demotivated student have the least self-determination
and are more apathetic and disengaged.
The underlying assumption that the study holds is that WIL will provide university internship
students with the necessary soft skills and the soft skills obtained contribute to the students
self-esteem and self-efficacy. The study also looks into the role of self-esteem as a mediator.
3. Methodology
The sampling design for the study utilised purposive sampling as it targets specific group of
respondents. Data were collected from 205 students from four public universities in Malaysia.
They are undergraduates in business degree programs, who were majoring in accounting and
are soontograduate. Most importantly this group of students have undergone internship for
six months according to Malaysian Institute of Accountants professional requirement. 400
questionnaires were distributed, with 205 surveys returned indicating 51.3% rate of return. A
self-administered survey that rates the level of self-esteem using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Inventory (Rosenberg, 1965) was used. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory was used
68
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
because it is referred to as generally the standard tool against which other measures of
self-esteem are compared. It is composed of 10 questions and scored using the five-point
response scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The general self-efficacy
scale was adopted from Chen et al.s (2001), it is composed of eight items and measured
using five-point response scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Thinking
skills and communication skills were adopted from Mohamed Shukri, Rafikul Islam and
Noor Hazilah (2014). Thinking skills contain eight items and measured using five point
responses ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Communications skills contain
eleven items and measured using five point responses ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree.
4. Findings
Correlation analysis is employed to determine the direction and significance of the bivariate
relationships of the variables (Sekaran, 2006). Based on the result in table 1, there are 8
correlations between the independent variables and dependent variables that are statistically
significant. In other words, the correlation analysis provided indication that both Soft Skills
variables have positive relationship with self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Table 1: Correlation between Variables

Variables 1 2 3 4 5
Thinking skill 1 .540** .618** .327** .542**
Communication Skill .588** .381** .518**
Self-esteem .499**
Self-Efficacy 1
N=205,*<.05,
**p<.01
Simple and hierarchical regression using SPSS was conducted to test the significance of the
relationship between the variables. The statistical test was conducted in compliance with
Baron and Kennys (1986) requirement in order to meet the criteria of a mediating
relationship. The results are outlined in table 2 and table 3.
Table 2: Hierarchical Regression between Variables

R R R
Thinking Skills Self Efficacy .542 .294 .542**
Self-Esteem Self Efficacy .499 .249 .499**
Thinking Skills Self- Esteem .327 .107 .327**
Mediator: Self- Esteem .641 .410 .116 .361**
Note *= p<.05; **= p<.01
Table 2 demonstrates that Thinking Skills are significantly and positively related to
Self-Efficacy (=.542) as Thinking Skills explains 29.4 % of the variation in Self- Efficacy.
Self- Esteem was found to significantly and positively impact on Self-Efficacy (=.499).
Thinking Skills also significantly impacts on Self-Esteem (=.327). With the inclusion of
Self-Esteem as a mediator, the results indicate that the predictive power in the R increased
from 29.4 % to 41 % (R=.116). The first model was significant (=.542) and so was the
second model (=.361). The coefficient decreased from .542 to .361, while the final model
remained significant indicating partial mediation. Thus, the following hypothesis is accepted:
Self- Esteem partially mediates between Thinking Skills and Self-Efficacy. This proves that
69
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Self- Esteem has intervening effect in the relationship between Thinking Skills and
Self-Efficacy, though it is only partial mediation, that is, part of the effect of the IV is
mediated by the MV but other parts are either direct or mediated by other variables not
included in the model.
Table 3: Hierarchical Regression between Variables

R R R
Communication Skills Self- .518 .269 .518**
Efficacy
Self-Esteem Self Efficacy .499 .249 .499**
Communication Skills Self-Esteem .381 .107 .381**
Mediator: Self- Esteem .623 .388 .119 .373**
Note *= p<.05; **= p<.01
Table 3 demonstrates that Communication Skills are significantly and positively related to
Self-Efficacy (=.381) as Communication Skills explains 26.9 % of the variation in Self-
Efficacy. Self- Esteem was found to significantly and positively impact on Self-Efficacy
(=.499). Communication Skills also significantly impacts on Self-Esteem (=.381). With the
inclusion of Self-Esteem as a mediator, the results indicate that the predictive power in the R
increased from 26.9 % to 38.8 % (R=.119). The first model was significant (=.518) and so
was the second model (=.373). The coefficient decreased from .518 to .373, while the final
model remained significant indicating partial mediation. Thus, the following hypothesis is
accepted: Self- Esteem partially mediates between Communication Skills and Self-Efficacy.
This proves that Self-Esteem has intervening effect in the relationship between
Communication Skills and Self-Efficacy, though it is only partial mediation, that is, part of
the effect of the IV is mediated by the MV but other parts are either direct or mediated by
other variables not included in the model.
5. Conclusion
The findings of this research indicate that WIL does have a meaningful impact on the
university students self-efficacy. The direct relationships between the IVs and self-efficacy
are found to be significant. The addition of self-esteem as a mediator into the measurement
further revealed that self-esteems role as a mediator is proven to be significant between
thinking skills, communication skills and self-efficacy. Even though it was partial mediation
but it signals the potency of WIL in building self-esteem and self-efficacy of the graduating
students.
This research demonstrates the importance of including WIL programs within tertiary
degrees as they provide the opportunity for students to enhance their self-efficacy and the
various elements of work self-efficacy, prior to graduation. This finding is important as
self-efficacy is a personal attribute that helps in developing persistence and the willingness of
an individual to take a risk to develop a particular behaviour in order to increase the potential
of career competency.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Universiti Sains Malaysia for financial support under Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme No. 203/PMGT/6711447.
70
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
7. References
Andrews, J. & Higson, H., 2008. Graduate Employability, Soft Skills Versus Hard.
Business Knowledge: A European Study, Higher Education in Europe, 33:4, 411-422
Arnold, J. & Davey, K.M., 1994. Evaluating graduate development: Key findings from the
graduate development project. Leadership and Development Journal, 15(8), 9-15.
Baker, W. M. & McGregor, C. C., 2000. Empirically assessing the importance of

characteristics of accounting students. Journal of Education for Business, 75(3), 149157.
Bandura, A., 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A., 1997. Self-efficacy and health behaviour. In A. Baum, S. Newman, J. Wienman,
R. West & C. McManus, (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of psychology, health and medicine.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Borzi, M. G. & Mills, T. H., 2001. Communication apprehension in upper level accounting
students: an assessment of skill development. Journal of Education for Business, 76, 193
198.
Brockner, J., 1988. Self-Esteem at Work: Research, Theory and Practice, Lexington Books,
Lexington,MA.
Burkle M., 2010. E-Learning Challenges for Polytechnic Institutions: Bringing e-Mobility to
Hands-on Learning. In Ebner and Schiefner (Eds). Looking towards the future of technology
enhanced education. IGI Global, PA.
Carson, K. D., Carson, P. P., Lanford, A. & Roe, C. W., 1997. The effects of
organization-based self-esteem on workplace outcomes: An examination of emergency
medical technicians. Public Personnel Management, 26, 139-155.
Chen. G., Gully, S.M. & Eden, D., 2001. Validation of a new general selfefficacy scale.
Organizational Research Methods. 4(1), 6283.
Crocker, J. & Luhtanen, R., 1990. Collective self-esteem and in-group bias. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 6067.
Fakhrorazi, A., 2013. Individual Absorptive Capacity of host-country national workers of

foreign MNCs in electrical and electronic sector. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Universiti
Sains Malaysia.
Freudenberg, B., Brimble, M. & Cameron, C., 2011. WIL and generic skill development: The
development of business students generic skills through work-integrated learning.
Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 12(2), 7993.
Hager, P., Crowley, S. & Garrick, J., 2000. Soft skills in the construction industry: How can
the generic competencies assist continuous improvement? Paper presented at the Annual
71
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, University of Sydney,

December 47, 2000.
Harvey, L., Geall, V. & Moon, S., 1998. Work experience: Expanding opportunities for
undergraduates. Birmingham, UK: Centre for Research into Quality, University of Central
England.
Hurrell, S.A., 2009. Soft skills deficits in Scotland: Their patterns, determinants and
employer responses. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of Strathclyde.
Johnson, L. M. & Johnson, V. E., 1995. Help wanted Accountant: What the classifieds say
about employers expectations. Journal of Education for Business, 70, 130134.
Kennedy, S., 2010. Infusing critical thinking into an employability skills program: The
effectiveness of an immersion approach. Unpublished thesis, Edith Cowan University.
Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/140.
Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J. & Buswell, B. N., 1999. Gender differences in
self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 470500.
Komarraju, M. & Dial, C., 2014. Academic identity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem predict
self-determined motivation and goals. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 18.
Korman, A. K., 1970. Toward a hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology,
54, 31-41.
Lee, D. & Blaszczynski, C., 1999. Perspectives of Fortune 500 executives on the
competency requirements for accounting graduates. Journal of Education for Business, 75(2),
104107.
Lin, P., Krishnan, S. & Grace, D., 2014. "The Effect of Experience on Perceived
Communication Skills: Comparisons between Accounting Professionals and Students".
Advances in Accounting Education: Teaching and Curriculum Innovations. Published online:
131-152.
Luhtanen, R. & Crocker, J., 1992. A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of ones
social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302318.
MacLellan, E., 2004. Evidence of authentic achievement: The extent of disciplined enquiry in
student teachers' essay scripts. Australian Journal of Educational and Developmental
Psychology, 4, pp.71-85.
Morgan, G. J., 1997. Communication skills required by accounting graduates: Practitioner

and academic perceptions. Accounting Education, 6, 93107.
Moss, P. & Tilly, C., 1996. Soft Skills and Race: An Investigation of Black Mens
Employment Problems. Work and Occupations, 23(3): 252-276.
Mullen, J., 1997. Graduates deficient in soft skills. People Management, November 6, 18.
Page, C., Wilson, M. Kolb, D., 1993. Managerial competencies and New Zealand
managers: On the inside, looking in. Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland.
72
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pajeras, G.R., 2002. Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self-Efficacy. Retrieved
August 16, 2010, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.htm
Rafikul, I., Mohd Shukri, A.H. & Noor Hazilah, A.M., 2013. Enhancing graduates
employability skills: A Malaysian case. In: Academy of International Business (MENA):
Third Annual Conference 2013, 12-14 January, 2013, Cairo, Egypt.
Rainsbury, E., Hodges,D. Burchell, N. & Lay, M., 2002. Ranking Workplace
Competencies: Graduate and Student Perceptions. Asia- Pacific Journal of Cooperative
Education.3(2):8-18
Rosenberg, M., 1965. Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Stajkovic , A. D. & Luthans , F., 1998. Social cognitive theory and self - efficacy: going
beyond traditional motivational and behavioral approaches . Organizational Dynamics, 26,
62 74.
Subramaniam, N., & Freudenberg, B., 2007. Preparing accounting students for success in the
professional environment: Enhancing self-efficacy through a work integrated learning
environment program. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 8(1), 7792.
Tajfel, H., 1982. Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C., 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S.
Worchel and L. W. Austin (eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Tsui, L., 2002. Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four
institutional case studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740- 763.
Tucker, L.M., 2006. Industry Facilitates Work-Based Learning Opportunities, NZACE

School of Applied Technology Institute, Unitec, New Zealand
Yorke, M., 2011. Workengaged learning: Towards a paradigm shift in assessment, Quality
in Higher Education, 17(1), 117-130.
73
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Cyberbullying Behavior among Teens Moslem

in Pekalongan Indonesia
Rita Rahmawati
A Lecturer of STAIN Pekalongan, Indonesia
Email: ritarahmawati65@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study purposed to analyze the behavior of cyberbullying among Moslem teenagers in
Pekalongan, group conformity in cyberbullying behavior and the implications for the offenders
and the victims. The approach used is qualitative. The collection of data through observation,
interviews, and literary studies. The technical analysis using an interactive model. The results
showed that, cyberbullying behaviors become a trend in the Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan,
Such behavior is not linear with the comprehension of religion (Islam) which was built since
they were children until teenagers. Group conformity is internalized in the Moslem teenagers,
has become the main cause of the rise of this cyberbullyng behavior, thereby defeating the
comprehension of religious values they believe. The implications of cyberbullying behavior,
among others are: 1) the actors: to feel satisfied, happy, arrogant even proud to have managed
to make others suffer; 2) for the victims, some feel mediocre, do not care cuek indifference,
silent (harbored a deep sense), embarrassed, insecure, feeling resentful-keki, feel isolated,
withdrawn, wailing-weeping for her/himself, as well as prefer solitude, and even resulting
laziness to study, lazy to go to school and socialize, because of fear to be ridiculed when they
met with their friends. The conclusion is, that cyberbullyng is regarded as a trend for
Moslems teenagers in Pekalongan, because of group conformity, internalized among them,
which has a negative impact on the offenders and also on the victims. Therefore, it is needed a
comprehensive approach involving parents, schools, communities and governments to
overcome this problem
.
Keywords: behavior, cyberbullying, Moslem teens
1. Introduction
The phenomenon of violence in cyberspace or commonly called as cyberbullying, now a days
it has become an interesting and relevant issue to be studied, because it is still a social problem
today. The sophisticated technology with easyness to access, including for teenagers, became
stimulant for violent behavior "cyberbullying". That conditions become more interesting when
studied in the context of local teenagers of Pekalongan as the city of Santri (Religious city),
with a majority of population are Moslems. The religious tradition in the family that is thick
and religious values embedded from childhood in Moslem teenagers, the fact is not a guarantee
for them to avoid cyberbullying behavior. Based on the results of the FGD of gender
mainstreaming activities organized by the Education Sector Dindikpora Office Pekalongan,
with as many as 50 people FGD participants Moslem teenager, there are 44% or 22 juveniles as
perpetrators and victims of bullying; 56% or 28 teenagers, 22% or 11 of teenagers as
perpetrators and victims of bullying, 30% or 15 of teenagers as victims of bullying, and 4% or
2 of teenager daughters instead of the perpetrator nor the victims of cyberbullying.
The characteristics and models of cyberbullying used by the perpetrators, even not counted
extreme, but it is still an action that is disruptive and hurts the victims, whom is none other than
74
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
their own peers. The study's found that, most of the teenagers in Pekalongan city using social
networking media, such as SMS, BBM, twitter, facebook, instagram, and chating. By way of
mocking, insulting and backbiting, through words, drawings or photos. The perpetrators of
cyberbullying, usually perform attacks at rest time and after school or at night, wich takes place
at home or in Warnet (internet gallery). (Interview, May 14, 2014). Ironically, all those done
by the teenagers assummed as a natural thing, even though as somethings fun and exciting,
especially when that is carried out together with the group. According to them, if not make
cyberbullying, are considered "katrok or not slang, not trend by their friends. The teens do not
realize that their actions, have derailed from the social behavior order, for hurting their friends
and could cause bad effect to the perpetrators themselves more over to the victims.
Based on the above background, the study is purpouse to identify and analyze the behavior of
cyberbullying among Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan, group conformity in cyberbullying
behavior and the implication for the offenders and the victims.
2. Methods
This study is based on the tradition of qualitative research, the research is intended as an
attempt to analyze the social phenomena regarding to the cyberbullyng behavior among
Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan. The key informants are Moslem teenagers as school pupils
with the following criteria: once who was a perpetrator and also victim of cyberbullying, as a
perpretator only and as a victim only. The supporting informants are parents and teachers.
Gathering information using observation and interviews with key informants purposively
selected, then developed with snowball technic. To obtain the data, using literary studies. To
check the credibility of the information and data using triangulation techniques. Analysis
techniques using interactive model (Milles and Huberman, 1992 20).

3.1. Cyberbullying Among Moslem Teenagers in Pekalongan
The Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan city, they live in the religious society, since childhood
they were educated in a religious family too, they study at Islamic school Madrasah Diniyah,
and also study reading quran personally to the ustadz/ustdzah teacher of the quran at home
and mosques. Their Knowledge, understanding and practice of religious rituals is
extraordinary, very obedient and diligent in performing worship. Even so, Cyberbullying is
becoming a trend for them and regarded as an ordinary matter, thereby defeating the
understanding of religious values they believe. The Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan do not
understand if what they do is a form of social behavior deviation, so they just enjoy doing the
cyberbullying action.
The cyberbullying is the incident when a child or teens mocked, insulted, intimidated, or
humiliated by other child or adolescent via the Internet, digital technologies or mobile phones.
The cyberbullying is considered valid if the perpetrator and the victim is under 18 years old and
legally not considered mature yet. If one of the parties involved (or both) are over 18 years
old, it is categorized as cyber crime / cyber stalking or cyber harassment
(https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberbullying). Based on these definitions, the indicator of
cyberbullying, are: the age of the perpetrator or the victim, the media used, certain forms,
certain goals and certain offenders and victims.
To clarify the discussion, then cyberbullying in the Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan, were
analyzed by using these indicators, namely:
75
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1) in view of the age of the offenders and the victims. The age of the perpetrators and victims of
cyberbullying in the Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan average of 14 to 16 years old. That is, at
this age they are legally considered as immature or still said to be the children (teenagers).
Mean while if bulyying done by the perpetrator and the victim or one of them are aged over 18
years, it will be categorized as cyber crime or cyber stalking (often also called cyber
harassment).
2) In view of the media used. The media used are SMS, BBM, facebook, chat, instagram,
twitter and others. Empirical evidence shows that, Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan mostly
prefer to use facebook to make bully attacks, compared to SMS, BBM, chat, instagram or
twtiter.
3) In view of the shapes and models. The study's findings show that, shapes and models of
cyberbullying is done with words, pictures or uploading photos. Words used such as: "Kiwil
(teeth forward), wagu, lackeys, kudet, squirt, filthy, cupu, silly, monkey, tamarind, whacky,
Kupret, angel tock, black, ugly, arrogant, kepo, Alay, cumbersome, fat, effeminate,
PHO (Destroyer Relations Person), little has been tried, katrok, cabean-cabean,
eggplant-terongan, coffee (black) and others". By using images such as scary cartoons, cypress
/ porn, as well as sending photos edited in such a way. Forms and models of cyberbullying by
using words more attractive to female offenders, while those using drawings, caricatures and
photos more attractive to the sex offenders males. It occurs because motorically and even
psychologically, the boy prefers to something visual, while girl prefers to something verbal.
When analyzed using cyberbullying acts of Willard (2007: 265-267), the model and the form of
cyberbullying in the reality of Moslem teenagers Pekalongan included categories: Flaming
(burning), which sends text messages whose contents are the words and includes also
categories harassment (interference), ie that contain annoying messages through facebook, that
is conducted continuously to drop the mental and psychologi to victim that can make the victim
feels uncomfortable.
4) In view of the intention The fact that occured among Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan,
shows that, the intention of the perpetrator to make the bully through the media, are 1) to take
revenge on the victim because of anger, because of getting bad treatment in daily life or in the
real world; 2) to make gossip. This is usually done by teenaged girls, because those girls
regarded by their friends as pretty pretentious, pedantic, kemayu or grooming too flashy,
pretentious rich and no longer rumored of seizing her boyfriend; for Bullying, harassing,
insulting; because of the perpetrators anger, envy and dislike to the victim; 3) to make a joke
by mocking and insulting each other by using words, pictures and/or images. (Interview dated
May 7, 2014).
5) In view of the perpetrator and the victim. The reality that occures among Moslem teenagers
of Pekalongan, cyberbullying offenders are those who have the character of arrogance, selfish,
pretentious (pretty pretentious, self-handsome, kuminter quasi-clever, and tend to be
arbitrary), Meanwhile for the victim, usually because of the typical physic conditions and
characters, such as silent-a weak, easily upset. Even those who can also be the victims are
because of arrogance over his arrogant behavior. (Interview dated May 4, 2014)
The Process and cycles of cyberbullying in the reality of Moslem teenagers of Pekalongan is
unknown circle when the beginning and the end, because it is a string of interrelated between
one and others. That means, the perpetrator could be a victim, on the other hand the victim
could be the perpetrator or could be both sides as perpetrator and victim. If the victim shows the
signs that he/she is disturbed or gives up, so that is an evidence that the offender successfull.
76
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Perpetrators feel happy and satisfied on his/her dominance. If there is justification or support
from others (bystanders), so gradually the empathy of the perpetrator will disappear and
bullying will continue to be more intense and more elaborated. The cycle of bullying will stop
if the victim is trying to seek help or looking for ways to escape away from the perpetrator.
Ways that are taken, usually asking for help from his/her friend, fighting back, taking no care
as if nothing happened, yielding, and passivity with no response
3.2. Tracing the Causes and Internalization of Conformity Group in Cyberbullying.

According to the results of research conducted by some experts, Bowers (2005), Ardiyansyah
(2008), Santrock (2001), Coloroso (2006) and Astuti (2008) concluded that the main factor that
caused the cyberbullying is closely related to the condition of the family, namely: the
relationship of parents who are not in harmony, parents who are too busy and model of
authoritarian parenting. The results of these studies, it is different from what happened in the
reality of Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan. The fact, that the causes of cyberbullyng among
Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan, are:
1) internal factors. This factor comes from the character of each individual. The character can
be referred to the nature, character or personality of someone who gives a characteristic,
determines a person's attitude and power adjustment to the environment are relatively
embedded and foreseeable. This characteristic gives an overview of a person's personality such
as jovial, sad, rigid natured, petulant vengeful, envious, shy, reserved, arrogant, selfish,
humorous and so on. The nature or the character eventually became one of the factors, a person
doing the bullying action.
2) external factors. These factors include: information technology, environment and peer group
conformity.
The information technology. Cyberbullying will not happen if there is no information
technology that become the media to perform such actions. Easyness of the dissemination of
information through the media increasingly invites to continue to commit acts of
cyberbullying. Perpetrators prefer cyberbullying to other forms of bullying, because of
negative information can be disseminated more quickly through the media and they are afraid
to deal with the victims directly, and to disguise their actions.
Peer environment. According to Ryan (2001: 135-150), that the peer group is all form of
interaction with a child or teenager who has a best friend, average aged friend, with the same
interests and goals. Peer environment, being very decisive factor against acts of cyberbullying
among teenagers of Pekalongan. Cyberbullying is becoming a trend among them, thereby
affecting other teens with the same age, because if they do not perform the same action with
peer friends, they are fear of not regarded "slang" or in the local language is called the "katrok".
Group conformity. According to Sears (1994) conformity is certain behaviors that is carried
out by an individual, because of another person or group perform such a behavior or act the
same, although the individual likes or does not like what happened. Cyberbullying among
Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan that became a trend for moslem teenagers resulting in the
teens to follow a group of peers as a form of conformity to be recognized his/her existence in
the group.
The need to get together and build a peer in conformity with the reality of Moslem teenagers in
Pekalongan, not only in teenagers who do not like living at home, but also for those who like
staying at home or homey juvenile, also still need for gathering in groups with his/her friends.
77
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
That is, the need for conformity to peers not only occurs in teenagers who get less attention and
affection from their parents, but also teens who get full attention and affection from his/her
parents even though they require to remain in conformity with peer-friends. This surely break
the opinion of experts who stated that, teens will be more in conformity, if the relationship with
their parents was not harmonic. That is not such a thing, because the conformity of the teens is
more affected by the need to seek self-identity and self-existence so that they are recognized by
their peers group.
This Peer group conformity as a matter of fact it has become one of the causes of cyberbullying
that occurs among Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan. The Internalization of conformity into
cyberbullying behavior committed by Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan intended to facilitate
the process of unification themselves into peers activity ongoing, in order they are accepted
easily, recognized and valued as members of peer groups. To clarify the discussion of the
internalization of conformity in cyberbullying behaviors were analyzed using Sears thinking,
namely: (Sears, 1994: 81-86).
1) Compactness
The Compactness starts from a sense of interest of individuals in certain groups, that
encouraged him to continue to be a member of the group. This is done with an intense meeting
and behave in harmony with other members of the group. The strength of the reference group,
causing teens interested and want to remain to be a member of the group. The strength of
relationship of the teen with reference group due to the feelings of love among members of the
group and hopes to get benefit from its membership. The bigger the feeling of love among
other members, and the greater of the hope to get the benefit from the groups as well as their
loyalty, the more compact for the group.
The facts that occurred, cohesiveness of Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan, when making
cyberbullying activity seen when they determine whom the victim, shapes and models to be
used for bullying whether using words, pictures or photos, then what words are most
appropriate to the victim and images That will be used by them as a compact group will be
jointly determined. Compactness was also seen when they determine when and where they will
make the bully action. Compactness become an important part of the strength of the peer group.
2) Agreement
The agreement is shown with having the same opinion, either because they believe in the
group, or because of fear of getting pressure from the group if having different opinion. The
reference of group opinions that has been created has a strong pressure so that teenagers must
be loyal and adjust their opinions with the opinion of the group.
This study shows that an agreement among members of the group when making the
cyberbullying is the same as when they must determine whom the victim unanimously, models
and shapes as well as the place that will be used. Meanwhile, sometimes the agreement of
group members could have occurred because of they do so by forced. That means, the
agreement given by the group members could be given not because of a desire in themselves,
but because of the loyalty of themselves that causes unwilling of different opinion with the
group even though in his heart did not agree. For example, Wahyu Safitri did not agree when
the peers group want to make bullying on one of her classmates, but her disagreement was just
buried inside of heart because if she did not agree, then she would be accused of disloyalty to
the group.
78
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3) Obedience
The Obedience is a submissive behavior following the group's decision, even though the
individual actually disagrees. Pressure or demands of the reference of the teens group make
him/her to do the act willingly even if teenagers do not want to do it. The obedience is the
highest level compared with the compactness and agreements. The same as the agreement,
obedience occurs when group members are willing to do the actions performed by the group,
even though he does not want it, but the difference between agreement done to meet the group
loyalty and obedience is done so that not excluded and/or removed from the group members.
The Participation on making cyberbullying together with group members although in his heart
does not want it, is a form of obedience that is done to keep him/her recognized, respected as
part of the group members.
Based on the exposure of the above, it can be concluded that the internalization of conformity
in cyberbullying behavior occurs because of the compactness, agreement and obedience from
members of the peer group to be recognized, accepted and valued their existence as a group
member.
3.3. Cyberbullying Implications for Perpetrators and Victims among Moslem Teenagers
in Pekalongan
The study, conducted by scientists from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) revealed that,
cyber-bullying was more painful than the physical violence. Victims of cyber-bullying
experienced higher levels of depression, feeling isolated, treated inhumanely, and helpless
when they are attacked.
Based on the fact that among Moslem teenagers in Pekalongan, cyberbullying implications for
victims, including ie: 1) for certain teenagers just make casual act, no care cuek, nonchalant
2) Some are silent (sorrowful) no courage for any action because of fear, embarrassed in his
thoughts as everyone laughing on him, less of self confidence, feeling imperfect, feeling
shunned by his friends, feeling awry, resentful, angry to themselves, isolated, withdrawn,
daydreaming themselves when in class, wailing-weeping themselves, and prefer to be alone.
Further effect, then those all could cause certain juvenile lazy to learn, lazy to go to school
because of fear, ashamed if mocked when meeting with his friends, because he thought that all
his friends know the case on him.
As someone who became a victim, usually due to certain physical conditions that is typical,
such as weak-quiet natured, easily upset. Even those who are arrogant can also be the victim of
his arrogant behavior as well as the clever, for example because he/she does not give any
answers key when doing examination so he/she was bullied, they were envy with his/her
intelligence. While the implications for the actors, such as: feeling satisfied, happy and even
proud to have succeeded in making others suffer. Based on the results of inteview with the
victim, nor the victim or with the perpetrator, they stated that most perpetrators have caracters
of arrogant, selfish, pretentious of beautiful, of handsome, of smart, and tend to be arbitrary,
but some regretted/sorry on what he has done so then finally tried to apologize for the actions
that was done.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations

The Cyberbullyng becomes a trend for teenagers Moslems in Pekalongan caused by group
conformity that is internalized among them, it has a negative impact on perpetrators and also
79
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
victims. Therefore, we need a comprehensive approach involving parents, schools,

communities and governments to overcome this problem.
5. References
Ardiyansyah, A.A. 2008. Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Bullying Pada Remaja. Skripsi
s.n. . Yogyakarta: Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Islam Indonesia
Astuti, P.R. 2008. Meredam Bullying: 3 cara Efektif Menanggulangi Kekerasan pada Remaja
Jakarta: Grasindo.
Bryan Piotrowski Information for Educators, cyberbuyling.blogspot.com/2012_10_01_

archive.htm. [Accessted 22 Februari 2014]
Coloroso, B. 2006. Penindas, Tertindas, dan Penonton. Jakarta : Serambi Ilmu Semesta
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberbullying [Accessted 22 Februari 2014]
J W. Santrock, 1994. Remaja Edisi 11 Jilid 2. Jakarta : Erlangga

Krahe, B. 2005. Perilaku Agresif. Panduan Psikologi Sosial. Yogyakarta. Pustaka Remaja
Offset.
Matthew B. Milles dan A. Michael Huberman, 1992. An Expandedn Soucers Book :
Qualitative Data Analiysis, Sage Publications.
Ormel, J., Verhulst, F.C., De Winter, A,F., Oldehinkel, A,J., Liendberg, S. And Veenstra, R.
2005. Bullying and Victimization in Elementary Schools: A Comparison of Bullies, Victims,
Bully/Victims, and Uninvolved Preadolescents. Journal Developmental Psychology Vol.41,
No 4. pp. 672-682
Ryan, A.M, 2001. The Peer Group as a Context for the Development of Young Adolescent
Motivation and Achievement. Journal of Child Development, 72 (4): pp 1135-1150.
Santrock, J.W. 2001. Adolescent. Eighth adition. USA: The Mc Graw Hill.
Sears, D.O, freedman J.L. Peplau L.A., 1994. Psikologi Sosial II, Alih Bahasa michael
Adiyanto, Jakarta: Erlangga, 81-86
Willard, N. 2007. Cyberbullying and Cyberthreats: Responding to the Challenge of Online
Social Agression, Threats, and Distress, Champaign, IL: Research Pres. 265-267
80
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Relationship between Permissive Parenting Style toward Delinquent

Behavior among Children In Sabah
Siti Noor Fazariah Bt Suis @ Mohd Rusdya, Zulkarnaen Ahmad Hattab, Ferlis Bin
Bullare @ Bahari
a,
Faculty of Psychology and Education, Psychology Building, Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
Sabah, Malaysia
Email: fazariah@ums.edu.my
b
Pusat Pengajian Sains Kemasyarakatan, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Email: Haqqani@usm.my
c
Psychology And Social Health Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology And
Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
Sabah, Malaysia
Email: ferlis@ums.edu.my
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between permissive parenting styles toward delinquent
behavior among children in Sabah. A total of 193 delinquent children aged 12-18 years old
were selected by using purposive sampling method from four correctional institutions in
Sabah, which known as Sekolah Tunas Bakti and Taman Seri Puteri. Both were under the
supervision of The Department of Social Welfare, Malaysia, and Sekolah Henry Gurney Kota
Kinabalu and Sekolah Henry Gurney Keningau which were organized by Prison Department
of Malaysia. The revised version of the Junger Delinquency Scale and the Paulsons
Perception of Parenting Style were used in this study. The results showed significant positive
relationship between permissive parenting styles with delinquent behavior. Practical
recommendation and implementation are discussed.
Keywords: Permissive parenting style, Children, Delinquency
1. Introduction
Delinquent behavior has become a serious phenomenon in our society nowadays, especially
among youth on the globe. According to (World Youth Report, 2003), for many young
people today, traditional patterns guiding the relationships and transitions between family,
school and work are being challenged. Social relations that ensure a smooth process of
socialization are collapsing; lifestyle trajectories are becoming more varied and less
predictable. The restructuring of the labour market, the extension of the maturity gap (the
period of dependence of young adults on the family) and, arguably, the more limited
opportunities to become an independent adult are all changes influencing relationships with
family and friends, educational opportunities and choices, labour market participation, leisure
activities and lifestyles. It is not only developed countries that are facing this situation; in
developing countries as well there are new pressures on young people undergoing the
transition from childhood to independence. Rapid population growth, the unavailability of
81
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
housing and support services, poverty, unemployment and underemployment among youth,
the decline in the authority of local communities, overcrowding in poor urban areas, the
disintegration of the family, and ineffective educational systems are some of the pressures
young people must deal with.
Malaysia is also facing the risen of delinquency cases as shown in the statistical reports.
Referring to the recent studies (Lim, Hasbullah, Ahmad and Wu, 2013) showed that, juvenile
cases have risen steadily since 2002. Daily newspaper reports with new titles such as Mat
Rempit, Bohsia and Bohjan, Infanticide, Drug Abusers, Rape , Abortion that
frequently appeared at the front page of our local newspapers are the evidences of the
increasing delinquency behaviors among adolescents. Based on the news report, the police
recorded 6048 juvenile cases in 2009 compared with 2955 cases in 2002. According to the
analysis based on the Drug Report, 2012 (National Anti-Drug Agency of Malaysia, cited in
Lim, et al., 2013, p. 215) from January 2012 to September 2012, among 6935 drug abusers,
young people were comprised of 4618 abusers. In 2011, there were 5547 juvenile cases in
Malaysia where males involved in 5270 cases while females involved in 277 cases.
Referring to the statistic report issued by Department of Social Welfare (2009), there were
3862 delinquency cases, where females, involved in 232 cases. The highest reported cases
were recorded in Johor with 27 females involve in 27 cases and the lowest cases were
reported in Sabah with 94 cases, including Labuan territory with 16 cases. In 2010, the
numbers of delinquency cases increased by 603 cases and the total cases for this year were
4465, where females, involved in 282 cases. Meanwhile, in 2011, there were 5547 cases
where males involved in 5720 cases and females involved in 277 cases.
The analysis of the statistical data proved the increasing numbers of delinquency cases
among children in Malaysia and it will become more dangerous, unless some appropriates
action are taken. As a respond to the increased cases in juvenile delinquency, lot of studies
have been done in investigating the causal factors on the children delinquent behavior.
Referring to (Hoeve, et al., 2012 and Immele., 2000, cited in Lim, et al, 2013) One of the
main factors that become a concern for the rising of juvenile delinquency is the attachment
with family and friend. According to (Wittenborn, 2002), parents have a world of influence
over their children and basically mold and shape their children into adults. The discipline
style they use has a great impact. As an addition to that (Baumrind, 1971, cited in
Witternbon, 2002) based on Earl Schaefers (1959), defined three parenting styles concepts of
parental demandingness and responsiveness. Parental demandingness is the degree to which
parents set guidelines for their children, and how they discipline based on these guidelines.
Parental responsiveness is the emotional aspect of parenting. Responsiveness refers to the
degree to which parents attend to their children's needs and support their children. Permissive
parenting is low in demandingness and high in responsiveness. Permissive parents do not
impose rules on their children; their children can do what they want when they want.
Permissive parents can either be supportive (indulgent) or not care about their children
(neglectful). This style of parenting can be also harmful to a developed child.
2. Research Method
Setting
This study was carried out in four correctional institutions in Sabah. These institutions were
monitored and supervised by The Prison Department of Malaysia and The Welfare
Department of Malaysia.
82
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Participants
The respondents consisted of 193 delinquent children aged from 12 years old to 18 years old
whom were selected by purposive sampling. The approval from The Prison Department of
Malaysia and The Welfare Department of Malaysia were obtained through official procedure.
Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to the respondents in the institutions.
Instructions in answering the questionnaire form and confidentiality of the study were
explained to the respondents. Questionnaires were promptly collected upon the completion of
the process.
Instruments
The revised version of The Junger Delinquency Scale (cited in Baharom, 2006, pp. 177-179)
was used to measure the delinquent behavior among the respondents. This scale measured the
frequency of delinquent behavior done by the respondents before being ordered to undergo
the rehabilitation program in correctional institutions by the authorities. The Junger
Delinquency Scale consists of four types of delinquent behavior which categorized into
physical delinquency, antisocial delinquency, sexual delinquency and verbal delinquency.
This inventory is a five-point Likert Scale ranging from almost never, sometimes, seldom,
often and always. Higher score indicates higher frequency of delinquent behavior showed by
the respondents. The Cronbachs alpha for this instrument was .945.
The Paulsons Perception of Parenting Style (cited in Baharom, 2006, pp. 173-177) was
administered to measure the permissive parenting style practicing by parent of the
respondents. This scale measured the perception of respondents toward the parenting style
practiced by their parents by responding strongly disagree, disagree, less agree, agree and
strongly agree. The Cronbachs alpha for the instrument was .501.
Findings
Table 1: Correlations between permissive parenting styles toward delinquent behaviour

among children in Sabah
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Sig.
Permissive parenting style Delinquent behaviour .329**
Note. 1: Delinquent behaviour; 2: Permissive parenting style
*r<.05**p<.01
The correlations result between permissive parenting styles toward delinquent behavior
among children in Sabah. Based on the result from Table 1, permissive parenting style has a
positive relationship toward delinquent behavior among children in Sabah, (r=.329, p<01).
3. Discussion
The correlations result between permissive parenting style toward delinquent behavior among
delinquent children in Sabah. Based on the result from Table 1, permissive parenting style
has a positive relationship toward delinquent behavior among children, (r=.329, p<01). This
showed that children who are highly treated with permissive parenting style by their parent
are more likely to be involved in delinquent behaviour. As in the discussion earlier stated
that permissive parenting referred to the parenting style which children can do whatever they
want at any time they want. Even though previous research in western context showed that
83
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
permissive parenting style is less related toward the delinquent behavior, this situation is
different in Sabah. Therefore, it is hoped that parents in Sabah will be more concern on their
children activities and needs.
As for the parents, the findings of the suggested future research will be fruitful on their styles
of parenting which suits the nature of their social system, the structure of their family and the
personality of their children. According to Regoli and Hewitt (2003, pp. 259), effective
parenting depends on many things. The quality of parenting (as well as interactions within the
family) changes as a child misbehavior or delinquency increases over time. Often, parents
become angry and short-tempered with a child who consistently gets into trouble or
disillusioned when they find they cannot believe what child tells them. Over time, parent may
become more distant and alienated.
The importance of the findings of meaningful research on juvenile delinquency for future
rehabilitation program is also needed. Referring to Trojanowicz and Morash (1987), vigorous
research is necessary to identify the many variables related to the phenomenon of juvenile
delinquency. Meaningful research can contribute to the establishment of the theoretically
sound treatment, prevention, and control programs. Research can provide a sound basis on
which successful programs can be replicated in different environments and communities.
Again referring to Trojanowicz and Morash (1987), efforts should be made to tailor the
juvenile justice system to the juvenile and the type of crime involved. Status offenders,
first-time offenders, and those involved in less serious crimes should ideally be dealt with
outside the stigmatizing formal system. The police officer should be initial preventive agent
who should deliver the offender to a social agency that could handle the specific problem on
a voluntary basis.
Permissive parenting styles has been proven as having a positive relationship toward
delinquent behavior among children in Sabah, therefore, the practiced parenting style among
parents in Sabah, need to be studied. According to Trojanowicz and Morash (1987), an
understanding of parenting skills holds more promise as an explanation of delinquency. Much
of our knowledge of parenting skills comes from studies of youths who display a wide variety
of disturbances, including mental illness and acting-out closely related to each other. One of
the characteristics of families in which one or more children are disturbed is the inability of
family members to work out difficulties without engaging in destructive arguments. When
family members talk together, they show high levels of negative feelings about each other
and often they give conflicting messages. Expanding knowledge on the effective parenting
styles among parents and the relationship between these two parties will reduce the
possibility of children to behave delinquently.
The importance of knowledge enhancing on the effective parenting doesnt mean, it has been
erroneously generalize that all parents are taking granted of their children. Referring to
(Patterson, 1980 cited in Trojanowicz and Morash, 1987, pp. 109-110), increasing numbers
of young parents function is isolated family systems, removed from modelling influences,
informal sources, and support systems. Such being the case, then there will be wide variations
among parents in performing parenting skills. Parenting skills describe a perfectly mundane
set of operations that would include: (a) notice what the child is doing; (b) monitor it over
long periods; (c) model social skill behavior; (d) clearly state house rules; (e) consistently
provide sane punishments for transgressions; (f) provide reinforcement for conformity: and
(g) negotiate disagreements so that conflicts and crises do not escalate. Again, referring to the
84
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
studies (Cernkovich and Giordani, 1987, cited in Henggeler, 1989, pp. 43) found that low
parental control and supervision was a strong predictor of self-reported delinquent behavior,
especially in single-parent families. Therefore, it can be concluded that, children need more
attention and supervision from their parents, and permissive parenting style which is lack of
that criterion, doesnt effective to be practised.
Referring to the studies (Wilson, 1980 cited in Arthur, 2007, pp.19) showed that parents who
were lenient in their supervision, for instance allowing their children to roam the streets
without a set time for return and without knowing where they were, were more likely to
produce delinquents, and highly likely to do so if they resided in areas characterised by high
rates of delinquency. It was also discovered that the rate of delinquency in homes where
parental supervision was lenient was more than seven times that for families assessed as
being strict. The findings of both studies strongly agreed that, permissive parenting style is
the causal factors on the development of delinquent behavior among children which shown
through the reported delinquency cases. Again, lenient supervision has been agreed in
predicting the behavior among children and it should be highlighted, that, to avoid permissive
parenting, parent should be aware on the daily activities of their children, such as with whom
they are spending their time together, with whom they are for the whole days and what are
they doing. These types of information are important to strengthen the effective supervision
among parent.
This study is also suggested a thorough understanding among society on the nature of
delinquency. Referring (Eldefonso, 1967, pp. 23) many people view delinquency much in the
same way that they some psychological disease. They think of it as a specific pathology in
the body of society. This is misconception. Truancy, incorrigibility, delinquency, are but
symptomatic pictures of underlying conditions, the roots of which may be found in the family
relationships, the school adjustment, the environmental background of the child, or in some
psychological or physiological aspects of the individuals personality. Moreover, delinquency
is often the result of a combination of factors some of which may be found in the
environment of the child and others within the child himself. The nature of delinquency,
therefore, will differ both because of the environmental forces and because of the nature of
the delinquent child.
Besides that, the interaction within family members is also significant to be strengthened.
According to Trojanowicz and Morash (1987, pp. 108) research and theory to explain
delinquency take into account many different family characteristics. Some of these, such as
family economics and broken homes, are difficult to change, and their link to delinquency is
difficult to interpret because of their relationship to other factors that are associated with
delinquency. As broad understandings is crucial in delinquency issues, hence, the
characteristics of family in Sabah, as well as the factors influencing their practised parenting
styles need to be studied. In any form family characteristic, family should always aware on
the behavior shown by their children, in order to prevent the risks of delinquent behavior
influencing their children life and the having conflict with the law. No less significant but far
more difficult is the distinction between the delinquent and the individual who has no conflict
with the law. Official delinquency usually implies involvement with the police, detention,
court handling, damaging associations, semipunitive correctional treatment, and a role and
stigma that are ineradicably injurious-not-withstanding all the idyllic euphemisms to the
contrary that embellish the literature on rehabilitative therapy (Tappan, 1949, pp. 4).
4. Conclusion
85
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
This study has investigated the relationship between permissive parenting styles toward
delinquent behavior among children in Sabah. The finding has shown that, permissive
parenting style wasnt the effective parenting style to be practised among children in Sabah
local context. Last but not least, it is also suggested that, meaningful research on the
parenting styles will be done widely, as a part of the response on the rising delinquency cases.
The comparison between many researches which had been done in various settings of
clientele, will give myriad of benefits toward delinquent children, especially whom are
undergo the rehabilitation programs. As stated earlier, the limitation of this study was the
difficulties in getting large sampling of respondents due to the policy of the correctional
institutions. It is hoped that the procedure will be considered in the future for the sake of
developing a thorough understanding delinquent behavior among peoples.
5. Acknowledgement
I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my Master of Social Work Dissertation
Supervisor, Associate Professor Dr Zulkarnaen Ahmad Hatta, for the knowledge sharing and
guidance for me through the process of doing this research in 2012. I would also like to
appreciate my academician colleges in Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti
Malaysia Sabah for their emotional support and Universiti Malaysia Sabah for the scholarship
for my studies. Last but not least, I also want to thank The Prison Department of Malaysia
and The Welfare Department of Malaysia for the permission on the data collection in
rehabilitation institutions.
6. References
Arthur, R., 2007. Family life and youth offending, home is where the hurt is. New York:
Routledge.
Baharom, B., 2006. Persekitaran keluarga dan kesannya terhadap tingkahlaku devian
remaja di Daerah Pontian , Johor (Tesis Sarjana). Fakulti Pendidikan: Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia. Available at:
<http://eprints.utm.my/5994/1/tesis.pdf> [Accessed 13.12.2015].
Eldefonso, E. 1967. Law enforcement and the youthful offender. 3rd ed. UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA: JOHN WILEY & SONS.
Henggeler, W., S. 1989. Delinquency in adolescence. United States of America: SAGE

PUBLICATIONS
Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, Laporan Statistik 2009. Kuala Lumpur.

Lim, J.C., Hasbullah, M., Ahmad, S. and Wu, S., L. 2013. Parental attachment, peer
attachment, and delinquency among adolescents in Selangor, Malaysia. Asian Social Science,
2013, 9(15), pp.214-219.
Juvenile Delinquency. World Youth Report. 2015. [online] Available at:

<http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ch07.pdf> [Accessed 10 December 2015].
86
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Regoli, M., R. and Hewitt, D., J. 2003. Delinquency in society. 5th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Trojanowicz, C., R. and Morasch., M. 1987. Juvenile delinquency: Concepts and control. 4th
ed. New Jersey: PRENTICE-HALL, INC
Tappan, W., P. 1949. Juvenile Delinquency. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Wittenborn, M., 2002. The relations between parenting styles and juvenile delinquency.
Honors Theses. Paper 266.
87
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
88
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Bojonegoro District, The Best Governance Role in Indonesias Economic

Development and Poverty Alleviation1
Dr. Sri Suryaningsum, S.E., M.Si.a, Ak., C.A., Dr. Moch. Irhas Effendi, M.Si.b, Drs. R.
Hendri Gusaptono, M.Mc
Economic Faculty, UPNVY, Indonesia
Email: suryaningsumsri@yahoo.com a, ,m.irhasefendi@yahoo.comb ,
tono_hendri@yahoo.comc
Abstract
This writing uses the method of data collecting from any sources, but is specified into the
measure of time 2008 until today, to signify the development of governance, especially in
poverty alleviation, in Bojonegoro under the leadership of Bojonegoro regent, Suyoto.
According to the analysis of this writing, it can be concluded that the governance in
Bojonegoro develops from time to time under the leadership of Bojonegoro regent, Suyoto. He
succeeded to control Bojonegoro by applying democratic system toward all of Bojonegoros
citizens level. The aim of this writing is as the role of good even best governance for every
region in Indonesia, so that they can imitate the leadership of Bojonegoro regent, Suyoto, in the
effort of poverty alleviation.
Keywords: Bojonegoro, governance, democratic system, pro-poor system, welfare, poverty

alleviation.
1
The research funding by KEMENRISTEKDIKTI RI, PUPT 2015, about Poverty Alleviation.
89
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1. Introduction
Generally, governance has similar basic rule and legislation as standard regulations in governing.
However, the leader in each region has his own way to govern and apply the rule also legislation.
He has certain innovation and creativity in applying the regulation that has already exist. The
certain innovation and creativity also be adjusted to the peoples characteristics in each region, so
that the leader can be accepted by the people and the program that has been planned can be done
well together with the support of the citizens.
The interesting phenomenon today is how the region leader success to bring the citizens to be
wealth and independent. It is also interesting to deal with the leaders way to involve all of the
people directly into each governance activity. In this writing, the regent that will be discussed is
Suyoto, Bojonegoro regent, (as it usually called bupati).
The background of this writing is the phenomenon that has been stated before, that some leaders
have certain innovation and creativity to govern their people. Here the focus is Suyoto, the bupati
of Bojonegoro that is claimed to be success leader. The measure of time of this writing is limited
into 2008 until today, considering the development of Bojonegoro governance under Suyotos
control.
Otto Scharmer, the professor from MIT, America, stated that Bojonegoro in the era of Suyoto is
claimed to be one of some regions that has good governance (2013). The innovation of Suyoto has
succeeded to rebuild Bojonegoro to be as good as today. The central government of Indonesia also
appreciate Suyotos competency in applying good governance principles. Here Bojonegoro proves
that this region able to grow and transform as a democratic region. Bojonegoro becomes one of
some barometers for another region in Indonesia, also in the world. It applies democratic system,
with pro-people-policies that always open and transparent.
The organizational of this writing is preceded by the background of study, analysis and conclusion.
The governance phenomenon is discussed in background of study. The discussion topic of this
writing is Suyoto, bupati Bojonegoro, as one of successful regents, to lead Bojonegoro as wealth
and independent region.
1.1 Main Text
The analysis in this writing consists of some definitions, ways also innovations that are done
by Bupati Suyoto in leading Bojonegoro. The system that is applied in Bojonegoro is democratic
system, where the citizens are welcomed to suggest and complain about everything. So here we
can see that the government and also the citizens are working together for the better future of
Bojonegoro. The innovation of Bupati Suyoto to rebuild Bojonegoro consists of six points. Those
points are stated in the power point made by Suyoto entitled Bojonegoro: Melawan Kutukan
Sumberdaya Alam, Wujudkan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan, as pillars to govern Bojonegoro.
Suyoto hoped that those pillars can be done continuously and sustainable. He also made some
transformations for the success future of Bojonegoro. It also stated in Suryaningsum, et al. 2014a
and b and also Suyoto 2015, that there should be good governance to maintain poverty.
90
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Democratic Government - The Freedom of Citizens Voice
Suyoto is likened to Harun Al Rasyid in Abasiyah era. The people are always welcomed to deliver
and express their suggestions even complain on everything to him. Cited from kompasiana.com,
Demokrasi ala Bojonegoro, Suyoto applied democratic system in Bojonegoro, where the people
are free to state their aspiration. He also opens a routine public dialogue in every Friday after
finished Friday praying in pendapa of his official residence. This dialogue has been started since
2008 as his governing began. Everyone can join, usually about 500 guess come, and the local radio
station broadcast this dialogue live.
The leadership style of Suyoto succeeded to make him recorded into Leading By Emerging
Future book, by Otto Scharmer (2013). Scharmer stated that social changes in Bojonegoro is
caused by economic and democratic development, and represents 4D government role, direct,
dialogic, distribute and digital.
Suyoto stated that democratic system today is about the two sides communication and Scharmer
claimed that Bojonegoro is the best governance role in the world. Scharmer said that democracy in
Bojonegoro uses eco approach rather than ego. In this approach, Suyoto propose four points as
the leaders pillars.
First, gain mightiness through easy way. The real key in politic is trust, not money politics. It
means that the more trusted easier to get citizens attention. The credibility of leader can be
obtained by having direct contact with the people, by communicating, listening their problem,
formulating solution, and keeping integrity and intensity of communication with them.
Second, democracy management. The example of democracy management by Suyoto is always
regards the competitors as friends, together as one for the better future of Bojonegoro. It is a taboo
for them to say it is not my responsibility, there will no there is no money, is a prohibition to
grumbling or moaning, always try to do the best, and do not corrupt. It constructs the spirit of eco
system for Bojonegoros stakeholders.
Third, how to implement eco system based administration. Suyoto has certain mechanism to keep
in touch with the people by making dialogue, conducting field survey, giving the contact of all
stakeholders and Suyoto himself, as a direct access for them to convey their problem. By applying
this mechanism, there will be no conflict between citizens and government and the process of
co-creating and productive dialogue to solve problem and also Bojonegoro will be independent
and wealthier.
Fourth, spiritual transformation. Spiritual transformation according to Suyoto means self
connection toward society and nature. Spiritual is the base of ego system, because of this a human
should have self-management. He defines about spiritual transformation through one of surahs in
Al Quran, al-fatihah.
Independent Breakthrough
The article by Roqib 2014, entitled Petinggi Embung yang Doyan Ngetrail from
koran-sindo.com quotes about the pre-navigation program by Suyoto. He realizes that Bojonegoro
has potential sources. Pre-navigation program is the program to rebuild the road between villages
and sub-districts by using paving block. The length of road to build is 1.150 metres in 430 villages
and 28 sub-districts. Paving blocks that are used made from local materials from Bojonegoro.
91
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Paving blocks are easy to made, eco friendly and cheaper than asphalt. It will need Rp 300 million
for one kilometre road using paving blocks, and Rp 500 million for asphalt. Besides those reasons,
there is also people empowerment, because the government of Bojonegoro only gives the paving
blocks and materials needed, while the people who build the road are the people from the villages.
By having good road between villages and sub-districts, hopefully economic development of
Bojonegoro can grow faster. The villages agricultural products can be directly sold in traditional
market.
To solve the problem of water in Bojonegoro, Suyoto makes 1.000 ponds program. These ponds
are used as reservoir of rain water in the rainy season and as the source of irrigation in the dry
season. The function of pond is not only as reservoir for rain water, but it also used as fish pond and
tourism object. These 1.000 ponds will be realized in 2018. It needs Rp 50 million until Rp 300
million per unit of pond and the areal to be used is half until one acre of villages area. The
program of 1.000 ponds is the answer of the water problem in Bojonegoro. Besides the help of
ponds, the irrigation also supplied from Waduk Pacal and Bengawan Solo River. Suyoto said.
Bojonegoro also has its own batik, called batik jonegoroan, with 14 motifs such as gastro, meliwis,
parang dahana mungal, tembakau, sapi, pari sumilak, thengul, pisang, salak, jagung, belimbing,
jati, and mangga. The industries of batik are spread in some sub-districts, and it is used as uniform
for school students and employees.
Six Pillars for Continuously and Sustainable Development of Bojonegoro
In governing, Suyoto applies six pillars for the development of Bojonegoro. Hopefully these
pillars can be done continuously and sustainable. These six points are stated in his power point
entitled Bojonegoro: Melawan Kutukan Sumberdaya Alam, Wujudkan Pembangunan
Berkelanjutan and also cited by bojonegorokab.go.id.
1. Economic Development
Suyoto places economy as the first point because he wants to increase Bojonegoro community
income to achieve the continuously and sustainable wealth and happiness. In terms of
un-renewable source such as oil and gas, Suyoto hopes that Bojonegoro people have a chance
to explore and exploit it. While another terms is renewable source, such as agriculture,
services and manufacture.
2. Environment
The economic activity needs good and health environment as support. Because of this,
Bojonegoro tries to be a comfort place to life, play, work, study and pray. To achieve this,
Bojonegoro needs two vital things, they are good and health environment and also qualified
human. Bojonegoro has complex problem of water, and today, the problem of pollution also is
increasing because of the increase of economic activity.
3. Human and Social Resource
The transformation of agricultural sector into another sector needs human and social resource.
The stable social situation and qualified human resource support the development of
Bojonegoro.
4. Sustainable Fiscal Policy
92
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The increasing income of Bojonegoro comes from sharing profit of oil and gas and also
participating interest. However, Bojonegoro has some problems from these two sources of
increasing income.
First, the problem of fluctuation in income, because of the uncertainty of oil and gas income as
the ups and downs of oil and gas price.
Second, the strategy to allocate money to achieve sustainable development.
a. Buy only the vital needs.
b. The development of Bojonegoro human resource, to be more productive and competent.
c. Build the relevant infrastructure to support the development of economic and human
resource.
Bojonegoro also has strategy to achieve sustainable fiscal :
a. In maintaining APBD, Bojonegoro let the SILPA bigger and if there is no DBA of oil and
gas, the eternal money will still be available.
b. Banking infestation in Bank Jatim and PD. BPR Bank Daerah Bojonegoro, Rp 400 billion
until 2017.
The eternal money is used to anticipate the money needed in the development of Bojonegoro
if the DBH is low. The government of Bojonegoro only use 70 % of the central government
regulation. In 2015, the pure APBD is only be used 50 %, while the rest 50 % is used for
eternal money. The eternal money is 100 % of PI and DBH benefit. Ideally, Bojonegoro has
US $ 2 billion or Rp 20 24 trillion. To keep the affectivity of the use of money, there is a
group of people as controller.
5. Governance Pillar
Bojonegoro tries to apply smart, good and clean governance. Bojonegoro applies bureaucracy
reformation and utilization of local officials. The management of bureaucracy system
develops following public dynamic.
6. Transformative Leadership
Transformative leadership spread into politic, social, business and bureaucracy fields, it
changes, develops, and maintains sustainably.
Bojonegoro Transformation
Bupati Suyoto also stated Bojonegoro transformation into his power point entitled Bojonegoro:
Melawan Kutukan Sumberdaya Alam, Wujudkan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan, and also cited by
bojonegorokab.go.id as the article entitled Enam Elemen Pembangunan Berkelanjutan
Bojonegoro. Bojonegoro chooses to do transformation rather than revolution. There are six
elements of Bojonegoro transformation as it is called Enam Tingkatan Transfornasi Bojonegoro.
1. Transformation Vision
Bojonegoro people need clear description of wealth, independent future and sustainable
competency, and it is summarized in :
a. Economic Development Vision : Bojonegoro hopes to be competent and qualified on the
aspect of food, energy, education, health, service, trade, tourism and intensive human
resource/labour.
b. Eco Vision : Bojonegoro as the most tough district in facing disaster, the most enjoyable
place to live, hang out, work, do business and pray.
c. The Vision of New Human Resource of Bojonegoro : The vision of health, creative,
innovative and productive Bojonegoro people.
93
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
d. Bojonegoro Governance Fiscal Vision : The vision to be independent and develop

sustainably.
e. Bureucracy Vision :The government of Bojonegoro places the government itself as the
guardian of Bojonegoro people.
f. Leadership Vision : The leadership of social, politic and economic in Bojonegoro is
transformative leadership. It means that the leadership is dynamic.
2. Strategy Vision
In achieving the visions above, Bojonegoro needs to apply some strategies.
a. Focus on the basic problem (infrastructure and human quality).
b. Gives facilities and opportunity to the people.
c. Government as a part solution of public problem.
d. Make no gab between government and citizens.
e. Focus on strategic issues :
a) Strategic issue of food, to achieve target of food.
b) Energy strategic issue to achieve the target of energy.
c) Strategic issue to achieve the successfulness of tourism and manufacture industrial.
d) Strategic issue of environmental and disaster maintenance to achieve target of
qualified environment.
e) Reformation and bureaucracy strategic issue.
f) Strategic issue of the orderliness in law and social management.
g) Strategic issue of villages development, by applying the of healthy and smart village
: to make village as the base of human development and also village environment.
h) The issue of poverty alleviation and empowerment.
i) Strategic issue of budged maintenance, focus on the target of effective, efficient,
transparent and sustainable budged.
3. Governance Transformation
With the spirit of bureaucracy transformation, the governance tries achieve the development,
by enlightening, empowering and accelerating.
4. Operational Level Transformation
In governance, the good vision and mission will not be good if there is no support of good
operational. The style of work is changed into informatics technology, transparent, to be more
effective and efficient.
5. Cultural Transformation
Bojonegoro culture is influenced by its historical background. The culture of Bojonegoro is
the result of politic war between Majapahit (Hindus) and Demak (Muslim). Political
influences, from Demak to Pajang, Pajang to Mataram, colonized people and conqueror. It is
also the acculturation product between Tionghoa, Arab and ancient animism. Natural
phenomenon in Bojonegoro, such as flood, dryness, ground motion and calcareous area with
teak forests, also influence the transformation of culture in Bojonegoro.
6. Passion Transformation
The passion here means that Bojonegoro people, together with the government, have to
strengthen their passion to keep and increase the productivity to achieve good future. Passion
transformation is the passion to transform Bojonegoro to be more brilliant than before.
Geospatial as Bojonegoro Transformations Way
94
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Geospatial information could be used as development base of an area, said Kusnandaka Tjatur,
Head of Communication and Informatics (Kominfo) Bojonegoro, cited from the article in
kanalbojonegoro.com entitled Geospasial Sebagai Sarana Transformasi Bojonegoro. Bojonegoro
becomes the first district area which manages its geospatial information.
From geospatial information, the potency and problem of an area that are related to terrestrial mapping can
be achieved. Geospatial is the data of administrative and physical aspects of geographical object. The
examples of physical aspects are human activities and also nature shapes in surface or inside the earth.
Anthropogenic consists of cultural phenomenon such as road, railway, building, bridge and other. Nature
shape consists of river, lake, beach, high land and other. Administrative aspect consists of the regulation by
organization to manage the use of natural sources, such as zone borders, zone, postal code, borders of
landownership, and other.
From the data of Local Development Planning Agency: Local (Regional) Offices of Bappenas
Bojonegoro, the result of geospatial information, Bojonegoro needs to do 3 aspects transformation.
They are the transformation of today, oil and gas era, and also the era after oil and gas. It means
that Bojonegoro have to transform from ego to eco, said Suyoto.
2. Conclusion
The conclusion of this writing is Bojonegoro can rebuild itself started since 2008 under Bupati
Suyoto control, by applying democratic and transparent system, with some sustainable
development pillars and also Bojonegoro transformation.
Democratic and transparent system is applied by having public dialogue in every Friday after
finished Friday praying in pendapa of Suyotos official residence. There always be sharing
between the citizens and the government. Together they share about everything, about
Bojonegoros problem and try to find the solution to solve it, for the best future of Bojonegoro.
The six sustainable development pillars as the support of Bojonegoro development, which is
sustainable, started from the leadership of Bupati Suyoto and forwards. Hopefully the plans that
have been made and started are done sustainably. Bojonegoro chooses to do transformation rather
than revolution because in transformation, there will be spirit to change.
Hopefully, by the existence of this writing, about the good governance of Bojonegoro under
Suyotos control can be a role model and be imitated by another districts or areas. The good
governance of Bojonegoro has already claimed by Indonesia government and also other
governments in this world. By the good governance in every area in Indonesia, hopefully all of the
citizens of Indonesia can be independent and wealthier.
95
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. Acknowledgement
The researchers deepest gratitude go to Bojonegoro District, DIKTI KEMENRISTEKDIKTI RI,

LPPM UPNVY, Accounting Department of UPNVY, and Accounting Faculty of UPNVY. Due to
the process of this paper writing, we deeply thank to the research assistant, Intan Puspita Sari.
Gratitude is also given to the people who give contributions in various ways during the
accomplishment of this paper.
4. References
http://bojonegorokab.go.id/berita/baca/110/ENAM-ELEMEN-PEMBANGUNAN-BERKELANJ
UTAN-BOJONEGORO- [online] (Accessed 2 April 2015)
http://kanalbojonegoro.com/geospasial-sebagai-sarana-transformasi-bojonegoro/ 2014. [online]
(Accessed 2 April 2015)
http://kangyoto.blogspot.com/2007/06/suyoto-dan-ajakannya-membangun.html [online]
(Accessed on 2 April 2015)
http://politik.kompasiana.com/2014/03/19/demokrasi-ala-bojonegoro-640505.html [online]
(Accessed 2 April 2015)
Kang Yoto. Bojonegoro: Melawan Kutukan Sumberdaya Alam, Wujudkan Pembangunan
Berkelanjutan.
Roqib, Muhammad. 2014,
http://www.koran-sindo.com/read/932217/149/petinggi-embung-yang-doyan-ngetrail-141
7577276 [online] (accessed on 8 April 2015)
Scharmer, C. Otto, Katrin Kaufer. 2013. Leading from the Emerging Future: From Ego-System to
Eco-System Economics.
Suryaningsum, Sri. et al. 2014. Artikel: Pengentasan Kemiskinan Berbasis Pro-Poor Government
dengan Sisi Transformasional dalam Jurnal: Ekonomi dan Keindonesiaan: Membangun
Ekonomi Pro-Rakyat.
Suryaningsum, Sri. et al. 2014. Tata Kelola Penanggulangan Kemiskinan. Yogyakarta: Gosyen
Publishing.
Suyoto. 2015. Strategi Pengelolaan Pemerintah Daerah. Semnas Pembangunan Indonesia UPN
Veteran Yogyakarta. 17 April 2015.
96
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kemampuan Memiliki Rumah Dalam Kalangan Keluarga

Bandar di Malaysia
Nor Malina Maleka*, Parthiban S. Gopalb, Khoo Suet Lengc,

Mohamad Shaharudin Samsurijand, & Zahri Hamate
Bahagian Perancangan dan Pengurusan Pembangunan,
Pusat Pengajian Sains Kemasyarakatan,
11800 Universiti Sains Malaysia
E-mail: a*malina@usm.my, bslkhoo@usm.my, cmsdin@usm.my, dparthi@usm.my,

e
zahri@usm.my
Abstrak
Bandar sering dilihat sebagai sebuah habitat yang menjadi tumpuan serta sesuai untuk didiami
bagi memperoleh tahap kualiti hidup yang baik. Kualiti hidup yang baik di bandar tidak hanya
diukur menerusi kemudahan dan infrastruktur yang tersedia, sebaliknya turut melibatkan
keupayaan memiliki rumah dalam kalangan keluarga di bandar. Hal ini disebabkan rumah
merupakan kemudahan asas yang menjadi petunjuk utama dalam menilai tahap keupayaan dan
kualiti hidup penduduk dan keluarga di bandar. Walau bagaimanapun, pembangunan pesat
persekitaran bandar ketika ini telah memberi kesan langsung kepada keluarga di bandar untuk
memiliki rumah sendiri. Walaupun kerajaan telah melaksanakan pelbagai usaha untuk
meningkatkan tahap pemilikan rumah dalam kalangan masyarakat di negara ini, namun isu
perumahan masih lagi menjadi perdebatan oleh ramai pihak. Kertas kerja ini menghujahkan
bahawa kemampuan keluarga di bandar memiliki rumah dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor dan
berimpak terhadap kesejahteraan keluarga serta menyumbang kepada kemunculan kelompok
miskin bandar yang baru. Beberapa isu perumahan dalam kalangan keluarga bandar di Malaysia
terutamanya golongan miskin serta yang berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana dalam memiliki
rumah sendiri turut dikupas oleh kertas kerja ini. Sorotan penulisan dan hasil penyelidikan lepas
turut mendedahkan isu kemampuan memiliki rumah berkait rapat dengan faktor pendapatan isi
rumah, perbelanjaan isi rumah serta kemudahan pembiayaan perumahan. Manakala peningkatan
kos sara hidup, peningkatan harga bahan binaan serta tanah di bandar telah mengakibatkan isu
kemampuan memiliki rumah menjadi semakin kompleks. Oleh itu, hasil kupasan kertas kerja ini
yang dilakukan melalui analisis data sekunder dapat membantu ke arah pelaksanaan satu kajian
komprehensif yang melihat isu ini dari pelbagai aspek khususnya dalam konteks masyarakat
bandar di negara ini. Hasil kajian yang dicadangkan ini mampu menyumbang ke arah
pembentukan dasar perumahan yang lebih efektif dan inklusif.
KATA KUNCI: Kemampuan memiliki rumah, perumahan bandar, miskin bandar
1. Pengenalan
Pembangunan pesat persekitaran bandar di Malaysia telah memberi kesan langsung terhadap
permintaan dan penawaran sektor perumahan di bandar. Di bawah teras kelima (5) dalam
97
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMK-10) 2011 - 2015 kerajaan telah cuba mewujudkan
persekitaran kondusif ke arah mempertingkatkan kualiti hidup. Sebanyak 78,000 unit perumahan
mampu milik telah dirancang untuk dibina di seluruh negara, selain memperuntukan dana
sebanyak RM500 juta untuk membiayai kerja baik pulih rumah mampu milik awam mahupun
swasta berdasarkan perkongsian 50-50 antara kerajaan dengan pengurusan atau persatuan
penduduk rumah berkenaan (Malaysia 2010). Jumlah tersebut dijangka akan ditingkatkan lagi
sepanjang tempoh RMK-11 nanti kepada 606,000 unit rumah mampu milik yang lebih berkualiti
kepada golongan berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana (Malaysia 2015a).
Sehingga kini pelbagai program perumahan diperkenalkan pihak kerajaan dan swasta bagi
membolehkan penduduk bandar memiliki rumah sendiri, antaranya Perumahan Awam Kos
Rendah (PAKR), Perumahan Awam Kos Rendah Bersepadu, Skim Tapak dan Perkhidmatan,
Skim Pinjaman Perumahan, Perumahan Rakyat 1 Malaysia (PR1MA), Rumah Mampu Milik
Wilayah Persekutuan (RUMAWIP), Rumah Penjawat Awam 1Malaysia (PPA1M) serta Rumah
Mudah Milik (RMM-SPNB) (Malaysia 2013a, 2015a). Bagi memenuhi keperluan ini faktor
kemampuan pembeli, kos pembangunan dan harga jualan sentiasa mempengaruhi permintaan dan
penawaran dalam sektor perumahan (Ahmad Ariffian et al. 2005; Hasmah et al. 2012).
Rumah merupakan kemudahan asas yang menjadi petunjuk utama dalam menilai tahap
keupayaan dan kualiti hidup penduduk (Shuhada et al. 2011). Kemampuan penduduk bandar
untuk memiliki rumah yang selesa di bandar sering dibahaskan di pelbagai peringkat. Menurut
Emma Mulliner et al. (2013) dan Jonathan et al. (2014) pemilikan rumah khususnya di kawasan
bandar sangat dipengaruhi dengan dasar, perundangan, perancangan, perlaksanaan, keperluan
dan kemampuan memiliki rumah. Mereka turut berhujah bahawa pemilikan rumah di bandar
sangat berkaitrapat dengan garis panduan berhubung dengan subsidi atau bantuan perumahan
kerajaan. Namun, kertas kerja ini menghujahkan bahawa isu kemampuan memiliki rumah harus
mempertimbangkan lingkungan konteks yang lebih luas melangkaui faktor pendapatan isi
rumah, perbelanjaan isi rumah serta kemudahan pembiayaan perumahan. Manakala peningkatan
kos sara hidup, tempoh dan faedah kemudahan kredit, peningkatan harga bahan binaan serta
tanah di bandar juga harus dilihat sebagai penyumbang kepada kemampuan penduduk dan
keluarga di bandar untuk memiliki rumah menjadi semakin kompleks.
1.1 Kemampuan Keluarga di Bandar Memiliki Rumah
Kemampuan memiliki rumah boleh dilihat sebagai satu konsep yang sangat subjektif. Kertas
kerja ini turut menghujahkan bahawa kemampuan penduduk memiliki rumah di bandar mampu
menterjemahkan keupayaan keluarga di bandar dan kualiti kehidupan mereka dalam persekitaran
bandar yang semakin mencabar. Para penyelidik sering menghujahkan bahawa kemampuan
memiliki rumah di bandar mempunyai hubungan langsung dengan pendapatan yang diperoleh,
pendapatan isi rumah serta kos perbelanjaan isi rumah (Jonathan 2014; Wenjie Cai & Xinhai Lu
2015a). Namun, kertas kerja ini melihat struktur demografi dan kemudahan kredit yang sering
dinilai secara berasingan perlu dipertimbangkan dalam mengukur keupayaan penduduk dan
keluarga di bandar memiliki rumah. Struktur demografi di sini melihat saiz dan penyebaran
populasi, umur, bangsa dan bilangan isi rumah. Manakala kemudahan kredit merujuk kepada had
kredit diperoleh, tempoh pembayaran balik dan tawaran faedah yang dikenakan. Selain itu, turut
98
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
dikhuatiri juga keseimbangan antara kemudahan kredit yang diterima dengan pendapatan isi
rumah, jika tidak diuruskan dengan sempurna mampu menyumbang kepada penurunan tahap
kemampuan penduduk untuk memiliki rumah di bandar (Chant 2012; Nor Malina Malek &
Azrina Husin 2012).
Peratusan peningkatan harga untuk semua jenis rumah untuk tempoh lima (5) tahun bermula dari
tahun 2010 (RM189,604) sehingga Mac 2015 (RM292,564) telahpun melebihi 30%. Peningkatan
ini dilihat lebih ketara di beberapa bandar utama seperti Kuala Lumpur (RM693,834), Selangor
(RM437,895), Pulau Pinang (RM349,935) dan Johor (RM437,895) (Malaysia 2015b). Menurut
Ahmad Ariffian et al. (2005) dan Hasmah et al. (2012) trend peningkatan harga rumah yang
mendadak di kebanyakkan bandar di Malaysia ketika ini telah memberikan impak psikologi
kritikal kepada penduduk yang tinggal dan bekerja di bandar. Impak psikologi ini tidak hanya
dihadapi oleh golongan yang berpendapatan rendah sahaja, bahkan turut dihadapi kumpulan
profesional lain khususnya yang berpendapatan sederhana atau kelompok M40. Kelompok M40
merupakan kumpulan penduduk yang memiliki pendapatan isi rumah di antara RM2,500
sehingga RM10,000 atau kelompok kumpulan yang berpendapatan 41% hingga 80% daripada
taburan keseluruhan pendapatan isi rumah negara. Pada tahun 2014, statistik menunjukkan
pendapatan isi rumah M40 berada dalam julat pendapatan RM3,860 dan RM8,319, dengan
purata pendapatan RM5,662 (Malaysia 2015a). Seramai 83% daripada golongan kumpulan M40
ini berada dan menetap di bandar. Golongan ini terdiri dari mereka yang bekerja di pelbagai
sektor baik dengan kerajaan, swasta mahupun bekerja sendiri. Sungguhpun isu kenaikan harga
rumah dilihat sebagai senario yang lumrah dan berlaku di mana-mana negara sedang membangun,
strategi dan perancangan teliti dari pelbagai peringkat masyarakat, kumpulan pembuat dasar serta
keputusan harus melihat isu ini sebagai keutamaan (Jonathan 2014). Kertas kerja ini melihat
keperihatinan pihak berkepentingan khusus kerajaan dalam meneliti keupayaan penduduk bandar
di semua peringkat untuk memiliki rumah yang selesa di persekitaran bandar sebagai keutamaan,
di samping fokus pembangunan bandar yang lebih inklusif agar tidak ada kumpulan penduduk
bandar terasa tersisih dan terasing.
Majlis Profesor Negara (MPN) turut memperincikan pandangan mereka mengenai status
pemilikan rumah di bandar menerusi persidangan di Kongres Perumahan Negara bahawa
perumahan yang ingin dibangunkan itu mestilah untuk membina rumah yang diperlukan oleh
rakyat dan bukannya rumah yang ingin dijual untuk keuntungan. Penetapan spesifikasi rumah dan
segala kemudahan yang perlu disediakan mestilah memenuhi keperluan rakyat dari segi saiz,
harga dan lokasi. Mengambil contoh dari dasar yang diamalkan oleh Singapura dan Korea
Selatan, kedua-dua negara ini telah memberi keutamaan kepada pembinaan rumah yang
diperlukan dan mampu dibeli oleh rakyat dalam kawasan utama bandar dan pinggir bandar
membolehkan rakyat menikmati kediaman yang diharapkan, walaupun pembinaan rumah
dilaksanakan oleh pihak kerajaan dan swasta (Zarina 2012; MPN 2014). Teras kedua dalam
dokumen RMK-11 menunjukkan usaha kerajaan ke arah meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat
telah meletakkan akses kepada perumahan mampu milik dan berkualiti lebih terfokus kepada
golongan berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana khususnya kepada penduduk bandar harus diberi
pujian (Malaysia 2015a). Sungguhpun, sepanjang tempoh RMK-10 kerajaan hanya berjaya
menyiapkan sebanyak 560 buah unit rumah untuk kumpulan M40 ini, usaha tersebut dilihat akan
menjadi lebih rancak apabila untuk tempoh RMK-11 ini kerajaan telah meletakkan sasaran yang
99
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
besar bagi menyempurnakan projek perumahan mampu milik iaitu sebanyak 31,939 unit rumah
menerusi program PR1MA dan PPA1M untuk golongan M40 ini.
Di Malaysia kenaikan harga rumah bukan sahaja berbeza mengikut lokasi dan kawasan panas
yang menjadi pilihan pembeli dan pelabur, tetapi turut dipengaruhi promosi yang dilakukan oleh
pemaju terhadap jaminan kualiti hidup yang baik di satu-satu kawasan perumahan yang dibuka
atau dibangunkan. Fenomena ini mengambarkan nilai hartanah di kawasan tersebut salah satu
komponen pelaburan yang lumayan dan menguntungkan, yang akhirnya menyumbang kepada
peningkatan harga rumah di kawasan tersebut (Massam 2002).
Menurut Michelle Wood et al. (2008) dan Puteri Ameera (2012) aspek kemampuan memiliki
rumah dilihat sangat berkait rapat dengan faktor pendapatan, harga rumah dan perbelanjaan
rumah. Harga rumah yang tinggi dan pendapatan yang tidak mencukupi menyebabkan isi rumah
tidak mampu untuk memiliki rumah (Michelle Wood et al. 2008; Nor Malina Malek & Azrina
Husin 2012). Akhirnya menyumbang kepada kejatuhan kualiti kehidupan penduduk khususnya
di bandar apabila tidak berupaya untuk memiliki rumah sendiri disebabkan oleh faktor
ketidakseimbangan harga rumah, pendapatan yang diperoleh dan perbelanjaan yang ditanggung.
Selain itu, menurut Bank Negara (2012) kenaikan harga rumah di Malaysia khususnya di
bandar-bandar utama sangat berkaitrapat dengan faktor pertumbuhan ekonomi (KDNK),
perubahan demografi, inflasi harga pengguna, indek harga pengeluar, kadar pinjaman, cukai
keuntungan hartanah dan sentimen pengguna, langkah kehematan macro dan nilai lat harga
rumah.
Kertas kerja ini turut menghujahkan bahawa kenaikan harga rumah yang tinggi sering dikaitkan
dengan peningkatan dalam kualiti perumahan memenuhi citarasa individu terhadap rumah yang
lebih baik dan selesa (Jonathan 2014), tetapi ia haruslah dijelaskan piawaiannya. Fenomena
kenaikan harga rumah yang tidak seimbang dengan kenaikan gaji baik di sektor kerajaan
mahupun swasta telah menyumbang kepada kecenderongan penduduk bandar untuk membeli
rumah jauh dari tempat kerja yang akhirnya menyebabkan berlakunya kesesakan trafik (Zarina
2012; Nor Malina Malek & Azrina Husin 2012).
Menurut Nor Malina Malek dan Azrina Husin (2012) masalah perumahan bandar di Malaysia
adalah berkaitan dengan penawaran rumah kos rendah dan mampu milik yang dilihat masih tidak
dapat memenuhi permintaan penduduk bandar di negara ini. Program Pemilikan Rumah Mampu
Milik dan Skim Rumah Mesra Rakyat khusus untuk keluarga miskin, termasuklah ibu tunggal
yang tidak mempunyai rumah, dilihat masih tidak mampu membolehkan penduduk bandar
membeli rumah. Mereka menghujahkan bahawa perkara ini berlaku akibat kadar urbanisasi yang
semakin meningkat, selain masalah peningkatan harga semua jenis rumah di kawasan bandar.
Justeru, kertas kerja ini melihat kemampuan memiliki rumah sangat berkait rapat dengan
pendapatan isi rumah, perbelanjaan isi rumah, harga rumah, bilangan anak, isi rumah yang
bekerja, jenis-jenis pekerjaan, tahap pendidikan, bayaran bulanan perumahan dan subsidi
perumahan (Manjur 2014; Sandra & Scott 2014; Wenjie Cai & Xinhai Lu 2015). Semua
pembolehubah tersebut dikatakan mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan mempengaruhi
kemampuan seseorang memiliki rumah.
1.2 Keupayaan Memiliki Rumah dan Kemunculan Kelompok Baru Miskin Bandar
100
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Peratusan kenaikan harga rumah yang berlaku dalam tempoh lima (5) tahun kebelakangan ini
sehingga melepasi 30% (Malaysia 2015b) khususnya di beberapa bandar utama negara dilihat
boleh membataskan keupayaan penduduk bandar untuk memiliki rumah sendiri. Ketidakupayaan
penduduk bandar untuk memiliki rumah khususnya di bandar dikhuatiri menyumbang kepada
kemunculan kelompok baru miskin bandar (new urban poor). Isu perumahan dan kemiskinan
bandar merupakan dua komponen penting yang saling berkaitan dalam merungkai keupayaan
penduduk bandar. Kedua-dua faktor ini sangat dipengaruhi oleh persekitaran bandar dan
penduduk bandar itu sendiri. Persekitaran bandar meliputi harga rumah yang tinggi, jurang
kualiti persekitaran perumahan, cukai rumah dan pintu, migrasi penduduk dan kepadatan
pembangunan dalam persekitaran ruang bandar (Anne-Claire 2014; Paola Annoni 2015; Zarina
2012; Manjur 2014; Sandra & Scott 2014; Wenjie Cai & Xinhai Lu 2015). Manakala penduduk
bandar pula sangat terikat dengan kekuatan pendapatan isi rumah, tekanan beban hutang dan
tanggungan, tekanan harga barangan dan perkhidmatan, kualiti pendidikan yang rendah, kurang
penyertaan sosial, keupayaan untuk bersaing serta tahap kepercayaan dan tradisi (Hasmah et al.
2012; Zarina 2012; Nor Malina Malek & Azrina Husin 2012; Parthiban & Nor Malina Malek
2014; Abdul Saboor 2015).
101
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Rajah 1 Isu kemampuan keluarga di bandar memiliki rumah
Kemampuan Memiliki Rumah
Isu Isu
Persekitaran Bandar Komuniti Bandar
Harga rumah tinggi Kekuatan pendapatan isi rumah
Jurang kualiti persekitaran Dasar Merebut Tertekan dengan beban hutang dan
perumahan tinggi semasa Peluang tanggungan
kerajaan ekonomi
Cukai rumah & cukai pintu Cabaran Tertekan dengan isu harga barangan
Pembangunan
persekitaran perumahan bandar
dan perkhidmatan
Kritikan dan Menyesuaik
Migrasi penduduk ke persekitaran tanggapan an diri
negatif Kualiti pendidikan individu rendah
bandar
Kurang penyertaan sosial
Kepadatan pembangunan dalam
Kemudahan di Layanan pihak
persekitaran ruang bandar berkuasa Kepercayaan dan tradisi
bandar
Kadar tempatan
pertumbuhan
penduduk Keupayaan untuk bersaing
102
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kajian mendapati tahap kemiskinan penduduk di Malaysia secara keseluruhannya pada paras
1.7% dengan tahap kemiskinan penduduk bandar sekitar 1%, pengukuran tersebut hanya
mengambil kira berdasarkan Paras Garis Kemiskinan (PGK) tahunan (ketika ini PGK
penduduk sekitar RM930) (Malaysia 2013b, 2015a). Selain itu, kelompok kumpulan B40 yang
merupakan kumpulan penduduk yang memperoleh pendapatan di bawah RM2,500 turut di beri
fokus utama oleh kerajaan. Laporan RMK-11 turut melaporkan bahawa kelompok kumpulan
ini telah berjaya dikurangkan kepada 2.0% sahaja bagi tahun 2015 dengan purata pendapatan
sebanyak RM2,537. Kelompok kumpulan ini majoritinya adalah tinggal di bandar (63.1%).
Realiti kehidupan penduduk bandar yang mempunyai pendapatan isi rumah kurang daripada
PGK tersebut mengambarkan usaha kerajaan ke arah membasmi kemiskinan di bandar adalah
berjaya. Hakikatnya kumpulan kelompok berpendapatan sederhana atau golongan M40 masih
berhadapan dengan tekanan beban hutang dan tanggungan, tekanan harga barangan dan
perkhidmatan dan keupayaan untuk bersaing di bandar (Malaysia 2015a).
Kumpulan dalam lingkungan pendapatan sederhana atau M40 turut mendominasi di

persekitaran bandar (83%) (Malaysia 2015a; Nor Malina Malek & Azrina Husin 2012). Ketika
ini usaha kerajaan dalam memastikan penduduk yang berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana
mampu memiliki rumah yang lebih selesa di bandar telah diletakkan sebagai keutamaan.
Kerajaan turut menaikan harga syiling bagi program Perumahan Rakyat 1 Malaysia
(PR1MA) dari RM100,000 kepada RM400,000 (PR1MA 2014). Apa yang lebih menarik
lagi, pinjaman 100% turut ditawarkan kepada pembeli rumah PR1MA ini. Peningkatan
tersebut sebenarnya dilihat telah memberi tekanan beban hutang dan tanggungan selain
terpaksa berhadapan dengan tekanan harga barangan dan perkhidmatan yang disediakan di
bandar. Sungguhpun syarat kelayakan untuk pemilikan rumah kos rendah dan sederhana di
bandar telah ditetapkan pada paras pendapatan isi rumah RM2,500 dan ke bawah (kos
rendah) manakala kos sederhana di antara RM2,500 hingga RM10,000 (Malaysia 2015a).
Namun, kertas kerja ini turut menghujahkan bahawa kumpulan yang berpendapatan isi rumah
dalam lingkungan M40 harus diberi penilaian semula berdasarkan kekuatan pendapatan isi
rumah yang diperoleh, tekanan beban hutang dan tanggungan, tekanan harga barangan dan
perkhidmatan di bandar dan keupayaan untuk bersaing. Perhatian serius turut perlu
dipertimbangkan, kerana penyediaan kemudahan perumahan yang mencukupi bagi golongan
ini adalah penting bagi mewujudkan persekitaran bandar yang sejahtera dan mampan.
Laporan dalam RMK-11 turut menunjukkan sepanjang tempoh RMK-10 program Perumahan
Rakyat 1Malaysia (PR1MA) yang dikendalikan oleh Perbadanan PR1MA Malaysia hanya
berjaya menyiapkan 560 buah rumah PR1MA bagi kumpulan berpendapatan sederhana M40.
Dijangka sepanjang tempoh RMK-11 ini sebanyak 18,400 buah rumah PR1MA dapat
disiapkan bagi kumpulan M40 ini. Manakala bagi kakitangan awam atau kerajaan di bawah
program Perumahan Penjawat Awam 1Malaysia (PPA1M) khusus untuk kakitangan yang
berada dalam kelompok M40 dijangkakan sebanyak 13,539 buah rumah lagi akan disiapkan
untuk tempoh RMK-11 ini (Malaysia 2015a). Usaha dan keprihatinan kerajaan bagi
memastikan kelompok penduduk dalam kumpulan M40 berupaya memiliki rumah sendiri
harus dilihat seiring dengan kelompok kumpulan lain seperti B40, kerana dikhuatiri
kelompok M40 ini bakal menjadi kumpulan kelompok miskin baru di bandar.
2. Kesimpulan
Rumah adalah kemudahan asas, tanpa rumah kualiti kehidupan seseorang itu menjadi tidak
bermakna. Kegagalan pihak berkepentingan melihat isu kemampuan memiliki rumah secara
menyeluruh dan pelbagai peringkat kumpulan masyarakat dalam persekitaran bandar boleh
103
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
menyumbang kepada kemunculan kelompok baru miskin bandar (new urban poor). Isu
kemampuan keluarga di bandar memiliki rumah adalah penting untuk terus dibincangkan bagi
mengenalpasti petunjuk dan makanisme sesuai meningkatkan keupayaan kalangan penduduk
dan keluarga di bandar memiliki rumah. Ketidakupayaan penduduk dan keluarga di bandar
memiliki rumah akan menjelmakan ketidakstabilan sosial dalam persekitaran bandar. Kertas
kerja ini melihat pertimbangan yang perlu dikenalpasti dalam konteks kemampuan keluarga di
bandar memiliki rumah harus dilihat dalam dua (2) aspek penting iaitu keadaan persekitaran
bandar dan keupayaan keluarga di bandar itu sendiri. Keadaan persekitaran bandar perlu
mempertimbangkan isu harga rumah yang tinggi, jurang kualiti perumahan, cukai rumah dan
pintu di persekitaran bandar, migrasi penduduk kepersekitaran bandar serta kepadatan
pembangunan dalam ruang bandar. Manakala keupayaan keluarga di bandar pula melihat
kepada kekuatan pendapatan yang diperoleh, beban hutang yang ditanggung, tekanan isu harga
barang dan perkhidmatan, kualiti pendidikan, penyertaan sosial dan keupayaan untuk bersaing
dalam merebut sumber ekonomi di bandar
3. Rujukan
Ahmad Ariffian, Mohd Razali Agus, Hasmah Abu Zarin & Mohd Firdaus Mohamad. 2005.
Isu dan masalah pemilikan rumah bumiputra di bandar: Satu penilaian ke atas
pencapaian peraturan koata lot bumiputra di daerah Johor Bahru. Real Estate Educators
and Researchers Association (REER). (tidak diterbitkan).
Bank Negara. 2012. Perkembangan dalam pasaran rumah dan implikasinya dalam kestabilan
kewangan. Laporan Perkembangan Risiko dan Penilaian Kestabilan Kewangan 2012.
Kuala Lumpur. Bank Negara Malaysia: 51-57
Emma Mulliner, Kieran Smallbone & Vida Maliene. 2013. An assessment of sustainable
housing affordability using a multiple criteria decision making method. Omega 41:
270-279.
Hasmah Abu Zarin, Ahmad Ariffian Bujang & Mohd Firdaus bin Mohamad. 2012. Kesan
pembangunan Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussien Onn (KUITTHO) terhadap
keperluan perumahan kakitangan: Kajian kes Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor. Jabatan
Pengurusan Hartanah, Fakulti Kejuruteraan dan Sains Geoinformasi, UTM. (Edaran
dalaman).
Jonathan Woetzel, Sangeeth Ram, Jan Mischke, Nicklas Garemo & Shirish Sankhe. 2014. A
Blueprint For Addressing The Global Affordability Housing Challenge. McKinsey
Global Institute. McKinsey & Company.
Majlis Profesor Negara. 2014. Kongres perumahan negara kemampuan, kualiti dan
kesejahteraan. www.majlisprofesor.gov.my/images%20kertascadangan.pdf akses 30
Mac 2015.
Malaysia. 2010. Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh. Unit Perancang Ekonomi.
Malaysia. 2013a. Laporan Kesejahteraan Rakyat Malaysia. Unit Perancang Ekonomi.

Malaysia. 2013b. Statistik Sosio Ekonomi. Unit Perancang Ekonomi.
104
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Malaysia. 2015a. Rancangan Malaysia Kesebelas. Unit Perancang Ekonomi.
Malaysia. 2015b. Jadual Data Indek Harga Rumah Malaysia. Jabatan Penilaian dan
Perkhidmatan Harta.
Massam, B.H. 2002. Quality of life: Public planning and private living. Progress In Planning
58: 141-227.
Md. Manjur Morshed. 2014. Illegality of private subdivision and access to land for housing
by the urban poor in Dhaka. Habitat International 44: 386-393.
Michelle Wood, Jennifer Turnham & Gregory Mills. 2008. Housing Affordability and Family
Well-Being: Results from the Housing Voucher Evaluation. Housing Policy Debate 19
(2): 367-412.
Nor Malina Malek & Azrina Husin. 2012. Pemilikan rumah dalam kalangan masyarakat
bandar berpendapatan sederhana dan rendah di malaysia. Sosiohumanika, 5(2): 269-284.
Parthiban S. Gopal & Nor Malina Malek. 2014. Breaking away from the cycle of poverty: The
case of Malaysian poor. The Social Science Journal 52 (1): 34-39.
PR1MA. 2014. Portal PR1MA Rumahku, Komunitiku.

www.pr1ma.my/about.php?lang=bm, akses 2 April 2015
S. Chant. 2012. Gender and Urban Housing in the global south. International Encyclopedia of
Housing and Home 2012: 255-263.
Sandra J. Newman & C. Scott Holupka. 2014. Housing affordability and investment in
children. Journal of Housing Economics 24: 89-100.
Suhaida M.S., Tawila N.M., Hamzah N., Che-Ani A.I., Basri H. & Yuzainee M.Y. 2011.
Housing affordability: A conceptual overview for House Price Index. Procedia
Engineering 20: 346 353.
Wenjie Cai & Xinhai Lu. 2015. Housing affordability: Beyond the income and price terms,
using China as a case study. Habitat International 47: 169-175.
Zarina Mohd Zain. 2012. Housing issues: A study of Hulu Selangor District Council. Procedia
- Social and Behavioral Sciences 42: 320 328.
105
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kualiti Hidup Dalam Pembangunan Kolej Kediaman Lestari: Satu

Tinjauan Literatur
Mohd Reduan Bin Buyunga, Haryati Binti Shafiib
a
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: reduan_1986@yahoo.com
b
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: haryati@uthm.edu.my
Abstrak
Kolej kediaman adalah komponen penting dalam kehidupan pelajar. Ianya mempengaruhi
kehidupan dan memberi kesan dalam kualiti hidup secara keseluruhannya. Kajian ini
merupakan sebuah kajian kualiti hidup pelajar di kolej kediaman. Tujuan kajian ini dilakukan
adalah bagi membantu membangunkan sebuah garis panduan reka bentuk kolej kediaman
lestari yang diharap mampu meningkatkan kualiti hidup pelajar. Metodologi yang digunakan
adalah berdasarkan tinjauan literatur terhadap kajian berkaitan kolej kediaman dan kualiti
hidup. Hasil daripada kajian didapati masih terdapat kelemahan-kelemahan terhadap
kemudahan dan infrastruktur yang disediakan oleh kolej kediaman yang menjurus kepada
kemerosotan kualiti hidup warga kampus. Pengkajian diperingkat awalan berkaitan konsep
kualiti hidup dalam pembangunan lestari diharapkan dapat membantu dari mengenalpasti
kelemahan yang ada dan dapat diwujudkan satu garis panduan menyeluruh dalam
pembangunan kolej kediaman lestari yang selesa dan mampu memperbaiki kualiti hidup
pelajar.
Kata kunci : Kolej Kediaman, Kualiti Hidup dan Pembangunan Lestari
1. Pengenalan
Kediaman yang selesa diduduki mampu memberi kesan terhadap kualiti hidup individu. Dalam
konteks kediaman pelajar , menurut Anuar, Muhamad Darus dan Syeh Yahya (2006), antara
matlamat kolej kediaman adalah mewujudkan persekitaran yang bersesuaian untuk keperluan
peribadi bagi mencapai prestasi diri yang baik. Kolej kediaman yang selesa berkemampuan
menyokong aktiviti akademik dan sosial pelajar. Malah faktor tempat tinggal juga boleh
menbawa kemorosotan dalam akademik. Yaacob & Yasak (2008a), kualiti hidup pelajar
semasa berada di universiti sebahagiannya dipengaruhi oleh tempat kediaman. Pengalaman
hidup di kolej kediaman juga mempunyai keupayaan mencorak kehidupan pelajar. Dalam
Yahaya (1998), kualiti perumahan sangat berkait rapat dengan kualiti hidup iaitu secara fizikal,
ekonomi, sosial dan psikologikal rumah adalah ruang lingkup yang sangat penting sebagai
pencorak kepada kehidupan individu. Pembangunan kolej kediaman mampu memberikan
kesan kepada peningkatan kualiti hidup pelajar seterusnya menyokong aktiviti pembelajaran.
Menurut Shafii, Seow dan Mat Yassin (2013a), pelestarian kampus jika diteliti ternyata banyak
memberi manfaat kepada warganya sama ada dalam jangka pendek mahupun jangka panjang.
Justeru itu, pengkajian terhadap pembangunan kolej kediaman lestari berlandaskan ciri-ciri
kelestarian yang mampu meningkatkan kualiti hidup pelajar perlulah diteliti.
2. Latar Belakang dan Permasalahan
106
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Universiti menyediakan kediaman kepada penghuninya dikenali sebagai kolej kediaman atau
desasiswa iaitu satu kawasan perumahan bagi pelajar untuk diduduki dengan selesa dan
berkualiti supaya mereka dapat menumpukan perhatian terhadap pelajaran dan mencapai
kecemerlangan. Menurut Alwee, Darus dan Sarah (2008), kolej kediaman merupakan
kemudahan yang disediakan oleh universiti bagi penginapan pelajar. Asas kepada kehidupan
yang berkualiti adalah kediaman yang mampu memberikan keselesaan pada penghuninya.
Dalam mengkaji keperluan pembangunan kolej kediaman lestari maka isu dan permasalah
utama dalam kajian ini adalah ketidakselesaan di kolej kediaman. Dalam kajian di kolej
kediaman Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) oleh Mohd Sari (2003), isu yang diketengahkan
adalah berkaitan dengan ketidakselesaan pelajar di dalam ruang penginapan yang disediakan
oleh pihak USM. Kajian Yaacob & yasak (2008b) pula, terdapat beberapa kemudahan yang
disediakan tidak memberi keselesaan yang terbaik secara sepenuhnya. Permasalahan ini
disokong kenyataan Idris (2013), bahawa pelajar tidak digalakkan untuk solat di dalam bilik
kerana sudah mengetahui akan ketidakselesaan serta kesukaran bilik berkenaan. Dalam satu
kajian lain berkaitan kemudahan yang disediakan di kolej kediaman oleh Mohid, Ab Rahman
dan Abd Shukor (2003), telah mengariskan beberapa isu dan masalah yang dikenalpasti iaitu :
i. Tidak ada atau tidak disediakan kemudahan yang boleh mencapai 'standard'
keperiuan pendidikan.
ii. Kemudahan yang disediakan tidak mencukupi bagi menampung keperiuan
keseluruhan pelajar UiTM, Cawangan Perak.
iii. Kemudahan yang disediakan tidak merangkumi keperiuan pelajar samada bagi
tujuan akademik atau bukan akademik.
iv. Kemudahan yang disediakan tidak mampu menjadi pendorong atau menyokong
kepada kemajuan pelajar serta keselesaan pelajar di kolej.
v. Kemudahan yang disediakan ketinggalan masa, agak lama dan telah rosak.
vi. Mengenalpasti punca-punca pelajar tidak berada di kolej pada hujung minggu
Pada masa kini, pelbagai reka bentuk kolej kediaman telah dibangunkan. Walaubagaimanapun,
tidak dapat dipastikan kolej kediaman yang telah dibangunkan ini memenuhi keperluan serta
mempunyai garis panduan kelestariannya tersendiri. Kajian terdahulu juga, oleh Noor (1984),
menyatakan kemudahan yang disediakan belum lagi sampai ke tahap yang memuaskan dan
perlu dipertimbangkan. Ketiadaan satu garis panduan lestari secara menyeluruh menyukarkan
pihak yang terlibat dalam pembangunan kolej kediaman mendapatkan rujukan atau panduan
yang sesuai. Dalam satu penyelidikan berkaitan kriteria kampus lestari (Shamsuddin et al
2007a) garis panduan sedia ada yang dikeluarkan oleh pihak Unit Perancangan Ekonomi
(EPU) hanya menumpukan kepada penyediaan kemudahan manakala bagi Jabatan Kerja Raya
(JKR) pula, garis panduan yang disediakan hanyalah bagi bangunan awam yang umum sahaja.
Satu tinjauan juga telah dilakukan ke atas garis panduan yang terdapat di Jabatan Perancangan
Bandar dan Desa (JPBD) dan didapati juga tiada satu garis panduan khusus untuk kelestarian
dalam pembangunan kolej kediaman. Oleh itu, jelas menunjukkan ketiadaan satu garis
panduan kolej kediaman lestari sebagai rujukan memberikan kesan kepada pelbagai pihak dan
seterusnya memberikan kesan negatif kepada kualiti hidup penghuni kolej kediaman.
3. Konsep Kualiti Hidup
Kolej kediaman yang memenuhi keperluan dan selesa dihuni mampu meningkatkan kualiti
hidup pelajar serta membantu universiti dalam membangunkan kampus lestari yang
menekankan kesejahteraan warganya. Menurut Mahir Razali et al. (2014a) kualiti kehidupan
merupakan sebuah konsep menekankan keadaan kehidupan yang lebih baik, dengan
107
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
mempertimbangkan pelbagai faktor yang mempengaruhinya seperti fizikal, psikologikal,

ekonomi, kebudayaan, politik, alam sekitar dan sebagainya. Dalam Laporan Kualiti Hidup
Malaysia, (Unit Perancang Ekonomi, 1999) bahawa Kualiti hidup di Malaysia ditakrifkan
sebagai merangkumi kemajuan diri, gaya hidup yang sihat, akses dan kebebasan memperolehi
pengetahuan serta taraf kehidupan yang melebihi keperluan asas individu dan memenuhi
keperluan psikologi untuk mencapai tahap kesejahteraan sosial yang setanding dengan aspirasi
negara. Dalam Affizal Ahmad (2013), kualiti hidup manusia boleh dibahagikan kepada lapan
prinsip utama iaitu kesejahteraan emosi, hubungan interpersonal, kesejahteraan perkakasan,
perkembangan personal, kesejahteraan fizikal, pembuatan keputusan, hubungan sosial, dan
hak. Manakala kualiti hidup di kawasan kediaman menurut Hassan (2006) dipengaruhi
beberapa faktor seperti air, udara, kualiti tanah dan ketersediaan kawasan hijau mempengaruhi
kualiti kehidupan. Dalam satu kajian lain oleh Razali et al. (2014b), menyatakan pasukan khas
dari pertubuhan kesihatan sedunia mengkaji kualiti hidup pada tahun 1993 telah
mendifinasikan kualiti hidup sebagai persepsi individu tentang kedudukannya dalam
kehidupan dari sudut budaya, norma-norma yang mana ia hidup dan juga berkaitan matlamat,
jangkaan, pempiawaian dan kebimbangan dirinya.
Walaubagaimanapun, berbeza pendapat Shafii (2011), pentakrifan tentang kualiti hidup

menunjukkan betapa sukar ianya ditakrifkan, kerana ia membawa kepada konsep yang
pelbagai. Kualiti hidup bukan sahaja melibatkan taraf kehidupan masyarakat, bahkan turut
menggambarkan tentang kebendaan, ketersediaan dan ketersampaian kemudahan sosial,
ekonomi, pengangkutan dan infrastruktur serta pilihan kemudahan rekreasi dan taman
permainan kanak-kanak. Ini bermakna kualiti hidup bukan hanya merujuk kepada satu aspek
sahaja malah melibatkan gabungan beberapa aspek. Perkara ini disokong melalui kajian Che
Hamid (2006) bahawa penunjuk kualiti hidup menggambarkan gabungan antara pendapatan,
kesihatan, pekerjaan, pendidikan, perumahan, rekreasi dan kawasan lapang. Malah, menurut
Rahman (2014), penyelidikan, latar belakang bidang dan perseptif yang berbeza menyebabkan
kualiti hidup sukar ditafsirkan. Dalam konteks kolej kediaman, reka bentuk ruang kolej
kediaman yang memenuhi keperluan dan fungsi adalah suatu matlamat yang mampu
mempengaruhi kualiti hidup. Perkara ini penting bagi memastikan ruang tersebut sesuai
dengan aktiviti pelajar. Kualiti hidup pelajar mampu diperbaiki apabila penyediaan pelbagai
kemudahan memenuhi keperluan dan kehendak mereka. Kualiti hidup pelajar juga mampu
ditingkatkan melalui keselesaan yang dicapai sepanjang hidup di kolej kediaman.
4. Pengaruh Kemudahan di Kolej Kediaman Terhadap Kualiti Hidup Pelajar
Kehidupan sebagai pelajar di universiti sememangnya memerlukan komitmen yang tinggi bagi
mencapai kecemerlangan. Disebabkan itu, kebanyakan pelajar tinggal di kolej kediaman yang
disediakan oleh universiti seterusnya menjalani hidup didalam persekitaran kampus. Menurut
Yaacob & Yasak (2008c), penginapan awal merangkumi bukan sahaja tempat tinggal tetapi
meliputi keseluruhan tempat pembelajaran, penginapan dan sosialisasi. Kehidupan di kolej
kediaman merupakan satu kawasan yang mempunyai ciri-ciri penempatan tersendiri. Malah
kolej kediaman bukan sahaja menyediakan penginapan kepada pelajar, ia turut menyokong
akviti akademik dan sosial pelajar sesuai dengan tujuan ke universiti untuk menimba ilmu.
Kolej kediaman berfungsi sebagai pihak yang menjaga kebajikan, menyediakan perkhidmatan
dan kemudahan mengikut keperluan yang terbaik kepada penghuni. Dalam Mohd Tahir, Mohd
Yusof dan Mohd Nawi (2011), antara fungsi asas kolej kediaman ialah menyediakan
perkhidmatan dan kemudahan penginapan, menjaga kualiti dan perkhidmatan pemakanan yang
disediakan dan akhir sekali menyediakan kemudahan pelajaran yang kondusif. Menurut
108
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kassim (2012), sebagai sebuah universiti yang sedang berkembang ke arah universiti bertaraf
dunia banyak faktor yang perlu diambil kira, salah satu daripadanya adalah dari aspek
kemudahan dan perkhidmatan yang disediakan oleh universiti kepada pelajar sebagai
pelanggan. Alwee et al. (2008b) pula, menyatakan kemudahan kediaman pelajar atau asrama di
insitut pengajian tinggi seperti universiti merupakan tempat tinggal pelajar untuk tidur,
beristirehat, menyimpan perkakas dan peralatan serta barangan peribadi pelajar dengan selesa
dan selamat. Mat Hassan (2000), dalam kajian mengenai kemudahan asas yang terdapat di
kolej kediaman menjelaskan bahawa, kemudahan asas mempunyai maksud yang sama dengan
prasarana iaitu keseluruhan kemudahan dan perkhidmatan asas (seperti kemudahan
pengangkutan dan perhubungan, bekalan kuasa elektrik dan lain-lain) yang perlu bagi
pembangunan (pertumbuhan) dan kemajuan infrastruktur. Penyediaan kemudahan di kolej
kediaman yang tidak mmemenuhi spesifikasi dan keperluan penghuni akan merosotkan kualiti
hidup mereka.
Menurut Abdullah, Mesir dan Mohammad (2006), menyatakan kesimpulan yang dapat dibuat
terhadap kemudahan kolej kediaman adalah pada tahap memenuhi keperluan pelajar sama ada
akademik atau sebagai tempat kediaman. Tetapi berbeza dengan Kajian Shafii, Seow dan Mat
Yassin (2013b), menjurus kepada persoalan berkaitan aspek kualiti hidup, alam sekitar,
perancangan, fasiliti dalam dan luar bangunan, reka bentuk, landskap kolej kediaman bagi
mencapai kesejahteraan hidup pelajar didalamnya. Persoalan-persoalan ini timbul disebabkan
kekurangan dalam pengkajian terhadap aspek reka bentuk bagi mencapai keselesaan di kolej
kediaman seterusnya menimbulkan kecurigaan terhadap kualiti hidup pelajar. Menurut Mat &
Boon (2010), terdapat 3 faktor utama yang menyumbang kepada kualiti kehidupan pelajar di
kolej kediaman. Selain daripada faktor kemudahan dan keselamatan, faktor pengurusan adalah
faktor terpenting dalam memastikan kecemerlangan akademik selain menjamin kepuasan
pelajar yang menginap di kolej kediaman. Pengurusan kolej kediaman juga menjadi
sebahagian faktor penting kerana mereka adalah pihak yang akan melaksanakan polisi,
peraturan dan dasar yang perlu dikuatkuasakan dalam menjadikan kolej kediaman sebagai
kawasan yang memuaskan. Selain itu, pihak pengurusan juga terlibat dalam memastikan
penyelenggaraan dilakukan dengan sempurna supaya tidak mengganggu kelancaran aktiviti
pembelajaran pelajar. Pihak pengurusan juga perlu mengenalpasti program-program yang
sesuai bagi memastikan pelajar dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran sosial
mereka.
Menurut Che Azemi & Mat Assain (2010), secara teorinya tahap kepuasan pelajar terhadap
kemudahan dan perkhidmatan yang disediakan institusi pengajian dapat dipenuhi apabila
keperluan dan kehendak dipenuhi dengan sewajarnya. Kolej kediaman yang selesa dihuni
dapat meningkatkan daya tumpuan pelajar terutama apabila mereka memerlukan suasana
tenang dan damai untuk mengulangkaji pelajaran. Sesuatu yang kritikal bagi kolej kediaman
supaya sentiasa mampu memberikan keselesaan kepada pelajar melalui kemudahan yang
disediakan seperti bilik komputer, pusat sumber, bilik ulangkaji dan sebagainya. Kachar
(1989), kolej kediaman semestinya menyediakan segala kemudahan untuk meningkatkan
prestasi pelajar. Dalam Rinn (2004), kebanyakan penyelidik telah mengkaji kesan kehidupan
di kampus berbanding kehidupan di luar kampus mendapati bahawa tinggal di dewan
kediaman adalah memberikan kesan positif dalam akademik dan pembangunan sosial. Apabila
kemudahan-kemudahan ini dapat digunakan dengan selesa oleh pelajar maka secara langsung
berkemampuan meningkatkan pencapaian akademik mereka.
5. Konsep Kolej Kediaman Lestari
109
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Konsep kolej kediaman lestari merupakan satu konsep pembangunan kolej kediaman yang
berteras pembangunan lestari. Shafii, Seow dan Mat Yassin (2013c), konsep yang mendasari
Kolej Kediaman Lestari yang membawa kepada kesejahteraan hidup penghuninya. Konsep
ini penting kerana ia membawa kepada peningkatan kualiti hidup, persekitaran dan
menyumbang kepada kecemerlangan akademik pelajar. Menurut Hambug (2008),
pembangunan didefinisikan sebagai perihal membangun, mencapai kemajuan serta
perkembangan. Manakala lestari adalah merujuk kepada keadaan yang tidak berubah-ubah,
kekal serta tetap yang demikian, pembangunan lestari merupakan satu konsep kemajuan yang
mengekalkan sumber alam semulajadi dan ekosistemnya supaya dapat dimanfaatkan bersama
oleh generasi masa hadapan. Tafsiran dibuat berdasarkan perspektif sesuatu penyelidikan
terhadap kelestarian itu sendiri. Namun, secara umumnya pembangunan lestari diertikan
sebagai pembangunan yang memenuhi keperluan semasa tanpa menjejaskan keupayaan
generasi akan datang untuk memenuhi keperluan mereka sendiri oleh Brundtland Commission
pada tahun 1987 (Wheeler 2004). Walaupun terdapat sedikit perbezaan antara definisi dan
pengertian tetapi ianya menjurus kepada satu arah iaitu untuk menjamin kehidupan manusia
yang lebih baik pada masa kini dan masa hadapan. Pembangunan lestari dapat dilihat melalui
Modul Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Hopwood (2005). Ianya mengandungi tiga asas yang sangat
penting iaitu ekonomi, sosial dan alam sekitar. Demensi-demensi ini dapat dilihat pada rajah
1
Rajah 1: Modul Triple Bottom Line (Hopwood, 2005)
Pembangunan lestari merupakan pembangunan yang menyeluruh. Ianya tidak terhad hanya
kepada pembangunan atau aktiviti berkaitan alam sekitar sahaja. Menurut Khalid (2009),
prinsip ini bukan sahaja terhad kepada pemeliharaan alam sekitar dan sumber-sumbernya,
malahan juga merangkumi pengurusan sumber manusia dan kewangan serta pembangunan
fizikal. Oleh itu, kesesuaian konsep pembangunan lestari ini boleh dijadikan sebagai landasan
bagi membangunkan sebuah kolej kediaman lestari. Konsep kolej kediaman yang menepati
keperluan pelajar perlulah dibangunkan dengan perancangan yang teliti serta reka bentuk
ruang yang mengikut fungsi. Antara komponen penting dalam pertimbangan membangunkan
kolej kediaman seperti lokasi, bangunan, akses dan persekitaran luarnya. Menurut Syed Fadzil
(2004), bahawa kemudahan fizikal yang disediakan di asrama memainkan peranan yang
penting dalam kehidupan pelajar. Kolej kediaman lestari yang bakal dibangunkan bukan sahaja
memberikan perhatian kepada aspek alam sekitar sahaja malah lebih dari itu supaya dapat
menjamin pelajar untuk terus meningkatkan kualiti hidup mereka sepanjang berada di
universiti. Dengan kualiti hidup yang dicapai ini dapat memastikan kecemerlangan mereka
dalam pelajaran dan menjadi insan yang berguna pada masyarakat.
6. Perbincangan
110
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Berdasarkan penelitian terhadap kajian literatur berkaitan aspek-aspek kualiti hidup, kolej
kediaman dan kelestarian didapati masih terdapat kelemahan dalam penyediaan kemudahan di
kolej kediaman. Kajian lepas membuktikan bahawa aspek kemudahan di kolej kediaman dapat
menpengaruhi hidup pelajar semasa di universiti. Dalam konteks kehidupan di kolej
kediaman, kualiti hidup dapat diperbaiki apabila segala keperluan pelajar dapat dipenuhi
sebaik mungkin. Keadaan-keadaan di kolej kediaman seperti persekitaran tidak menarik,
kemudahan asas yang tidak memuaskan, bilik yang padat dan sempit, kekurangan kawasan
riadah dan sebagainya akan menyebabkan ketidakpuasan dalam kehidupan pelajar seterusnya
dapat memberikan kesan yang buruk dalam prestasi akademik mereka. Dalam kajian Said &
Talam (2010), kemudahan-kemudahan di kolej- kolej kediaman perlulah diperbaiki untuk
memenuhi kehendak pelajar. Masalah yang terdapat pada kemudahan kolej kediaman mampu
memberikan kesan buruk kepada aktiviti pembelajaran penghuni. Menurut Hussein Sazally
(1996), persekitaran dan kemudahan pelajar yang minima merupakan sekatan kepada suasana
pembelajaran yang positif
Didapati juga, penerapan aspek kelestarian di kolej kediaman mampu menyumbang serta
menyokong kepada peningkatan kualiti hidup pelajar. Menurut Abdullah (2012), bagi
kediaman lestari, faktor keselesaan dan kesan kepada alam sekitar perlu ditangani dengan baik
dan bijak. Faktor keselesaan tercapai apabila keperluan penghuni dapat dipenuni sebaiknya
seterusnya meningkatkan kualiti hidup. Kesan alam sekitar juga mempengaruhi kualti hidup
pelajar. Apabila wujud persekitaran yang tidak sihat seperti keadaan pencemaran udara atau air
dan peningkatan suhu persekitaran akan membawa kepada kemerosotan kualiti hidup pelajar.
Persekitaran yang sihat dan bersih adalah satu keperluan dalam menyokong aktiviti pelajar di
kolej kediaman. Justeru itu, konsep kolej kediaman lestari mampu meningkatkan kualiti hidup
pelajar secara terancang melalui penekanan terhadap ciri-ciri pembangunan fizikal yang
mampan. Shafii, Seow dan Mat Yassin (2013d), konsep ini penting kerana ia membawa kepada
peningkatan kualiti hidup, persekitaran dan seterusnya menyumbang kepada kecemerlangan
akademik pelajar. Pembangunan fizikal secara lestari ini juga memastikan kolej kediaman
tidak menganggu keseimbangan ekosistem alam sekitar disekelilingnya. Menurut Vanes
(2010), dari segi pembangunan fizikal (secara lestari) memastikan pembangunan alam bina
akan berharmoni dengan alam semulajadi di mana hubungan mereka adalah seimbang dan
saling memanfaatkan. Oleh itu, dapat dirumuskan bahawa kolej kediaman lestari dibangunkan
dengan teliti mampu membawa kepada peningkatan kualiti hidup pelajar melalui penyediaan
kemudahan yang memenuhi keperluan, selesa dan selamat.
7. Kesimpulan
Kolej kediaman mempunyai pengaruhi tersendiri dalam kualiti hidup pelajar. Kolej kediaman
yang tidak selesa dihuni akan membawa kepada kemerosotan kualiti hidup yang mampu
mengganggu proses pembelajaran di universiti. Konsep kolej kediaman lestari yang
menekankan pembangunan lestari sebagai teras dalam pembangunan kolej kediaman akan
membantu penghuni mencapai keselesaan tinggal di kolej kediaman seterusnya meningkatkan
kualti hidup pelajar. Oleh itu, adalah pentingnya bagi memastikan kualiti hidup pelajar dapat
diperbaiki melalui pembangunan kolej kediaman lestari bagi melengkapkan kualiti pendidikan
yang menghasilkan modal insan cemerlang dimasa hadapan
8. Rujukan
Abddullah, A., Mesir, B. & Mohamad, A. M., 2006. Faktor-faktor Yang Menyumbang kepada
Kecemerlangan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
111
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Anuar, M., Muhamad Darus, F. & Syeh Yahya, S.Y., 2006. Memperkasakan Modal Insan:
Peranan dan Cabaran Kolej Kediaman di Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam.
Persidangan Kebangsaan Pembangunan Pelajar. Hotel Grand Season, Kuala Lumpur, 8
9 Ogos 2006.
Alwee, M.F., Darus, F.M. & Sarah, Z., 2008. Selamatkah Kolej Kediaman untuk Pelajar Kita?.
Universiti Teknologi Mara
Affizal Ahmad. 2013., Kepentingan Pendidikan Dalam Pembentukan Kualiti Hidup Sejahtera.
Abdullah, H., 2012. Sebelum Selepas [web] , Berrita Harian.. Dari
http://www.bharian.com.my/bharian/articles/Kediamanlestari/Article/index 24/6/13
[Dicapai Pada 18 Ogos 2013]
Che Azemi, N. & Mat Assain, F., 2010. Tahap Kepuasan Pelajar Terhadap Kemudahan Dan
Perkhidmatan Yang Disediakan Di Politeknik Port Dickson (Ppd) Bagi Sesi Disember
2010. Politeknik Port Dickson
Che hamid, H., 2006. Persepsi Kualiti Hidup : Tinjauan Ke Atas Penduduk Bandar Seri
Kertih, Kemaman, Terengganu. Universiti Malaya
Darus, F.M., 2006. Budaya Penyelenggaraan Kemudahan Kolej di Kalangan Mahasiswa:
Kajian Kes di Kolej Melati, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam. Universiti
Teknologi MARA
Bahagian Perundangan, Perancangan dan Kawal Selia., 2006. Risalah Garis Panduan dan
Piawaian Perancangan. Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa Semenanjung
Malaysia
Hussein Sazally, S., 1996. Perancangan Persekitaran Dan Sosial Pelajar Untuk Pembelajaran
Pelajar-Pelajar Kajian Seni Bina, Perancangan Dan Ukur Kajian Kes : Jabatan
Perancangan Bandar Dan Wilayah, Institut Teknologi Mara. Biro Penyelidikan Dan
Perundingan Institut Teknologi Mara 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Hopwood., 2005 dalam Abas, M.A., 2014. Persepsi Komuniti Peniaga di Kejiranan Universiti
Sains Malaysia, USM Terhadap Amalan Kitar Semula Sisa Pepejal.[ academia]
Universiti Sains Malaysia. Dari
http://www.academia.edu/6603004/Persepsi_Komuniti_Peniaga_di_Kejiranan_Unive
rsiti_Sains_Malaysia_USM_Terhadap_Amalan_Kitar_Semula_Sisa_Pepejal [Dicapai
Pada 6 April 2014]
Md Dali, M. & Awang, M.Z., 2006. Tanggapan Peranan Kawasan Lapang Kejiranan : Ke
Arah Pengekalan Ruang Hijau Bandar. Universiti Malaya
Mc Villy & Rawlison., 1998. dalam Mahir Razali, A.,Mohd Ali, k.a., Ab Hamid, M.R. &
Mustafa, Z. 2014. Kesihatan Dan Kualiti Hidup Masyarakat. Universiti Malaysia
Pahang
Mohd Tahir, L, Mohd Yusof, S & Mohd Nawi, S., 2011. Peranan Pihak Pengurusan Kolej
Kediaman Dalam Mempertingkatkan Pembangunan Pembelajaran Pelajar.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Mohid, M. N., Ab Rahman, A. & Abd Shukor, I., 2003. Kajian Keperluan Kemudahan
Pelajar Di Universiti Teknologi Mara, Kampus Seri iskandar, Cawangan Perak Darul
Ridzuan. Universiti Teknologi Mara
Mat Hassan, S.N., 2000. Persepsi Mahasiswi Terhadap Kemudahan Asas Yang Disediakan Di
Kolej Kediaman Pelajar UTM. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Mat, N. & Boon, Y., 2010. Tahap Kepuasan Pelajar Terhadap Pengurusan Asrama Di Kolej
9, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Muhammad, B., Rahmat Azam, M., Abdullah, A., Rahim, A., Bahaudin, A.F. Mat, H., Ali, K.
Lee, L.M. & Badarulzaman, N., 2001. Prinsip-Prinsip Perancangan: Prenice Hall
112
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mahir Razali, A.,Mohd Ali, k.a., Ab Hamid, M.R. & Mustafa, Z., 2014. Kesihatan Dan Kualiti
Hidup Masyarakat. Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Noor, M.Y., 1984. Falsafah Dan Fungsi Asrama. Universiti Malaya
Rinn, A.N., 2004. Academic and Social Effects of Living in Honors Residence Halls. Western
Kentucky University
Wheeler, S.M,, 2004. Planning For Sustainability. Routledge
Yahaya,N., 1998. Kualiti perumahan dan kualiti hidup. Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Shafii, H., Seow, T. W & Mat Yassin, A., 2013. Kolej Kediaman Lestari (KKL) Di Malaysia:
Kajian Awalan Terhadap Kesesuaian Konsep. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Shafii, H., Seow, T. W & Mat Yassin, A., 2013. Ruang Kemudahan Untuk Pelajar Di Kolej
Kediaman Lestari : Satu Kajian Literatur. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Shafii, H., 2011. Pendidikan Alam Sekitar Menyumbang Ke Arah Peningkatan Kualiti Hidup
Masyarakat Di Malaysia. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Shamsuddin, S., Sulaiman, A.S., Lamit, L., Abd. Aziz, N.,Omar, R. & Md Noor, M., 2007.
Kriteria Reka Bentuk Persekitaran Kampus Yang Kondusif Bagi Institusi Pengajian
Tinggi Di Malaysia. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Slaper, T.F & Hall, T.J., 2011. The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work?.
Economic Research Analyst,.[ibrc] , Indiana Universiti Kelley School of Business..
Dari http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.htmll [Dicapai Pada 18
Mei 2014]
Said, H. & Talam, P., 2010. Kepuasan Mahaiswa Mahasiswi Terhadap Kualiti Kehidupan Di
Kolej Tun Dr.Ismail, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. UTM
Syed Fadzil, S.F., 2004. Garis Panduan Reka Bentuk Bangunan Asrama Di Universiti Sains
Malaysia. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Kassim, N., 2012. Tahap kepuasan pelajar antarabangsa terhadap kemudahan dan
perkhidmatan yang disediakan di Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Khalid, N., 2009. Perancangan Aktiviti-Aktiviti Ekonomi Maritim Di Malaysia: Ke Arah
Penerapan Konsep Pembangunan Lestari [myjurnal]. Dari
http://www.myjurnal.my/public/article-view.php?id=318 [Dicapai Pada 22 Mei 2015]
Kachar, K., 1989. Ke Arah Pengurusan Pelajar Dinamik. Teks Publishing Sdn. Bhd
Idris, M.N., 2013. Asrama lebih selesa UMK dijangka siap April ini. [utusan] Utusan Malaysia
Dari
http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/Forum/20130227/fo_02/Asrama-lebih-selesa-UMK
-dijangka-siap-April-ini#ixzz3YspwAHol [Dicapai Pada 1 Mei 2015]
Yaacob, M.A. & Yasak, Z., 2008. Pengaruh Penginapan ke Atas Disiplin Pelajar Di Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Vanes, P., 2010. Konsep Pembangunan Mapan. [scribd]. Dari
http://www.scribd.com/doc/40236286/KONSEP-PEMBANGUNAN-MAPAN#scribd
[Dicapai Pada 22 Oktober 2014]
113
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Matching Development Plan, Resources and Sustainable Livelihood

in The Case of Coastal Fishery Industry, Pangkor Island
Ho Siew Neo, Stellaa *, Jamilah Binti Mohamadb *, Nurulhuda Binti Mohd Satarc *
a
Institute of Graduate Studies, Universiti Malaya (UM), Malaysia
Email: stellah@siswa.um.my
b
Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Universiti Malaya (UM),
Malaysia
Email: jamilahmd@um.edu.my
c
Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Administration, University Malaya
(UM), Malaysia
Email: nurulhuda@um.edu.my
Abstract
Fishery sector has contributed to 1.3% of Malaysias Gross Domestic Product in 2013, of
which 55% are contributed by coastal fishing industry (LKIM). Furthermore, majority of
these output are contributed by Manjung, Perak, where Pangkor Island is located. While the
contribution of coastal fishing industry is very important, it has only been done on a very
small and insignificant scale, and at times, the sustainability of these fishermens livelihood
has been overlooked. This paper aims to give an overview of the proposed research work,
discuss the expected effect of structures and processes (organization and implementation of
projects) by Fishery Development Authority of Malaysia (LKIM) and Persatuan Nelayan
(Fishermens Associations) of Pangkor on the sustainable livelihood of fisherman within
coastal fishery industry in Pangkor. This preliminary observations is focusing on testing the
Sustainable Livelihood Framework by Department for International Development, UK. This
paper will report on initial work undertaken on Pangkor Island in identifying the gap between
transforming processes and structures, improvement in livelihood assets and subsequently,
livelihood strategies and outcome.
Keywords: Sustainable livelihood; Coastal fishery; Pangkor Island
1. Overview of fishery industry in Malaysia

The fishery sector in Malaysia, just like in many other countries, play a significant role in the
countrys development as it contributes a significant portion to a countrys Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). In 2013, the fishery sector in Malaysia produced 1,749,314 tonnes of food
fish (excluding seaweed, ornamental fish and aquatic plants) which has contributed RM11,
466.53 million to the countrys economy, an increase of 0.23% (Annual Fisheries Statistics
2013) of which 66% are contributed by the coastal fishery industry (Surach, 2014). Pangkor
Island, which is in Perak, has contributed to 242,235.61 tonnes (13.85%) worth RM1, 423.87
million, which makes Perak the biggest contributor to the fishery sector.
Marine fishery itself can be categorize into four zones, namely Zone A (0-5 nautical miles
from shore), Zone B (5-12 nautical miles), Zone C (12-30 nautical miles) and Zone C2
(30-200 nautical miles) (Shahuntala, 1996). This research will focus on coastal fishery in
Zone A.
114
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
There are a few organizations and the ministry working hand in hand in Malaysia to support
the fishery sector. These organizations include the State Government, Jabatan Perikanan
Malaysia (Department of Fishery of Malaysia, thereinafter referred to as DOF), Fishery
Development Authority of Malaysia (LKIM) and Fishermens Associations. DOFs
fishermens related roles include providing training, introducing new technology, introducing
fishery tools, method, research and development. LKIMs main duty is to manage the fishery
output, all kinds of subsidies (includes diesel, petrol, etc), fishermens monthly allowance and
vessel insurance. Fishermens Associations on the other hand, are in charge of managing the
vessels, renewing the license for both the fishermen and their vessels, providing training for
the fishermen, and most importantly, acting as the middlemen between LKIM and the area
fishermen. In summary, the body which works closely on a daily basis with the fishermen are
the local LKIM and the Fishermen Associations.
2. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review
The Sustainable Livelihoods framework demonstrates the way to improve understanding
about a poor community. The introduction of people oriented was originated by Chamber
and Conway in 1992. Their framework has set a foundation for the development of other
livelihood frameworks created mainly by development agencies. Following are some of the
significant frameworks generated in the 1990s.
1993 Oxfam, a leading UK charity organization in fighting poverty uses the Sustainable
Livelihoods framework to determine its aims, improves its project strategies and provides the
most appropriate staff training. (Oxfam, 1998)
1994 CARE, a US based Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), formed a slightly more
comprehensive sustainable livelihoods framework which they referred to as Household
Livelihood Security (HLS), which identifies three main attributes of sustainable livelihoods,
i.e. human capabilities, accessibility to both tangible and intangible assets and the availability
of economic activities to generate income. (CARE, 2002)
1997 DFID which produced a more comprehensive sustainable livelihoods framework
(SLF) aiming at increasing the effectiveness of the agencys poverty reduction projects.
DFID focuses not only on the importance of people-centred policies, but policies that are
responsive (involving the poor in decision making to better understand their own challenges),
applicable at multi-level, conducted in partnership with both the public and the private sector,
sustainable (includes economic, institutional, social and environmental sustainability) and
dynamic. The centre of DFID SLF is the livelihood assets pentagon, how external shock,
policies, structures can strengthen or weaken the livelihood assets available to the
community, their livelihood strategies and the livelihood outcomes or sustainability (DFID,
1999).
Figure 1
115
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Source: DFID Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheet

The main difference between these three agencies framework is that both Oxfam and CARE
focuses on the analysis of the success of their programs whereas DFID, which is closely
related to this study, focuses on analysing the community, policies and structured affecting
them.
3. Methodology
Participants and procedures
The Pangkor Development plan 1999-2015 and the Guidelines of Development Plan
Implementation by Manjung District Council were scrutinized and reviewed. Plans related to
fishermen were identified and converted into interview questions to study the actual results of
the development project from the fishermens point of view. Interviews were carried out in
Bahasa Malaysia (the local language) to ensure a better understanding of the questions.
Observations, site visits and interviews were conducted to collect information. Sample
includes the Chairman and the Pengurus Besar (General Manager) of LKIM of Pangkor
Fishermen Associations. The fishermen were randomly chosen from the entire island.
Following are some details of the interview sessions:
Sample Categories: Fishermen
Sample Size: 10; Duration: 20 minutes each; Sample Questions:
1. How ready are you in trying out new way of fishing and processing seafood?
2. Do you think aquaculture fishery can improve your monthly income?
Sample Categories: Pengurus Besar of LKIM and the Chairman of the Fishermen
Associations
Sample Size: 2; Duration: 45 minutes each; Sample Questions:
Similar to the questions posted to fishermen, plus few more strategic questions:
1. What are the challenges of carrying out the development plans, projects, and support?
2. Will aquaculture fishery be a good alternatives to fishery since Zone B output has
reached Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and it could have happened to Zone A
too?
116
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Preliminary Observations, Findings and Discussion

Preliminary findings are presented below according to the flow of the DFID framework.
A. Vulnerability context
i. Seasonality: Weather and tide level have always been the main concerns of the
fishermen. These have caused their income to vary from RM 0 to RM500 per boat
per day (shared between 2 fishermen).
ii. Trends: All interviewees raised their concerns about the illegal, unrecorded and
unreported (IUU) fishing carried out by fishermen mainly from Thailand and some
locals. LKIM has done its part by announcing that only those who reported their
catch will get to claim diesel and petrol subsidies. The Malaysian Maritime
Enforcement Agency has arrested many who performed IUU. This shows that more
collaboration is needed.
B. Livelihood Assets
Assets pentagon is the core of the DFID Sustainable Livelihood Framework. This
pentagon was developed to provide information about livelihood assets in a visual
format, and allows the reader to better interpret the relationship between assets available
as discussed below.
i. Human Capital: Various workshops related to improving fishing methods, seafood
processing industry, trawl (fishing net) repairing methods and entrepreneurship were
carried out by the Fishermen Associations in the past. These workshops managed to
attract the interest of the fishermen, but only those with capital and are willing to
change were able to apply what they had learnt and benefited from it.
ii. Natural Capital: Most of the fishermen confirmed that they cannot start aquaculture
fishing because the water saltiness level around Pangkor is high. Only one
successful aquaculture owner concluded that a few types of fish like snappers and
groupers can survive in salty water. On the other hand, not many fishermen have
started any business in marine activities even though tourism industry in growing in
Pangkor Island.
iii. Financial Capital: Fishermens daily earnings, as mentioned, is only
RM1500-RM2000 per month, which is inadequate to support a family of 5, on
average. In terms of household income, most of the interviewees avoided this
question. The Fishermen Associations are providing support for loan applications to
help expand their businesses, however, not many have applied. Petrol and diesel
subsidies together with monthly allowance are provided by DOF through LKIM, but
according to the fishermen, not everyone has received them, even though they have
registered with the Fishermen Associations. Response given by the authority is that
it might be due to documentation issues, and is yet to be investigated.
iv. Physical Capital: Pangkor Development Plan 1999-2015 has allocated
RM50,600,000 for the development of infrastructures and utilities. These is the total
physical resources available to the fishermen to improve their sustainable livelihood.
v. Social Capital All fishermen who engaged in fishing for a minimum of 120 days
per year are eligible for the Fisherman Card and to be a member of the Fishermen
Associations. This membership provides them with a channel to raise their concerns,
to be trained and most importantly, to claim subsidies and allowances.
C. Transforming Structures and Processes

i. According to the Fishermens Association Act 1971s clause 11.2, not only
fishermen, but fish processors derived 60% of their income from the fishery sector,
117
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and those who engaged in the development of the fishery sector are eligible to be a
member of the Fishermen Associations. This has created dissatisfaction among
fishermen as only members are eligible for dividends.
ii. A few fishermen has raised their concern about not receiving subsidies due to
cronyism created by the Tok Sidang (head of village).
iii. The Maritime, LKIM, DOF and the State Government have implemented strict
regulations in protecting the environment, especially the sea. However, pollution
still occurs due mainly to the illegal dumping of sand by private companies.
iv. The DOF has allocated subsidies for the fishermen to start aquaculture fishery, but
not many of these fishermen who are illiterate have applied for these subsidies due
to complicated requirements such as filling up a lengthy application form.
v. Three plots of land have been allocated to build accommodation, which includes 99
units of terraced houses in Pangkor Indah, apartments in Teluk Gedung (under
construction) and Pasir Bogak (pending) to relocate the fishermen. Fishermen who
are interested in relocating to the terraced houses need to pay only RM35,000, which
is about RM216 per month in instalment. All 99 units are occupied but many have
not paid the instalment.
vi. Training program such as sewing classes, targeting the fishermens wife, were
conducted before. These training aims to supplement the fishermens household
income. TNB has promised to provide funding for sewing machines.
vii. The Fishermen Associations has started new a pasar nelayan (fishermens
market) aimed at increasing sales revenue. This lasted only two months as the
market is located within the fishermen village, away from the targeted customers.
The new plan is to convert this building into a trawl repairing centre.
D. Livelihood Strategies
Only very small number of fishermen have ventured into other industries to increase
their income, which include working in factories within Manjung, the tourism industry
and working for companies that carry out fishery activities in Zone C. Some have started
their own business in seafood processing mainly anchovies, dried fish and sea cucumber
and operating food stalls.
E. Livelihood Outcomes
The following outcomes are targeted by the fishermen to achieve sustainable livelihood:
i. Improved wellbeing: Some fishermens living standards have risen as they take
advantage of the infrastructures and training programs available.
ii. Increased income: Yet to see an increase in income as a result of poor
implementation of policies and structures, instead, living expenses reduced due to
subsidies and allowances.
iii. Reduced vulnerability: Fishermen who work in other industries, when the weather is
bad, have seen reduction in vulnerability, while others remain unchanged.
iv. Improved environmental sustainability: Water is polluted due to illegal dumping.
Action needs to be taken by the authority concerned.
5. Summary of Findings
The sssets pentagon shapes representing livelihood assets for Pangkor Island fishermen
community is greatly affected by the weather and illegal fishing. At the same time, policies
and structures has improved the physical and human capital available, but not the financial
resources (available through an increase in income except through minimal monthly
118
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
allowances and through the reduction of cost). Stricter policies are needed to improve the
natural capital.
On the other end, training and business plans introduced through the processes to improve the
livelihood strategies have yet to be achieved due to the absence of sustainability of the
projects. These issues together with the human nature of reluctance to change and to try new
things have also contributed to a poor livelihood outcome.
6. Conclusions and Limitation
This preliminary research shows that the critical factors which reduced the livelihood
outcome include fishermens own intention to improve their living standard (the human
capital) as well as the ineffective processes and structures. The researchers believe that the
human capital ratio can be improved with appropriate processes and structures in place.
However, the DFID framework does not provide the room to visualise the effectiveness of
the processes and structures. A similar pentagon is needed for this particular section so that it
would be easier for the readers and the authority concerned to refer to for further action.
Adjustment to this framework can only be done with further research. The main limitation of
this research is that although it has identified the gap between the transforming processes and
structures with livelihood strategies and outcome, the reasons why these gaps still exist have
yet to be explored. Further research is needed to avoid biases.
7.0 References
1. Annual Fishery Statistic 2013. Department of Fishery of Malaysia. [online] Available at:
<http://www.dof.gov.my/en/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=5df7d9e6-0af0-4510-9fdc
-b45309522ad5&groupId=558715> [Accessed on 18th June 2015].
2. Chambers, R. and Conway, G., 1992. Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts
for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper No. 296. Brighton, IDS, p7-8.
3. CARE, 2002. Household Livelihood Security Assessments: A Toolkit for Practitioners.
TANGO.
4. Fishermans Associations Act 1971. (c11.2). Malaysia: PNMB.
5. Mission, vision and objective. Department of Fishery of Malaysia. [online] Available at:
<http://www.dof.gov.my/en/124>. [Accessed on 24th June 2015].
6. DFID, 1999. Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets. [online] Available at:
<http://www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/1/document/0901/section2.pdf>. [Accessed on
20/11/2015]
7. OXFAM, 1998. Achieving Maximum Impact: Oxfams Strategy for overcoming poverty.
Oxford: Oxfam.
8. Vision, mission and objectives. Fishery Development Authority of Malaysia. [online]
Available at:
<http://www.lkim.gov.my/vision;jsessionid=70A38F9BC5E13062A3152FB467542DA7
>. [Accessed on 24 June 2015].
9. Shahuntala, D., 1996. Prosiding Persidangan Penyelidikan Perikanan 1996. Institute
Penyelidikan Perikanan, p3.
10. Surach, G., 2014. Bid to boost aqua-culture sector. The Star Online, [online] 20 June.
Available at:
<http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2014/06/20/Bid-to-boost-aquaculture-sector-
Minister-Target-is-to-fulfil-demand-by-2020/>. [Accessed on 16 June 2015].
119
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
120
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Evaluation of the Implementation

of Regional Autonomy in Indonesia
Rudy Badrudina, Baldric Siregarb

a&b
STIE YKPN School of Business, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Email: rudybadrudin.stieykpn@gmail.coma, siregar@accountant.comb
Abstract
Act No. 32 of 2004 on Regional Government states that decentralization aims to improve the
welfare of the community. The implementation of regional autonomy has been running
nearly 15 years since January 1, 2001. In fact, the purpose of regional autonomy for
improving the welfare of society has not been fully achieved. Reality on the ground found a
variety of issues related to regional autonomy. As many as 10 districts in Aceh province
could potentially bankrupt because of weak financial management. Many counties and cities
in Indonesia rely too much on the funds transfer from the central government to meet the
financing needs of the local budget. Gini Index increased from 0.31 in 2001 to 0.413 in
2013. In addition, records of corruption of 2014 showed that as many as 321 local leaders
faced legal problems associated with the misuse of the local budget. The conditions
described above led us to evaluate the implementation of regional autonomy for 15 years.
This study aims to evaluate the implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia. We
examine the role of regional autonomy to improving the welfare of society by using capital
expenditure and economic growth as an intervening variable. The data we use include local
revenue, revenue-sharing, total regional spending, capital expenditures, gross domestic
regional product, and the human development index of all regions in Indonesia, 461 counties
and cities, for the period of 2006 through 2013. We use Partial Least Square for testing
hypotheses. Empirical evidence shows that local autonomy does not significantly influence
capital expenditure but significant effect both on economic growth and social welfare.
Economic growth has positive influence on the welfare of society. However, capital
expenditure has no significant effect both on economic growth and social welfare.
Keywords: regional autonomy, capital expenditures, economic growth, social welfare
1. Introduction
Regional autonomy in Indonesia, which has been running for nearly 14 years since January
1, 2001, has not succeeded in achieving its goal of accelerating the public welfare.
According to Badrudin (2012), the purpose of regional autonomy has not been successful in
improving the welfare of society due to various factors such as the inability of local
governments in managing finances and the budget fraud. Kuncoro (2010, p. 106) says that
during the period of regional autonomy there is an unexpected trend that local authorities are
eager too much in tax and levies but otherwise do not pay attention to the improvement of
public services. The unsuccessful implementation of regional autonomy, particularly
ineffectiveness in local government budget allocations, related to the opportunistic behavior
of politicians and local government officials. On the expenditure side, the effectiveness of
the budget used for public interest is still low (Badrudin, 2013, p. 26). Suboptimal public
spending lead to economic activities that add value to the welfare of society does not
function properly. In addition, capital expenditure is only capable of creating an exclusive
and low quality economic development. This statement is supported by the increased Gini
121
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
index of 0.37 in 2009 to 0.41 in 2012. In addition, the GDP of each region contributes
differently to the national GDP. GDP Java and Sumatra account for 81% of the national
GDP in 2011 and 2012; while other regions GDP only accounted for 19% of national GDP
for the same period (Badrudin, 2013, p. 14).
2. Research Objective
The importance of this research is to assess the extent to which public welfare increases due
to the implementation of regional autonomy. In this study we analyze the relationship
between the various variables such as regional autonomy, capital expenditures, and
economic growth with social welfare. A decade is enough to slightly improve the welfare of
the community through local autonomy. Increased public welfare is an appropriate indicator
to assess the success or failure of the implementation of regional autonomy. The failure of
regional autonomy shown by the unchanged or even lowered the welfare of society. On the
other hand, the success of regional autonomy should be seen from the growing prosperity of
society.
On Law No. 33/2004 regulate that there are three types of intergovernmental transfer:
revenue sharing, General Allocation Fund (DAU), and Specific Allocation Fund (DAK).
Revenue-sharing is the central government funds allocated to local governments derived
from natural resource revenues and personal income tax. Natural resource revenues which
are shared between central and local governments include revenues from oil and gas, mining,
forestry, and fishery. In the law is set percentage for each type of revenue sharing. Revenue
sharing aims to reduce the fiscal gap vertically between central and local governments.
DAU or General Allocation Fund can be classify as a general purpose grant that gives full
discretion to local governments to spend the funds according to their priorities. DAU value
depends on the gap between the capabilities and needs of local government fiscal. Factors
taken into consideration for determining the financial capacity of local government are local
revenue and revenue sharing. While the factors taken into consideration for determining
local needs including population, land area, water area, and the level of expensiveness. DAU
aims to reduce the fiscal gap among regional governments.
DAK or Specific Allocation Fund is a conditional grant that is intended to finance the special
needs which cannot be incorporated in the DAU formula and to provide funding for
activities which related to national priorities. Determining the amount of DAK is influenced
by three factors, namely (i) the general criteria, (ii) technical criteria, and (iii) specific
criteria. General criteria determined by the fiscal gap, the technical criteria refers to the type
of development, and specific criteria determined by the relevant technical ministries.
The model used in this study is built on the theory of public welfare Todaro and Stephen C.
Smith (2006, p. 22). We use the theory of public welfare by incorporating external variables
that are identified from previous studies as well as linking with other theories or models such
as regional autonomy, capital expenditures, and economic growth. According to Saragih
(2003, p. 83), decentralization is a process of distribution of the budget from the higher
levels of government to lower governmental authority in line with the increasing number of
government and public services delegated (money should follow function) and government
activities which require financing (the law of ever increasing state activities). One of the
122
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
activities that require financing is capital expenditure activity (Halim, 2008, p. 4-5).
Economic growth is the increase in national income or Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or
Gross National Product (GNP) regardless of whether the change in the economic structure
occurs or not. While the economic development is a process that led to the increase in real
income per capita of the population of a country in the long term that is accompanied by
changes in the institutional system. Thus, economic growth is a necessary condition but not
sufficient for economic development process. Measuring development results only from
economic growth alone will negate the uneven ability of people to enjoy the fruits of
development (Badrudin, 2013, p. 13-14). Public welfare is a condition in which there is a
good community life circumstances (Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, 2006, p. 22). The public
life can be measured by the human development index (HDI). Human development index is
calculated based on the combination of three dimensions, namely life expectancy,
well-educated man, and an adequate standard of living.
Research findings from Vazquez and McNab (1997) show that fiscal decentralization lead to
increased economic growth and democratic governance but also affects the institutional
weakness and inefficiency of local government. Adi (2005) states that not all the local
government really prepared to deal with fiscal decentralization. Suryanto (2005) show that
fiscal decentralization has not been beneficial to the improvement of people's welfare. This is
due to the gap between the government planning to the needs of society in local governance.
The research results of the Vazquez and Mark Rider (2006) show that the implementation of
fiscal decentralization which is done simply and gradually better than those performed
complicated and drastictically.
Suhendra and Amir Hidayat (2006) found that the strength and the role of taxation in the
county or city level is still low. The local government is still too dependent on the DAU is
transferred by the central government. Research conducted by Tuasikal (2008) showed that
DAU, DAK, local revenue and gross regional domestic product affects the local government
capital expenditures. Further Kristanto (2009) shows that the size of government, local
revenue, and capital expenditure together significantly affect governmental internal controls.
Big government, high local revenues, and significant capital expenditure impact on the weak
internal control of local government finance. Priyarsono (2010) showed that the financial
performance area in Indonesia is still low, both in terms of the revenue and expenditure side.
Routine expenditure allocation is still too excessive compared to the budget allocation for
development expenditure. The main source of financing regional expenditure is still
dominated by the transfer of funds from the central government indicating that the region's
autonomy has not been optimal. Research results of Maryaningsih et al. (2014) show that the
condition of roads and electricity have an impact on economic growth in Indonesia.
Likewise, investment spending had a positive impact on economic growth in Indonesia.
Badrudin (2011) showed that there is a need to evaluate the implementation of the fiscal
decentralization in districts and cities in Central Java province. In studies that have been
described above also indicates that the evaluation of the implementation of fiscal
decentralization needs to be done to determine the extent of decentralization impact on the
welfare of the community.
4. Research Hyphoteses
The elements that exist within the framework of the study are regional autonomy, capital
expenditures, growth, and prosperity. The relationships between these elements are built in
123
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the form of hypotheses. There are several hypotheses of this study. First, regional autonomy
significant effect on capital spending. Second, regional autonomy significant effect on
economic growth. Third, regional autonomy significant effect on the welfare of society.
Fourth, capital expenditure significant effect on economic growth. Fifth, capital expenditures
significantly influence the welfare of the community. Sixth, economic growth significantly
influence the welfare of the community.
5. Research Model
This research model illustrating the effect of regional autonomy for the welfare of society by
capital spending and economic growth as mediating variables. Variables local autonomy
shown by fiscal decentralization. This variable is measured by the sum of local revenues
and revenue-sharing between the central and local governments divided by the total
expenditure. The economic growth shown by the regional gross domestic product. While
indicators to measure the well-being of society is the human development index. The data of
this study include the decentralization of fiscal, capital expenditure, gross domestic regional
product, and the human development index of 461 counties and cities in Indonesia for the
period 2006 through 2013. Model analysis Partial Least Square (PLS) were used in this study
follows the pattern of structural equation modeling (SEM). This model can be tested
simultaneously both measurement model and structural model. Measurement model used to
test the validity and reliability; while the structural model used for testing hypotheses.
6. Results and Analysis
The research data include financial and other data from 461 counties and cities for 2006 to
2013. Table 1 below describes the characteristics of variables such as average and standard
deviation.
Table 1
Variable Description
Regional Capital Economic Public
Variable
Autonomy Expenditure Growth Welfare
Description
(%) (millions) (%) (IPM)
Mean 24,87 Rp211.213 6,27 70,7
Standard
40,19 1.208.801 4,94 5,01
Deviation
Source: Research data processed
Table 1 shows that the autonomy variable has an average of 24.87% with a standard
deviation of 40.19%. This shows that the average degree of autonomy for as many as 461
districts or cities in Indonesia is relatively low because it only amounted to 24.87%. Thus, to
meet the expenditure budget, counties and cities in Indonesia to rely on transfers from the
central government budget. On average dependence of local budgets on the central budget
amounted to 75.13%. The standard deviation of the variables autonomy of 40.19% indicates
the magnitude of the imbalance between local autonomy and municipal districts in
Indonesia. With an average degree of autonomy is relatively low (24.87%), then according to
the scale intervals, the degree of local autonomy are in the moderate category (Tangkilisan,
2005, p. 83).
Table 1 shows that the mean of capital expenditure is Rp211.213 (millions) and the standard
deviation is Rp1.200.801 (millions) The low average value of capital expenditure shows that
124
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the capital expenditure of counties and cities in Indonesia is relatively small. Small capital
expenditure means that development activities are also low. In the end is that economic
activity those the region is also difficult to increase with lower capital expenditures. The low
average of capital expenditure is compounded by the high standard deviation. Deviation of
capital expenditure is high among regions The low average of capital means high capital
expenditure inequality. A high standard deviation shows how much capital spending
differences among regions in Indonesia.
In Table 1 is also seen the average value and standard deviation of economic growth. The
average economic growth is 6.27% with a standard deviation of 4.94%. The relatively high
average value shows that economy in those regions is running well. However, the value of
this economic growth is not the value of inclusive growth. In the calculation of inclusive
growth should consider the level of poverty, unemployment, and inequality of income
distribution. The amount of standard deviation, 4.94%, shows the magnitude of the imbalance
in economic growth among regions in Indonesia. Economic growth imbalance is caused by
imbalance in the degree of regional autonomy and capital expenditure inequality.
Indicator of the welfare of society is the human development index. What this means is that
the level of social welfare in line with the level of human development index. Human
development index has an average of 70.7 and a standard deviation of 5.01. The average
number of 70.7 is a number with a moderate category. Further investigation shows that the
economic growth rate is higher in rural areas (districts) than in urban areas (cities). The
implementation of regional autonomy has not been able to improve the welfare of the
population in urban areas. In addition, a high standard deviation indicates high inequality
public welfare.
Based on the information in Table 2, regional autonomy has no significant effect on capital
spending. However, capital spending significant effect both on economic growth and social
welfare as well. Capital expenditure does not have a significant impact on economic growth
and social welfare. However, there is a significant impact between economic growth and
social welfare. What is the meaning of these findings in the assessment of the implementation
of regional autonomy? In the following paragraphs is presented explanation of the
relationship between those variables above.
Table 2
Results of Hypotheses Testing
Path
No. Variable Relation p-value Significance
Coefficient
1 Regional Autonomy Capital Expenditure 0,051 0,343 Not Significant
2 Regional Autonomy Economic Growth -0,059 0,007 *) Significant
3 Regional Autonomy Public Welfare 0,255 0,001 *) Significant
4 Capital Expenditure Economic Growth 0,016 0,412 Not Significant
5 Capital Expenditure Public Welfare -0,052 0,175 Not Significant
6 Economic Growth Public Welfare -0,170 0,001 *) Significant
Source: Research data processed
As mentioned above that autonomy has no significant effect on capital spending. It is seen
125
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
from the path coefficient 0.051 and p-value of 0.343. P-value is far above the alpha of 5%.
These findings indicate that the proportion of local revenues and revenue sharing fund are
still relatively low in total expenditure. The local government has not been able to generate
significant local revenue to cover expenditure. This research finding is in line with the
findings Adi (2005), Suhendra and Amir (2006), Badrudin (2011). However, different finding
from this research can be found on Tuasikal (2008) and Kristanso (2009).
The influence of regional autonomy to capital spending is different than the effect of
decentralization on economic growth. The value of the path coefficient between
decentralization and economic growth is -0.059 with a p-value of 0.007. P-value is below 5%
alpha. Negative path coefficient value indicates that the higher the degree of autonomy the
more reduced economic growth. Regional autonomy in Indonesia is regional autonomy based
on the expenditure side. Granting regional autonomy led to increased local government
discretion to spend funds. High employee expenses and capital expenditures that are not
productive are the causes of the adverse effects of local autonomy for economic growth. This
finding is not too surprising because other research such as Vazquez and McNab (1997) and
Badrudin (2011) also found the same thing. However, the finding of this research is different
from that stated at the research such as Amir (2006) and Priyarsono (2010).
Regional autonomy significantly effect on the welfare of society. The coefficient of the path
is 0.225 with a p-value of 0.001. The influence of regional autonomy for the welfare of the
community is significant at alpha 5%. The positive value of path coefficient shows that the
higher the degree of autonomy the more prosperous society. This means that the efficiency
aspect is raison d'etre to local autonomy. Individual preferences differ from one person to
another in choosing the public good. A person can choose to live in a certain area according
to their individual preferences in order to maximize their welfare. These findings differ from
Suryanto (2005), Suhendra and Amir (2006), Priyarsono (2010), and Badrudin (2011).
In Table 2 appears that the capital expenditure does not affect the economic growth. The
value of the path coefficient is 0.016 with a p-value of 0.412. P-value is higher than the value
of alpha of 5%. No significant effect of capital expenditure to economic growth can be
explained by the following factors. First, the proportion of capital expenditure is too low
compared to the proportion of indirect expenditures in local budgets. Indirect expenditures
such as salaries of employees are in the first rank in the local budget. Second, capital
expenditure is not productive. The value of capital spending is not equivalent to the impact
that it generates for the regional economy. Third, private capital spending may be more
dominant effect on economic growth than government capital expenditures. This finding is in
line with the findings of Badrudin (2001) but different from Maryaningsih et al. (2014).
Capital expenditure does not significantly influence the welfare of the community. The value
of the path coefficient is -0.052 with a p-value of 0.175. P-value is greater than the value of
alpha 5%. In the autonomy era, the capital expenditure can not afford the welfare of society.
Great discretion to the expenditure allegedly not always be used for public purposes but for
personal gain. This can be seen from the number of cases of abuse of the local government
budget. In addition, also alleged that capital spending is not productive and the results can
only be enjoyed in a long time. This finding is in line with Badrudin (2011).
Finally, in Table 2 it appears that the impact of economic growth on public welfare. Path
coefficient value is -0.170 and p-value of 0.001. P-value is lower than 5% alpha. Negative
coefficient value is not as expected. Our prediction is economic growth had a positive impact
126
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
on the welfare of society. However, the finding shows that the higher the economic growth is
the less prosperous society.
Possible explanation for this finding is related to the gap between what the government
planned to what is expected by society. The main target set by the government is of high
economic growth. However, economic growth is not followed by a steeper reduction of
unemployment, poverty, and income inequality. Gini index remains high though the economy
is growing. This finding is in line with Badrudin (2011).
7. Conclusions
Based on the analysis and discussion of the results described in the previous section can be
drawn some conclusions. First, regional autonomy has no significant effect on capital
spending. Second, regional autonomy significant effect on economic growth. Third, regional
autonomy has a significant impact on the welfare of society. Fourth, capital expenditure has
no significant effect on economic growth. Fifth, capital expenditure has no significant effect
on the welfare of society. Sixth, economic growth significantly influence the welfare of the
community.
Based on these research findings, we suggest, first, that the local government fully follow the
principles of money should follow function in the implementation of fiscal decentralization.
With so many functions are handed over, the local government is required to carry out
government functions effectively and with integrity. Regional autonomy in Indonesia is the
concept of fiscal decentralization based on the expenditure side. These expenditures are
funded primarily from central government transfers funds, especially DAU. Our second
suggestion is that the local government is able to carry out the budget expenditure
effectively, efficient, transparent, and accountable. Those financial management principles
should be reflected in all stages of the budgeting processes ranging from drafting,
ratification, implementation, and up to accountability of the budget before the legislature. As
said above that local governments still rely on the transfer of funds from the central
government for financing regional spending as local revenue levels are still low. Our third
suggestion is that local governments do not overlook the possibility of investments by setting
various taxes and levies excessively. Taxes and levies should be levied according to the local
taxation framework set out in the legislation. Excessive taxes and levies will increase the
burden on investors and ultimately undermine investment, economic growth, and ultimately
lowers the welfare of society.
8. References
Adi, Priyo Hari, 2005. Dampak Desentralisasi Fiskal terhadap Pertumbuhan Ekonomi: Studi
pada Kabupaten dan Kota se Jawa-Bali. Jurnal Interdisipliner Kritis, 17(1), pp. 1-20.
Badrudin, Rudy, 2011. Effect of Fiscal Decentralization on Capital Expenditure, Growth, and
Welfare. Economic Journal of Emerging Markets, 3(3), pp. 211-223.
____________ 2012. Pemekaran atau Penggabungan Daerah? Koran Kedaulatan Rakyat, 24
Agustus, p. 14.
_____________ 2013. Potret Perekonomian Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Gosyen.
Halim, Abdul, 2008. Analisis Investasi (Belanja Modal) Sektor Publik - Pemerintah
Daerah. Yogyakarta: UPP STIM YKPN.
Kristanto, Septian Bayu 2009. Pengaruh Ukuran Pemerintahan, Pendapatan Asli Daerah
(PAD), dan Belanja Modal sebagai Prediktor Kelemahan Pengendalian Internal.
127
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Jurnal Akuntansi, 9(1), pp. 41 62.

Kuncoro, Mudrajad, 2010. Ekonomika Pembangunan: Masalah, Kebijakan, dan Politik.
Edisi 5. Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga.
Maryaningsih, Novi; Hermansyahm, Oki; Savitri, Myrnawatri, 2014. Pengaruh Infrastruktur
terhadap Pertumbuhan Ekonomi. Buletin Ekonomi Moneter dan Perbankan, 17(1), pp.
61-99.
Priyarsono, D.S., 2010. Desentralisasi Fiskal, Tax Effort, dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi: Studi
Empirik Kabupaten/Kota di Indonesia Tahun 2001-2008. Jurnal Ekonomi
Pembangunan Indonesia, 11(1), pp. 21-34.
Saragih, Juli Panglima, 2003. Desentralisasi Fiskal dan Keuangan Daerah dalam
Otonomi. Jakarta: Penerbit Ghalia Indonesia.
Suhendra, Maman and Amir, Hidayat, 2006. Fiscal Decentralization in Indonesia: Current
Status and Future Challenges. Jurnal Keuangan Publik, 3(1), p. 26.
Suryanto, Joko, 2005. Pengaruh Desentralisasi Fiskal Terhadap Kesejahteraan Masyarakat:
Kajian Teori dan Aplikasi Anggaran. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian Ekonomi
Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia.
Tangkilisan, H.S.N., 2005. Manajemen Publik. Jakarta: Grasindo.
Todaro, Michael P. and Smith, Stephen C., 2006. Economic Development. 9th Edition. New
York: Pearson Addison Wesley.
Tuasikal, Askam, 2008. Pengaruh DAU, DAK, PAD, dan PDRB terhadap Belanja Modal
Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten/Kota di Indonesia. Jurnal Telaah & Riset Akuntansi,
1(2), pp. 142-155.
Vazques, Jorge Martinez and McNab, Robert M., 1997. Fiscal Decentralization, Economics
Growth, and Democratic Governance. A Paper Prepared for USAID Conference on
Economics Growth, and Democratic Governance, Washington, pp. 4-20.
Vazques, Jorge Martinez and Rider, Mark, 2006. Fiscal Decentralization and Economics
Growth: A Comparative Study of China and India. Indian Journal Economics and
Business, 39(5), pp. 1-18.
128
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Formulation of the Service Delivery Democratic Model

(Case Study Implementation of the Citizens Charter in Public Health
Service in Jayapura District, Papua Province, Indonesia)
Soemedi Hadiyanto 1*, Agustinus Fatem 2
1
Widyaiswara Madya (Lecturer) in Health Workers Training Center (Balai Latihan Tenaga
Kesehatan) Papua Province, Indonesia
Email : soemedi_hadiyanto@yahoo.com
2
Professor of Public Administration, Doctoral Program in Social Sciences Post Graduate
Program University of Cenderawasih, Papua Indonesia
Email : fatemagustinus@yahoo.co.id
Abstract : Citizens Charter indicates the rights and services available to the public, service
procedures, forms available services and community obligations that must be met. This paper
is intended to formulate a democratic model of public service and appropriate for citizens
charter in public health center implementation at Jayapura district, Papua Province Indonesia.
The scope of the study is based on secondary sources, namely direct observation and indepth
interviews as well as using a combination of descriptive and analytical methods. The results
of the study showed that although the paper mainly bureaucratic reform public services have
stepped into the right direction, the impact is less than expectations. Although improvements
have been made in the service, the public continues to suffer from bureaucratic inefficiency,
corruption and other problems, so it shows the gap between the rhetoric and reality of public
management reform in Indonesia. The new public service paradigm put the citizens as
citizens who have their rights to obtain adequate public servant. The democratic approach
should put the service user at the center of attention. It is expected to be the opportunities and
challenges for scholars interested in public management (citizens charter)-either in academics
or policy makers, especially in the implementation in Jayapura district. Implementation of
Citizens Charter will efficiently and effectively if attention to several factors : the campaign
and dissemination of all stakeholders should be designed and carried out innovative, effective
and sustainable to obtain a change of attitude and cultural wisdom ; involving staff and
citizens in each formulation and implementation.
Keywords : implementation of citizens charter, public health center, democratic, new public
service.
1. Introduction
Studies on Papua Indonesia can not be separated from the various phenomena of poverty,
under development, marginalization of indigenous peoples and the conflict that continues to
shackle until today. The condition was exacerbated by the weak capacity of local
government, which is shown by poor governance (Blair and Philips, 2003), as a result of
corruption, collusion and nepotism is rife and the implications for the poor of public services.
According Mahmudi (2010) and LGSP USAID (2009), the public service is all service
activities undertaken by public service providers as an effort to meet the needs of the public
and enforcement of legislation.
Papua with abundant natural resources, occupies the poorest provinces in Indonesia based
Human Development Index in 2013, with a score of 66.25 (compare Indonesia Human
Development Index score is 73.81) (BPS, 2014a), while the number of poor population in
2014 reached 30.05% (BPS, 2014b), which means that number is more than twice the
129
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
national poverty level in 2014, amounting to 11.25%. Meanwhile, the national maternal
mortality rate of 359 for every 100,000 live births in 2012 (Saputra, 2015). Disparities in
coverage of births attended health workers in Papua Province in 2013, as a proxy indicator of
maternal mortality, which is only 33.91% versus Indonesia coverage of 90.88% (Kementerian
Kesehatan RI, 2013), the maternal mortality rate in Papua Province is estimated to far higher.
In 2014, the government of Papua Province using the assumption that the maternal mortality
rate of 422 per 100,000 live births. Jayapura district consists of 19 sub-districts, 144 villages,
with 19 health centers. Currently the performance of health services is still not showing the
improvement of health services, especially in health centers Jayapura district. Human
Development Index at Jayapura District in 2013 with a score of 73.79 (compare scores with a
score of 66.25 Papua Province and Indonesia with a score of 73.81) (BPS, 2014a). The
number of maternal deaths are stagnant since 2010 to 2013 (4 people), while the number of
infant deaths (0-12 months) tended to decrease, especially in the year 2013 only 5 infant
deaths per 2,573 live births from 34 infant deaths per 1,963 live births in 2010.
The conditions show profanity severity of the condition of society as governance or

governance is weak, so the hope to see the implementation of good governance in Papua was
still far away. Governance is a series of decisions and governance processes are made to
reflect social expectations through management or leadership by a democratic government
through the will of the people. Good governance aspire to a prosperous society through good
governance, free from corruption, to carry out the principles of good governance in all
aspects of the activities of government, civil society and the business sector.
Paradigm of good governance, prioritizing processes and procedures, which in the process of
preparation, planning, formulation and drafting a policy will always prioritize deliberation
and done by involving all stakeholders. Involving stakeholders adhered to the principles of
good governance such as participation, transparency, accountability, equality, law
enforcement, effectiveness and efficiency and professionalism (LGSP USAID, 2009). Public
service is a door that is appropriate to realize good governance, because public services
directly in contact with the needs of society.
Voice of the people is assured through a broad consensus of the stakeholders is the
application of democratic principles. Relation to the New Public Service lies in citizen
involvement and community building. Citizen involvement is seen as part of that must exist
in the implementation of the policy in a democratic system. Involvement covers all stages of
policy formulation and implementation process. In this process, citizens feel involved in the
process of governance, not only requires the government to satisfy their interests.
Organization into a public space where people (citizens and administrators) with different
perspectives to act together for the public good. Interaction and engagement with the citizens
of this country that gives purpose and meaning in the public service (Denhardt and Denhardt,
2003).
In the aspect of good governance, community participation becomes key to the success of
both service organized by the government and by NGOs. Full community participation will
create a public service that really they need. In addition, no less important is the transparency
in service delivery. Transparency will create a reciprocal relationship between users and
service providers to the implementation of public services that promote the speed of time, the
balance between rights and obligations. Reciprocal relationship is deeper can be contained in
an agreement between the community and formal care providers. The agreement commonly
referred to as a pact of service or Citizens Charter (LGSP USAID, 2009). Citizens Charter
130
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
was first implemented in the UK in 1991, in the era of Prime Minister John Major as a
national program, in which all national and local government organizations in the UK are
required to define/collate customer service standards were made based on feedback from
customers who aims to continuously improve the quality of public services by responding to
the wishes and needs of the user.
Citizens Charter is a public document that determines public expectations when transacting
with a service provider. Consists of step-step procedure for the provision of certain services
and the degree of performance, which ensures appropriate public get the service expectations.
Citizens Charter showing rights and services available to the public, service procedures,
forms available services and community obligations that must be met (Haque, 2005). Citizens
Charter became an instrument to improve transparency, efficiency, accountability and quality
in public services. It also empowers the community by giving them access to information on
service standards institutions and providing solutions to society if they are not satisfied with
the quality of service provided.
Before the law number 25 of 2009 on public service enacted in Indonesia, East Java province
have been first set the year 2007 as the Year of Launching Public Service Standard on April
10, 2007. There are currently approximately 10% of public service providers agencies in East
Java already has a standard public service by the Citizens Charter approaches, for example
Gurah Kediri Health Center often honored as an example of best practice in the highest forum
of WHO. The success of quality public services in East Java due to the presence and support
of the three main pillars, namely the government as public service providers, the community
as a user, and the Public Service Commission (PSC) as an external supervisor (Kardjuni,
2010).
The results above show progress and promising prospects of application of the Citizens
Charter. Collaboration strategy to build trust between providers and users proved very
effective as an effort to improve the performance of public services. Fundamentally, the
strategy of this kind of collaboration is certainly very much in line with the idea for the
creation of good governance in Indonesia, including the challenges of implementation in the
Province of Papua. The first level public service provider in the health sector is health
centers. Public Health Center is an executive unit of health services in the sub-districts.
Construction of health centers at the sub-district has a very important role in maintaining
public health. When functioning properly, it will be able to provide quality services for the
people who need health centers. Citizens Charter is a public service reform initiatives need to
be implemented in the district/city, especially in the health center as a guide for action and
ensure the functioning of public services is going well. Citizens Charter is expected to bring
changes in the way health centers and staff provide services to its customers.
This study examines the implementation of the Citizens Charter in Jayapura district health
center which is the district with the highest Human Development Index in Papua province
through good governance approach. This study aims to Formulation of the Democratic
Service Delivery Model (Case Study Implementation of the Citizens Charter in Public Health
Service in Jayapura District, Papua Province, Indonesia).
131
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Methodology
The scope of this study is based on a literature review and secondary data sources, especially
relating to the implementation experience of public services and the implementation of the
health sector in Indonesia Citizens Charter. Then direct observation and in-depth interview on
the implementation of the Citizens Charter in Jayapura district health centers as well as using
a combination of descriptive and analytical methods.
This study is in the realm of the paradigm of New Public Management and Good
Governance. Both realm of the theoretical paradigm implication, practices, substance and
form of citizens charter. The principles of New Public Management paradigm form ;
performance management, orientation to clients, focusing on results, quality management
and market-oriented approach to describe a collection of citizens charter in the formulation
and implementation. Results of the process of institutionalization of citizens charter described
by elements supported by good governance, especially transparency, accountability,
efficiency, effectiveness and participation. The principles of participation based on the
paradigm of New Public Services (NPS) by moving the principles and order of the
democratic process in its application, particularly in the form of management mechanism
handling complaints from users of public services.
Literature studies in several countries and regions in Indonesia, shows that the study of the
application of the Citizens Charter is still limited to the aspects of transparency,
accountability and quality in providing public services to the community. Research Acharya
(2010) and Rojina (2010) in Nepal each with quantitative methods and mixed method;
Mang'era and Bichanga (2013) in Kenya; Sharma (2012), both with a descriptive method,
discusses the satisfaction and improvement of public services; performance and trust
institutions; clarity of procedures and the handling of complaints; competence of staff and
organizational structure; all of which are still discussing the aspects of transparency,
accountability and quality in providing public services to the community. Results Sharma
(2012), underlines that the results of the implementation of the citizens charter in the city of
Chandigarh, India failed due to poor public participation. Research Hadiyanto (2014) using
mixed method, which discusses the minimum service standards (SPM) related to quality;
Research Nuswantoro (2013) using quantitative methods. The study discusses the
implementation steps Citizen Charter, constraints and supporters in health care institutions
(health centers, hospitals and districts health office), especially in East Java. The whole study
is also still discussing the aspects of transparency, accountability and quality of health care
institutions.
Democratic public service model in formulating the Citizens Charter in health centers in the
District of Jayapura, in addition to discussing and researching aspects of transparency,
accountability and quality; but also aspects of participation and community involvement
process, and engage and participate in the implementation of the Citizens Charter in a public
service institution, which is the application of the New Paradigm of Public Services in the
public service.
Figure 1 illustrates the framework of a democratic model of public service. On the input side;
conception citizens charters, the institutional structure factor and actor that there is an
important factor in facilitating the formulation of citizens charter. Actor contribute technical,
132
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
financial, human resources and legislation/policy in its formulation (Mang'era and Bichanga,
2013; Acharya, 2010; Azizah 2008; Sharma, 2012). According to Acharya (2010) the
provision of services will be inefficient if there is a gap of resource availability and capacity
of the public administration, so that the institution becomes ineffective service providers.
Meanwhile, according to Azizah (2008), leadership is one of the important factors, including
commitment, coordination and adaptation. Commitment to the formulation and
implementation stages will affect the implementation of the citizens charter by leading
officials in the service. Institutionalization process which is defined as a process of
internalization to bring new values, norms and attitudes of behavior required in the
implementation of the Citizens Charter (Azizah, 2008; Nuswantoro, 2012). Azizah (2008),
also stated that the implementation stage, the awareness of local officials to the citizen charter
is very necessary (PAC, 2005). Similarly, public participation will be key to the success of
service; full community participation will create a public service that really they need
(Sharma, 2012). Thus, in the public service should pay attention to some specific principles,
namely: simplicity, clarity, certainty of time, accuracy, security, responsibility, completeness
infrastructure, ease of access, discipline, friendliness, courtesy and comfort (Soeprapto,
2005).
Figure 1.Framework Model Formulation of Democratic Public Service

in the District of Jayapura Health Centers
Input Output Outcome
Throughp ThroughputThro
- Legislation/policy utThrough - Effectiveness
ughput
- Institutional Structure put - Transparency
- Resource Allocation/ - Accountability
availability - Quality
- Leadership Style/Support Formulation, - Participation
and Motivation Implementation Citizens
- Attitude and Charter
- Awareness Institutionalization Impact
- Accessibility ThroughputThro
- Participation Democratic
ughput
- Capacity Building Public Service
- Personnel System
- Monitoring and Evaluation
Azizah (2008); (LGSP USAID, 2009; Center For Good Governance India, 2008) showed that
the training system is an important factor as well, which helps officers to adapt to the new
values and behaviors required, thus allowing the transfer and internalization of new values,
norms and behavior. To prevent the influence of non-long training of the staff, Azizah
recommend for instituting programs reward and punishment mechanism, communication,
monitoring and support office facilities were good. Billyastuti, Gani and Domai (2013) stated
that in order for optimal application of citizens charter advised to involve elements of society
in the supervision and oversight. All aspects of the inputs mentioned above are aspects that
are required in the formulation, implementation and institutionalization of the Citizens
Charter, in the aspect of output (Center For Good Governance India, 2008).
In the outcome, the organization that implements the Citizens Charter impact on the
effectiveness aspect because it has been able to realize its objectives. This is understandable
133
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
because of the existence of adequate inputs mainly due to the adequacy of infrastructure and
human resources. In the aspect of transparency will create a reciprocal relationship between
the users and providers of care, until the implementation of public services that promote the
speed of time, the balance between rights and obligations. Aspects of transparency with
regard to disclosure of information access and standards (LGSP USAID, 2009). The
application of citizens charter would encourage users to be more assertive and daring to make
a complaint, so it will increase accountability on the side of the people. According to Azizah
(2008), the application of the charter would encourage citizens to become more quality public
services for the use of the certainty of the time, executive staff polite and helpful, as well as
citizens charter documents displayed in informative and communicative.
According TUGI-UNDP (2003), the transparency is establishing freedom of information

where processes, institutionalization and information are directly accessible to those who
need it. According to Azizah (2008), the transparency in the provision of services in the city
of Jogjakarta birth certificate has not fully happened. Transparency of service measured using
the charge. Knowledge of standard costs necessary to achieve transparency, so it is important
to inform that they have the right to ask for a receipt. Observations on March 17, 2015 in
Sentani Health Center Jayapura District show that service standards (SS) have not been
applied in the implementation of service to the community, but some of the Standard
Operating Procedure (SOP) has been arranged. service standards (SS) also informed about
the amount of fees required to obtain service.
According TUGI-UNDP (2003), accountability is the mechanism's ability to

answer/complaint on decision-making in government, private sector and civil society
organizations to the public stakeholders. Research complaint handling mechanisms by PAC
(2005) in Bangalore India, concludes that the handling of complaints mechanisms are the
most effective; the availability of information and a place to complain, the personnel
handling, complaint format, deadline to respond to the complaint, the guarantee against the
actions taken and recognition. The existence of feedback is one measure of accountable
government. PAC study (2007) in India showed that service users were not given space to
provide feedback. More than 84% of respondents did not have an opportunity to provide
feedback to officials in charge of the service. This shows end users are rarely consulted when
designing, implementing, or updating the type of service. Observations on March 17, 2015 in
Sentani Health Center indicate that the application has not been effective complaint handling
mechanism.
According Kottler and Keller (2009), the quality is the totality of features and characteristics
of the products or services that ensures its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
According to PAC (2005) the behavior of staff in government service agency in Bangalore
India went well. The majority of citizens charter document is not available to the public and
can not be accessed by the public. Most of the staff are not able to obtain a copy upon
request. Only a few offices were displaying citizens charter on the bulletin board. Even if
there is place it on the bulletin board, is not seen by the user when entering the office and its
contents are less communicative. In a study of citizens charter in the City of Yogyakarta, the
quality of service is measured using the certainty of time. Azizah study (2008) revealed that
the staff has to know that the service should conform to the standard service time has been
determined, but due to lack of computer facilities, this service is often violated. According to
researchers, the standard of service time who have been determined not known by people.
Observations on March 17, 2015 in Sentani Health Center showed that the behavior of the
staff is generally polite and helpful, the document is displayed charter common citizens but
134
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
not seen by the user when entering the office and its contents are less communicative and
does not display the certainty of service time.
According TUGI-UNDP (2003), is an effective and efficient process and institutionalization

which produce output that meets the needs and make the best use of resources. Infant
mortality (0-12 months) in Jayapura tends to decline in 2013 due to the increasing cases of
high-risk neonates are cited in 2013 (34.88%) of 20.36% in 2010. Similarly, increased
coverage of the village with Universal Child Immunization (UCI) is 79.86% in 2013 from
69.01% in 2010. The number of maternal mortality in absolute terms stagnant since 2010 to
2013 (4 people), due to the prevalence of pregnant women visit and mother high risk
pregnant mortality yet to show significant progress from 2010 to 2013, despite an increase in
births attended health workers. Quality of service of births attended by health workers may be
the cause of a still stagnant number of maternal mortality.
In the aspect of participation (UNDP TUGI, 2003; PAC, 2007), its application based on the
principles of participation that is based on the paradigm of New Public Services (NPS) by
moving the principles and order of the democratic process, particularly in the management
handling mechanism of complaints from users of public services. Public involved to
participate in defining, planning, supervising and evaluating the actions taken, in order to
ensure that the public continues to be the center of the actions of government institutions
(ESC UN, 2004). Institutions that apply the principles of participation based on the paradigm
of New Public Services (NPS) is an institution that has adopted a democratic model of public
service (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2003).
In the aspect of good governance, community participation becomes key to the success of
both the service provided by the government or NGOs. Full community participation will
create a public service that really they need. Reciprocal relationship is deeper can be
contained in an agreement between the community and formal care providers. The agreement
commonly referred to as the pact service or Citizens Charter (LGSP USAID, 2009).
Observations dated March 17, 2015, at the Sentani health center, Jayapura District, was
formed Multi Sector Forum (MSF) to create a reciprocal relationship between the users and
providers of health centers. MSF was formed as a collaboration strategy to build trust
between providers and users effectively in an effort to improve the performance of public
services. According to the observations, the performance of these institutions is not
maximized, especially the management of complaints mechanisms. Management of
complaint mechanism is the application of the principles of public participation in public
services in health centers democratically.
The quality of public services will be maximized if the implementation has been in
accordance with the principles of good governance : transparency, accountability, quality of
service and effective and efficient as well as community participation. Nuswantoro (2012),
states that the impact of the changes on the results of the implementation of good governance
in the Kauman Tulungagung health center in East Java Province is; 1) Increased benefits
services directly to the public; 2) Change the paradigm governing the services of the health
center into a community-health centers that meet the expectations of society; 3) Changes in
mindset on the entire staff of the service-oriented service user satisfaction.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
The performance of public services in health Jayapura District would be hard to contribute to
the improvement of maternal health and reduce mortality in infants and children in Indonesia
135
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
when Citizens Charter have yet to implement the mechanism. Suggested implement policies
and regulations that require the county level in the area of health care management refers to
the standard of service.
Citizens Charter implementation will be efficient and effective if attention to the following
factors : campaigns and socialization of all stakeholders should be designed and carried out
innovative, effective and sustainable to obtain a change in attitude and attention to local
cultural wisdom; involving staff and citizen in any formulation and implementation of the
Citizens Charter; the reform process must be carried out one by one and; Implementation of
Citizens Charter has a structured mechanism on monitoring and evaluation, and preferably
through an independent agent.
5. References
Blair, DC and Phillips, DL, 2003. Indonesia Commission : Peace and Progress in Papua ;
Council on Foreign Relations Inc, New York, USA.
LGSP USAID. Innovations in Local Public Service Management : Challenges and
Opportunities in Decentralized Governance in Indonesia. Good Governance.
Brief July 2009.
Biro Pusat Statistik (BPS). 2014a. Indeks Pembangunan Provinsi dan Nasional 1996-2013.
Download dated May 5, 2015.
Biro Pusat Statistik (BPS). 2014b. Berita Resmi Statistik BPS Provinsi Papua. No.
30/07/94/ Th.VIII, 1 Juli 2014.
Saputra, Wiko. Arah dan Strategi Kebijakan Penurunan Angka Kematian Ibu (AKI), Angka
Kematian Bayi (AKB) dan Angka Kematian Balita (AKABA) di Indonesia. Prakarsa,
Pusat Data dan Informasi Kementerian Kesehatan RI. Mothers Day ; Situasi Kesehatan Ibu.
Denhardt, J.V. and Denhardt, R.B., 2003; The New Public Service: Serving, Not Steering,
Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.
Haque, M S. 2005, Limits of the Citizens Charter in India The Critical Impacts of Social
Exclusion, Public Management Review, Vol. 7, Issue 3.
Karjuni Dt. Maani, 2010, Citizen Charter : Terobosan Baru dalam Penyelenggaran
Layanan Publik, Tingkap Vol. VI, No. 2.
Sushmita Acharya, Implementation of Citizens Charter and Improving Municipal Services in
Nepal: Myth or Reality?. Department of Public Administration and Organization
Theory University of Bergen, Norway, June 2010.
Tamrakar, Rojina, 2010, Impact of Citizen Charter in Service Delivery : A Case of District
Administration Office, Kathmandu. North South University, Bangladesh.
Mangera dan Bichanga (2013), Challenges Facing The Implementation Of Citizens Charter
Acase Study Of Kisii Level 5 Hospital Kenya. Interdisciplinary Journal Of
Contemporary Research In Business, April 2013 Vol 4, No 12.
Sharma, D. (2012). An Evaluation of a Citizens Charter in Local Government : A Case Study of
Chandigarh, India. JOAAG, Vol. 7. No. 1.
Hadiyanto, Soemedi (2014), Potret Implementasi Kebijakan Peningkatan Pelayanan Publik
Bidang Kesehatan Ibu dan Anak : Studi Kasus di Kabupaten Jayawijaya Provinsi
Papua. Jurnal Lingkar Widyaiswara, Edisi 1 No. 2, Apr-Jun 2014, p.03-15.
Nuswantoro, Didik. Citizen Charter dan Penyelesaian Pengaduan Masyarakat di Puskesmas
Kauman Tulungagung http://cgi.fisipol.ugm.ac.id. Download dated February 23,
2013.
136
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Bilyastuti, M. P., Abdul Juli Andi Gani, Tjahjanulin Domai (2012), Adopsi Citizens
Charter (Kontrak Pelayanan) Untuk Optimalisasi Pelayanan Publik (Studi Pada
Instalasi Rawat Jalan (IRJ) RSU Dr. Saiful Anwar Malang). Wacana, Vol. 15, No. 3.
Azizah, N. 2008, Transforming Citizens Charter for Indonesia: A Study of Citizens
Charter in Yogyakarta City, (Thesis, Master in Urban Management and
Development) IHS-Erasmus University Rotterdam, September 2008.
Public Affairs Center (PAC), 2005, Karnatakas Citizens Charters A Preliminary
Assessment, Public Affairs Center, Bangalore.
Center For Good Governance India (2008), Citizens Charters-A Handbook.
Soeprapto, Riyadi. 2005. Pengembangan Model Citizens Charter Dalam Meningkatkan
Pelayanan Publik Di Indonesia.
Public Affairs Center (PAC), 2007. Indias Citizens Charters A Decade of Experience,
Public Affairs Center, Bangalore.
The Urban Governance Initiative-United Nations Development Programme. 2003,
Generating Good Urban Governance The TUGI Report Card Users Manual, United
Nations Development Programme, Malaysia.
137
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Anaysis of Disclosure Financial Statements of Local Government

Corruption Level in Indonesia
Sucahyo Heriningsih a, Rusherlistyani b, Agussalimc

a,b
Lecturers of Accounting at UPN Veteran Yogyakarta Indonesia)
Email: heriningsih_s@yahoo.co.id
c
Lecturer of Political and Social Sciences at UPN Veteran Yogyakarta Indonesia)
Abstract
Government regional autonomy is basically given to the area which can be improved on the
efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability of local governments to achieve better
governance. (Mardiasmo, 2009). However, according to Rinaldi, (2007) decentralization and
regional autonomy based on constitution rules no. 22 1999 there has been an increased
corruptions tendency in local governments. Unqualified assessment (WTP) by the
checking financial supervisor (BPK) on local government financial statements do not
guarantee that there is no corruption. It becomes a criticism or warnings for accountants and
auditors in particular, because of WTP opinion shows that the Finance Local Government
Report (LKPD) are free from misstatement material , but in the real facts of many cases
were found in WTP LKPD.
Empirically, the results of this study proved that the characteristics of government (local
wealth, degree of dependence), the complexity of government (population total, the number
of SKPD), accountability government level of (audit opinion, the weakness of SPI, in
accordance with the law), financial performance (independence ratio, and the ratio of
growth), there is no influence on the financial statements report of the local government level.
Index Testing Rating the statement financial disclosure of local governments (LKPD) was
tested using test results Friedman in the disclosure index ranking the largest to the disclosure
of the smallest is as follows: (1) Presentation and description detailed of each item is
presented in cover financial statements, (2) Basis of preparation financial statements and
the disclosure of accounting policies financial, (3) Introduction (Presentation of general
information about the reporting entity and accounting entity), (4) Presentation information
continues to fiscal policy or financial policy and microeconomics, (5) Presentation overview
of the financial achievement targets for the following year report constraints and obstacles
encountered in achieving the target, (6) other disclosures, (7). Closing.
Keywords: Disclosure of LKPD, corruption level, and financial performance.

1. Introduction
Autonomy and decentralization which are displayed in Indonesia since the enactment of
constituents law No. 22 of 1999 year. The basic autonomy area given to region which can
improve of the efficiency, effectiveness, and local government accountability to achieve
better governance. Creation of local governments were responsible for its own expectations
for the society, thus, its create an accountability system of local government as the entity that
can manage and response to regional assets use. But in some many corruption cases were
prevalent in local government. Scott (1997) states that the organization survival will be
determining by the organization disclosure ability to all interested parties (stakeholders).
Therefore, disclosure of the performance of the local government through the local
138
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
government financial statements (LKPD) which has audited by BPK (independent auditors)
becomes very important information for the public would be the local government. Statement
of the Chairman of the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK) Abraham S., who asserts
that the unqualified assessment of (WTP) by the financial supervisor council (BPK) on local
government financial statements do not give guarantee there will be no corruption.
(Http://news.detik.com, 02/05/2013), indeed, It can be a criticism or warnings for accountants
and auditors in particularly, because WTP has opinion that indicates of the Local
Government Finance Report (LKPD) are free from misstatement material , however there are
many cases found that WTP LKPD but there are many cases of corruption in it.
Government Accounting Standard (SAP) in 2005 year and in 2010 year became a milestone
for the public nature of the accounting sector as an Indonesian independent has more than 60
years but the government accounting standards with full accrual basis is made. With the
enactment Government Regulation No. 71 in 2010 year (accrual- SAP based ) which has
been revise of Government Regulation No. 24 in 2005 (SAP Cash to the Accrual) that is not
enforced, there are rules which may be enforced and will certainly experience difference in
the statements local financial . It is certainly experiencing a lot of difficulties because of this
LKPD for more than 60 years LKPD its disclosure using the cash basis, only lasted about 5
years using the cash to the accrual basis of the implementation is done gradually. The specific
objective of the research is to provide direction for LKPD Disclosure of Indonesians
research.
Some previous studies which related to the disclosure of financial statements of the
government that is from Ingram (1984), which examined the economic relationship factors
such as (Voters coalition, the administrative selection process, Information alternative
sources of management incentives information) and politics in government accounting which
is applied in the United States. Research that is conducted by Laswad et.al. (2005), and
Liestiani (2008), is also found that the wealth of positive territory and significantly associated
with the level of disclosure of financial statements of the district / city. While the Hand
(2010) in his study, the regional wealth level , administrative complexity, the number of
findings, the deviation level has a significant effect on the disclosure level of LKPD, while
the regions with the central level of dependency and type of effect area was not statistically.
In difference to previous this conducted Rahadian et.al. (2008) results showed that disclosure
level of the balance sheet, statements of cash flows and the budget realization report tends to
described high and the equitable between the local governments, compared with the notes to
the financial report.
Problem Formulation
Disclosure of LKPD is really essential, thus if the affecting corruption factors level, the
research is very important for doing investigation. This research prove whether unqualified
opinion (WTP) of LKPD shows many corruption are still a lot going on as like the
statement who made by the chairman of the KPK. Index Testing rate of disclosure local
government of financial report of (LKPD) was tested by using test results in the disclosure of
Friedman index rating largest to smallest.
139
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Review of Literature
Reforms which had occurred in 1998 give changes of the discourse in the local government
financial report such as (counties, towns and provinces), for example, regional autonomy
implementation and the decentralization. According to regulation constitution No. I of 2004
which focusing on concerning State Treasury, which regulates the use of the accrual basis in
the government financial system, then the government expended Government Regulation 71
of 2010 which managed government financial accounting standard (SAP) instead of
Regulation of money cash standard to the accrual based on regulation constitution No.24 of
2005. According to PP 71 in 2010 year, the basis accrual in government accounting financial
system, that is implemented in 2015 year and to support the implementation of PP 71 in 2010,
the government expended Minister Financial Regulation (PMK) no. 238 of 2011 that is
focusing on general government accounting guideline system (PUSAP) and regulation no 64
of 2013 on accrual-based government accounting application standards. Accrual accounting
is expected to support implementation of the accountability and transparency. Local
Government Financial information Report (LKPD) which has accountability and
transparency will require accounting accrual application which is in international best
practical. Accrual accounting considered more likely to be applied to financial recording
application fair report. These results should be reviewed because there was no similar
empirical studies which support or conforming to the research results. Disclosure of LKPD
becomes a vehicle for local government financial transparency report. In with this disclosure
index is expected to occur in the local government transparency system and accountability in
local government, corruption expectations must be identified early. Thus, if its LKPD on the
accrual basis, the humans need government operation informations as well as asset and
liability positions are filled better. But if there is legislation statutory which resulted in
cash-based financial presentation report, financial report must be presented by using a
cash-based.
Local Government Corruption Level
The corruption level in the certain area is very difficult to identify. Indeed, most corruption
that is still happening because of corruption's nature itself, which is a deliberate hidden act. In
this study, the corruption level that is used to modify the index figures corruption perception
which is published by Transparency International Indonesia. GPA scores between 1 and 10,
where 1 (minimum of a lot of corruption area), and 10 shows that (the maximum total
number of small corruption areas). Based on the later number of indexes if CPI = 1 is
assumed (Level of corruption is 9), and also by using GPA = 10 then (the level of corruption
is 1). (Heriningsih 2013).
Achieved Study
Government characteristics in this study was measured by the wealth area, the asset total and
the dependence level, when in association with the disclosure level there should be a positive
relationship between the regional wealth and the assets total of corruption level, but it should
be a greater wealth than the region, there a tendency that the greater corruption level can
occur in local government as expressed on heriningsih (2013),in Ingram (1984), in Laswad
et.al. (2005). Robbins and the Austin (1986) stated that the dependence level of the
government municipal positively and significantly associated with the disclousure level of
city's government financial report. It means that the greater dependence level, the greate level
of disclosure is made by the local government. When connecting with corruption cases, the
greater dependence will influence local government to do corruption in that region.
140
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Complexity Government in this study is to measure the population number of SKPD.

Liestiani (2008) found that the people positive number and significantly correlated with the
disclosure level. Ingram (1984) in Robbins and Austin (1986) also found a positive
relationship even there is no significant effect on disclosure level. The population total is a
proxy of the complexity of government. The greater complex disclosure of government they
should be done. With the increasing complexity of government there is a possibility of
corruption tendency is more likely to occur. The total number of SKPD, the government
showed a more complex government system is in running of the government. There will be
more business is a priority for the local government, It will be more complex the government
to conduct its activities. The greater owned SKPD it could be owned of the government
complex increasingly. The more complex is made the greater local government level, thus,
that the preparing process of LKPD becomes more complicated and difficult. Thus, it can
lead to tendency to corruption level.
The accountability government level consists of three indicators audit opinion such as,
weakness of SPI on legislation. Logic reasoning is that if the better opinion audit should be
make the corruption lower level or nonexistent, or it can be said there is a negative
relationship. While the weakness level in the internal control system is also described in the
audit report, reasoning of SPI if there is a weakness the tendency for corruption may occurs.
Thus, it can be said that there is a positive correlation to the corruption level. Similarly, in
accordance with the legislation rules that are set out in the irregularities case would reduce to
corruption level. Financial performance in this study uses self-sufficiency ratio, and the
growth ratio. The better self-sufficiency ratio and the the growth ratio in the certain area
surely has lower corruption level. Basically there is a negative correlation between the
financial performance corruption levels.
3. Hypothesis
The researchers conclude that the Government characteristic factors are (regional assets, the
level of dependence), the complexity of government (population total, the number of SKPD),
the accountability government level that are (opinion audit, the weakness of SPI, which is
accordance as the constitution law) and financial performance (ratio of self-reliance, and
growth ratio) can affect to corruption level. Thus the hypothesis proposed in the second year
of study is:
H1: Wealth of the regional, dependence level, assets total, population total, the number of
SKPD), opinion audit, SPI weakness, Compliance with LKPD constitution law, and
self-sufficiency ratio, activity ratio and the growth ratio effect on corruption level.
141
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Research Model
Research Model 1 in Second years
independent variables dependent variables
Characteristics of Government Characteristic:

- Local Resources
- Addiction Level
- Total Assets
Complexity Government:
- Population Total
- Total of SKPD
level of corruption
The Government Accountability level:

- Auditor opinion
- SPI local government financial reports
- Compliance with legislation of LKPD
Financial Performance:
- Independence ratio
- Growth ratio
Data Analysis Research

This study uses secondary data in Local Government Finance Report form (LKPD) which is
obtained from libraries CPC and CPM of Indonesia, while government corruption level area
that is taken from the site http: www. Ipkindonesia.org. The population in this study is some
districts and towns that had been audited by the BPK. By using purposive sampling method
then obtained 46 counties and towns sampled. Table 1 below is a table of sample selection
study.
Table. 1
Sample Selection
142
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Population: Towns and counties which have LKPD in 535 districts and cities
2009 and in 2010 year
Cities and counties which have a corruption perception 48 counties and cities
index in 2010 year
The observation sample number of 48 counties and cities
Source: Heriningsih, 2015
First Hypothesis Testing

Here are the results of multiple linear regressions that is obtained the following result
Table 3
First Hypothesis Testing
Coefficientsa
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig.

1 (Constant) -4.394 20.037 -.219 .828
Ln of Wealth -.721 5.541 -.048 -.130 .897
R dependence -.056 .948 -.012 -.059 .954
Lnaset1 1.832 3.411 .153 .537 .595
Ln of Society 2.188 4.024 .240 .544 .590
lnSKPD -.371 .233 -.297 -1.593 .120
Opinion .063 .245 .042 .259 .797
Ln of SPI .190 .193 .170 .989 .330
LnUU .398 .177 .386 2.252 .031
R independence -.947 .548 -.349 -1.726 .093
R growth .093 .704 .031 .133 .895

a. Dependent Variable: Corruption Level
Table 3, it can be explained that all nine variables was not statistically affect the level of
disclosure of financial statements of local governments (LKPD).
The model equations based on the results of multiple regression testing, are as follows:
Y = -4.394 - 0,721X1 - 0.056 +1.832 X2 + 2,188 X3 X4 - X6 0,371X5 + 0.063 +0.398 +
0,0190X7 X8 - X9 + 0.947 0,093X10
Government characteristics was measured by the ratio area showed that the wealth of 0.897,
with a variable ratio of wealth it means that area statistically no effect on the disclosure of
regional financial statements. For the characteristics government is measured by the degree of
dependence as indicated by a significance level of 0.954, indicating a statistically no effect on
the level of disclosure of financial statements of local governments (not support the
hypothesis). Based on the regression equation, there is a negative relationship between the
143
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
characteristics of the disclosure (dependency rate) against of corruption level. It is possible

that the dependence level as measured by the ratio of the transfer of funds to the total
revenue, which is mean that the possibility of determining the equalization budget fund (fund
transfer) in the town or district no / lack of monitoring from the center, because if it goes
should be able better monitoring the quality of disclosure financial report.
Government characteristics which are measured by total assets showed no statistically

significant with p value 0.595. This is because the number of government-owned assets fairly
large, but many problem that in the management of these assets, and the lack of
understanding of local government in its reporting. Thus, it is very likely to occur in testing
the hypothesis that the total assets of this study were not statistically affecting local
government corruption level. If the results of the regression model it then there is a positive
correlation between the total assets of the level of corruption in LKPD.
The complexity of government is measured by the number of inhabitants that is has a value of
0.590 means it is statistically significant does not support the hypothesis, as well as the
complexity of government as measured by the number of SKPD also show the same thing
with p value 0.120, which means that the variable number of SKPD is as not support the
hypothesis. The accountability government level is measured by the auditor's opinion
indicates p value 0.797, which means that the variable was not affect auditor's opinion
statistically of local government corruption level. This is because most local governments
either get a reasonable opinion and that is not fair though, tend to be the same in disclosing its
financial statements in LKPD. While based on the regression equation then there is a positive
correlation means that if LKPD obtain WTP the level of local government corruption levels
can be possible also a lot going on, this is because LKPD either get a reasonable opinion and
that is not fair though there are still many cases tend to be the same corruption.
The level of government accountability as measured by the internal audit control system
result also indicates that is not support the hypothesis. This is possible that the tendency of
local authorities reporting good LKPD which gained deviation rate and deviation degree of
SPI slightly, both are likely to have an indication to have cases of corruption, without seeing
much or little in irregularities control system. Based on regression testing it can be concluded
that findings of the internal control system number will be positively related to the corruption
level in local government.
The accountability government level is measured by the level of compliance with the
legislation indicates the number of p value of 0.031, its can be conclude that statistically
support the hypothesis. While based on equation regression models, showing the level of
compliance with the legislation a positive effect on local government corruption level. This
indicates that if the local government financial reports disclosed the existence of violations of
the law occur / exist then it could be happened also indicated corruption cases in local
government.
Financial performance is measured by the independence ratio showed the p value of 0.93
which is mean insignificant or no effect to local government corruption level. And when it
can be seen from the regression equation suggests there is a negative relationship with the
level of corruption, which has mean more independent then it will not possible doing
corruption. While financial performance was measured by the ratio of growth showed the p
value 0.895, so it can be concluded that there is no influence of the ratio of growth to the
level of corruption in local government.
144
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Testing index rating of disclosure of the financial statements of local governments (LKPD) is
done by using Friedman test result in that disclosure of the rating index of the largest to the
smallest disclosures are as follows: (1) Presentation and explanation detailed of each item is
presented in the cover sheet finance report, (2) financial statement presentation basis and
disclosure of financial accounting policies, (3) Introduction (Presentation of general
information about the reporting entity and accounting entity), (4) Presentation of information
kept fiscal policy or financial policy and microeconomics, (5) Presentation an overview of the
achievement of financial targets for the year following the reporting constraints and obstacles
encountered in achieving the target, (6) other disclosures, (7).Closing.
5. Conclusion
Based on hypothesis testing shows that the characteristic variable levels of government (local
wealth, the dependence level and total assets), complexity government variable of
(population and number of SKPD), and the accountability local governments level (audit
opinion, the level of deviation from SPI) financial performance variables (independence ratio
and growth ratio) was not statistically affect to the local government corruption, counties and
some cities in Indonesia. And an accountability variable level of local governments which has
measured by (deviation from the constitutions law) shows the effect on the level of local
government corruption counties and cities in Indonesia.
While the test based on the disclosure of financial statements concluded that the government
district and the city of LKPD in 2009 and 2010, the level of disclosure result which has fulfill
of government standards of accounting PP no.24 of 2005, while based on the results of the
samples still not exist to fulfill government accounting standards based on Regulation No 71
in 2010 year, Its caused of the SAP which has applied in 2010, but it was still not effective
since 2005 year.
6. References
Cheng, Rita Hartung. 1992. An Empirical Analysis of Theories on Factors Influencing State
Government Accounting Disclousure. Jurnal of Accounting and public Policy. Vol 11.
Issue I. Spring.
Gore, Angela K .2004. The Effects of GAAP regulations and bond market interactions on
Lokal Government Disclosure. Juornal of Accounting and public Policy, Vol23.
Heriningsih, Sucahyo and Marita. 2013. Effects of audit opinions and financial performance
on the level of corruption in the city and districts in Java. Economic Bulletin, Vol.11,
No.1, FE UPNVY. Yogyakarta.
Heriningsih, Sucahyo and Rusherlistyani. 2014 Financial Statements, weakness SPI,
Obedience On Legislation Analyzed of Opinion Auditor. Proceedings of the National
Seminar and Call For Paper Sinau 3. FE UPN "Veteran" Yogyakarta..
Ingram, Robert W. 1984. Economics Incentives and the Choice of State Government
Accounting Practices. Journal of Accounting Research. Vol. 22. No. 1. pp 126-144.
Komite Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan. 2012. Standar Akuntansi Pemerintahan: Peraturan
Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 71 Tahun 2010. Salemba Empat.Jakarta.
145
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Laswad, Fawzi, Fisher, Richard, dan Oyelere, Peter. 2005. Determinants of Voluntary
Internet Financial Reporting by Local Government Authorities. Journal of Accounting
and Public Policy 24.
Martani, Dwi., And Fazri Zaelani. 2011. Effect of Size, Growth and Complexity Against
Internal Control Case Study of Local Government in Indonesia. SNA XIV Aceh.
Robbins, Walter A., dan Austin, Kenneth R. 1984. Disclosure Quality in Governmental
Financial Reports: An Assessment of the Appropriateness of a Compound Measure.
Journal of Accounting Research. Vol 24. No. 2.
Setiawan, Wahyu. 2012. Influence of local government financial reports Accountability
(LKPD) on the level of local government corruptions in Indonesia,
146
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
VULNERABLE GROUPS
147
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pengalaman dan Sumber Maklumat Berkait Seks dalam Kalangan

Penghuni Institusi Perlindungan dan Pemulihan
Noor Azizah Ahmad,a* Rusimah Sayuti,a Abdul Razak Abd Manaf,a
Zakiyah Jamaluddin,a dan Rajwani Md Zain.a
a
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia.
*Email: noor1149@uum.edu.my
Abstrak
Remaja merupakan aset penting dalam mencorak masa depan dan hala tuju bagi memastikan
kelestarian dan keutuhan sesebuah masyarakat. Tumpuan perbincangan tentang remaja sering
memfokuskan kepada isu-isu berkaitan kebajikan, pembangunan jati diri remaja, fenomena
krisis nilai dan kemelut gejala sosial yang mencetuskan kerisauan dan keprihatinan
masyarakat. Salah satu masalah utama ialah penglibatan remaja dalam pergaulan bebas dan
aktiviti seks luar nikah sehingga membawa kepada kes-kes mengandung dan pembuangan
bayi. Artikel ini cuba mengupas sumber maklumat pengetahuan dan pengalaman seks dalam
kalangan remaja yang ditempatkan di salah sebuah pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan di
Malaysia. Maklumat diperolehi berdasarkan soal selidik yang diedarkan kepada seramai 99
orang responden menggunakan teknik persampelan bertujuan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan
antara sumber yang paling kerap dirujuk untuk mendapatkan maklumat seks ialah
kawan-kawan, teman lelaki/perempuan, media massa, internet, dan juga melalui pengalaman
seksual sendiri. Malangnya, kaum keluarga merupakan sumber yang paling sedikit atau jarang
sekali dirujuk oleh responden. Kajian turut mendapati hampir 74% responden mempunyai
pengalaman berkaitan kehamilan. Lebih 70% daripada responden amat jarang atau tidak
pernah menggunakan kondom apabila melakukan hubungan seksual dan hampir 80%
responden tidak pernah menggunakan pil pencegah kehamilan. Dapatan kajian juga
menunjukkan ada sebilangan kecil responden yang dipaksa melakukan hubungan seksual atau
mengalami penderaan.
Kata kunci: remaja, maklumat seks, pengalaman seks, pusat perlindungan, Malaysia.
1. Pengenalan
Remaja merupakan aset penting dalam memastikan kelestarian dan keutuhan sesebuah
masyarakat. Perbincangan tentang remaja sering diberikan kepada isu-isu berkaitan kebajikan
dan pembangunan jati diri remaja. Tumpuan juga sering berkisar tentang masalah gejala sosial
yang menuntut pelbagai pihak mengambil tindakan sewajarnya bagi membendung dan
mengatasi masalah ini. Salah satu isu utama ialah penglibatan remaja dalam pergaulan bebas
dan aktiviti seks luar nikah yang boleh membawa kepada kes-kes mengandung dan
pembuangan bayi. Akhbar The Star Online (22 September 2012) melaporkan antara tahun
2008 sehingga 2010 terdapat kira-kira 1,680 bayi dilahirkan oleh remaja tanpa nikah di
hospital dengan remaja paling muda berusia 12 tahun. Pada enam bulan pertama tahun 2012,
seramai 9,082 remaja hamil berumur 10-19 tahun mendaftar di hospital dan klinik kerajaan di
mana 23 peratus dari jumlah tersebut tidak berkahwin. Jumlah sebenar pasti lebih tinggi
sekiranya dicampur mereka yang tidak ke hospital dan mereka yang mendapat khidmat
bersalin atau menggugurkan kandungan di klinik swasta.
148
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Artikel ini cuba mengupas sumber maklumat pengetahuan tentang seks dan pengalaman seks
dalam kalangan remaja perempuan berusia di bawah 18 tahun yang ditempatkan di salah
sebuah pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan. Institusi ini adalah di bawah kelolaan Jabatan
Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia. Penempatan ke institusi ini adalah khusus kepada remaja
yang terdedah dengan bahaya moral, terlibat dalam pelacuran dan mereka yang memerlukan
perlindungan segera atau sementara seperti kes mengandung tanpa nikah. Kemasukan ke
institusi adalah tertakluk kepada Perintah Mahkamah berdasarkan peruntukan Seksyen 40(3)
(a) dan melalui permohonan sendiri (oleh ibu bapa atau penjaga) di bawah Seksyen 41 seperti
peruntukan dalam Akta Kanak-kanak 2001. Tujuan utama penempatan adalah untuk memupuk
sikap dan nilai yang sesuai dengan norma masyarakat dan memberi kemahiran yang
bersesuaian.
2. Ulasan Karya
Satu tinjauan yang dijalankan di Taiwan oleh Jabatan Kesihatan pada tahun 2000 menunjukkan
bahawa 43% daripada remaja lelaki dan 25% remaja perempuan telah mempunyai pengalaman
mengadakan hubungan seks sebelum kahwin. Hasil kajian tersebut menunjukkan peningkatan
daripada 34% (lelaki) dan 13% (perempuan) sejak tahun 1995. Tinjauan juga menunjukkan
purata umur bagi remaja mengadakan hubungan seks kali pertama ialah pada usia 16 tahun.
Banyak kajian telah dilakukan menunjukkan sikap remaja terhadap seks adalah lebih terbuka
dan mengadakan hubungan seks sebelum kahwin (Sheng dan Cao, 2008).
Interaksi dengan ibu bapa dan juga rakan sebaya seringkali dikenalpasti sebagai pengaruh
sosialisasi yang penting terhadap perkembangan tingkah laku remaja (Quinsey, Skilling,
Lalumiere dan Craig, 2004). Sosialisasi seksual pula merupakan proses di mana remaja
memperolehi pengetahuan dan nilai seksual. Sumber pengetahuan berkaitan seksualiti yang
diterima oleh remaja merupakan sesuatu yang penting kerana ia melibatkan kesahihan
maklumat tersebut. Sumber rujukan dan maklumat yang diperolehi boleh menentukan tahap
pengetahuan serta sikap individu terhadap aktiviti seksual. Oleh itu, banyak kajian telah
dilakukan untuk menentukan sumber-sumber yang menjadi tumpuan remaja bagi mendapatkan
pengetahuan seks.
Morris, Young dan Jones (2000) berpandangan keluarga dan rakan-rakan memainkan peranan
penting dalam menentukan dan mempengaruhi perlakuan seksual dalam kalangan pelajar
sekolah. Pelajar yang mendapat bimbingan dan galakan ibu bapa atau ahli keluarga cenderung
untuk menjaga kehormatan mereka dan mempunyai sikap yang agak konservatif terhadap
aktiviti seksual. Sementara itu, remaja yang merujuk rakan sebaya mengenai seksualiti
mempunyai kecenderungan yang tinggi untuk melakukan hubungan seks sebelum berkahwin.
Meshcke, Bartholomae dan Zentall (2000) pula merumuskan komunikasi antara ibubapa
dengan anak-anak tentang pencegahan kehamilan sedikit sebanyak mampu melambatkan
pengalaman seksualiti anak-anak dan mencegah mereka daripada melakukan hubungan seks
tanpa perlindungan. Nilai-nilai yang diterapkan terutamanya nilai-nilai agama, kawalan dan
sokongan ibu bapa juga memberi kesan positif terhadap pencegahan aktiviti seksual
anak-anak.
Khadijah, et al. (2012) turut berpandangan rakan merupakan individu atau kumpulan yang
boleh mempengaruhi aktiviti sosial dalam kalangan remaja. Keadaan ini disebabkan
kebanyakan remaja berkongsi masalah dan melakukan aktiviti bersama rakan. Pengaruh rakan
juga merupakan salah satu faktor penting remaja terjerumus dalam kes hamil luar nikah. Pada
usia awal remaja, mereka mudah dipengaruhi oleh rakan sebaya dalam pembinaan
keperibadian diri dan dan pencarian identiti diri. Kajian mereka mendapati kebanyakan
149
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
responden menyatakan mendapat pengetahuan seks melalui rakan sebaya semasa melangkah
ke alam persekolahan ketika di tingkatan satu.
Kajian Haglund dan Fehring (2010) menunjukkan kumpulan remaja yang patuh kepada ajaran
agama didapati kurang terlibat dengan isu-isu seksual termasuk pengalaman melakukan
hubungan seks sebelum nikah dan bertukar pasangan. Dari segi prestasi pelajaran, kumpulan
yang berpengalaman seksual didapati menunjukkan potensi pelajaran yang tidak
memberangsangkan berbanding dengan pelajar yang tiada pengalaman seksual. Kajian Silver
dan Bauman (2006) juga menunjukkan remaja lelaki yang mempunyai pengalaman seksual
lebih berkecenderungan untuk pernah merokok, pengambilan alkohol dan dadah. Kajian ini
menunjukkan mereka yang mempunyai pengalaman seksual sering kali dikaitkan dengan
indikator-indikator risiko lain.
Interaksi remaja dengan teman lelaki juga penting dalam melihat hubungan sosial remaja.
Kebanyakan kajian lepas lebih banyak menumpukan kepada peranan rakan sebaya kepada
tingkah laku delinkuensi, dan mengabaikan aspek hubungan remaja dengan pasangan mereka
(teman lelaki atau wanita) (Haynie, Giordano, Manning dan Longmore, 2005). Kajian-kajian
terkini dalam perhubungan romantik menyarankan bahawa adalah penting untuk melihat aspek
ini dalam proses perkembangan remaja kerana remaja sendiri seringkali menjelaskan bahawa
perhubungan tersebut adalah intim dan berpengaruh.
3. Metod dan Dapatan Kajian

Bahagian ini membincangkan rekabentuk kajian dan dapatan kajian.
3.1 Metod Kajian
Kaedah tinjauan keratan rentas digunakan dalam kajian ini. Populasi kajian ini adalah kesemua
penghuni remaja yang berjumlah 119 orang di sebuah institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan.
Kebenaran untuk menjalankan kajian telah diperolehi dari Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat
Malaysia. Pengumpulan data dilakukan mengunakan borang soal selidik yang diedarkan
kepada remaja yang bersetuju terlibat dalam kajian ini. Borang soal selidik ini dibentuk dan
diubahsuai dari kajian-kajian lepas (Malek, et al., 2010; Amazigo, Silva, Kaufman dan
Obikeze, 1997; Azlin Hilma, Yusmarhaini dan Chan, 2004). Soalan pada bahagian
pengalaman berkaitan seksualiti terdiri daripada 19 item dan berskala Likert 1 (tidak pernah)
hingga 5 (sangat kerap). Sementara untuk bahagian sumber pengetahuan seksual pula
responden dikehendaki menentukan keutamaan berdasarkan sumber-sumber yang telah
disenaraikan. Data yang diperolehi dianalisis menggunakan kaedah analisis statistik deskriptif.
150
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.2 Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan

Seramai 99 orang penghuni bersetuju untuk turut serta dalam kajian ini. Jadual 1 memaparkan
demografi responden yang antara lain menunjukkan remaja berusia 17 tahun merupakan
responden paling ramai terlibat dan seramai 55 orang tidak bersekolah. Faktor utama
kemasukan ke institusi adalah masalah ibu bapa atau penjaga tidak lagi berupaya mengawal
remaja tersebut. Kajian mendapati ramai remaja yang tinggal dengan ibu bapa terlibat dalam
aktiviti seks sebelum kahwin walaupun terdapat kajian awal yang menyatakan remaja yang
tinggal dengan ibu bapa kurang terlibat dalam masalah ini.
Jadual 1: Demografi Responden
Ciri-ciri Demografi Frekuensi
Taraf Perkahwinan
- Bujang 97
- Bercerai 1
- Tidak dinyatakan 1
Agama
- Islam 94
- Hindu 5
Umur
- 13 tahun 2
- 14 tahun 6
- 15 tahun 19
- 16 tahun 23
- 17 tahun 30
- 18 tahun 18
- 19 tahun 1
Sebab Kemasukan
- Kes rogol 4
- Lari dari rumah 15
- Tingkahlaku tidak terkawal 54
- Mengandung 18
- Tidak dinyatakan 8
Status Pendidikan
- Bersekolah 44
- Tidak bersekolah 55
Tinggal Dengan Siapa Sebelum Memasuki Institusi
- Ibu Bapa Kandung 74
- Datuk/Nenek 12
- Ibu Bapa Angkat 7
- Saudara 4
- Kawan-kawan 1
- Tidak Dinyatakan 1
Jadual 2 menunjukan sumber-sumber maklumat pengetahuan seksual responden dengan

rakan-rakan merupakan sumber utama maklumat, diikuti dengan CD/DVD, teman lelaki dan
internet. Hasil kajian yang diperolehi juga menunjukkan bahawa ibu bapa atau keluarga
merupakan sumber yang kurang dirujuk bagi pendapatkan maklumat atau pengetahuan
151
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
berkaitan seksualiti. Sumber rujukan dan maklumat seksualiti boleh mempengaruhi tahap
pengetahuan serta sikap individu terhadap aktiviti seksual. Terdapat persamaan dapatan
dengan kajian-kajian terdahulu tentang sumber utama rujukan maklumat seks. Contohnya,
kajian Malek, et al. (2010); Amazigo, et al. (1997) mendapati tujuh sumber yang kerap
digunakan oleh pelajar bagi mendapatkan maklumat seksual ialah (i) rakan sebaya, (ii) buku,
majalah dan gambar, (iii) audiovisual (CD, filem dan sebagainya), (iv) sekolah, (v) pusat
kaunseling, (vi) keluarga (ibu bapa atau adik beradik), dan (vii) ahli keluarga yang rapat.
Jadual 2: Sumber Maklumat Pengetahuan Seksual
Frekuensi
Sumber Maklumat
- Rakan 88
- Teman Lelaki 84
- CD/DVD 79
- Internet 75
- TV/wayang 71
- Buku / majalah 67
- Ibu 60
- Doktor/jururawat 60
- Adik beradik / saudara 59
- Bapa 57
- Kelas Agama 57
Jadual 3 memaparkan pengalaman responden berkait dengan aktiviti seksual. Dapatan kajian
menunjukkan bahawa hampir 74% responden mempunyai pengalaman kehamilan. Lebih 70%
daripada responden amat jarang atau tidak pernah menggunakan kondom apabila melakukan
hubungan seksual. Lebih separuh daripada responden juga mengakui bahawa mereka
mempunyai kawan atau teman rapat yang pernah melakukan hubungan seks. Manakala hampir
80% daripada responden tidak pernah menggunakan pil pencegah kehamilan. Mereka turut
mendedahkan bahawa apabila bertemu teman lelaki mereka kerap berpegangan tangan dan
bercium semasa temu janji.
Responden turut ditanya tentang faktor-faktor yang boleh menghalang mereka dari melakukan
hubungan seksual. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa kawalan daripada ibu bapa dan keluarga
merupakan faktor yang paling utama yang dinyatakan oleh responden kerana keluarga akan
mengawal pergaulan mereka. Faktor kedua ialah pegangan agama terutama dalam kalangan
mereka yang beragama Islam yang mengharamkan hubungan seks sebelum berkahwin.
Responden turut menyatakan tiada peluang untuk melakukan hubungan seks disebabkan tiada
teman, persekitaran dan komuniti yang mengambil berat tentang gejala tidak sihat ini juga
merupakan antara faktor-faktor yang menghalang remaja melakukan hubungan seksual.
Menyedari keadaan ini, faktor-faktor yang dikenalpasti ini boleh dijadikan alat kawalan bagi
membendung masalah seks sebelum kahwin dalam kalangan remaja. Pelbagai organisasi yang
bertanggungjawab dalam masalah ini boleh mengembeleng usaha yang lebih berkesan dengan
kerjasama ibubapa
152
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Jadual 3
Pengalaman Responden Berkaitan Aktiviti Seksualiti (f=Frekuensi)
Item Tidak Jarang-jarang Kadang-kadang Kerap Sangat Min Sisihan

Pernah Kerap Piawai
f f f f f
Menggunakan kondom 48 22 19 8 2 1.9292 1.09033
Menonton filem/video lucah 15 24 25 16 19 3.0000 1.34012
Membaca bahan lucah 27 22 20 15 15 2.6869 1.41166
Mempunyai kawan yang pernah melakukan hubungan seks 9 14 12 24 40 3.7273 1.36141
Menggunakan pil pencegah kehamilan 78 9 7 1 4 1.4242 0.96986
Mempunyai teman lelaki/wanita/istimewa yang pernah melakukan hubungan 22 10 14 21 32 3.3131 1.55607
seks
Berpegangan tangan atau membelai-belai 7 10 10 27 45 3.9394 1.26828
Bercium semasa temu janji 8 10 12 29 40 3.8384 1.28339
Seks secara oral 47 8 13 12 19 2.4747 1.61841
Melakukan seks/bersetubuh dengan orang yang berlainan jantina 43 12 9 15 20 2.5657 1.62983
Melakukan seks/bersetubuh dengan orang yang sama jantina 79 8 9 1 2 1.3737 0.85220
Berkhayal tentang seks 41 20 13 12 13 2.3535 1.45204
Kekerapan keluar temujanji (dating) 13 9 15 24 38 3.6566 1.40815
Melakukan onani/melancap 62 9 11 8 9 1.9192 1.37527
Memaksa pasangan anda melakukan seks 72 10 5 7 5 1.6162 1.17549
Dipaksa melakukan seks atau mengalami penderaan 59 11 11 12 6 1.9394 1.32340
Adakah anda pernah/cuba menggugurkan kandungan? 80 8 2 3 6 1.4545 1.09984
Menggunakan cara lain untuk mencegah kehamilan selain daripada pil 83 1 7 4 4 1.4343 1.06101
perancang dan kondom
Menggunakan cara lain untuk menggugurkan kandungan selain melalui 81 7 4 3 4 1.4040 0.99918
doktor
153
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Kesimpulan
Di Negara ini, isu-isu berkait seksualiti remaja memang agak sukar dibuat perbincangan secara
terbuka terutama dalam kalangan ahli keluarga. Oleh itu, tidak hairan apabila kajian mendapati
remaja lebih cenderung mendapatkan maklumat seks dari rakan-rakan, teman lelaki, sumber
bacaan dan internet. Hal ini boleh menyebabkan mereka mungkin mendapat maklumat yang
kurang tepat sehingga membawa kepada masalah perlakuan seks bebas dan kehamilan luar
nikah. Ibubapa mungkin tidak dapat menerima kesan malu akibat stigma masyarakat sehingga
menyebabkan mereka boleh menghalau remaja tersebut dari rumah. Keadaan ini akan
mendatangkan lagi beban kepada remaja tersebut. Oleh itu, penempatan mereka di institusi
perlindungan dan pemulihan merupakan salah satu kaedah penting bagi membantu remaja
tersebut.
Bagi membantu menangani masalah ini, peranan ibu bapa dan keluarga perlu dipertingkatkan
bagi menyeimbangkannya dengan pengaruh rakan. Selaras itu, aspek yang boleh diperkasa
adalah seperti meningkatkan komunikasi efektif dalam kalangan ahli keluarga, menggalakkan
remaja meluahkan isi hati mereka kepada ibu bapa, menjana suasana yang terbuka dan suportif.
Peranan ini boleh dimainkan oleh agensi seperti Lembaga Penduduk dan Pembangunan
Keluarga Negara dengan kerjasama Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat yang boleh mengenalpasti
keluarga dan remaja yang berisiko. Usaha ini berupaya mengenal pasti disfungsi psikologikal
ahli keluarga dan berkongsi maklumat berkaitan keibubapaan dan perkembangan anak demi
menambah baik sistem keluarga. Melalui tindakan ini, aspek penting seperti nilai, perapatan,
peraturan dan kawalan, sifat asertif dan pembangunan karakter boleh diterapkan dan dihayati
oleh remaja. Tindakan sebegini adalah selaras dengan matlamat Dasar Keluarga Negara yang
ingin membangunkan keluarga yang sejahtera dan resilien bagi memastikan kestabilan sosial.
Program-program peningkatan pengetahuan dan perubahan pemikiran ibubapa berkait isu
seksualiti perlu dilaksanakan oleh agensi-agensi di bawah Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita,
Keluarga dan Masyarakat, Kementerian Pendidikan, Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia,
Kementerian Komunikasi dan Multimedia dan Jabatan Agama. Budaya masyarakat terutama
ibubapa yang sering mengelak dari berbincang dengan anak-anak tentang isu seksualiti perlu
dikikis supaya maklumat yang tepat boleh disalurkan. Pada masa yang sama, pendidikan
seksualiti yang dicadangkan dan dilaksanakan secara percubaan di sekolah-sekolah tertentu
perlu diperluaskan.
Untuk memembantu remaja yang telah terjebak dalam masalah ini, pihak institusi
perlindungan dan pemulihan juga boleh menjalankan sesi intervensi yang melibatkan ahli
keluarga sebagai kelompok sokongan ataupun kelompok pendidikan. Sesi intervensi kelompok
ini boleh dilakukan secara berterusan bagi meneliti isu-isu yang dihadapi sehingga
menyebabkan remaja terlibat dalam masalah tersebut. Tindakan ini akan membolehkan
ibubapa berkongsi dan bertukar-tukar maklumat dan pengalaman dalam usaha mereka
memulih ahli keluarga yang terlibat. Ia bukan sahaja sebagai satu usaha meneroka masalah
remaja dan keluarga tetapi juga membantu institusi membuat penilaian berkait dengan dinamik
keluarga sekaligus menolong keluarga menangani kesukaran yang dihadapi.
5. Rujukan
Amazigo, U., Silva, N., Kaufman, J., dan Obikeze, D.N., 1997. Sexual activity and
contraceptive knowledge and use among in-school adolescents in Nigeria. International
Family Planning Perspective, 23(1), pp.28-33.
154
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Azlin Hilma Hillaluddin, Yusmarhaini Yusof dan Chan Cheong Chong, 2004. Pengetahuan
kanak-kanak sekolah rendah mengenai penganiayaan seksual: Satu kajian penerokaan.
(Laporan Kajian Penyelidikan). Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Haglund, K. A., dan Fehring, R. J., 2010. The association of religiosity, sexual education, and
parental factors with risky sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults.
Journal of Religion and Health, 49, pp.460-472. doi:10.1007/s10943-009-9267-5.
Haynie, D.L., Giordano, P.C., Manning, W.D., dan Longmore, M.A., 2005. Adolescent
romantic relationships and delinquency involvement. Criminology, 43(1), pp.177-210.
doi: 10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00006.x
Khadijah Alavi, Salina Nen, Fauziah Ibrahim, Noremy Md. Akhir, Mohd Suhaimi Mohamad
dan Noorhasliza Mohd Nordin, 2012. Hamil luar nikah dalam kalangan remaja.
e-Bangi: Jurnal Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan, 7(1), pp.131-140.
Lee, L. K., Chen, P. C., Lee, K. K., dan Kaur, J., 2006. Menstruation among adolescent girls in
Malaysia: A cross-sectional school survey. Singapore Medical Journal, 47(10),
pp.869-874.
Malek, A., Abbasi Shokoohi, H., Faghihi, A. N., Bina, M., dan Shafiee-Kandjani, A. R., 2010.
A study on the sources of sexual knowledge acquisition among high school students in
Northwest Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine.13(6), pp.537-542.
Meschke, L., Bartholomae, S., dan Zentall, S.R., 2000. Adolescent sexuality and
parent-adolescent processes: Promoting healthy teen choices. Family Relation, 49(2),
pp.143-154.
Morris, J., Young, M., dan Jones, C., 2000. Self-esteem and adolescent sexual behavior among
students at an Elite Bolivian School. The International Electronic Journal of Health
Education, 3(1), 36-43.
Quinsey, V.L., Skilling, T.A., Lalumiere, M.L., dan Craig, W.M., 2004. Juvenile delinquency:
Understanding the origins of individual differences. Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association.
Sheng, L., and Cao, W. K., 2008. HIV/AIDS epidemiology and prevention in China. China
Medical Journal, 121, pp.1230-1236.
Silver, E. dan Bauman, L., 2006. The association of sexual experience with attitudes, beliefs,
and risk behaviors of inner-city adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
16(1), pp.29-45.
The Star Online, 22 September 2012. One teen birth every day. Dicapai di
http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2012/9/22/nation/12064751&sec=nation
pada 27 Januari 2013.
155
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Residential Child Care and Foster Care: Critical Comparative Analysis on

Literature
Chan Cheong Chong, PhD
School of Social Development, UUM CAS
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: ccchan@uum.edu.my
Abstract
Residential child care and foster care are two popular substitute placements for children who
are separated from their birth families. Various claims and comments have been made on
both placements. Some are empirically supported, but some are merely personal beliefs.
Unexamined claims and comments might have influenced social workers in their practices
and research. Hence, this article presents a brief review of the literature in residential child
care and foster care. For this purpose, a comparative analysis on 42 residential child care
literature and 49 foster care literature was conducted. Outcomes of the analysis show that
three main themes can be generated. The themes are research design, professionalism of
caregivers and childrens problems. In brief, child-centric perspective, comparison group and
longitudinal designs were not commonly used in studies on both placements. Training for
caregivers in both placements was highly discussed. Behaviour, education, and health issues
were the common issues for children residing in both placements. Overall, both placements
share a similar focus in practices and research. This implies that a comparative design to
examine both placements concurrently could be a practical research design in future.
Keywords: Residential Child Care; Foster Care
1. Introduction
Residential child care is a very broad term that could include almost many things as long as it
is an institutional setting. As commented by Sinclair (2000), it is diverse and its concept
can be problematic. He (2000) added that residential child care is commonly perceived as
institution that provides accommodation and care to group of people; hence half-way houses,
large foster homes and others institutional based setting can be categorised as residential
child care. It is not surprise that in Norway, professional foster homes can be grouped with
residential units as Residential Child-Care Institutions (Kjelsberg and Nygren, 2004).
Foster care is another more complex term because different countries provide it in different
ways (Colton & William, 2004; Department of Social Welfare and Development, Philippines
2004; Nor Amni Yusof, 2008; Social Welfare Department of Hong Kong, 2008). Many
academicians define foster care as a form of flexible and temporary placement in supervised
family environment setting in which mostly arranged by authority without legally bound and
has various aims at the end of the placement (Butler, 2000; Colton and Williams, 1997;
Colton and Williams, 2004; Kendrick, 1995; Kools, 1997; Pithouse and Parry, 1997;
Schofield, Beek, Sargent and Thoburn 2000; Triseliotis, Sellick and Short, 1995).
For the purpose of this study, residential child care is referred to institutional based substitute
care provided to children who are separated from their families. It is typically represented by
childrens homes or orphanages but exclude foster homes or correctional-based institutions.
156
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Conversely, foster care is defined as flexible substitute care provided in family environment
setting. Typical examples are foster families and foster homes.
There are claims and negative remarks on residential child care and foster care. Each claim
might go extreme into another end of spectrum. Some of these claims are supported by
empirical studies but some are just personal beliefs. For instance, residential child care is
claimed as the end of the road (Ven, 1991, p. 287), the worst family is still better than the
best home (Frommann, Haag and Trede, 1991, p. 96). Other claims are such as stereotype on
residential child care ignores many positive experiences (McCall, 1999), limited evaluations
were conducted (Sallnas, Vinnerljung and Westermark, 2004), social work education has
marginalised residential care (Smith, 2005), residential care is not sufficient to cope with
special needs children (Ward, 2006) and gender issue is overlooked (Andersson, 2005;
ONeil, 2008).
Similarly, claims have been made towards foster care. Such claims include less research has
been done on younger children (Whiting and Lee, 2003), guidance in foster care is less
comprehensive as compared to adoption (Szabo and Ritchken, 2002), social workers favour
foster care (Kahan, 1991), foster care is just a permanent temporary care (McKenzie, 1999,
p.1) and gender issue is overlooked (Andersson, 2005; ONeil, 2008).
Social workers rarely refer research findings in making assessment (Taylor, 2004). They
might just unaware with the latest evidence from the researches and mostly influenced by
some unexamined claims or exceptional cases. Thus, doing literature review on residential
child care and foster care is beneficial in helping social workers to comprehend the current
trend of research activities and latest issues in both placements. Hence, this article presents a
comparative analysis on residential child care and foster care literature, and further discusses
outcomes of the comparison.
2. Method of Study
A pool of literature was selected based on its availability and relevancy to residential child
care and foster care. Content analysis was conducted on each literature. Both sets of literature
in residential child care and foster care were then compared critically for similarities and
differences.
Forty-two literatures in residential child care were reviewed. The materials comprise 28
journal articles, one book and 13 chapter-in-books. Nevertheless, nine journal articles and 11
chapter-in-books are not research based. Conversely, 49 literatures in foster care were
reviewed. The materials comprise 44 journal articles, three books and two chapter-in-books.
However, 10 journal articles, one book and two chapter-in-books are not research based
(Table 1).
Table 1: Literature in residential child care and foster care

Residential Child Quantity Foster Care Quantity
Care
Journal Article 28 Journal Article 44
Book 1 Book 3
Chapter-in-book 13 Chapter-in-book 2
Total 42 Total 49
157
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Research Based Journal Article 19 Research Based Journal Article 34

Materials Book 1 Materials Book 2
Chapter-in-book 2 Total 36
Total 22
3. Findings
Comparative analysis on literature of both substitute cares has generated three important
themes namely research design, professionalism of caregivers and childrens problems. The
themes are thoroughly discussed and followed with recommendations for future research and
practice especially in the Malaysian context.
3.1 Research Design
Residential child care and foster care studies share many common methods in research (Table
2). From the 22 research materials on Residential Child Care, only five (23%) are
longitudinal studies and 13 (59%) are cross sectional studies. The rest, four (18%) are
cross-sectional studies with retrospective elements. In other words, 77% of the studies cited
in the residential child care section used cross sectional design. Longitudinal studies are
difficult to be conducted because participants mindset and the context of placements can
change along the timeline (Andersson, 2005).
Table 2: Comparative analysis on methods used

Methods Residential Child Care (N=22) Foster Care (N= 36)
Time Frame Cross Sectional (77%) Cross Sectional (64%)
Data Collection Interview (54.5%) Interview (56%)
Child Centric 5 (23%) 9 (25%)
Randomise Sampling Nil Nil
Comparison Group 2 (9.1)%1 3 (8.3%)2
Grounded Theory 1(4.2%) Nil
Standardised CBCL, YSR CBCL, Teacher Report Form,
Measurement
Orientation Qualitative (50%) Qualitative (50%)
From the 36 research studies on Foster Care, 13 (36%) studies are clearly longitudinal studies,
17 (47%) studies are simple cross-sectional studies and another six (17%) articles are
cross-sectional studies with retrospective elements. Overall, studies in foster care are
mostly cross-sectional based (64%) and this finding is line with Orme and Buehlers (2001)
finding.
Child Behaviour Checklist(CBCL), Youth Self-Report(YSR) and Teacher Report Forms(TRF)
which are originated from Achenbach (The National Center on Child Abuse Prevention
Research, 2005) were widely used. Conversely, randomise sampling, comparison group and
grounded theory were underutilised (Anglin, 2004; Orme and Buehler, 2001). Even though
1
Eden, 1998 (Training experiment); Kjelsberg and Nygren, 2004(Residential Institutions vs. Mental institutions)
2
Linares et al, 2007(Siblings in three groups of placement conditions); McAuley, 1996 (Teachers report: Foster
vs. Other students); Singer, Doornenbal and Okma, 2004 (Foster vs. Birth Children)
158
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
more than half of the studies used interview method, only one in four of the studies collected
its data direct from children. Child-centric perspective is relatively absence in child care
studies (Whiting and Lee, 2003).
Thus, future research studies for both placements shall embrace more longitudinal design
with randomise principle and comparison group. However, this ideal suggestion is subject to
the purpose of the actual study as not every child care study is suitable to be conducted under
these circumstances. Longitudinal study is difficult to be accomplished because of high
turnout of children in both placements, while randomise principle is hardly achieved because
of inaccurate sampling frames.
Comparison group in child care study could be a realistic proposal. Residential child care and
foster care can be used as comparison group for each other. This design clarifies effects of the
substitute placements towards the childrens well being (Figure 1). However the design is just
an ideal research inquiry which should not override the best interest of the child.
Childs well Childs well

Childrens Home
being being
Childs well Childs well

Foster Home
being being
Figure 1: Comparison group design for child care studies
3.2 Professionalism of Caregivers
There is a movement in Europe especially in England and Scotland to increase number of

social work trained caregivers in residential child care (Heron and Chakrabarti, 2002; Karban,
2000; Smith, 2005). Meanwhile, there are some evidence shows that some foster parents in
the West are professional social workers (Lipscombe, Farmer and Moyers, 2003). Overall,
caregivers in residential child care and foster care have similar tasks but both of them are
belonged to two distinct groups of people from different background.
159
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Residential Child Care Services Foster Care Services
Workers or Staff in Institution Foster Parents
1 2 3 1 2 3
Volunteers Non-Profession Professionals Kin Non-Kin Professionals

als
(with or (with social (with or (with training) (with social
without (with training) work without work
training) qualification) training) qualification)
Figure 2: Comparison between caregivers in residential child care and foster care
As shown in figure 2, the training and qualification issues in both setting are quite similar.
However, the ratio of professional and non-professional are expected to be different in both
settings. Based on literatures gathered, it is suggested that ratio of professional will be
significantly higher in residential child care as compared to foster care.
Advocating professional qualification for residential child care workers is reasonable as this
can be viewed as career advancement that will boost the morale of the workers. However,
advocating professional qualification for foster parents might bring reverse impact that
indirectly create difficulty to the potential parents. Hence, it can be concluded that
qualification is most needed in residential child care setting and continuous training is needed
in foster care setting.
However one possible issue might occur in future is that if foster parents have gone through
considerable number of training and they might request a better recognition through formal
qualification. This hypothetical situation is mainly based on human desire to achieve
betterment and seek recognition from the others that is well explained in Maslows Hierarchy
of Needs (Davies, 2000). This assumption is subject to the condition that if training for foster
parents are continually and consistently provided.
Hence, various study designs can be suggested to clarify issues of training and formal
qualification among residential child care workers and foster parents. Briefly, these study
designs are perception study, quasi experimental study and focus group study (Table 3).
Perception study can be conducted to articulate caregivers perceptions towards the
importance of training and formal qualification in delivering care to the children. Quasi
experimental study helps in clarifying the effects of training and formal qualification to the
care services. Consequently, content of training or syllabus can be better designed by having
focus group study on caregivers.
Table 3: Study designs in training and formal qualification issues

Designs Description
Perception Study The Importance of Training vs. Formal Qualification
Quasi Experimental Study The Effect of Training vs. The Effect of Formal Qualification
with Control Group
Focus Group Study Developing Syllabus or Content of Training
3.3 Childrens Problems
160
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Sexual abuse scandals reported in the institutions reflect that children in residential child care
are facing more serious problems as compared to their counterparts in foster care. Children in
residential care are not getting sufficient attention and care from their caregivers, thus their
educational and health needs can be easily overlooked.
Foster care studies, however, have recorded considerable numbers of problem among the
children. Past experiences in negative life events and the current challenges in new
environment require high level of social adjustment wills and skills. Hence, problems are also
expected among children in foster care.
Overall, children in both placements share similar problems in behaviour, education and
health (Table 4). Although foster care children might have slightly advantages in educational
support at home, it is mainly depends on personal commitments and efforts of their foster
parents. Children in residential care might not have the problem of placement breakdown,
this is because residential child care has always been regarded as the final resort.
Table 4: Behavioural, educational and health problems

Problems Children in Residential Foster Care Children
Care
Negative Past Experiences
Behavioural Misconduct
Emotional Problems
Low Social Adjustment
Low Academic Attainment
Poor Accessibility To Health
Care
Poor Health Assessment
Low Educational Support
(Questionable)
Placement Breakdown
(Questionable)
Caregivers in residential child care have structural advantages on resources in helping

children with problems; conversely, foster parents can rely only on their own skills, resources
and the limited supports provided by their social workers. Overcome these problems is an
important agenda in the current and future research.
Many studies have focused on the cause and the level of seriousness of the childrens
problems. However, not many studies like Lindsay (1999) evaluate the solutions used to
overcome the problems. Moreover, not many studies like Whiting and Lee (2003) approached
young children for their views. Childrens problems will remain as problems if the problems
are defined and described from adults perspective. As mentioned in the Table 2,
child-centric studies are lacking. Thus, more efforts have to be taken in exploring the
problems from the childrens perspective.
161
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Limitation
The findings of this comparative analysis are subject to the literatures used for each
residential child care and foster care. The literatures reviewed in this paper were not
randomly selected. It was selected based on the availability of the materials. Thus, the
findings especially on the methodology section can be arguable and not for generalization.
Furthermore, some literatures of residential child care and foster care are hardly differentiated.
For instance, research by Andersson (2005) and, Sallnas, Vinnerljung and Westermark (2004)
are applicable for both residential child care and foster care. Thus, the findings of the
comparison in this paper should be carefully comprehended with the above limitations.
5. Conclusion
Residential child care and foster care can be illustrated as a pair of twins. Both are
interdependent placements for children who are separated from their birth families. Sharing
the same root of child welfares history, both placements have evolved intensively due to the
rapid growth of child care research. Literature review on both placements shows that research
design, professionalism of caregivers and childrens problems are the three key pillars in
research and practice. Hence, future studies may apply a comparative design to further
evaluate each placements achievement in serving the best interest of the children. The
comparative design should also emphasise on the caregivers perspective and the childrens
perspective.
6. References
Andersson, G., 2005. Family relations, adjustment and well-being in a longitudinal study of
children in care. Child and Family Social Work, 10, pp.43-56.
Anglin, J. P., 2004. Discovering what makes a well-enough functioning residential group
care setting for children and youth: Constructing a theoretical framework and responding to
critiques of grounded theory method. In: H. G. Eriksson and T. Tjelflaat, eds. 2004.
Residential care: Horizons for the new century. Hants, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
pp.173-190.
Butler, I., 2000. Foster care. In: M. Davies, ed. 2000. The Blackwell encyclopaedia of social
work . Oxford, England: Blackwell Published Ltd. pp.138-140.
Colton, M. and Williams, M., 1997. The nature of foster care international trends. Adoption
and Fostering, 21(1), pp.44-49.
Colton, M. and Williams, M., 2004. Global trends in foster care. In: N. Frost, ed. 2004. Child
welfare: Major themes in health and social welfare. Volume III: Child placement and
children away from home. London, England: Routledge. pp.147-159.
Davies, M., 2000. Needs, Maslows Hierarchy. In: M. Davies, ed. 2000. The Blackwell
encyclopaedia of social work. Oxford, England: Blackwell Published Ltd. pp. 228-229.
162
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Department of Social Welfare and Development, Philippines, 2004. Residential care services.
[online] Available at: <http://www.dswd.gov.ph/programs2.php?progtype=5> [Accessed 3
February 2007].
Edens, F. M., 1998. Enhancing the professional competence of residential child care workers:
Effects of a training programme. Educational Research and Evaluation, 4(1), pp.1-12.
Frommann, A., Haag, G. and Trede, W., 1991. Residential education in the Federal Republic
of Germany. In: M. Gottesman, ed. 1991. Residential child care: An international reader.
London, England: Whiting & Birch Ltd. pp.88-111.
Heron, G. and Chakrabarti, M., 2002. Impact of Scottish vocational qualifications on

residential child care: Have they fulfilled the promise? Social Work Education, 21(2),
pp.183-197.
Karban, K., 2000. Developing practice learning and teaching in residential child care. Social
Work Education, 19(3), pp.241-252.
Kendrick, A., 1995. Residential care in the integration of child care services. In Social work
research findings No. 5. Edinburgh, Scotland: HMSO.
Kjelsberg, E. and Nygren, P., 2004. The prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems
in institutionalized childcare clients. Nord J Psychiatry, 58, pp.319-325.
Kools, S. M., 1997. Adolescent identity development in foster care. Family Relations, 46(3),
pp.263-271.
Linares, L. O., Li, M. M., Shrout, P. E., Brody, G.H. and Pettit, G. S., 2007. Placement shift,
sibling relationship quality, and child outcomes in foster care: A controlled study. Journal of
Family Psychology, 21(4), pp.736-743.
Lindsay, M., 1999. Getting them back to school: Touchstones of good practice in the
residential care of young people. Children & Society, 13, pp.192-202.
Lipscombe, J., Farmer, E. and Moyers, S., 2003. Parenting fostered adolescents: Skills and
strategies. Child and Family Social Work, 8, pp.243-255.
McAuley, C., 1996. Children in long-term foster care. Aldershot, England: Avebury.
McCall, J. N., 1999. Research on the psychological effects of orphanage care. In: R. B.
McKenzie, ed. 1999. Rethinking orphanages for the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications, Inc. pp.127-150.
McKenzie, R. B., 1999. Rethinking orphanages: An introduction. In: R. B. McKenzie, ed.

1999. Rethinking orphanages for the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications,
Inc. pp. 1-20.
Nor Amni Yusof, 2008. Discussion with Director of Childrens Division, Social Welfare
Department of Malaysia at Childrens Division, Social Welfare Department of Malaysia.
[interview]. (Personal communication, 16 June 2008).
163
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ONeil, T., 2008. Gender matters in residential child care. In: A. Kendrick, ed. 2008.
Residential child care: Prospects and challenges. London, England: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers. pp.93-106.
Orme, J. G. and Buehler, C., 2001. Foster family characteristics and behavioral and emotional
problems of foster children: A narrative review. Family Relation, 50(1), pp.3-15.
Pithouse, A. and Parry, O., 1997. Fostering in Wales: The all Wales review. Adoption and
Fostering, 21(2), pp.41-49.
Sallnas, M., Vinnerljung, B. and Westermark, P. K., 2004. Breakdown of teenage placements
in Swedish foster care and residential care. Child and Family Social Work, 9, pp.141-152.
Schofield, G., Beek, M., Sargent, K. and Thoburn, J., 2000. Growing up in foster care.
London, England: British Agencies for Adoption and Fostering.
Sinclair, I., 2000. Residential care. In: M. Davies, ed. 2000. The Blackwell encyclopaedia of
social work. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. pp.293-295.
Singer, E., Doornenbal, J. and Okma, K., 2004. Why do children resist or obey their foster
parents? The inner logic of childrens behavior during discipline. Child Welfare, 83(6), pp.
581-610.
Smith, M., 2005. Applying ideas from learning and teaching in higher education to develop
professional identity: The case of the M.Sc. in Advanced Residential Child Care. Child &
Youth Care Forum, 34(4), pp. 261-277.
Social Welfare Department of Hong Kong, 2008. Foster care and emergency foster care.
[online] Available at:
<http://www.swd.gov.hk/en/index/site_pubsvc/page_family/sub_listofserv/id_fostercare/>
[Accessed 2 February 2008].
Szabo, C. P. and Ritchken, D. A., 2002. Race and family placement: A case report and review.
South African Journal of Psychology, 32(4), pp. 60-63.
Taylor, C., 2004. Underpinning knowledge for child care practice: Reconsidering child
development theory. Child and Family Social Work, 9, pp.225-235.
The National Center on Child Abuse Prevention Research, 2005. Child behavior check list.
[online] Available at:
<http://www.friendsnrc.org/download/outcomeresources/toolkit/annot/cbcl.pdf > [Accessed 1
October 2008].
Triseliotis, J., Sellick, C. and Short, R., 1995. Foster care: Theory and practice. London,
England: B. T. Batsford Ltd.
Ven, K. V. (1991). Residential care, education, and treatment of children and youth in the
United States. In: M. Gottesman, ed. 1991. Residential child care: An international reader.
London, England: Whiting & Birch Ltd. pp.275-299.
164
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ward, A., 2006. Models of ordinary and special daily living: Matching residential care to
the mental-health needs of looked after children. Child and Family Social Work, 11,
pp.336-346.
Whiting, J. B. and Lee, R. E. III., 2003. Voice from the system: A qualitative study of foster
childrens stories. Family Relations, 52, pp.288-295.
165
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Sokongan Sosial dalam Kalangan Remaja Hamil Tanpa Nikah
Zakiyah Jamaluddina,*, Abdul Razak Abd Manafb & Rusimah Sayuti c

a, b & c Program Kerja Sosial, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: zakiyah@uum.edu.mya, a.razak@uum.edu.myb, rusimah@uum.edu.myc
Abstrak
Kajian ini memfokuskan kepada isu remaja hamil tanpa nikah yang ditempatkan di empat buah
institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan di Semenanjung Malaysia. Objektif kajian adalah untuk
mengenal pasti sokongan sosial dalam kalangan remaja yang hamil tanpa nikah. Kajian ini
bersifat kuantitatif di mana pengumpulan data dilakukan menggunakan kaedah tinjauan
(survey) yang melibatkan seramai 50 orang responden di empat buah institusi perlindungan
dan pemulihan. Pelbagai kesukaran yang dialami oleh responden akibat kehamilan
menyebabkan mereka memerlukan sokongan sosial daripada pelbagai pihak seperti ibu bapa,
adik beradik, teman lelaki dan staf di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan yang mereka diami.
Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan sokongan yang diperlukan adalah antaranya dari segi
penjagaan bayi, nasihat, kewangan, penjagaan diri, penjagaan kandungan, dan komplikasi
semasa kehamilan. Oleh itu, walaupun majoriti responden hamil tanpa nikah, mereka masih
tetap memerlukan sokongan terutamanya daripada ahli keluarga dalam meneruskan kehidupan
mereka.
Kata kunci: sokongan sosial; remaja; hamil tanpa nikah.
1. Pengenalan
Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia mendedahkan seramai 18,652 remaja berusia 10-19 tahun
didapati hamil sepanjang tahun 2011, di mana 30% hamil di luar nikah yang sah (The Star, 22
September 2012). Dalam pada itu, antara tahun 2000-2008, sebanyak 257,000 sijil kelahiran
tanpa nama bapa didaftarkan di Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara (JPN) (The Star, 22 September
2012). Sementara itu, data direkod daripada Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) antara
2005 hingga 2011, menunjukkan Malaysia menduduki tempat keempat daripada 10 negara
berkaitan kehamilan remaja yang berusia antara 15 hingga 19 tahun (Shuhada Mansor, 2015).
Masalah remaja hamil tanpa nikah kian meningkat apabila ia mencecah tahap yang
membimbangkan dengan 1,048 kes antara Januari ke Mac 2014. Ini bermakna secara purata
seramai 12 remaja hamil tanpa nikah, setiap hari (The New Straits Times, 13 Januari 2014).
1.1 Remaja hamil tanpa nikah dan sokongan sosial
Papamichael, Pillai & Yoong (2009) menganggap remaja hamil tanpa nikah ini adalah satu
masalah kesihatan yang amat penting kerana ia seringkali dimasukkan dalam konteks ekonomi
dan sosial. Menurut Khadijah, Salina, Fauziah, Noremy, Mohd Suhaimi & Norhasliza (2012)
hamil tanpa nikah/hamil luar nikah bererti mengandung sebelum berkahwin dan melakukan
hubungan seks antara dua pasangan yang belum berkahwin atau tidak mempunyai pertalian
pernikahan yang sah.
Terdapat beberapa faktor risiko remaja hamil tanpa nikah. Kirby, Leore & Ryan (2005)
menjelaskan faktor-faktor risiko adalah seperti berlaku kekasaran atau pengabaian, pergolakan
166
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
keluarga, terlibat dengan tingkah laku bermasalah dan pengabaian terhadap bidang akademik.
Ketua Penolong Pengarah, Bahagian Pembangunan Kesihatan Keluarga, Kementerian
Kesihatan Malaysia, Dr Nik Rubiah Nik Abdul Rashid menyatakan bahawa terdapat pelbagai
faktor yang menyumbang kepada kehamilan remaja luar nikah seperti kurang bimbingan ibu
bapa yang menjadi tunjang kepada masalah tersebut, kurang komunikasi dalam kalangan ahli
keluarga, pengetahuan kesihatan reproduktif seksual yang lemah serta keperluan kepada
pembentukan persekitaran yang selamat (The New Straits Times, 13 Januari 2014).
Dalam menangani permasalahan ini, remaja hamil tanpa nikah amat memerlukan sokongan
sosial daripada persekitaran mereka. Sokongan sosial yang dijelaskan adalah kewujudan atau
keupayaan bagi seseorang yang kita mengharap, seseorang yang mengambil berat, menghargai
dan menyayangi kita (Sarason, Levene, Basham & Sarason,1983). Manakala kajian Murphy &
Moriarty (1976) menjelaskan keupayaan sokongan keluarga dapat meningkatkan ketahanan
kanak-kanak bagi menghadapi tekanan.
Thompson, Flood & Goodvin (2006) menjelaskan bahawa sokongan sosial ialah pencegah dan
pelindung daripada berlakunya tekanan. Peranan sokongan sosial sebagai pencegah kepada
tekanan adalah kerana dapat mencegah daripada berlakunya tekanan dengan penyediaan
sumber-sumber yang diperlukan ketika berlakunya tekanan. Manakala peranan sokongan
sosial sebagai pelindung tekanan pula adalah kerana dapat mengurangkan kesan tekanan
melalui peningkatan kemahiran menangani tekanan tersebut. Menurut Thompson et al. (2006)
lagi, kepentingan sokongan sosial yang diterima bergantung kepada apa yang dinilai dan
diperlukan pada sesuatu masa. Maka, sokongan akan bertindak sebagai pelindung dan
mengurangkan tekanan apabila keperluan seseorang individu menepati jenis sokongan yang
bersesuaian dengan mereka (Cauce, Mason, Gonzales, Cohen, 1992; Unger & Wandersman,
1985).
Ibu kepada remaja (nenek kepada anak remaja tersebut) merupakan sumber sokongan sosial
yang terpenting (Burke & Liston, 1994; Musick, 1994). Menurut Burke & Liston (1994),
golongan ibu-ibu remaja telah meletakkan ibu mereka pada kedudukan penyokong terpenting
berbanding dengan rangkaian sokongan yang lain dan seterusnya meletakkan bapa kepada bayi
mereka sebagai sumber sokongan sosial kedua terpenting selepas ibu mereka.
Nor Jana Saim et al. (2013) menjalankan kajian terhadap 17 orang responden berusia di antara
12-18 tahun di empat buah rumah perlindungan wanita yang menempatkan remaja hamil tanpa
nikah. Kajian yang menggunakan rekabentuk kualitatif ini mendapati bahawa sokongan sosial
adalah amat diperlukan oleh mereka. Namun, majoriti responden dalam kajian mereka
menyatakan bahawa merasa tidak selamat untuk berkongsi perasaaan dan masalah dengan staf
dan dengan remaja perempuan lain di rumah perlindungan tersebut. Perkongsian perasaan dan
masalah hanya akan dikongsi dengan individu yang mereka benar-benar percaya sahaja.
Berdasarkan kepada kajian-kajian lepas, kajian ini cuba mengkaji apakah bentuk sokongan
sosial yang diperlukan oleh remaja yang hamil tanpa nikah.
167
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1.1.1 Metodologi
Kajian ini bersifat kuantitatif di mana pengumpulan data dilakukan menggunakan kaedah
tinjauan (survey) yang melibatkan seramai 50 orang responden di empat buah institusi
perlindungan dan pemulihan yang menempatkan remaja hamil tanpa nikah. Bagi mengukur
sokongan sosial, soal selidik dibina dan diubahsuai berdasarkan Social Support Network
Questionnaire (SSNQ) dan The Social Support Network for Teenage Mothers in Botshabelo
(Motjelebe, 2009).
1.1.2 Hasil kajian
Kajian ini mendapati bahawa majoriti responden berumur 17 tahun (38%). Terdapat juga
responden yang berumur 14 tahun (2%). Sementara itu, terdapat juga responden yang berumur
20-22 tahun (14%). Min atau purata umur responden ialah 17.44 tahun. Responden dalam
kajian ini yang masih bujang adalah sebanyak 98% dan majoriti (96%) adalah berbangsa
Melayu. Majoriti responden (80%) tinggal dengan ibu bapa kandung.
Dari segi punca kehamilan, 60% responden menyatakan sebab kehamilan mereka adalah
melakukan seksual secara sukarela, dipaksa (22%) dan dirogol (18%). Didapati bahawa 70%
responden mengakui bahawa bapa kepada bayi yang dikandung adalah teman lelaki mereka.
Sementara 24% lagi menyatakan lain-lain iaitu yang merangkumi rakan, kenalan, bekas teman
lelaki dan orang yang tidak dikenali (dirogol). Kajian juga menunjukkan 96% responden
mempunyai pengalaman kehamilan buat kali pertama, manakala 4% responden lagi mengakui
ini merupakan pengalaman hamil buat kali kedua dan pernah melakukan pengguguran
terhadap kandungan tersebut.
Walaupun hamil tanpa nikah, namun 48% responden menyatakan akan memelihara sendiri
anak tersebut. Sebanyak 30% responden menyatakan akan menyerahkan anak tersebut kepada
orang lain. Manakala 4% responden menyatakan akan menyerahkan anak mereka kepada
institusi kebajikan.
Setelah mengetahui bahawa diri mereka hamil, majoriti responden (78%) merasa bersalah,
malu (76%), marah (38%), sedih (6%), menyesal (4%) dan takut (4%). Majoriti responden
(70%) yang mengalami kesukaran sepanjang kehamilan berada pada tahap yang sederhana.
Item yang banyak menyumbang dalam tahap yang sederhana adalah gementar, pengsan atau
pening, hilang kehendak atau kepuasan seksual, rasa terperangkap, tiba-tiba takut tanpa sebab
dan kemarahan yang tidak dapat dikawal.
Sebanyak 13 soalan telah ditanya kepada responden berkenaan sokongan sosial iaitu berkaitan
penjagaan bayi, nasihat, kewangan, pekerjaan, pemakanan, tempat tinggal, kerja rumah,
maklumat penjagaan diri ketika hamil, maklumat penjagaan kandungan, maklumat pemakanan
ketika hamil, ubat-ubatan, keadaan diri ketika hamil dan komplikasi ketika hamil. Responden
juga ditanya kepada siapakah kesemua perkara ini dirujuk iaitu sama ada kepada ibu, bapa,
adik beradik, kawan, jiran, ibu/bapa saudara, teman lelaki ataupun staf di institusi perlindungan
dan pemulihan yang diduduki.
Hasil kajian menunjukkan majoriti responden mendapat sokongan terutamanya daripada ibu,
dari segi penjagaan bayi, nasihat, kewangan, pekerjaan, pemakanan, tempat tinggal, kerja
rumah, penjagaan kandungan, ubat-ubatan dan komplikasi ketika hamil (Rujuk Jadual 1).
168
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Selain itu, bapa juga dirujuk jika terdapat sebarang maklumat, masalah atau khidmat nasihat
yang diperlukan oleh responden sepanjang kehamilan mereka.
1.1.3 Perbincangan
Sepertimana yang telah ditunjukkan dalam kajian-kajian lepas, ibu kepada remaja (nenek
kepada anak remaja tersebut) merupakan sumber sokongan sosial yang terpenting (Burke &
Liston, 1994; Musick, 1994). Menurut Burke & Liston (1994), golongan ibu-ibu remaja telah
meletakkan ibu mereka pada kedudukan penyokong terpenting berbanding dengan rangkaian
sokongan yang lain dan seterusnya meletakkan bapa kepada bayi mereka sebagai sumber
sokongan sosial kedua terpenting selepas ibu mereka. Sementara Stevenson, Maton & Teti
(1999) dalam kajian mereka terhadap remaja hamil mendapati kewujudan saling sokongan
antara remaja dengan ibu bapa mempunyai hubungan dengan pengukuran kesejahteraan
mereka termasuk penguasaan dan kepuasan kehidupan. Justeru, tidak hairanlah mengapa
majoriti responden memilih ibu dan bapa untuk mendapatkan sokongan sosial.
Kajian ini mendapati pasangan remaja hamil tanpa nikah (teman lelaki/ bapa kepada bayi yang
dikandung) kurang dirujuk sebagai faktor sokongan sosial remaja, terutamanya yang berkait
dengan penjagaan diri ketika hamil, penjagaan kandungan dan komplikasi ketika hamil.
Sebaliknya kajian-kajian lepas mendapati bahawa pasangan merupakan salah satu sumber
sokongan sosial yang juga dapat mengurangkan simptom-simptom kemurungan dan
meningkatkan fungsi psikologi (Unger & Wandersman, 1988), penyesuaian psikologi (Colleta,
1981; Contreras, 2004; Gee & Rhodes, 2003) serta kesejahteraan psikologi ibu-ibu remaja
(Castellanos, 2009). Malahan, kajian yang dilakukan oleh de Anda & Becerra (1984)
mendapati ibu-ibu remaja berbangsa Mexico-Amerika mengenal pasti pasangan mereka
sebagai sumber sokongan sosial utama.
Dalam kajian ini, staf juga kurang menjadi sumber sokongan sosial kepada responden
berbanding ibu dan bapa. Namun, dalam konteks keadaan diri ketika hamil, peratus bagi
responden yang mendapat sokongan sosial daripada staf adalah tinggi iaitu 56% yang juga
menyamai peratus yang mendapat sokongan daripada ibu. Malahan, bagi beberapa aspek
seperti maklumat pemakanan ketika hamil, ubat-ubatan kehamilan dan komplikasi diri ketika
hamil, sokongan sosial yang didapati daripada staf juga adalah tinggi. Nor Jana Saim et al.
(2013; 2014) mendapati perkara yang sama dalam kajian mereka terhadap remaja hamil tanpa
nikah di empat buah rumah perlindungan wanita. Remaja terbabit enggan berkongsi perasaan
dan masalah serta merujuk staf di rumah perlindungan tersebut sekiranya terdapat sebarang
permasalahan. Perkara ini berkait dengan isu ketidakpercayaan dan ketidakselamatan,
bimbang dengan penyalahgunaan kuasa yang ada pada staf serta ketidakselesaan untuk
berkongsi masalah dengan staf.
1.2 Jadual dan Rajah
Jadual 1: Sokongan sosial dalam kalangan remaja hamil tanpa nikah
A. Jenis
pertolongan yang
diperlukan Dengan siapa anda berbincang
(%)
Ibu Bapa Adik Kawan Jiran Ibu/bapa Teman Staf
169
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
beradik saudara lelaki

1. Penjagaan
bayi 80 62 36 10 2 16 24 22
2. Nasihat 82 68 24 18 0 16 12 28
3. Kewangan 74 66 18 8 0 8 24 8
4. Mencari
pekerjaan 54 36 26 20 4 10 16 8
5. Makanan 76 60 30 12 4 10 18 6
6. Tempat
tinggal 76 68 26 4 0 14 12 10
7. Kerja rumah
64 48 30 8 0 8 8 12
B. Maklumat
tentang Dengan siapa anda berbincang
kehamilan (%)
Adik Jiran Ibu/bapa Teman Staf

Ibu Bapa beradik Kawan saudara lelaki
1. Penjagaan
diri ketika
hamil 34 20 10 6 0 10 4 4
2. Penjagaan
kandungan 82 50 18 16 0 12 10 20
3. Pemakanan 70 38 14 14 0 12 10 30
4. Ubat-ubatan
kehamilan 78 48 10 14 0 10 6 22
5. Keadaan diri
semasa hamil 56 26 10 6 0 6 2 56
6. Komplikasi
semasa
kehamilan
70 36 16 22 0 14 6 34
Sumber: Data kajian
170
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Kesimpulan
Sokongan sosial sangat penting kepada remaja yang sedang hamil ini. Menjadi ibu pada usia
yang sangat muda dengan kurangnya maklumat tentang kehamilan, menyebabkan remaja
sangat memerlukan sokongan sosial daripada pelbagai pihak. Dalam keadaan kurang
pengetahuan, pelbagai kesukaran yang dialami semasa hamil, tekanan emosi dan kecelaruan
fikiran, sokongan sosial amat diperlukan oleh mereka dalam situasi yang mencabar ini. Secara
tidak langsung, ia juga dapat memberi kesan kepada kesejahteraan hidup mereka. Ini juga
penting agar mereka dapat meneruskan kehidupan terutamanya selepas melahirkan anak dan
keluar daripada institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan.
Sokongan sosial bukan sahaja berbentuk material dan semasa kehamilan sahaja, malahan
didapati bahawa mereka amat memerlukan sokongan sosial berbentuk non material dan selepas
melahirkan bayi serta selepas keluar daripada institusi. Ia bagi menjamin kelangsungan hidup
(survival) mereka selepas keluar daripada institusi bagi meneruskan kehidupan sama ada untuk
menyambung semula pelajaran atau mencari pekerjaan yang sesuai.
Pelbagai kesukaran yang dialami oleh responden akibat kehamilan menyebabkan mereka
memerlukan sokongan sosial daripada pelbagai pihak seperti ibu bapa, adik beradik, teman
lelaki dan staf di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan yang mereka diami. Sokongan yang
diperlukan adalah dari segi penjagaan bayi, nasihat, kewangan, mencari pekerjaan,
pemakanan, tempat tinggal, penjagaan diri, penjagaan kandungan, kerja rumah, ubat-ubatan
semasa hamil, keadaan diri semasa hamil dan komplikasi semasa kehamilan. Dapatan kajian
ini menunjukkan majoriti responden mengharapkan dan mendapat sokongan sosial
terutamanya daripada ibu bapa. Staf hanya dirujuk dan memberi sokongan dalam aspek
keadaan diri ketika hamil, maklumat pemakanan ketika hamil, ubat-ubatan kehamilan dan
komplikasi diri ketika hamil. Ini bermakna, responden lebih banyak mendapat sokongan sosial
daripada staf semasa kehamilan dan ketika mendiami institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan
sahaja.
3. Penghargaan
Kajian ini telah mendapat sokongan dan pembiayaan oleh Universiti Utara Malaysia melalui
Geran Universiti. Ucapan penghargaan juga ditujukan kepada semua yang telah terlibat dalam
menjayakan kajian ini.
4. Rujukan
Burke, P., & Liston, W., 1994. Adolescent mothers perceptions of social support and the
impact of parenting on their lives. Pediatric Nursing, 20(6), 593599.
Castellanos, P., 2009. The impact of partner social support and relationship strain on the
psychological well-being of Latina adolescent mothers. Thesis of Master, Kent State
University.
Cauce, A. M., Mason, C., Gonzales, N., Hiraga, Y., & Liu, G., 1996. Social support during
adolescence: methodological and theoretical considerations. In K. Hurrelmann, & S. F.
Hamilton, Eds., Social problems and social contexts in adolescence perspectives
across boundaries, Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 131 - 151.
Cohen, S., 1992. Stress, social support, and disorder. In H. O. F. Veiel & U. Baumann, Eds.,
The meaning and measurement of social support. New York: Hemisphere.
171
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Colleta, N. D., 1981. Social support and the risk of maternal rejection by adolescent mothers.
The Journal of Psychology, 109, 191 197.
Contreras, J. M., 2004. Parenting behaviors among mainland Puerto Rican adolescent mothers:
the role of grandmother and partner involvement. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
14, 341 368.
de Anda, D., & Becerra, R., 1984. Support networks for adolescent mothers. Social Casework,
65, 172 181.
Gee, C. B., & Rhodes, J. E., 2003. Adolescent mothers relationship with their childrens
biological fathers: social support, social strain, and relationship continuity. Journal of
Family Psychology, 17, 370 383.
Khadijah Alavi, Salina Nen, Fauziah Ibrahim, Noremy Md. Akhir, Mohd Suhaimi Mohamad &
Noorhasliza Mohd Nordin, 2012. Hamil luar nikah dalam kalangan remaja. Journal of
Social Sciences and Humanities, 7(1), 131-140.
Kirby, D., Lepore, G., & Ryan, J., 2005. A matrix of risk and protective factors affecting teen
sexual behavior, pregnancy, childbearing, and sexual transmitted disease.
Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.
Motjelebe, N. J., 2009. The social support network of teenage mothers in Botshabelo. Thesis
for the degree of Master of Social Work, University of Stellenbosch.
Murphy, L. B., & Moriarty, A. M., 1976. Vulnerability, coping, and growth from infancy to
adolescence. New Heaven: Yale University Press.
Nor Jana Saim, Mona Dufker, Malin Eriksson & Mehdi Ghazinour, 2013. Listen to the
voices of unwed teenage mothers in Malaysian shelter homes: An explorative
study. Global Journal of Health Science, 5(5), 20-30.
Nor Jana Saim, Mona Dufker & Mehdi Ghazinour, 2014. Teenagers experiences of
pregnancy and the parents and partners reactions: a Malaysian perspective.
Journal Of Family Violence, 29(4), 465-472.
Papamicheal, E., Pillai, R., & Yoong, W., 2009. Children having children: outcome of extreme
teenage pregnancies (13-15 years). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica, 88, 1284 1287.
Sarason, I. G., Levine, H. M, & Sarason, B. R., 1983. Assessing social support: The support
questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 127 139.
Shuhada Mansor, 2015. Statistik moral remaja kita. Harian Metro, 11 Mac.
Stevenson, W., Maton, K. I., & Teti, D. M., 1999. Social support, relationship quality, and
well-being among pregnant adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 109 121.
Social Support Network Questionnaire (SSNQ)
The New Straits Times. 2014. More unwed teen pregnancies. 13 Januari.
The Star. 2012. One teen birth every day. 22 September.
Thompson, R. A., Flood, M. F., & Goodvin, R., 2006. Social support and developmental
psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen, Eds., Developmental psychopathology
(2nd Ed.). Vol. III. Risk, disorder, and adaption. New York: Wiley.
Unger, D. G., & Wandersman, L. P.,1988. The relation of family and partner support to the
adjustment of adolescent mothers. Journal of Child Development, 39, 1056 1060.
172
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGY
173
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
A Conceptual Overview of the Effect of Household Behaviour on Malaria

Control and Prevalence
Ahmad Yahaya Maigemua, Kalthum Bt Haji Hassan b

School of Government
College of Law Government and International Studies
Universiti Utara Malaysia
email: ahmad95084@gmail.com
Abstract
Malaria is a global health challenge and remains a cause of morbidity and mortality. Africa
bears the brunt of the challenge. Several intervention programs were initiated to control
malaria by governments at local and international but the disease persists and continued to pose
the huge challenge to human society. This paper seeks to discuss into three most important
concepts (perceived vulnerability, seriousness and barriers) and how they lead people to take
decision of health care seeking behaviour. The health belief theory is used to understand how
those concepts which are also among the constructs of the theory are explaining health
behaviour. The theory assumes that health behaviour is determined by personal beliefs and
perceptions and strategies available to decrease disease occurrence. The paper conclude that
human behaviour is an important instruments used to understand and predict human health
behaviour.
Keywords: Household Behaviour, Malaria Control, Perceived Vulnerability, Perceived

Seriousness and Perceived Barriers.
1.1 Introduction
Malaria is with human beings for long periods as far back as 2700 BC and scientists argued that
the disease is transmitted and passed by female mosquito. The concept of malaria is derived
from Roman, although the parasite disease was not recognized by its current name until the
middle of 18th century. Before that time malaria was simply means and referred to different
names as ague, intermittent fever, swamp fever, Roman fever, and death fever. Malaria is a
major threat to global health, and it is estimated that a population of 3.3 billion people lives in
regions with a high risk of malaria (World Health Organization 2012). According to WHO
reports 2011 and 2012 those regions include 109 countries that have serious malaria
prevalence. The biggest malaria deaths are found in 35 countries globally, among them 30 is in
Sub-Saharan Africa, and the other five are in Asia. Roughly about 98% of malaria universal
consequences in terms of morbidity, mortality and general consequences take place within
those countries (WHO, 2010).
Several intervention programs were initiated to control malaria. Those control programs
focus on the distribution and use of insecticide treated bed nets, together with evidence-based
health communication programs on the mode of malaria transmission and the importance of
sleeping under ITNs. The control programs also includes Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS)
involves the coordinated, timely spraying of the interior walls of homes with insecticides that
kill mosquitoes and Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) and several other control
measures like home management/traditional using concoction of herbs and some available
174
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
local resources (Amzat 2009). But despite those involvements through different interventions
programs by government and other stakeholders both at local and international level, malaria
persists and continue to pose a huge challenge to human society (WHO 2012; National
Institute of Malaria Research 2009).
The literature shows quite powerfully that human perception not only influence their
behaviour, but are themselves key factors in determining the ability to practice health related
behaviour. This paper seeks to examine the role of human perception on malaria control and
how they affect peoples health care seeking behaviour. The paper is only look into the
concepts of perceived disease vulnerability, perceived disease seriousness and perceived
barriers.
1.2 Objective of the Study
The general objective of this paper is to provide a general discussion and conceptual analysis
of household behaviour and malaria control with a support from existing literature and
theoretical support.
2.1 Conceptualization of Perceived Disease Vulnerability
Perceived disease vulnerability is one of the powerful tools that influence people to engage
into health related behaviour. The greater the people perceived the susceptibility of the
disease and its risk to their life the more likely those people to engage into health seeking
behaviour that reduced their chances of becoming more vulnerable to that disease. It is also
generally believed that if people believed that the disease is not a serious risk to them and
their life will also causes their reluctance to seek early disease treatment. It is our assumption
that people perception about the vulnerability of malaria and it consequences to human
society is what encourage people to seek or increased their behaviour. This behaviour
includes their ability to seek and use different preventive methods available for malaria
control. For example ITN, IRS, ACT, sanitation practices and other measures available for
malaria prevention.
Literature shows that people will be more likely do something to prevent the disease from
happening only when they perceived disease vulnerability and vice versa. MacCormack
(1984) found out among old adult HIV/AIDS sexual behaviour that, older adult do generally
not perceived their self as vulnerable to HIV and its risk related consequences. As a result
they practice unsafe sexual behaviour without seeking protection measures such as using
condom during sex. This behaviour comes as result of their perception of not being at risk to
HIV and AIDS vulnerability. The same circumstances were found among Asian American
college students that see HIV as not Asian disease and therefore, not perceive HIV
vulnerability as health challenge to their life. Consequently their behaviour of practicing safer
sex using condoms and other HIV protection mechanism was very low.
Based on the above situation it is indicated that there is a strong relationship between high
disease perception and health behaviours and it is also serves as barrier to unhealthy
behaviour. However, there is also different situation in some cases as perceived disease
susceptibility may not always explained health behaviour. Lamanna (2004) carried out a
study on perceived risks of developing skin cancer among college students and found out
that, thus those students perceived the susceptibility of cancer disease and its effects to
human society but still they do not sees themselves as vulnerable of getting cancer for them
175
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
to used or apply health behaviour to reduced cancer risks. It is also found by Lewis and
Malow (1997) among college students that even though they see themselves as vulnerable to
HIV due to their unproductive sexual behaviour but still do not practice safety behaviour in
order to reduced HIV risks and its disease consequences.
2.2 Perceived Disease Seriousness
Perceived seriousness of disease entails individual perception about seriousness of disease

and severity. Perception about disease severity is often based on medical information and
knowledge individual possess about disease. McCormick Brown (1999) is of the opinion that
perception of disease seriousness comes from a belief a persons have about the complexity
and difficulty a disease would create or the effects it would have in his or her life in general.
According to Ulen (1999) perception of seriousness of the disease is the idea that if
individual sees the seriousness and trouble the disease may likely to cause in his/her life in
general will lead to change their behaviour based on the threat of that disease. For example
most people view flu as comparatively minor illness which according to their perception may
not caused or harm any serious damage to their health. As a result most of us have get flu
treated and recover at home without seeking any health treatment outside. However it is also
the believe of most of us that asthma or cancer is a serious disease that cause significant
health threat to human being. It is also based on the above perception that many people
respond positively in terms of urgent health seeking behaviour so that to reduced or decreased
the possible disease impact to their body in general.
In the case of malaria our assumption is that if people perceived the seriousness of malaria
disease they may probably adopt health care seeking behaviour in order to minimize the most
likely consequences of that disease seriousness. Therefore if people observe the severity of
malaria disease they can easily change their behaviour to seek for protection against malaria
by using several measures such as ITN, IRS, ACT or any other relevant treatment measures.
On the other hand, if people perceived malaria as not severe disease they pay less attention to
adopt or seek proper treatments that lessen the susceptibility of the disease.
2.3 Perceived Barrier
Perceived barrier involved individual perception about and opinion on what stop or block him
from implementing new health behaviour that believes to be more effective and efficient than
older behaviour. It is generally agreed that change is somehow not easy to human beings to
switch from usual behaviour to new one. Perceived barrier entails the individual assessment
of the impediment and problems he or she is facing in the process of engaging into new
health behaviour. Perceived barrier serves as important concept in determining health care
seeking behaviour (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 2004). In the case of malaria
control perceived barrier explains the effectiveness of new malaria control services and how
they encourage people to use those services. On the other hand poor quality of new services
may decreased people behaviour from using those services and vice versa.
Perceived behaviour stated that for new behaviour to be adopted there is need for individual
to assess the efficiency and usefulness of the new behaviour compare to old behaviour (Janz
& Becker 1984). This enables the barrier to prevail over and allowed new behaviour to be
taken place. Literature shows that in an attempt to improved breast cancer self examination
practices in women it would seem understandable that the risk of breast cancer would
influence early self cancer examination. It is also obvious that cancer is a dangerous disease
and there is also high perception of its greater risks to human society. But of all those
176
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
perception of risk, perceived barrier serves as most significant concept to the barrier of
carrying out breast self examination (Umeh & Rogan-Gibson 2001). Some of the barriers
comprise difficulty with starting a new behaviour or developing a new habit, fear of not been
able to perform the new behaviour correctly and some other difficulties.
Those difficulties may possibly found in the case of malaria control as people find it difficult
from starting the new behaviour of using some new service of malaria prevention such as
ITN. Many people find it difficult to develop the habit of using ITN for malaria prevention.
Ahmad (2012) in his study of environmental sanitation and incidence of malaria in Gusau
metropolis found out that people from poor environmental sanitation areas find it difficult to
build up the behaviour of using ITN as malaria protection measure. Some other people also
stated that they faced serious difficulty of how to use ITN and also serve as barrier for them
of not using ITN (Ahmad 2012).
2.4 Theory: Health Belief Model
Health belief model is the most frequently used theory in the study of health education and
health encouragement. The theory was developed according to Nejad (2005) by Godfrey et al
in 1950s as a way to explain why medical screening programs offered by United States public
health services particularly for tuberculosis and other diseases were not very successful
(Nejad et al 2005). Health belief model is one of the most extensively utilized and applied
frameworks in trying to understand and predict human health behaviour.
The concepts discussed in this paper is among the underlying concepts of health belief model
and they believed that health behaviour is determine by personal beliefs or perceptions about
a disease and strategies available to decrease it occurrence (Hazavehei et al 2007). Personal
factors are influence by the range of interpersonal factors affecting health behaviour. The
assumption of health belief model is that health behaviour is more often influenced by
attitudes and beliefs, as well as established mechanisms to minimize the occurrence of
disease within a social system. Health belief theory assume that believes about the burden of
the disease often defends on both the perceived vulnerability to the disease that is how
susceptible a person consider him/her self to the disease and perceived seriousness of the
disease that is individual judgement as to the severity of the disease.
Therefore, with particular reference to this paper health belief model assume that if an
individual or general members of the society does not perceived malaria as a serious disease
to human society and does not observed it as vulnerable to them they may likely not take
health related behaviour to protect the incidence of the disease. However if they perceived it
as serious disease and also believed to be susceptible or vulnerable to it they may also adopt
health related attitudes to ensure that they decrease the impact of the disease. The concepts
discussed in this paper (perceived vulnerability, severity and barriers) are important
components that influence the decision to taking health care seeking behaviour as also
discuss by this theory of health belief.
177
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.5 Conclusion
This paper highlighted some of the important concepts that encourage people to adopt heath
care seeking behaviour. The paper discusses the underlying concepts of health belief model
and they believed that health behaviour is determined by personal beliefs or perceptions
about a disease and strategies available to decrease. In the case of malaria this paper
concludes that if people perceived the seriousness of malaria disease they may probably
adopt health care seeking behaviour in order to minimize the most likely consequences of that
disease.
References
Amzat, J., 2009. Home Management of Childhood Malaria and Treatment Failure among
Mothers of Under-five in Offa, Nigeria. Doctoral Thesis, Department of Sociology, University
of Ibadan.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2004. Program Operation Guideline for STD
Precention: Community and individual behaviour. Retrieved from
http:/www.edc.gov/std/program/community9/htm.
Hazavehei, S., Taghdisi, M., and Saidi, M., 2007. Application of the Health Belief Model for
Osteoporosis Prevention among Middle School Girl Students, Garmsa, Iran. Education for
Health, 20 (1), pp.1-11.
Janz, N.K., and Becker, M.H., 1984. The Health Belief Model: A decade later. Health
Education Quarterly, 11 (1), pp.1-47.
Lamana, I. M., 2004. College Students Knowledge and Attitudes about Cancer and Perceived
Risks of Developing Skin Cancer. Dermatology Nursing, 16(2), 161-176.
Lewis, I.M., and Malow, R.M., 1997. HIV/AIDS Risks in Heterosexual College Students.
Journal of American College Health, 45 (4), pp.147-155.
MacCormack, C.P., 1984. Human Ecology and Behaviour in Malaria Control in Tropical
Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 62 Suppl(1984), [Online] 817. Retrieved
at:http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2536189&tool=pmcentrez&re
ndertype=abstract [Accessed 25 Jan. 2013].
Maigemu, A.Y. , 2012. Environmental Sanitation and Incidence of Malaria Control in Gusau
Metropolis Zamfara State. Msc Dissertation submitted to Dept of Sociology UDUS.
Mccormick, B.K., 1999. Health belief model. Retrieved from

http://hsc.usf.edu/_kmbrown/Health-Belief-Model-Overview.htm. [Acessed 25 sep. 2013]
National Institute of Malaria Research, 2009. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of
Malaria in India. Published by NIMR, New Delhi.
Nejad, L., Wertheim, E., and Greenwood, K., 2005. Comparison of the Health Belief Model
and the Theory of Planned Behaviour in the Prediction of Dieting and Fasting Behaviour.
E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 1(1), pp70-74
178
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
World Health Organization 2012. World Malaria Report Fact Sheet. World Health
Organization.
World Health Organization 2010. World Malaria Report 2010. World Health Organization.
World Health Organization 2011. Environment and health: Healthy Environments for Healthy
People Available at:http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-
do/health-topics/environment-and-health.
Umeh, K., and Rogan, G. J., 2001. Perception of Threats, Benefits and Barriers in Breast Self
Examination among Young Asymptomatic Women. British Journal of Psychology, 6 (4),
pp.361-673.
Ulen, T.S., 1999. Rational Choice Theory in Law and Economics. Accessed from
http://encyclo.findlaw.com/0710book.pdf on 22/08/13 [pp. 790-818]
179
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Some Empirical Responses to the McDonaldization Thesis
Beng Kok Ong

School of Social Sciences,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Email: ongbengkok@usm.my
Abstract
The classic example of rationalization, for Weber, is bureaucracy. However, Ritzer (2001a)
has argued that todays rationalization is best illustrated by the fast-food restaurant, which he
has dubbed this as McDonaldization process. According to Ritzer (2001a),
McDonaldization is the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are
coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society, as well as the rest of the
world (Ritzer, 2001a, p. 198). It affects not only the restaurant business, but also
education, work, health care, travel, leisure, dieting, politics, the family, and virtually every
other aspect of society. It has succeeded because McDonald offers consumers, workers,
and managers efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control (p. 198). This paper
reviews Ritzers theory of McDonaldization and, then, discusses it with some empirical data
collected in Penang.
Keywords: McDonaldization, rationalization, irrationality of rationality
1. Introduction
While, according to Weber, the classic example of rationalization (formal rational) is the
bureaucracy (and the historical process of bureaucratization), Ritzer has argued that todays
rationalization is best illustrated by the fast-food restaurant especially the pioneering and
still dominant chain of McDonalds restaurants (1998, p. vii). Ritzer has, therefore, dubbed
this process of rationalization McDonaldization process. It is the process by which the
principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of
American society, as well as the rest of the world (Ritzer, 2000, p. 1; 2010, p. 4).
The fast-food restaurant is a formally rational system in which people

(both workers and customers) are led to seek the most rational means to
ends. The drive-through window, for example, is a rational means by
which workers can dispense, and customers can obtain, food quickly and
efficiently. Speed and efficiency are dictated by the fast-food
restaurants and the rules and regulations by which they operate. (Ritzer,
2008, p. 34)
Because McDonaldization/McDonald offers customers, workers, and managers efficiency,

calculability, predictability, and control, it has affected not only the restaurants business, but
also education, work, health care, travel, leisure, dieting, politics, the family, and virtually
every other aspect of society (Ritzer, 2001a, p. 198).
180
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
This paper:
reviews Ritzers theory of McDonaldization and, then,
discusses it with some empirical data collected in Penang.
2. The Theory of McDonaldization
While the discussion about Ritzer theory of McDonaldization is the focus of this section, it is
necessary to, first, briefly review Webers theory of rationality. This is because
McDonaldization is an amplification and extension of Webers theory of rationalization
(Ritzer, 2010, p. 27). However, whilst the model of rationalization, for Weber, was the
bureaucracy, Ritzer (2010, p. 27) has viewed fast-food restaurant as the paradigm of
McDonaldization (rationalization). Webers model of rationalization is now reviewed.
2.1 Webers Theory of Rationality
Weber demonstrated in his research that the modern Western world had produced a
distinctive kind of rationality (Ritzer, 2010, p. 27), which he called as formal rationality.
What is formal rationality? Formal rationality, for Weber, means that the search by people
for the optimum means to a given end is shaped by rules, regulations, and larger social
structures (Ritzer, 2010, p. 28).
According to Weber, people in the past had been left on their own to discover for the best
means of attaining a given objective with general helps from larger value systems, such as
religion. After the development of formal rationality, they could employ institutionalized
rules that help them to decide or even to dictate what to do. Therefore, in a formally rational
system, people have little choice of means to ends for virtually every one can or must make
the same, optimal choice.
Weber was amazed with the bureaucracy his paradigm of formal rationality which help
people discover and perform optimum means to ends. Its most advantages are the four basic
dimensions of rationalization.
First, bureaucracy is the most efficient structure for handling large numbers of tasks requiring
a great deal of paperwork. Weber used the Internal Revenue Service as an example.
Second, bureaucracies place a great emphasis on the quantification of as many things as

possible. Reducing performance to a series of quantifiable tasks helps people gauge
success. This enables, for example, IRS to handle more cases in an efficient way. Handling
less than the required number of cases is unsatisfactory performance; handling more is
excellence (Ritzer, 2010, p. 28). However, this quantitative approach poses a difficulty for
the actual quality of work.
Third, bureaucracies also operate in a highly predictable manner because of their

well-established rules and regulations. According to Weber, for example, the millions of
recipients of checks from the Social Security Administration know precisely when they will
receive their checks and exactly how much money they will receive (Ritzer, 2010, p. 28).
181
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Finally, buraucracies emphasize control over people through the replacement of human
judgment with the dictates of rules, regulations, and structures (Ritzer, 2010, p. 29). By
only making few judgments people start to resemble human robots or computers. As a
result, leaders of burereaucracies can think about replacing people with machines. For
example, computers have already begun to take over bureaucratic tasks which were once
performed by humans. In addition to this, bureaucracys clients are also controlled. They
may receive appropriate services in certain ways and not others. For example, people can
receive welfare payments by check, not in cash (Ritzer, 2010, p. 29).
Although bureaucracy offers many advantages, it suffers from the irrationality of rationality.
According to Weber, a bureaucracy can be a dehumanzing place in which to work and by
which to be serviced (Ritzer, 2010, p. 29). Takaki described rationalised settings as places
in which the self was placed in confinement, its emotions controlled, and its spirit subdued
(1990, p. ix). People, in these settings, are dehumanized, for they cannot always behave as
human beings.
Ritzer has illustrated other irrationalities of the bureaucracies as discussed by Weber as

follows:
Instead of remaining efficient, bureaucracies can become increasingly

inefficient because of tangles of red tape and other pathologies. The
emphasis on quantitifaction often leads to large amounts of poor-quality
work. Bureaucracies often become unpredictable as employees grow
unclear about what they are supposed to do and clients do not get the
services they expect. Because of these and other inadequacies,
bureucracies begin to lose control over thoese who work within and are
served by them. Anger at the nonhuman technologies that replace them
often leads employees to undercut or sabotage the operation of these
technologies. All in all, what were designed as highly rational
operation often end up quite irrational.
Although Weber was concerned about the irrationalities of formally

rationalized systems, he was even more animated by what he called the
iron cage of rationality. In Webers view, bureaucracies are cages in
the sense that people are trapped in them, their basic humanity denied.
Weber feared most that bureaucracies would grow more and more
rational and that rational principles would come to dominate an
accelerating number of sectors of society. He anticipated a society of
people locked into a series of rational structures, who could move only
from one rational system to another from rationalized educational
institutions to rationalized workplaces, from rationalized recreational
settings to rationalized homes. Society would eventually become
nothing more than a seamless web of rationalized structures; there would
be no escape.
A good example of what Weber feared is found in the contemporary
rationalization of recreational activities. Recreation can be thought of
as way to escape routes have themselves become rationalized,
embodying the same principles as bureaucracies ... . Among the many
examples of the rationalization of recreation are Club Med, chains of
camp-grounds, and package tours. Take, for example, a thirty-day tour
182
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
of Europe Buses hurtle through only the major cities in Europe, allowing
tourists to glimpse the maximum number of sites in the time allowed.
At particularly interesting or important sights, the bus may slow down or
even stop to permit some picture taking. At the most important locales,
brief stopover is planned so visitors can hurry through the site, take a
few pictures, buy a souvenir, then hop back on the bus to head to the
next attraction. With the rationalization of even their recreational
activities, people do live to a large extent in the iron cage of rationality.
(Ritzer, 2010, pp. 2930)
It is now appropriate to review Ritzers model of rationalization (McDonaldination).
2.2 Ritzers Theory of Rationality
While Ritzers theory of rationality is based on Webers ideas about rationalization (formal
rationality), he has adopted the model of fast-restaurant (McDonaldization). Furthermore, it
brings the theory into the twenty-first century and views rationalization as extending its
reach into more sectors of society and into more areas of the world than Weber ever
imagined (Ritzer, 2008, p. 457).
As noted in the introduction, McDonaldization is the process by which the principles of

fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society, as
well as the rest of the world (Ritzer, 2010, p. 4). There are five basic dimensions of the
nature of McDonaldization process:
Efficiency;
Calculability;
Predictability;
Control by means of technology; and
Irrationality of Rationality.
Efficiency refers to the effort to find the best possible means to attain whatever end is desired.
Fast-food, such as burgers, is assembled and even cooked in an assembly-line manner. This
means that workers are trained to work this way by their managers, who supervise over them
closely. Hence, workers in fast-food restaurants vividly must work efficiently.
Organizational rules and regulations help ensure highly efficient work (Ritzer, 2001a, p.
199).
For consumers, McDonalds offer the best available way to get from being hungry to being
full (p. 198). Customers want, and are expected, to acquire and consume their meals
efficiently. The drive-through window is a highly efficient means for customers to obtain,
and for employees to dole out, meals. (Ritzer, 2008, p. 458) Therefore, various norms
rules, regulations, procedures and structures have been implemented in the fast-food
restaurant so as to ensure that employees and customers act in an efficient way.
Second, calculabilty refers to an emphasis on quantity. Quantity has become equivalent to

quality; a lot of something, or the quick delivery of it, means it must be good (Ritzer, 2001a,
p. 199). People can quantify these things and feel that they are getting a lot of food for
what appears to be a nominal sum of money (p. 199). They always conclude that a trip to the
fast-food restaurant will take less time than eating at home. A notable example of time
183
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
saving in another sort of chain is Lens Crafters, which promises people Glasses fast, glasses
in one hour (p. 199). However, the extraordinary profitability of fast-food outlets and
other chains, which indicates that the owners, not the consumers, get the best deal (p. 199).
According to Ritzer,
...customers are expected to spend as little time as possible in the

fast-food restaurant. The drive-through window reduces this time to
zero, but if customers desire to eat in the restaurant, the chairs may be
designed to impel them to leave after about 20 minutes. This emphasis
on speed clearly has a negative effect on the quality of the dining
experience at a fast-food restaurant. Furthermore, the emphasis on how
fast the work is to be done means that customers cannot be served
high-quality food that, almost by definition, would require a good deal of
time to prepare. (2008, p. 458)
Various aspects of the work of employees at fast-food restaurants are timed (Ritzer, 2008,
p. 458). Workers are expected to do a lot of work, very quickly, for low pay (Ritzer, 2001,
p. 199). This emphasis on speed often serves to adversely affect the quality of work. For
example, workers have always experienced job dissatisfaction and work alienation, and as a
result, the turnover rates is very high in fast-food restaurants.
Third, [b]ecuase McDonaldization involves an emphasis on predictability, things (products,

settings, employee and customers behavior, and so on) are pretty much the same from one
geographic setting to another and from one time to another (Ritzer, 2008, p. 458). For
example, the workers in McDonaldized systems ...behave in predictable ways. They
follow corporate rules as well as the dictates of their manager (Ritzer, 2001a, p. 200) .
Therefore, what they do and what they say is highly predictable, for McDonaldized
organizations often have scripts that employees are supposed to memorize and follow
whenever the occasion arises (Ritzer, 2001a, p. 200; Leidner, 1993).
Employees are expected to perform their work in a predictable manner,

and customers are expected to respond with similarly predictable
bahavior. Thus, when customers enter, employees ask, following
scripts, what they wish to order. Customers are expected to know what
they want, or where to look to find what they want, andy they expected
to order, pay, and leave quickly. Employees (following another script)
are expected to thank them when they do leave. A highly predictable
ritual is played out in the fast-food restaurant one that involves highly
predictable foods that vary little from one time or place to another.
(Ritzer, 2008, p. 458)
As Leidner has argued that:
McDonalds pioneered the routinization of interative service work and

remains an exemplar of extreme standardization. Innovation is not
discouraged ... at least among managers and franchisees. Ironically,
though, the object is to look for new, innovative ways to create an
experience that is exactly the same no matter what McDonalds you
walk into, no matter where it is in the world. (1993, p. 82).
184
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Fourth, while great control could come from structural and cultural systems of
McDonaldization, a good deal of that control is from technologies. For the former,
employees and customers find themselves in a variety of McDonaldized structures that
demand that they behave in accord with the dictates of those structures (Ritzer, 1998, p. 62).
For example, the drive-through window structures both what customers in their cars and
employees in their booths can and cannot do (1998, p. 62). In addition to this, both employees
and customers are culturally socialized into, and have internalized, the norms and values of
working and living in a McDonaldized society (p. 62).
The latter currently dominate employees, but increasingly they will be replacing them.
Employees are clearly controlled by such technoloiges as french-fry

machines that ring when the fries ar done and even automatically lift the
fries out of the hot oil. For their part, customers ar controlled by the
employees who are constrained by such technologies as well as more
directly by the techologies themselves. Thus, the automatic fry
machine makes it impossible for a customer to request well-done,
well-browned fries. (Rirzer, 2008, p. 458)
Finally, instead of merely producing rationality, the four dimensions of McDonaldization

process have inevitably spawn irrationalities, which has been referred to as the irrationality of
rationality. For example,
the efficiency of the fast-food restaurant is often replaced by the

inefficiencies associated with long lines of people at the counters or long
lines of cars at the drive-through window. Although there are many
other irrationalities, the ultimate irrationality is dehumanization.
Employees are forced to work in dehumanizing jobs, and customers are
forced to eat in dehumanizing settings and circumstaces. The fast-food
restaurant is a source of degradation for employees and customers alike.
(Ritzer, 2008, p. 459)
With some empirical data collected from Penang, the theory of McDonaldization is now
critically discussed.
185
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. Some Empirical Discussion of McDonaldization Thesis in Penang
The empirical data employed in this discussion is based on a study of McDonaldization in

Penang (Chng, 2007). Though the study was conducted eight years ago, the findings are
still useful to the discussion of McDonaldization thesis empirically.
In the study, ten respondents were selected and interviewed. It is necessary to note briefly
some demographic background of the respondents. While most (90%) of the respondents in
the study are Chinese, only one respondent is Indian. Male and female constitute 30% and
70% respectively of the sample. In term of education backgroud, 90% respondents are degree
holders and only one respondent is diploma holder. The distribution of age among
respondents are indicated as 70% of the respondents are below the age of thirty and 30%
between 45 to 60 years.
The sample was selected through a combination of purposive sample and snowball sampling.
Data were collected by in-depth interviewing. The interviews and field notes were analysed
thematically.
It is possible to identify ten theoretical points from McDonaldination thesis and then
compared them with her empirical findings in Penang (Chng, 2007: 88-99). These ten
points of McDonaldination thesis are as follows:
Fast-food restaurants streamline the process of eating, and offer finger foods to
enable efficient consumption.
People go to the fast-food restaurant for a quick meal.
Fast-food customers perform many unpaid works in fast-food restaurants.
Fast-food customers believe that they are getting a lot of food for a small price.
Fast-food consumers do not expect the food to be of high quality. As a result, the
customers end up paying more for their food.
There are standardization and consistency in every aspect of fast-food restaurant,
including the taste of the food, the bahviour and speech of both the employees and
customers.
Fast-food restaurants have been structured in such a way that the customers could
not linger over meals. For example, the chairs may be designed to impel them to
leave after about 20 minutes (Ritzer, 2008, p. 458).
Fast-food restaurants have placed greater emphasis on having overall atmosphere for
they often look for theater/fun more than the food itself.
Fast-food restaurants create health problems and poor eating habits, especially
among children.
Fast-food restaurants minimize contact among humans. There is no genuine
fraternization between workers and customers.
Let us now discuss these ten points of McDonaldization thesis with some empirical data
collected in Penang.
Streamlining the process of eating and offer finger foods to enable efficient consumption
While many fast-food customers, in Penang, have acknowledged and valued the various
efficiencies and conveniences created by McDonalds, some have reservation about eating
with bare hands.
186
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
People go to the fast-food restaurant for a quick meal

Fast-food restaurants are more than a stopover for a quick meal for the fast-food customers in
Penang. This is because besides going there for a meal, they have also used the fast-food
restaurants for socialization, meetings, functions doing homework as well as celebrating
special occasions.
Putting customers to work

Many fast-food customers in Penang have accepted the self-service system in the
McDonalds as something to be very positive because it makes things easier and faster.
Fast-food customers believe that they are getting a lot of food for a small price
Though most fast-food customers have expressed their satisfaction of food served by
McDonalds, some have complained that the food is too much for them. However, all the
respondents have regarded the prices charged are relatively expensive as compared to the
local foods. Nevertheless, they are affordable.
Fast-food consumers do not expect the food to be of high quality. As a result, the customers
end up paying more for their food
The local customers have given different responses to food quality of McDonalds. For
example, some have considered the food at McDonalds to be good; others have perceived it
as mediocre. However, some respondents have commented that fast food at McDonalds is
not worth its price.
There are standardization and consistency in every aspect of fast-food restaurant (such as the
taste of the food, the bahviour and speech of both the employees and customers)
Fast-food customers in Penang have generally expressed comfortability in the consistency of
the taste of the food at McDonalds. For example, they have found that scripted interaction in
fast-food industry as being normal. Some have praised the system for it brings lots of
benefits. Only a small group of respondents have viewed this standardization critically.
Fast-food restaurants have been structured in such a way that the customers could not linger
over meals.
According to respondents, fast food restaurants is like a social centre, in particular, for
younger people. They are not in hurried to finish their meals and are therefore not urged to
leave.
Fast-food restaurants have placed greater emphasis on having overall more than the food
itself
The quiet, cool and comfortable ambience of the restaurants as well as other non-food factor
is the major attraction that draws people to visit fast-food restaurants.
Fast-food restaurants create health problems and poor eating habits, especially among
children
While people are fully aware of the dangers caused by fast food, they continue to eat fast
food.
Fast-food restaurants minimize contact among humans. There is no genuine fraternization
between workers and customers.
187
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Whilst there is no personal relationship between the fast-food employees and their customers,
the contact among customers is of no limit. This is because the customers come in groups
and spend time socializing in the restaurants.
4. Conclusion
Based on the discussion in this paper, it is important, in the conclusion section, to make a few
remarks. First, the force of McDonaldization has been so profound that not many social
settings in todays world have been been able to escape its domination entirely. However,
the discussion in this paper has demonstrated that not all settings are highly or equally
McDonaldized. This means that [w]hile McDonaldized systems seek to mold consumers
so that they behave in a uniform manner, they are never totally successful in doing so
(Ritzer, 2001b, p. 58). One of the reasons is that customers do not always simply act in
accord with the demands of McDonaldized systems. People could construct other structures
they certainly modify structures but recent trends are on the side of increasingly
McDonaldized structures.
Second, while McDonaldination can be analysed from the aspect of subjectivity of fast-food
customers dealing with this type of rationalization as this paper has demonstrated, it is more a
structural matter. Therefore, some of empirical responses to McDonaldization thesis have to
be viewed critically. For example, the respondents perceptions on the issue of putting
customers to work at McDonalds has to be regarded critically. This is because the
customers may not be fully aware of their social realities, or they may have
false-consciousness about their social realities, and give a false expression that the
self-service system in the McDonalds as something to be very positive just because it makes
things easier and faster.
However, the fact is that McDonaldized structures:
have discovered that they can even replace paid employees not only
with machines, temporary workers and so on, but also with customers
who are seemingly glad do the work for nothing! Here, clearly, is a new
gift to the capitalist. Surplus value is now not only to be derived from
the labor time of the employee, but also from the leisure time of the
customers. McDonaldization is helping to open a whole new world of
exploitation and growth to the contemporary capitalist. (Ritzer, 1998, p.
70)
Therefore, I think, finally, that consumers are increasingly exploited, or super-exploited.

This nexus between work and consumption and/or the increasing irrelevance of that
distinction would be something very interesting to study empirically in Malaysia.
188
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5. Acknowledgement
The motivation for writing this paper came from the personal communcations I had with Dr.
George Ritzer fifteen years ago. Dr. Ritzer also provided me with copies of some of his
books, which have been very useful references for this paper. Therefore, I am extremely
grateful to him.
6. References
Chng, J. C., 2007. A study of some of the responses to Ritzers McDonaldization in Penang
(unpublished thesis). Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
Leidner, R., 1993. Fast food, fast talk: service work and the routinization of everyday life.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Ritzer, G., 1998. The McDonaldination thesis: exploration and extensions. London: Sage.
Ritzer, G., 2000. The McDonaldization of society. Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge.
Ritzer, G., 2001a. Exploration in social theory: from metatheorizing to rationalization.
London: Sage.
Ritzer, G., 2001b. Exploration in the sociology of consumption: Fast food, credit cards and
casinos. London: Sage.
Ritzer, G., 2008. Modern sociological theory. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Ritzer, G., 2010. McDonaldization: a reader. Los Angeles: Pine Forge.
Takiki, R., 1990. Iron cages: race and culture in 19th century America. New York: Oxford
University Press.
189
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Capability Approach: Comparing Amartya Sen and Martha

Nussbaum
Nithiya Guna Saigarana*, Premalatha Karupiahb and Parthiban S. Gopalc

a,b&c
Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Email: anityaah@gmail.com, bprema@usm.my, cparthi@usm.my
Abstract
Capability approach pioneered by Amartya Sen has been a new milestone for analyzing
poverty through gender perspective. Since the introduction of the approach, numerous
scholars from various fields have applied this approach in their studies. One of the prominent
scholars who has contributed and expanded the approach is Martha Nussbaum. Though there
have been some agreements but the arguments between the two scholars have shed new
insights about the poor and their situation. Therefore, this paper attempts to compare Sens
and Nussbaums capability approach by focusing on their core concepts, main arguments and
rationality of the criticism of the approach. The methodology of this paper is based on
document research.
Keywords: Amartya Sen; Martha Nussbaum; Capability approach; Cultural relativism;
1. Introduction
The capability approach developed by Nussbaum and Sen has received enormous attention in
recent years in-term of philosophical exchanges and applied discussions related to
policymaking. Although Sen pioneered the approach, but Nussbaum expanded it to a more
advanced level and more applicable in various fields other than the economic studies.
Correspondingly, both scholars agreed that capability approach is a realistic framework for
the study of human life from a different perspective. Despite their agreement with the
fundamental aspects of capability approach, there are some differences in the way they
explain capability approach. This paper will outline three main differences in Sen and
Nussbaums version of capability approach in terms of a definite list of capabilities,
groundness of the theory and the argument regarding cultural relativism.
1.2 Difference in Sen and Nussbaums Capability Approach
Sen and Nussbaums arguments regarding capability approach explain that human
development should not be focused based on income poverty only. They both argue that
humans themselves have the strength to improve their impoverished life. Therefore, Sens
approach basically explains poverty using two core concepts that are referred to as capability
and functioning. On the other hand, Nussbaums version goes into the core concepts by
identifying variations and setting limitations to the concepts especially in terms of
capabilities. Both versions of capability approach are explained in the next section.
190
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1.2.1 Sens Capability Approach
Amartya Sen is one of the most prominent philosophers and welfare economists who
pioneered capability approach during the 1980s. He created a new dimension or new
perspective on poverty studies at a time when most studies focused on lack of income as the
main reason for poverty. Sen, (1999) first introduced the concept of capability in his Tanner
Lectures on Equality. In Sens capability approach, capability and functioning are two core
ideas that have been discussed. Functionings are states of being and doing, and they should
be distinguished from the commodities that are being used to achieve them. For example,
driving is very different from possessing a car. Here, driving is the functioning while car is
the commodity that is used to drive. Robeyns, (2003) clarifies that the core aspect of
capability is its focus on what people are effectively able to do and able to be, basically
referred to as their capabilities. Capabilities refer to the set of valuable functionings that a
person has to possess which represents the effective freedom of an individual to choose
between different functionings and combinations. Robeyns, (2003) stated that a persons
functionings and capability are closely related but distinct. This can be seen in Sens view as
below:
A functioning is an achievement whereas a capability is ability to achieve. Functionings

are, in a sense more directly related to living conditions, since they are different aspects of
living condition . Capabilities in contrast, are notions of freedom. (Sen, 1994, p. 273)
Compared to other monetary related approaches, Sens capability approach truly takes
initiative in researching what is happening in a poor household. This effort underscores a
new perspective on how we should understand that unequal distribution of resources is the
main reason of destruction of capability and functionings of the members of the household.
Similarly, Bastos et al (2009) explains that Sens version of capability approach exposes how
commands over commodities determine rights and entitlements of each person in the
household. He further clarifies that, social and cultural settings, for instance, gender structure,
and determines the possession of resources of the household, the capabilities and their
conversion into the functioning of a person. Occurrence of inequality distribution of
resources will affect capabilities and functionings of each person of the household. In fact,
Anderson (2003) clarifies that what really matters for Sens capability approach is to what
extent owned commodities allow a person to have a freedom of functioning in the society for
their own well-being as they do not directly assure a state of being. As mentioned by
Robeyns (2003), Sens approach focuses on real freedom, that is on what people are able to
do and not on what people should do to alleviate their impoverished situation.
1.2.2 Nussbaums Capability Approach
Nussbaum is one of the notable scholars responsible in expanding the capability approach
into a new dimension. Nussbaum, (1993) endorsed her own version of capabilities approach
based on the Aristotelian and Marxian ideas of human flourishing and good life. Her version
of capability approach claims that living well as a human being is about leading the life
activities with human choice and their rationality. Unlike Sen, Nussbaums capability
framework identifies a well-detailed list of human capabilities that is supposed to be served
by every human being in the world.
Nussbaum, (2011) typically uses the plural term capabilities in order to emphasize that the
most important aspects or capabilities of peoples quality of life are plural and are
quantitatively distinct. She felt that health, bodily integrity, education, and other aspects of
191
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
individual lives cannot be classified into a single term. Therefore, Nussbaum (2011) prefers
to define her capability approach as the human development approach, because she is
concerned with the capabilities of non-human animals as well as human beings. Due to that,
Nussbaum is being praised for providing a richer, more applicable and realistic framework
that can be used to evaluate every individuals well-being. Nussbaums idea of well-being
arises from the essence of reading Aristotle who argued about good life of every human
(Gasper, 1997; Deneulin, 2013). They further explained that like Aristotle, Nussbaum
expands the approach to reinforce the environment where human beings can lead good life
with their owned capabilities. Besides, it can be understood that Nussbaums version of
capability approach focuses not only on the household but each individual in the household.
Here, each individual in the household is the unit of analysis of poverty.
2.1 Sen and Nussbaum: A Polemic
Although Sen and Nussbaum have similarities in terms of their core ideas of capability
approach, contradictions occurred in terms of argument regarding capabilities, groundness of
the theory and the concept of cultural relativism. These three major aspects in the Sen and
Nussbaums capability approach differentiate their views in implementing the approach.
2.1.1 Arguments Regarding Capabilities
One of the most prominent differences between Sen and Nussbaums capability approach is
the notion of capability used in their arguments. Gasper, (1997) explains that Sens version of
capability approach did not specify any particular capabilities that need to be owned by a
person. Compared to Sen, Nussbaum developed a definite list of capabilities that she referred
as central human capabilities. The list constitutes ten central human capabilities which are,
(1) life, (2) bodily health, (3) bodily integrity; senses, imagination and thought; (5) emotions;
(6) practical reason; (7) affiliation; (8) other species; (9) play; and (10) political and material
control over ones environment. She believed these capabilities are needed by every human
being to live in a truly human way in order to achieve human flourishing and human dignity.
Although Sen pioneered capability approach, but he did not give a list of central human
capabilities unlike Nussbaum.
Besides, Nussbaum does not only endorse a list of important capabilities but she also explains
the variations and specifications of these capabilities. The variations of capabilities are
categorized as basic, internal and combined capabilities. Nussbaum, (2000) further explains
that basic capabilities are referred to human natural capabilities such as ability to hear, see or
walk. These types of capabilities are needed for developing more advanced capabilities.
Meanwhile internal capabilities are based on basic capabilities by certain processes such as
exercise and training. A supportive environment is needed to develop these kinds of
capabilities. For example, one learns to interact after practicing speaking with family, friends
and relatives. Nussbaum, (2000) defines combined capabilities as internal capabilities
together with external conditions that make the exercise of a function as a mandatory option.
An example given by Nussbaum is a widowed young woman who though was not mutilated
but was not allowed to practice her sexuality due to the forbiddance of her culture for a
second marriage. Nussbaum, (2000) explains that in this example, the young woman has the
internal capability as she is not mutilated, but she does not possess the combined capability
that is the freedom to practice her sexuality.
In continuation, Nussbaum (2011) also stressed that every human does not only need to have
the capabilities on their own but they also need to utilize the ten central human capabilities to
192
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
live in a truly human way and be fully functional. Compared to Sen, Nussbaum insists that
the capabilities that have been listed should be legalized to make sure that every human being
is able to practice these capabilities. Nussbaum coined the term, threshold of capabilities,
insisted that every citizen should be guaranteed or promised a social minimum security
whereby these capabilities are available to them as other human life infrastructures. She
further agrees that institutions, for example, religious, labor and government have a role to
ensure that these threshold levels of capabilities are achieved. Subsequently, Maboloc (2008)
supported Nussbaums version of capability approach because it proved to be a more realistic
version than Sens version of capability approach. He felt that Nussbaums argument on
capabilities should be beneficial and essential to everyone regardless of their gender, social
status or any other variables.
Nussbaum did not only create a definite list of capabilities but went further to introduce the
concept of threshold of capabilities. This aspect uplifts Nussbaums framework as a more
sensible and applicable approach compared to Sens framework. Threshold of capabilities
explains the importance to provide minimum benchmark of capabilities to each and every
individual around the world. DeMartino, (2011) agreed that Nussbaums elaboration of
capabilities based on neo-Aristotelian perspective has the ability to provide an intensive
framework of what is a true human life and enabling citizens to receive a minimum secured
life with important capabilities. In contrast, Gasper (1997) posits that in terms of capabilities,
Sens research on capabilities shows that his intent was to provide an optional framework of
utility or commodity-focused welfare economics and moral philosophy. Sen specifically
discussed the two core ideas, which are functioning, and capability to assess the well-being
and the standard of living throughout his presentation of the capability approach. On the other
hand, Deneulin (2013) asserted that the focus of Nussbaums capabilities approach is not
the group (e.g. church or self-help groups) or life structures3 (e.g. caste system or patriarchy),
which are usually blamed for the inability of a person to escape from poverty. She insisted
that the focus should be the individual him/herself. Therefore, life structures and groups are
important in determining capability outcomes, but they should be left out from the evaluation
space of poverty. In Nussbaums capability approach, what matters most is not what the
structure or group is doing, but what each individual is doing. Robeyns, (2003) argue that
Nussbaums well-defined central human capabilities and the list implemented through
constitutions reflect that her approach is universalistic4. Through this argument, it can be
understood that Nussbaum is very much focused on defining, classifying and implementing
her capabilities till it reaches the common people through their government. Meanwhile,
Sens capabilities section is too general because there is no specification about the kind of
functioning and capabilities that are need to be considered when applying his version of
capability approach.
2.1.2 Groundness of the theory
Another major difference in Sen and Nussbaums capability approach is in the groundness of
their theory. Both have the contradiction due to their fields of expertise and backgrounds.
Nussbaum, (2000) developed her version of capability approach from a philosophical
perspective and she strongly grounds her theory on Marxian and Aristotelian idea of true
3
Refers to structures (caste, patriarchy, religion or culture) that exist in human life upon creation by human
themselves.
4
The term refers to the effort of Nussbaum to generalize the capabilities and its constitutionalization, together with
the entitlement of those aspects to every human being in this world.
193
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
human functioning. Following Aristotle, she emphasizes that the two notions of human
flourishing and human dignity are compulsory to make sure a person lives his or her life in a
truly human and dignified way with the capabilities that have been listed in Nussbaums
central human capabilities. Nussbaum starts her argument from an Aristotelian perspective of
human development and does not only depend on Sens theory of capability. In contrast, Sen
does not use the idea of true human functioning and he insisted that the capabilities owned by
a person will lead to the functioning of a human and lead to human freedom. As a scholar that
belongs to a different tradition Sen has his own justification on why he did not give the
accreditation to Marx and Aristotelianism. On the other hand, Nussbaum also gives
accreditation to Marx for being the ground on which she starts her discussion on capability
approach. In a similar way, DeMartino (2011) explains that Nussbaums version of capability
approach clearly reflects Aristotelian heritage, with emphasis on human flourishing, but she
also draws on Marx and assumes an affinity between two philosophers. He further added that,
Nussbaum draws Aristotelian basic by emphasizing on function and capability and she also
outlines the similarities with the views on truly complete human functioning by Marx in the
economic and philosophical manuscripts at the end of her article which was originally
presented in 1986. Compared to Sen who argued capabilities in a general perspective,
Nussbaum (2000) argued that capability approach which includes Marxian and Aristotelian
perspective require truly human functioning of every human being. Truly human functioning
refers to wide range of human life activities that derived from their capabilities. Nussbaum
also take Marxs stand when she argues that humans must have pluralism5 in their life
activities because that is the only logical way that differentiates them from being animalistic.
2.1.3 Cultural relativism
Another important difference between Sen and Nussbaums capability approach is cultural
relativism. The concept refers to the idea that cultural context is critical to an understanding
of peoples values, beliefs and practices and strongly bounded with general tolerance and
respect for the difference. Basically the concept of cultural relativism requires others to
understand an individuals life aspects in terms of the individuals own cultural settings.
Meanwhile, Donnelly (1984) states that cultural relativism is a doctrine that holds that (at
least once) an individual life aspects are exempt from legitimate criticisms by outsiders and is
strongly supported by the notions of communal autonomy and determinations. But Nussbaum
takes a brave decision to ignore the concept to make sure that each human being is treated as
a human despite all the differences they have in their life. Nussbaum, (2000), states that most
feminists choose to ignore cultural relativism because it offers a tool for criticizing rationality
and rejecting objectivity. Nussbaum stated that objectivity is based on the presumption that
subject and object can be separated from each other; where a subject refers to a male observer
and an object refers to nature. She further explains that objectivity is problematic for a
woman because it denies the subjective and emotional experiences of women and contributes
to male dominance. As a result, Nussbaum (2000) criticizes Sen for not straightforwardly
rejecting cultural relativism for the purpose of gender equality. Although, she agreed with his
care for universal norms, she questioned his stand for not completely rejecting cultural
relativism in his version of capability deprivation. This difference can be discerned in the
quotation below:
5
It refers to variation of human activities such as reading, thinking, analyzing, fighting for the rights apart from
the basic activities (eating and sleeping). Those aspects will portray the differences that occurred between the
human and animal.
194
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
First of all, although Sen and I are in strong agreement about the poverty of cultural
relativism and the need for universal norms in the development policy arena, he has never
produced explicit arguments against relativism apart from historical arguments about
non-western cultures that show descriptive inadequacy of many anti-universalist
approaches
(Nussbaum, 2000, p.67)
In line with Nussbaums view, Zechenter (1997) identifies cultural relativism, which requires
us to respect traditional cultures and its rules and regulations. In reality it tends to cover up
the fact that even in the most egalitarian and non-stratified of societies, there is no such thing
as one culture. Further, he argued that logically all cultures consist of groups and individuals
with agendas, and their customs have reflected the interest of the dominant classes. As a
result, Nussbaum (2011) posits that the perspective of respect is required in cultural
relativism by saying that respect and relativism are very different because real respect for
differences requires unwavering and non-relativistic protection for the freedom of speech,
association and conscience, and the material factors. She further asserted that since many
world traditions do not recognize these norms, hence relativism does not entail them. In
larger philosophical sense, Nussbaum clear rejection of relativism has naturally connected to
her definite list of capabilities that was suggested by her. Against the rules of cultural
relativism, which requires us to recognize pluralism of societies, Nussbaum insisted that she
is very definite about the content as international human rights movement does. She urges
that a particular list of capabilities ought to be used to provide a minimum level of security
and the need to be recognized and given something like legal protection in all nations.
Furthermore, dismissal of cultural relativism is needed to make sure all the nations and their
citizens benefit from this capability approach and its practice without any cultural or moral
justification (Brown, 2008).
Nussbaums initiative in providing definite list of capabilities and legalizing it as a minimum

security for every human being clearly shows that her effort in universalization of capabilities
is specific. Nussbaum, (2000) explains that cultural relativism has the potential of interfering
in this universalization of capabilities by marginalizing or underrating non-dominant voices
such as women from receiving their basic capabilities from law enforcement of government.
Therefore, rejection of the concept is compulsory to make sure each individual is equally
entitled to the capabilities in the definite list without any interruption of culture. Furthermore,
since culture itself is relative, the meaning of morality may be different from one culture to
another (Rachaels, 1986). What is considered moral in one culture might not be considered
moral in another culture. Therefore, Nussbaums argument that the well-being of a person
and their capabilities should not be debated as right or wrong but it should be implemented as
a basic necessity of every human. As a result, human flourishing and human dignity will be
achieved. Zechenter, (1997) criticizes that cultural relativism is about the rights of a group
instead of rights of individuals. Basically cultural ideas, customs, restrictions and regulations,
prioritize the well-being of a group of people rather than individuals well-being. In contrast,
Nussbaums capability approach and her definite list of capabilities suggest that an
individuals well-being is more important than the group and each individual is entitled to be
treated equally regardless of which culture he/she belong.
Consequently, if cultural relativism is taken into account, universalism of human rights will
not be realistic because not all cultural groups would approve the suggestion that capabilities
should be constitutionalized. For instance, bodily integrity (a capability that requires women
to have the right to do decision regarding her body; freedom to move from one place to
195
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
another, to be free from domestic violence) might be approved in a culture that practices
matriarchy but neglected in a culture that practices patriarchy. In matriarchy, womens rights
and protection are prioritized since mothers will be the head of family, but in male-headed
households as in a patriarchy system, most probably womens life aspects such as their health
and education might be neglected. Since every human being deserves to live well, Nussbaum
urges that the involvement of cultural relativism will cause human well-being and capabilities
to be considered as an option rather than a compulsory aspect of human life. In relation, she
also insists that the rejection of cultural relativism will ensure that each individual has the
opportunity to perform his/her capabilities because the concept itself is bias towards
functionalism and its nature of welcoming dysfunctional beliefs and customs of a culture
(Gasper, 1997: 328)
3.0 Conclusion
Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum have made major contributions in exploring poverty
related issues using capability approach. Sens version of capability approach clarifies that
individual well-being depends on their capabilities and functionings and strongly suggests
that lack of income is not only the main reason of poverty. Throughout his version of
capability approach, he suggested that each person should have the human freedom in order
to live a life the individual has reason to value. Besides human freedom, he expounded
poverty from a multidimensional perspective. In contrast, Nussbaums capability approach
portrays a systematic analysis of the capabilities of humans and how to bring it to common
people. Grounded strongly by Aristotelian and Marxians concepts of human flourishing and
human dignity, Nussbaum developed a blue print of human development by creating a
definite list of capabilities along with suggestions to be constitutionalized by the government.
As a result, Nussbaums idea of capability approach seems to be more applicable in analyzing
human capabilities than Sens view that appears to be an initial guide to understanding human
freedom. Conclusively, compared to Sens, Nussbaums capability approach resembles more
effective and a holistic approach that can be applied in human development studies.
196
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4.0 References
Anderson, S., 2003. Sabina Alkire, Valuing Freedoms: Sen's Capability Approach and
Poverty Reduction :Valuing Freedoms: Sen's Capability Approach and Poverty
Reduction. Ethics, 113(3), pp.678-680.
Bastos, A., Casaca, S., Nunes, F. and Pereirinha, J., 2009. Women and poverty: A
gender-sensitive approach. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 38(5), pp.764-778.
Brown, M., 2008. Cultural Relativism. Current Anthropology, 49(3), pp.363-383.
DeMartino, G., 2011. Capabilities, Equality, and Class Justice: A Reply to Wilde. Global
Discourse, 2(1), pp.39-47.
Deneulin, S., 2013. Ethics and Development: An Introduction from the Perspective of the
Capability Approach. Geography Compass, 7(3), pp.217-227.
Donnelly, J., 1984. Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights. Human Rights
Quarterly, 6(4), p.400.
Gasper, D., 1997. Sen's capability approach and Nussbaum's capabilities ethic. Journal of
International Development, 9(2), pp.281-302.
Maboloc, C., 2008. The Concept of Human Development: A Comparative Study of Amartya
Sen and Martha Nussbaum. Master Thesis in Applied Ethics. Linkpings Universitet,
Sweden.
Nussbaum, M. and Sen, A., 1993. The Quality of life. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.
Nussbaum, M.,2000. Women and human development. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Nussbaum, M., 2011. Creating capabilities. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press.
Rachaels, J., 1986. The Challenge of Cultural Relativism. In: J. Rachels, ed., The Elements of
Moral Philosophy, 1st ed. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, pp.20-32.
Robeyns, I., 2003. Sens Capability Approach and Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant
Capabilities. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), pp.61-92.
Sen, A., 1994. Capability and Well-being. In: D. Housman, ed., An Anthology, 1st ed. United
States of America: Cambridge University Press, pp.270-295.
Sen, A., 1999. Development as freedom. New York: Knopf.
Zechenter, E., 1997. In the Name of Culture: Cultural Relativism and the Abuse of the
Individual on JSTOR. [online] Jstor.org. Available at:
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630957> [Accessed 11 May 2015].
197
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Experience of Work of Kindergarten Teachers:

A Critical Review of the Literature and Some Preliminary Findings
Nurshakirin bt Sulaimana*, Dr Ong Beng Kokb
a&b
School of Social Science, 11700 Gelugor, USM, Malaysia
Email: ashakirinsulaiman@yahoo.com, bongbengkok@usm.my
Abstract
A great deal of research has demonstrated that productive-line factory work is alienating and
produces a low level of job satisfaction. This is because factory work is repetitive, the wages
are low and workers have very little autonomy and control over their work procedures.
Administrative or office work has been argued to be routine in some levels and it has also
produced a low level of job satisfaction. Some nature of work, such as sales work, antique
work and service works have greater autonomy, receive higher wages and have less repetitive
work. Workers in these types of work have displayed a higher level of job satisfaction and a
lesser alienation. Teaching work shares some of these natures and it is, therefore, expected to
produce a higher job satisfaction. A great deal of research has been conducted on job
satisfaction among teachers and they have shown that teachers job satisfaction is very crucial
in the commitment and effectiveness of their work as a teacher. However, some have found
that teachers have also experienced job dissatisfaction and even job stress. This paper reviews
the literature on the experienced of work critically with the aim of justifying a case study on
the experience of work of kindergarten teachers in Penang. The paper also discusses some
preliminary findings of this study.
Keywords: the experience of work, kindergarten teachers, job dis/ satisfaction, work
alienation, job stress
1. Introduction
Work plays an important role in humans life. According to Grint (1991), work is seen as a
world phenomenon that is carefully built and care under social constructed. In other view,
Clair, McConnell, Bell, Hackbarth and Mathes (2008) define works as a messy business.
However, Marx (1966) as well as a few other researchers worldwide view that work has a
link with human nature. Mark (1966) views human as an active creatures that have a high
potential in working as well as response towards their environment. In addition, Marx also
view that through process of works, human tends to realize about self-realization, and leads to
a transformation of life. As for this, Grint (1991), Muirhead (2004), Heneman (1973) and
Edgell (2006) debate that an understanding of work should starts with the historical
evidence and factor as well as the work experience of the human themselves.
In the current world, it can be seen clearly that some work produce high job satisfaction while
some others produces low job satisfaction. A great deal of research has demonstrated that
productive-line factory work is alienating and produces a low level of job satisfaction (Clark,
1994). This is because factory work is repetitive, the wages are low, and workers have very
little autonomy and control over their work procedures (Ong, 2005:1). According to Allan
(2010), individual feels alienated in a world of factory-line work. This is because the worker
feel that they have no choice as the employer are the one who controls everything;
production, employment as well as labors time of the workers. This situation put the
factory line workers in the state of alienation.
198
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
In contrast to the factory works, some nature of work, such as sales work (Ong, 2005), antique
work (Maria, 2014) and service works have greater autonomy, receive higher wages and have
less repetitive work. Workers in these types of work have demonstrated a higher job
satisfaction and a lesser alienation. Workers in sales works and service works provide high job
autonomy because they can exercise free will and self-control on the job. According to
Hossain (2000), people who work as bank executives have higher level of job satisfaction in
comparison to non-executives. In shorts, employees who have a high position feels more
satisfied with their job compared to employees with low level position because they have
high autonomy over their work as well as high salary. Thus, this indirectly produces high job
satisfaction. However, administrative or office work has been argued to be routine in some
levels and it produced a low level of job satisfaction (Prandy, Stewart, and Blackburn, 1982;
Oo, 1994).
1.1 Teachers Job Satisfaction

Teacher job satisfaction also has been an important topic in the past several decades, because
job dissatisfaction might cause teachers to leave their positions (Liu 2007; Darling-Hammond
2003). A number of factors have been identied as being related to teacher job satisfaction in
Western developed countries, such as role overload (Liu and Ramsey 2008), leadership
(Beleld 2005; Billingsley and Cross 1992), teacher autonomy (Pearson and Moomaw 2005),
salary, parent support, student behaviour (Perrachione et al. 2008) and school climate (Pepper
and Thomas 2002). According to Maslach & Leiter (1999), teachers job satisfaction
influences the quality of the activity, their interaction with the children and, indirectly, the
students performance.
Social change and economic imperatives have challenged the teaching profession over the
last decade, making it important to explore the issues in much detail. Dworkin, Haney,
Dworkin & Telschow (1990); Kyriacou (1987); Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler (1986); Pines &
Maslach (1980) supported the view that teaching is a stressful occupation. This stress has
increased as the relationship between society and education has become more complex
(Esteve & Fracchia, 1986). As a result of social change, teachers face increased parental
and community expectations for the outcomes and standards of education and the relevance
of the curriculum. This has resulted in pressure to implement change in curricula and
teaching practices. Many teachers assert that they are inadequately prepared to implement
new curriculum (Bailey, Berrell & Gibson, 1991).
1.2 Teachers Job Dissatisfaction and Job Stress

There is increasing evidence that in the course of their careers teachers experience a great
deal of stress and this may have implications for their physical and mental health (Borg,
Riding & Falzon, 1991; Byrne, 1999; Kyriacou, 2001; Tang et al., 2001). The stressors
teachers may have to face include students with behavioural difficulties, problems with
parent-teacher relationships, conflict with colleagues or having to organise teaching in a new
way as a of working in teams or governmental change (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). Most
teachers cope successfully with stress, for instance, through active problem solving, social
and emotional support from colleagues, co-operating with parents or changing their teaching
strategy (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). Some teachers may develop more psychological
symptoms than others varying from mild frustration and anxiety to more severe symptoms
such as burnout (Chan, 2007; Dunham, 1992; Schonfeld, 1992). Burnout in teachers
represents teachers negative responses to the mismatch between job requirements and their
perceived abilities (Tang et al., 2001).
199
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
In order to understand teachers stress, researchers have sought to identify the major sources.
Among the contributors of the teachers stress that has been identified are work overload,
limitation of time, problems with the kids behavior as well as the working environment.
(O'Connor & Clarke, 1990). In the course of identifying sources of stress, many studies have
investigated the impact of some parts of demographic variables such as gender, age, family
status and teaching experience on perceived stress (Byrne, 1991; Malik, Mueller, & Meinke,
1991; Schonfeld, 1992; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler, 1986; Tokar
& Feitler, 1986). Analysis of such characteristics is useful when examining and associating
the sources of stress reported; however findings from the above studies indicate that such
demographic variables do not predict stress.
Based on the combined references of the literature review, it can be seen clearly that multiple
types of work shares different level of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Some works such
as sales work and service works produce high job satisfaction while some other works such
as factory-line work produces low job satisfaction. Teaching work shares some of these
natures and it is therefore expected to produce a higher job satisfaction. A great deal of
research has been conducted on job satisfaction among teachers (Liu 2007;
Darling-Hammond 2003). The research has revealed that teachers job satisfaction has been
identified as being a determinant of teacher commitment and school effectiveness (Huang,
2001). However, some have found that teachers have also experienced more dissatisfaction
and even job stress (Kyriacou, 2001). Therefore, the central question to be examined is
whether kindergarten teachers also experience low job satisfaction or job stress and to what
extent this job satisfaction, dissatisfaction and job stress of kindergarten teachers impacting
their quality of work.
As education is of utmost important and teaching has becoming one of the societys most
important occupations in current world, the need for the study on the experience of work of
teacher is seen to be crucial. Exploration in this paper provides an opportunity to develop a
holistic and in-depth understanding of the interplay of factors that contribute to teachers
satisfaction, dissatisfaction, job stress as well as overall aspects of teachers work nature with
the aim of justifying a case study on the experience of work of kindergarten teachers in
Penang.
In addition, most of the researches on the experience of work of teachers or kindergarten
teachers are quantitative. Thus, a major reason for undertaking this study is a lack of research
on the experience of work of kindergarten teachers being conducted qualitatively and to
further explore and understand the nature of work of kindergarten teachers in Penang,
Malaysia.
In order to further understand the experience of work of kindergarten teachers, a few research
questions are used to explore and assist the study. The questions revolves around; (1) the
experience of work of kindergarten teachers; (2) to what extent do they experience some form
of job satisfaction, job dissatisfaction and job stress; (3) why do these teachers experience job
dissatisfaction and job stress; and (4) in what ways do they react to the stress they experience.
2. Methodology
This study used the interpretive approach as well as qualitative data analysis suggested by
Dey (1993). Interpretive paradigm looks into human social reality through interaction and
discussion among each other.
200
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The target population for the study consisted of selected kindergarten centers and teachers in
various categories of sponsorship: public, private, faith led, or Religious Organizations (RO)
in Georgetown city. Fifty kindergarten teachers employed within selected three categories of
education system in the urbanize area of Georgetown City, Penang were invited to participate
in the study. All of these teachers were women in the age ranging from 20 years old to 45
years old with teaching experience ranging from 2 to 15 years. The sample size was
considered appropriate in the light of the data collection methods.
In terms of the location, target location of the research is Georgetown city of Penang,
Malaysia. The district was chosen because it encompassed the following characteristics: 1)
Large geographical area; 2) High population; 3) Kindergarten of various categories: public,
private, faith led, or Religious Organizations (RO); and 4) Varied economic potential:
Zones with diverse residential areas ranging from upper middle class to informal settlements.
Semi natural setting is used in this research in order to get the primary data through interview
and observation of the respondent (Blaikie, 2010). This research is conducted by selecting a
group of specific people (kindergarten teacher) as respondent. Research on the experience of
teachers begins by recording the demographic characteristics of respondents such as age,
gender and level of education. Then, the next step will focus on the day care teacher work
orientation towards their job such as their knowledge in this early childhood education area,
perception, attitude as well as their daily routine. Interview with the respondent was recorded
and then transform into manuscripts manually. All the data are in the form of qualitative
texts. Categorizing and connecting approach is used to analyze qualitative data.
3. Preliminary Findings
This section highlights some preliminary findings on the expression of the first-hand views of
Penangnites kindergarten teachers and the impact of those factors on their sense of
empowerment and confidence. This knowledge will be of importance to those wishing to gain
a more detailed view of teachers feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, something of
particular relevance to ongoing reform efforts in several developing countries around the
world.
Preliminary findings of this study indicate that majority of kindergarten teachers (95%) were
happy in their job, though some (5%) experienced occupational stress. Among the
determinants of job satisfaction identified are gender, age and length of service. It can be seen
that female teachers had higher job satisfaction levels than their male counterparts. In terms of
age, teachers aged in their forties had higher stress levels than other age groups. As for the
length of service, there was some fluctuation in job satisfaction level by length of service with
newly recruited teachers and principals and those with a longer service record reporting higher
job satisfaction levels. In addition, teachers sense of control (autonomy) over various
activities at school also enhanced their job satisfaction, especially when they had a say in which
class groups to teach.
Despite the satisfaction of teaching, it is found that occupational stress was evident at all stages
of the teaching career and kindergarten teachers who are teaching multi- grade are more
stressed. However, teaching multi-grade classes did not affect their job satisfaction level.
Teachers stress was associated with students behavioral difficulties and with the extent of
contact with parents. In addition to that, teacher stress was also associated with relationships
with other staff members and day-to-day interaction among the school partners teachers,
pupils, parents matters in shaping teachers own experiences.
201
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The key determinant that keeps the kindergarten teachers motivated and away from their
occupational stress is the children themselves. It is found that a person cannot work in a
kindergarten without liking children. The children are such a significant part of the work as
kindergarten teachers. Children are an important factor of work motivation for the
kindergarten teachers. Another determinant that keeps teachers motivated is the colleagues. A
well-functioning work team and a good atmosphere at work are highly appreciated by the
kindergarten teachers. In addition to that, a good management and leadership at work place
also help the kindergarten teachers to work at their best. In brief, other factors of teachers
work motivation are: meaningfulness of work; working with people in general; feedback; as
well as trainings offered through work.
The preliminary findings stated above express the first-hand views of Penangnites kindergarten
teachers and the impact of those factors on their sense of empowerment and confidence. Such
knowledge will be of importance to those wishing to gain a more detailed view of teachers
feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of their job in teaching arena.
4. Conclusion
This study highlights the experience of work of kindergarten teachers and the complex nature
of teachers work. Acknowledged is the worldwide growth of early childhood education and
increased participation of young children in formal education settings. Also disclosed is
research validating the benefits of quality early learning experiences on child development
and long-term productive participation in society.
The reviewed literature outlined how changing societal expectations and the popularization of
educational philosophies have impacted on the beliefs and practices of kindergarten teachers
and contributed to governments making reforms within the early childhood system.
Reference was made to changes in curricula, inclusion practices and administration and
accountability processes, concluding that such factors add to the complex and changing
nature of kindergarten teachers work, ultimately effecting kindergarten teachers sustainment
in their profession.
Furthermore, the literature revealed that the teaching profession, as a whole, is continually
facing change and upheaval. Not only are ongoing educational reforms redefining teachers
work, but an ageing trend within the profession is apparent, accompanied by increasing
incidences of teacher-stress and burnout. Changes in teachers levels of engagement, job
satisfaction, occupational motivation and well-being, are reported as contributing to teacher
disillusionment, disengagement and attrition. A multitude of factors are seen to impact on
teachers professional commitment, productive engagement, job satisfaction, dissatisfaction
and job stress in teaching.
The reviewed literature has also identifies a lack of research focusing specifically on what
sustains teachers motivation and productive engagement within their profession over an
extended period of time. In addition, the literature disclosed that few researchers have studied
early childhood teachers or investigated how early childhood teachers respond to educational
change, stress, burnout and other impacts on their teaching. Furthermore, research on the link
between teacher knowledge and sustainment is scarce.
The literature review confirms that further research is required to identify ways to overcome
job stress amongst teachers, and to sustain teachers professional commitment, job
satisfaction and effective engagement in the teaching process. The literature review also
confirms that the field of early childhood education is of great significance, and that its
202
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
educators have often been overlooked in research. If early childhood teachers are to be
sustained in their profession, providing quality education for their students, then they should
be informed of key aspects that can assist in their sustainment. This study is one such attempt
to address these issues.
Some preliminary findings of this study also find that despite the satisfaction of job in
teaching world, some kindergarten teachers do undergo job stress. Even though the
percentage of teachers who undergo the job stress is not high, still the stress is evident at all
stages of teaching career. As for that, it is important to explore the reasons behind this feeling
of dissatisfaction before it is wildly spread.
5. References
Allan, K.,2010. Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World,
2nd ed., California: SAGE Publications
Byrne, B.M.,1991. Burnout: Investigating the impact of background variables for elementary,
intermediate, secondary, and university educators. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7,
pp.197-209.
Chan, D. W., 1998. Stress, coping strategies, and psychological distress among secondary
teachers in Hong Kong. American Educational Research Journal, 35(1), pp.145-163.
Dey., 1993. Qualitative Data Analysis: A User Friendly Guide For Social Scienctist. London:
Routhledge.
Dworkin, A.G., Haney, C.A., Dworkin, R.J, and Telschow, R.L.,1990. Stress and illness
behaviour among urban public school teachers. Educational Administration Quarterly, 26,
pp. 60-72.
Edgell, S.,2006. The Sociology of Work: Continuity and Change in Paid and Unpaid Work.
London: Sage Publications.
Esteve, J.M. and Fracchia.,1986. Inoculation against stress: A technique for beginning
teachers. European Journal of Teacher Education, 9, pp. 261-269.
Grint, K., 1991. The Sociology of Work: An Introduction, 2nd ed., Cornwall: Polity.
Kyriacou, C.,1987. Teacher stress and burnout: An international review. Educational
Research,29, pp. 146-152.
Kyriacou, C., 2001, Teacher stress: direction for future research, Educational Review,
Vol. 53 No. 1, pp. 27-35.
Malik, J.L., Mueller, R.O. and Meinke, D.L.,1991. The effects of teaching experience and
grade level taught on teacher stress: A Lisrel analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7,
pp. 57- 62.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S., and Leiter, M., 1996. Maslach burnout inventory (3rd ed.). Palo Alto,
CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
O'Connor, P.R. & Clarke, V.A.,1990. Determinants of teacher stress.Australian Journal of
Education, 34, pp. 41-51.
203
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ong B. K., 2005. The Experience of Work: A Case Study of Chinese Sales Workers in An
Electronics Company and a Life Insurance Company. Thesis Ph.D School Of Social Science,
Schonfeld, I.S.,1992. A longitudinal study of occupational stressors and depressive
symptoms in first-year female teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 8, pp. 151-158.
Schwab, R.L and Iwanicki, E.F., 1982. Perceived role conflict, role ambiguity, and teacher
burnout. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18, pp. 60-74.
Schwab, R.L., Jackson, S.E. & Schuler, R.S., 1986. Educator burnout: Sources and
consequences. Educational Research Quarterly, 10, pp. 14-30.
Skaalvik, E.M. & Skaalvik, S., 2007. Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with
strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 99(3), pp. 611625.
Skaalvik, E.M. & Skaalvik, S. 2010. Teacher self- efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of
relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(4), pp. 10591069.
204
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Role of Prison Criminogenic Experience and Social Stigma towards

Criminal Recidivism: A Qualitative Approach.
Aminu Musa Ahmeda*, Abd Halim B. Ahmadb

a&b
School of GovernmentCollege of Law, Government and International Studies
Email: aminmusaahmed@gmail.com, babdhalim@uum.edu.my
a
Abstract
Prison institution and its experiences together with the stigmatization of offenders in the
society are one of the contemporary issues that are associated with criminal re-offending
(recidivism). The objective of this study is to examine the role of prison criminogenic
experience and social stigma of ex-prisoners towards criminal recidivism. The study utilized
qualitative approach in order to examine such roles. Data was collected among six ex-prisoners
using in-depth interview and purposive sampling method was used as sampling strategy.
Narrative analysis technique was adapted and used in analysing the data collected. The
findings of the qualitative data revealed that both prison criminogenic experience as well as the
stigmatization of the ex-prisoners in the society after their release is contributing immensely
towards the behaviors of the ex-offenders. That is, their experiences within the institution and
outside the prison wall can induce them into their previous or new criminal activities, thereby
creating an avenue for them to become criminal recidivists. Thus, by implication, the study
established that, the institution of prison specifically its criminogenic tendencies has a negative
consequences towards criminal recidivism and also, the societal reaction on the ex-prisoners by
stigmatizing them in the society has a negative consequences towards their criminal
re-offending. The study therefore concluded that both the institution (prison criminogenic
experience) and the societal reaction towards the ex-prisoners (stigmatization) are having a
greater role in determining the eventual criminal re-offending of the ex-prisoners.
Key words: prison criminogenic experience, stigma, criminal recidivism, prison, ex-prisoners.
1.Introduction
Researchers in the field of criminology and perhaps criminal recidivism have argued and
pointed out some perspectives regarding the effects of prison as an institution and its
experience on recidivism. It was argued that, prison is punitive and deters future offending; it is
criminogenic and increases future offending; and to some, it has no impact on offending
behavior (Gendreau, Goggin, & Cullen 1999; Nagin et al., 2009).The proponents of prison as
punishment to offenders emphasized that prison is harsh and it is characterized as an
unpleasant experience. Thus, the costs associated with imprisonment can reduce the expected
utility and chances of committing further crime (Nagin et al., 2009). This therefore, explains
the individuals estimation and calculations of the certainty that sanctions (imprisonment) will
be imposed and the severity of those sanctions when applied or imposed form the basis for the
individual calculation of the costs as well as the consequences of committing crime (Becker
1968; Grasmick and Bursick 1990). On the other hand incarceration as a response to crime has
increased, simultaneously increasing the certainty that individuals who commit a crime will
receive a prison sentence (Blumstein & Beck 2005; Langan 1991; Nagin, 1998). It is also
believed that prison term is severe than non custodial sanctions, as such it is expected that, it
should be able to deter and reduce re-offending among ex-prisoners (Ahmed & Halim, 2015).
205
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
However, the reverse is the case as many studies established that, the potential criminogenic
effects of imprisonment (Cid, 2009; DeJong, 1997; Jonson, 2010; Nagin et al., 2009; Spohn &
Holleran, 2002) has an adverse effect on criminal recidivism among the ex-prisoners. This,
theoretically, suggested that, the prison sanction heightens criminal recidivism because it
exposes offenders to negative labeling (Braithwaite, 1989), increases defiance (Sherman,
1993), weakens social bonds (Sampson &Laub, 1993), and in particular, the prison itself is
considered as a school of crime by intensifying contact with criminal associates
(Sutherland, Cressey, &Luckenbill, 1992).
On the other hand, after the effects of prison institution itself the societal reaction towards the
ex-prisoners is considered to be another major impediment of successful re-entry and thereby
poses threat to criminal recidivism. Particularly, this study looked at the effects of social stigma
in relation to criminal recidivism. Stigmatization occurs when a publically acknowledged
attribute disqualifies an individual from full social acceptance (Goffman, 1980). Moreover, an
important theoretical tradition in criminology argued that when an individual is being
publically identified as an offender that can ultimately set an important ground for h/his
stigmatization. Specifically, proponents of labeling theory such as Braithwaites theory of
Reintagrative shaming, explained the positive correlation commonly observed between past
and future offending as a result of the stigmatizing the ex-prisoners after their release from the
prison custody (Becker, 1966; Braithwaite, 1989; Garfinkel,1956; Lemert, 1972; Schur, 1969).
Although, there have been criticisms in acceptance of labeling theory since it was first
proposed, but evidence has shown a supporting contention that contact with the criminal justice
system can have detrimental effects (Bernburg & Krohn, 2003;Bernburg, Krohn, & Rivera,
2006; Huizinga & Henry, 2008) of stigmatization and by extension criminal recidivism. The
purpose of this study therefore, is to identify the role of the prison criminogenic experience and
social stigmatization of ex-prisoners towards criminal recidivism. In other words, the study
intended to assessed and identify the role of the institution of corrections (prison); specifically
the role of prison criminogenic experience of the inmates while in custody and on the other
hand the societal reactions after the inmates are released back to the community
(stigmatization) towards the possibilities of criminal recidivism.
2. Methodology
This study is qualitative in nature; as such it uses the qualitative methodological approach for
the study. The participants of this study are the ex-prisoners in metropolitan Kano-Nigeria.
Semi- structures interviews were used for the respondents. In other words, face to face in-depth
interviews were conducted among the participants (ex-prisoners) to gather data. Six
participants (ex-prisoners) were used as respondents and for the purpose of sampling strategy
this study utilized purposive sampling method to select the respondents. The purposive
sampling method was adapted and used because of the nature of the target population who
proved to be very difficult to access using other sampling strategies. Thus, the respondents
were identified purposely. Moreover, narrative approach/technique of qualitative data analysis
was used to interpret and analysed the interview conducted.
3. Findings and Discussion
3.1 Prison Criminogenic Experience

This theme is considered as the criminogenic experiences that the inmates gathered while in
custody. As such, participants were asked about their experiences in terms of living condition
possibilities of learning crime, tendency to go back, and their experiences on support and
training while in the custody. According to one of the respondents;
206
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
During my time there, there was no clean water, no mattress, no

good food or medicine. If you see our food you will cry! we use
one toilet and we are more than one hundred
A female respondent corroborate the above assertion by arguing that;
Though, we are being kept in separate rooms from the men, and we
are not many as the men inmates, but the environment there is hell;
there is nothing to cater for your health in the prison.
When asked on their experiences of learning crime and criminal technique, majority of the
participants lamented that, there is possibility and it is easy to learn criminality in the prison.
According to one of the participants;
We meet with different category of criminals some are very
dangerous when you compare your offence with their offence. So
from there you would develop feelings that you are not even a
good criminal and as a result of your interactions with such
inmates you learn other criminalities.
Another respondent also maintained that;
In prison it is very easy to learn crime. You see, we were taken to a
place with more harden criminals and in my case i stay in prison
for good three (3) years with such people.
When commenting on the issue of the possibilities of going back to prison the respondents
argued that;
Yes of course, there could be that tendency, because some people
may prefer to go back to prison than to face such a humiliation
outside the prison: our society is not supportive enough as such
going back to prison may sometimes not be a problem for some of
us.
While commenting on the same issue a female respondent stressed that;
I have no regrets what so ever and i am not afraid of going back to
prison anymore: people do not welcome us; they hate us; they see
us as completely bad just because of one mistake or the other. So i
personally do not fear prison any more.
On the issue of support and training the respondents that;
There is no any support from the prison staff, there is nothing like
training. They always shout at us, we always had disagreement
with the staff, they see us criminals and bad people.
Also another respondent comment that;
If anybody tells you that there is support or training in prison h/she
is only deceiving you. There is nothing as such, no provision for
vocational skill, education, or any other type of support.
3.2 Stigma
Social stigma is a situation where by the society labelled and tainted an individual with
inferiority manner base on particular status or social circumstances. According to an
ex-prisoner interviewed on stigma;
In this society people do really stigmatized us, once you have
been to prison that denting image of stigma that would spoil
your identity would be enforced on you by the society.
207
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Also commenting on her experience on stigma, a female respondent stated that;

Yes it is very clear and common to have yourself being
alienated in this society simply because you have been to
prison...in fact this can be easier for men(ex-prisoners) but
for somebody like me (a female) my fellow women folk do
alienated me clearly.
According to another respondent;
You see, once you are taken to prison, that would be the
genesis of you being stereotyped as a bad person and if care
is not taken, that would follow you through your life time.
Another respondent revealed his experience of the consequences of stigma which results into
rejection and discriminating him. He maintained that;
When you come back you have to get ready because people
would prefer any other community member than you.
Sometimes you would be discriminated against even in your
immediate family.
But for another respondent;
Sometimes somebody would prefer to remain in the prison
than to come back and face this stigma and discrimination
issue.
In terms of social withdrawal from the community as a result of the stigma, the respondents
stated that;
To be frank with you i do not involve myself in many
activities of my community...i prefer to be alone than to be
labelled and stigmatized.
Another respondent further lamented that;
People see you as outsider or somebody who is being
considered dangerous so you have to withdraw from them in
order to have your way...
Also another interviewee stated that;
In most cases we do leave our areas and relate with those that
we met and became friends with them while we are in prison.
4. Discussion and Implication
The data analyzed above and various responses of the participants interviewed shows that,
there is a clear correlation between the experiences gained while in custody (criminogenic) and
tendency of criminal recidivism. This finding is in line with the argument of Listwan et al.,
(2013) that only a limited number of studies that has paid systematic attention to how exposure
to the deprivations or pains of imprisonment might foster re-offending. This omission is
somewhat puzzling; in the sense that, the pains of imprisonment have long been documented
(Sykes, 1958) and that policy makers have unambiguously celebrated the severity of prison
institution as a way of teaching offenders that crime does not pay. On the other hand, many
literatures have revealed that the experience of imprisonment varies among inmates: some
inmates experienced the pains of imprisonment more than others. In line with this, Johnson,
(2001); Toch, Adams, & Greene (1987) argued that, the prison experience could be coercive
208
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and hence, there could also be a feelings of greater levels of strain among inmates. Moreover,
recent studies also revealed that greater exposure to coercive strain as a result of the pains of
imprisonment can negatively affects psychological well-being(Listwan, Colvin, Hanley, &
Flannery, 2010) and increases suicides (Dye, 2010) among inmates. While on the other hand,
when linking the findings of this study, it could be deduced that, the criminogenic experience
of the prison institution have an effect toward criminal recidivism could be linked to the
argument of Agnews General Strain theory.
General Strain Theory (GST) states that certain strain increases the likelihood of crime
(Agnew, 1992, 2001, 2006). Such strains involve events and conditions that are physically and
psychologically stressful to individual offenders. Equally, these include the experience of
negative and or aversive treatment, the loss of things that the individual valued, and the in
ability of an individual to achieve valued goals. These strains are compatible and conducive to
crime in high magnitude; it is also perceived as unjust; associated with low control, (Agnew,
2006) and create some pressure or inducement for criminal coping. This therefore, make an
individual to face a number of strains: rejection by family members; marital problems; chronic
unemployment; workin the secondary labor market; homelessness; supervision that is
erratic,excessive, and/or harsh; verbal and physical abuse by peers; criminal victimization;
discrimination; and the failure to achieve selected goals, including autonomy, status/respect,
and monetary success (Agnew, 2006). These strains are sometimes those that are frequently
been experienced by prison inmates prior to incarceration, with many continuing inside the
prison environment.
While corroborating this point, labeling theory on the other hand, maintained that prison
sentence and sanctions generate more recidivism as against the non-custodial sanctions due to
its criminogenic effect (Cid, 2009). Moreover, the theory (labeling) predicts that individual
offenders that are sentenced and confined in prison will re-offend to a greater extent than
offenders who received a non-custodial sanction. The criminogenic effect of prison is based on
two different processes: first, some prisoners may accept the self-image of a deviant given by
the institution (Lemert, 1972); and second, prison has an indirect effect on recidivism since
ex-convicts experience greater difficulties in obtaining employment and maintaining social and
personal relations as it is evident in the outcomes of the interviews conducted under this study
than people sentenced to non-custodial sanctions (Sampson and Laub 1993).
Stigma, as used in the seminal work of Goffman (1963), has been defined as a mark that
discounts a persons credibility, endowing him or her with undesirable characteristics (Link
and Phelan 2001). For many ex-prisoners, (as revealed by the findings of this study) the mark
of being a convict endures long after their sentences have been served. The stigma of
stereotyping, labeling, discrimination, status loss, and separation (Link and Phelan 2001) felt
by ex-prisoners is considered as a form of invisible punishment (Henderson, 2005:1240)
that is likely to obstruct their successful reentry into society. Facing stigma and reintegration is
particularly challenging for young offenders leaving prison as they are often already behind in
markers of adult status, such as obtaining stable employment and being independent,
compared to their peers prior to incarceration (Uggen and Wakefield 2005:118). Moreover,
upon released and during reentry, they must deal with the dual transition from inmate to citizen
(Chung et al., 2005; Sullivan, 2004).
Furthermore, stigmatization of the ex-inmates, as revealed in the above analysis of the

respondents views suggested that, there exist a lot of stigmatization among the released
inmates. This findings corroborates the classical labeling theory
prepositions(Tannenbaum,1938), who argued that the process of dealing with delinquents or
209
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
criminal could be seen as misguided in so much as it identifies the individual, i.e. themselves
and others, as a delinquent or criminal person. Similarly, Becker (1966) argued that deviation
is a social creation. For him, the deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been
applied: deviant behavior is behavior that people so label (Becker, 1966,:9; Liska &Messner,
1999). This concept of deviancywhich is considered associal label was also critical to
Lemerts (1972) distinction between primary and secondary deviance. Primary deviance is
considered as norm-violating behavior, which occurs without changing a persons
psychological structure; whereas, secondary deviance, by contrast, is a reaction to any social
disapproval that might be experienced in relation to the act of primary deviance. As such the
main thrust of this augment is the notion that disapproving social reactions to deviancy/crime
serve to embed, rather than discourage, the deviant/criminal behavior. This leads to what is
perhaps the essential predisposition of labeling theory: that contact with the criminal justice
system will increase subsequent offending for the sanctioned offender.
5. Conclusion
This paper analysed the role of prison criminogenic experience and social stigma of the
ex-prisoners towards criminal recidivism. From the data collected and analysed base on the
experiences of the respondents, there is a lot criminogenic experiences within the prison
custody that ranges from filthy environment, congestion, mixing and living with other
criminals, learning some criminal tricks as a result of the interactions within the institution and
the lack of support or training for the inmates. Also, apart from the institutional criminogenic
experiences, the respondents stressed the negative treatment they received after their release
from the custody through stigmatization of their community. Hence, these two factors when
taken together could have direct negative consequences of the likelihood of re-offending. In
other words, it can be concluded that both the prison (criminogenic experience) and the societal
reactions of the community towards the ex-prisoners through stigmatization could adversely
affect the chances of successful re-integration and re-entry of the ex-prisoners. Hence, the two
could breed a chance of criminal recidivism among the released inmates.
6. Reference
Agnew, R. 1992. Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency.
Criminology, 28, pp. 535-566.
Agnew, R. 2001. Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of
strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 38, (4), pp. 319-361.
Agnew, R. 2006. Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. New York:
Oxford.
Ahmed, A.M. & Halim, A.A. 2015a. Prison, stigma, discrimination and personality as
predictors of criminal recidivism: a preliminary findings, A paper presented at
International Conference on Economics and Social Sciences (ICESS-2015), Rainbow
Paradise Hotel, Penang, Malaysia. May, 16-17.
Braithwaite, J. 1989. Crime, Shame, and Reintegration. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Becker, G. S. 1968. Crime and punishment: An economic approach. The Journal of Political
Economy 76(2), pp. 169-217.
Becker, H. S. 1966. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York, NY: Free
Press
210
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Bernburg, J. G., Krohn, M. D. & Rivera, C. J. 2006. Official labeling, criminal embeddedness,
and subsequent delinquency: A longitudinal test of labeling theory. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43, (1), pp. 67-88.
Blumstein, A& Allen J. B. 2005. Reentry as a transient state between liberty and
recommitment. In Travis, J and Visher, C. ed., Prisoner Reentry and Crime in America.
New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 50-79.
Cid, J. 2009. Is imprisonment criminogenic? A comparative study of recidivism rates between
prison and suspended prison sanctions.European Journal of Criminology, 6, (6) pp.
459-480.
Chung, H. L, Michelle, L, & Laurence, S. 2005. The Transition to Adulthood for Adolescents
in the Juvenile Justice System: A Developmental Perspective. In Osgood, D. W.,
Foster, E. M., Flanagan, C. and Ruth, G. R. ed., On your Own without a Net: The
Transition to Adulthood for Vulnerable Populations. Chicago. The University of
Chicago Press. pp. 68-91.
Dejong, C. 1997. Survival analysis and specific deterrence: Integrating theoretical and
empirical models of recidivism. Criminology, 35,(4), pp 561-75.
Dye, M. H. 2010. Deprivation, importation, and prison suicide: Combined effects of
institutional conditions and inmate composition. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, (4),
pp. 796- 806.
Garfinkel, H. 1956. Conditions of successful degradation ceremonies. American Journal of
Sociology, 61, pp. 420-424.
Grasmick, H. G. & Robert J. B. 1990. Conscience, significant others, and rational choice:
Extending the deterrence model. Law and Society Review 24, pp.837-861.
Gendreau, P, Goggin, C & Cullen F. T. 1999. The Effects of Prison Sentences on Recidivism.
Ottawa, ON: Solicitor General Canada.
Goffman, E. 1980. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goffman, E. 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Henderson, T. Y. 2005. New frontiers in fair lending: Confronting lending discrimination
against ex-offenders. New York University Law Review, 80, pp.1237-1271.
Huizinga, D., & Henry, K. L. 2008. The effect of arrest and justice system sanctions on
subsequent behavior: Findings from longitudinal and other studies. In Liberman, A. M.
ed., The long view of crime: A synthesis of longitudinal research. New York, NY:
Springer. pp. 220-256.
Johnson, R. 2001. Hard time: Understanding and reforming the prison. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Jonson, C. L. 2010. The impact of imprisonment on re-offending: A meta-analysis
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cincinnati).
Langan, P. A. 1991. Americas soaring prison population. Science 251, (5001), pp. 1568-1573.
Lemert, E. 1972. Human deviance, social problems and social control. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Link, B. G. & Phelan, J.C 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology 27,
pp.363-385.
Liska, A. E., &Messner, S. F. 1999. Perspectives on crime and deviance. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Listwan, S. J., Sullivan, C. J., Agnew, R., Cullen, F. T., & Colvin, M. 2013. The pains of
imprisonment revisited: The impact of strain on inmate recidivism. Justice
Quarterly, 30(1), pp. 144-168.
211
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Listwan, S. J., Colvin, M., Hanley, D., & Flannery, D. 2010. Victimization, social support and
psychological well-being: A study of recently released prisoners. Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 37, (10), pp. 1140-1159.
Nagin, D. 1998. Criminal deterrence research at the outset of the twenty first Century. In
Tonry, M. ed., Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 23. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press. pp. 1-42.
Nagin, D. S., Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. 2009. Imprisonment and reoffending. In Tonry, M.
ed., Crime and justice: A review of research Vol. 38. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press. pp. 115-200.
Sampson, R. J., &Laub, J. H. 1993. Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through
life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Schur, E. M. 1969. Reactions to deviance: A critical assessment. American Journal of
Sociology, 75, pp. 309-322.
Sherman, L. W. 1993. Defiance, deterrence, and irrelevance: A theory of the criminal sanction.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, (4), pp. 445-473.
Sullivan, M. L. 2004. Youth perspectives on the experiences of reentry. Youth Violence and
Juvenile Justice 2, (1), pp.56-71.
Sutherland, E. H., Cressey, D. R., & Luckenbill, D. F. 1992. Principles of Criminology.
Lanham, MD: Alta Mira Press.
Spohn, C. & Holleran, D. 2002. The effect of imprisonment on recidivism: A focus on drug
offenders. Criminology 40,(2), pp. 329-57.
Sykes, G. M. 1958. The society of captives: A study of a maximum security prison. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Tannenbaum, F. 1938. Crime and the community. New York, NY: Ginn Press.
Toch, H., Adams, K., & Greene, R. 1987. Ethnicity, disruptiveness, and emotional disorder
among prison inmates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 14,(1),pp. 93-109.
Uggen, C. & Sara, W. 2005. Young Adults Re-entering the Community from the Criminal
Justice System: The Challenge of Becoming an Adult. In Osgood, D. W, Foster, E. M,
Flanagan, C. and Ruth, G. R. ed., On your Own without a Net: The Transition to
Adulthood for Vulnerable Populations. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp.
114-144.
212
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
213
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Emotional Experiences during Muslim Spiritual Journey

Zhooriyati, S. M.a*, Intan, H. M. Hashimb, & Zulkarnain, A. Hc
a,b&c
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
*Email: ayati_2386@yahoo.com, bhashimah@usm.my, chaqqani@usm.my
Abstract
This paper describes data from 53 respondents from Malaysia who just returned from a
spiritual journey in the last 6 months. Twenty-three were males and 30 were females. The
participants age ranged from 25-64 years old. In this spiritual journey, participants travelled
to Mecca and Madinah in Saudi Arabia to perform their Hajj. They were chosen from a close
group in Facebook comprises of Malaysians who have performed Hajj before. Participants
responded to a set of three open ended questions asking them to report the most frequent
emotions they experienced during their journey, things that make them most happy during
their journey and things that make them most sad during their journey. Most frequent
emotions reported were positive such as happy (n=46) and thankful (n=15). Things that made
them happiest was to be able to complete the activity and things that made them saddest was
leaving the city of Mecca after they completed their journey. This paper implies how spiritual
journey can elicit certain emotions and highlights the need to understand more spiritual
events that can have an impact on individuals happiness.
Keywords: emotion; hajj; spiritual
1.0 Introduction
Human emotions can be described in different states. For example, anger, sadness, fear,
worry, happy and cheerful are some of the more common emotions often experienced by a
person.. Each of these emotions is different in nature (e.g. anger is experienced differently
than happiness). Moreover, emotions play a central role during significant events in our lives
(Lazarus, 1991). Although they have many characteristics, some behavioral and other
psychological, emotions are above all psychological. An individual tends to experience
positive and negative emotions. Different situations evoke different emotional experience and
this allows us to live as a normal human being. For example, when we receive the news of the
death of a loved one, we will be sad. Conversely, we experience joy at the birth of our
children (Lazarus, 1991). Emotions in general contribute to physical and mental health;
positive emotions to health, negative to illnesses (Lazarus, 1991).
However, the emotions experienced during spiritual situations may be unique and different
compared to other situations. For example, Prof Muhd Kamil Ibrahim in his book titled
Trevelog Haji has quoted that being in Mecca is an unforgettable experience where people
felt happy, fun and excited especially when they were in Masjidil Haram(main mosque in
Mecca). The experience that they get in Mecca would not be same as in London, Amsterdam,
Paris or New York (Ibrahim, 2013).
Performing a pilgrimage in Mecca is one example of a spiritual journey and emotions

experienced during this journey can be in the form of many categories (e.g. sad and happy)
and dynamic i.e. keep on changing throughout the journey depending on the time and
214
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
activities at the time. This study is looking at this experience and this paper discusses various
emotions reported during this journey.
1.1 Hajj
According to Islamic law, pilgrimage is a visit to the House, al-Haram in Mecca during the
months of Hajj to perform certain rituals in accordance with its terms. The months of Hajj
according to the Islamic calendar is the first of Shawwal up to before dawn on the 10th
Zulhijrah (Awang, 2001). Mecca The ritual of hajj is supposed to affect the pilgrim deeply and
transform him/her spiritually (Ayten, 2010).
Hajj is one of the pillars of Islam which must be performed by every Muslim who is mukallaf
and it is obligatory once in a lifetime if they meet the conditions (Awang, 2001; Ahmed,
Arabi, & Memish, 2006). The conditions include adequate means and health (Shafi, Booy,
Haworth, Rashid, & Memish, 2008). A person who performed the hajj is called haji for men
and hajjah for women, a highly respected title in the Islamic community that encourages a
moral and religious life by keeping away from sinful acts (Ayten, 2010).
Hajj is, the largest and oldest collection or gathering in the world (Shafi, Booy, Haworth,
Rashid, & Memish, 2008; Al-Faisal, 2009). Every pilgrimage season, a large number of
Muslims gathered in Mecca to perform the Hajj. It is estimated that millions of Muslims
gather in Mecca and Madina every year during a Hajj season (Al-Faisal, 2009). Recently, the
number of people who come together during the pilgrimage season is about two million and
they originated from 140 countries (Shafi, Booy, Haworth, Rashid, & Memish, 2008;
Al-Faisal, 2009).
The spiritual journey of Hajj for Muslims in Malaysia begins with a journey to Jeddah and
takes place usually between 30 to 40 days. They will travel in groups and often accompanied
by family members and friends. Upon arriving in Mecca, pilgrims perform Tawaf around the
Kaabah where they will walk around Kaabah seven times. After that, they will go to Arafat
which is a few miles to the east of Mecca, where pilgrims activity ends with "Day of
Standing". The pilgrims will spend the night in Mina during the journey to Arafat and
Muzdalifah during their return. Upon returning to Mina, the pilgrims would stop at the Jamrat
for stoning. The new pilgrims, who have completed the pilgrimage successfully, will sacrifice
(korban) an animal as a sign of gratitude. After doing the farewell Tawaf (tawaf perpisahan),
the pilgrims will leave for
215
USM INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES (USM-ICOSS)2015
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mecca (Ahmed, Arabi, & Memish, 2006). All of these rituals require great commitment and
strengths on the part of the pilgrimage.
Perhaps, the greatest challenge of Hajj is having to perform the relatively complicated rituals
described above and to perform together with the large number of people around and within a
limited amount of space. Crowding also contribute to the discomfort and stress experienced
by people engaging in the ritual of hajj (Hashim, Zulkarnain, Noraida, Nor Diana, Shukran,
Zarina, Jasni, Zhooriyati, Salahuddien, & Mohamad, 2013) and this in turn can contribute to
some negative experience and emotions.
1.2 Emotion
As with several other important concepts, emotion is difficult to define with any precision
(Kalat & Shiota, 2007). There are various ways of defining and conceptualizing emotions but
they have not received consensus agreement by psychologists (Kalat & Shiota, 2007).
The term emotion literally reflects a kind of motion (e-motion), a motion outward. When it
first came into common use, the term emotion meant disturbance or turbulence, and people
spoke of a thunderstorm as an emotion of the atmosphere. Today we limit the words
meaning to turbulent experiences felt by humans and perhaps other animals (Kalat & Shiota,
2007). Ordinarily, when we talk about emotions, we refer to feelings as well as behaviors,
and we often invoke feelings as explanations for behaviors (Dont mind her, shes just cranky
today) (Kalat & Shiota, 2007).
Solomon (2008) believes the definition of emotions is difficult to explain and defines it as a
feeling that is reported along with physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components. Other
psychologists describe it as an emotional feeling associated with a subjective experience, with
some psychological changes in the physical state, usually changes in facial expressions, body
posture or tone of voice. Finally, and most importantly, emotions are associated with carrying
out particular set of behaviors (Deacon, 2013).
Plutchik (1982) in his research concluded emotion as a complex sequence of behaviors that
lead to cognitive assessment, subjective changes, autonomic and neural arousal,
encouragement towards behavior, and behaviors are arranged to accept the effect towards the
causes of the complex sequences.
1.3 Form and Emotional Experiences
An individuals emotions can be identified based on their body language. However, physical
expressions by an individual do not necessarily reflect the real emotions experienced by them
(Mahmood Nazar, 1990). In a study conducted by Coleman and Glaros (1983) it was found
that there are three categories of intensity of feelings experienced by any human being,
from mild intensity, serious, and dispersion.
Mild form of emotions is often followed by a feeling of cautiousness or vigilant. In addition,

attentions will be focused on the things that are important, and feelings will be a little tenser
than usual. This experience is often experienced by an individual when watching a horror
movie or seeing scary and alarming incidents such as murder. This intensity of emotion is
considered beneficial even when experiencing negative feelings such as anger or fear. This is
due to the fact that this type of emotions elicit a different feeling to the body of the individual
216
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
who experiences it and thus increases alertness and awareness. In addition, at this intensity,
feelings are likely to be controlled by the affected individuals (Mahmood Nazar, 1990).
Next, a serious emotion occurs when an individual is facing a dangerous situation which
could threaten his or her life. Conversely, this can also occurs when an individual is too
happy and laugh out loud, During this experience,, physiological changes such as heartbeat,
blood pressure, and hormone adrenaline activities will increase at a faster rate. At the same
time, the red blood cells from spleen and liver will also be released into the blood stream.
This may cause a possible impending tissue injury and bloods from the injury clots faster
(Mahmood Nazar, 1990). All of these are preparations to help a person face possible danger.
Scattering emotion is a form of serious emotions which will be experienced severely for a
long time. Generally, individuals who suffer from this type of emotion or sentiment also
suffer from serious stress and there are experts who reported that scattering emotions is the
cause for their stress. For example, soldiers who have been involved in wars in the past, often
experienced emotions such as fear, anxiety, and worries even in the present environment. In
this regard, experiences during the war will continue to affect their daily life (Mahmood
Nazar, 1990).
Positive emotions are just as important in understanding ourselves as the negative ones. These
positive emotions are easy to recognize-most people intuitively understand them quite easily.
For example, relief is a pleasurable feeling when a negative emotion subsides, usually
accompanied by a sigh. Unfortunately for us, there are more basic negative emotions than
positive ones, probably because survival depended upon us taking swift, focused actions.
Negative emotions narrow our attention and actions. In contrast, positive emotions states tend
to broaden your focus and encourage you to playful and explore (Decon, 2013). Normal
human being tends to experience negative feelings such as sadness and depression. Both of
these emotions will distract and affect daily activities. While anger is a form of reaction
caused by a few stimulations or situation such as threat, direct aggression, verbal attacks,
frustration, and so on (Chaplin, 1985).
Viewing emotions as complex organizations with different components, emotions can be seen
as representing one element of behavior (Intan, Zulkarnain, Noraida, Nor Diana, Shukran,
Zarina, Jasni, Zhooriyati, Salahuddien, & Mohamad, 2013). During hajj, emotions are likely
to be influenced by various factors including situational and personal. Current approach to
studying emotion differentiates between two broad-range of emotions: positive vs. negative
emotions. Positive feelings include calm and happiness whereas negative emotions comprise
of anger and frustration, among others (Intan, Zulkarnain, Noraida, Nor Diana, Shukran,
Zarina, Jasni, Zhooriyati, Salahuddien, & Mohamad, 2013).
In short, it can be concluded daily life, people face and experience a variety of emotions.
Emotions experienced by humans also depends on particular situations or event that had
happens in their daily life. This determines the form of emotions as well as their health
condition. Relating this to a spiritual journey such as Hajj, such journey is likely to elicit
various emotions at various intensity.
1.4 This Study

This study is looking at various emotions experienced during a spiritual journey of Hajj in
Mecca.
217
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.0 Methodology
This is both descriptive and qualitative research. In this research, 23 participants were male
and 30 were female from Malaysia between the ages of 25 to 64 and they have ho just
returned from a Hajj in the last six months. Initially, a total number of 98 survey forms were
distributed by email to the participants who were identified through a close group on
Facebook consisting of 20,496 members from all over Malaysia and other countries who
have completed Hajj before. Members of the group actively discuss their Hajj trip in this
group. Out of the total 98 surveys distributed, however, only 53 survey forms were returned
for analysis. In this part of analysis, participants responded to a set of three open ended
questions asking them to report the most frequent emotions they experienced during their
journey, things that make them happiest and saddest during their journey.
3.0 Findings
This section is divided into three sub-topics 1) description of most frequent emotion
experienced during their Hajj, 2) description of things that make them happiest during their
journey, and 3) description of things that make them saddest during their journey.
3.1 Description of Most Frequent Emotion
In this question, some of the participants reported more than one type of emotion that they
experienced. According to the participants, the most frequent emotion that they experienced
during their journey was happy (n=46). A relatively large number of the participants (n=15)
also reported that they felt thankful during their hajj trip. At the same time, they also reported
that they felt sad (n=5) during pilgrimage. The results showed that pilgrims experienced
different types of emotion during the hajj in Mecca. Below are the responses from the participants
in this research for this section.
I felt happy during my stay in Mecca.
During the pilgrimage, I felt very thankful to God.
Table 1: Most frequent emotions

Type of emotion Number of report
Calm 1
Fear 1
Patient 1
Humbled 1
Angry 1
Touched 2
Delighted 3
Excited 4
Sad 5
Thankful 15
Happy 46
218
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.2 Description of Things That Make Them Happiest during Their Journey
In this section, the researcher has compiled the answer into few themes as listed in the table
below. Many of the participants were happy because they are able to complete their spiritual
journey. At the same time, they were happy because they are able to perform hajj in Mecca.
Based on the results of the study it can be concluded that the pilgrims were happy to perform the
pilgrimage in Mecca, even though they were packed with activities and crowded surroundings.
This spiritual journey and all the major activities related to the journey become the source of
happiness and joy for the participants in this study. Below are the responses from the participants in
this research for this section.
I felt so happy because able to complete hajj.
I felt happy because able to perform hajj in this year.
I felt happy when worshipping in Masjidil Haram.
Table 2: Happiest
Things that make them most happy Number of report
Seeing places of worship/mosque 2
(Kaabah, Masjidil Haram)
Being with family 6
Acquaintances with other pilgrims 8
Undertaking hajj (Mina, Tawaf) 8
Good health 10
Being in places of worship (Kaabah, 11
Masjidil Haram)
Worshipping in Masjidil 13
Haram/Nabawi
Performing Hajj 19
Completing the process of pilgrimage 22
Others 22
3.3 Description of Things That Make Them Saddest during Their Journey
According to the participants, they were feeling sad upon leaving Mecca after their spiritual
journey. However, there were 13 participants who reported that they were sad due to other
pilgrims attitude. This analysis indicate that that pilgrims felt sad to leave the Holy Land
after stayed for about 40 days. From the analysis, it can be concluded that what made
participants sad during their spiritual journey are things that take them away from their rituals
and this include action/attitude of other pilgrims, obstacles and temporary health disorders
and most importantly leaving the place. Below are the responses from the participants in this
research for this section.
I felt so sad when leaving the Holy Land.
I felt so saf of action or attitude of other pilgrims.
Table 3: Saddest
219
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Things that make them most sad Number of report

Temporary health disorders 3
Obstacles 4
Missing other family members 4
Awareness (the story of the 7
Prophet/others)
Others 11
Action/attitude of other pilgrims 13
Leaving the Holy Land 18
4.0 Conclusion
From the above discussion, emotional experience during pilgrimage in Mecca can be
concluded as consisting of various types. Pilgrims who stayed for about 40 days in Mecca and
perform various activities and interact with many different human behavior lead to them to
experiencing various forms and intensity of emotions.
Even if negative emotions are experienced, the main emotions comes in the shape of positive
emotions such as happiness and thankful This may be due to fact that Hajj is a sacred journey
and a golden opportunity to get closer to God. Not all Muslims in this world have the
opportunity to perform the pilgrimage. This motivates the pilgrims in Mecca in facing the
obstacles during their worship and enables them to experience much happiness out of the
situation.
What is clear is that the ritual associated with Hajj are what contributing to their positive
emotions but the hindrances to perform this ritual (such as being sick, action of others,
leaving) are what makes them sad. The pilgrims who have high levels of positive emotions
is likely to experience negative emotions such as sadness. For almost 40 days in Mecca, they
have maximized their efforts to make use of the opportunity to practice their faith, to draw
closer to Allah, to visit historical places, and so on. It is likely that they feel sad when the
time comes to leave Mecca and go back to their homeland because things will be different
there. The grief felt by the pilgrims may be due to the fact that at home, they have to continue
their daily routines and busy schedules thus hindering them from giving 100% attention to
their religious activities as in Mecca. This may be the source of their anxiety and sadness to
leave.
This study provides evidence that the trip to Mecca is something desirable and also have clear
health implications . From psychological perspective, it is positive event that potentially
elicits more positive emotions compared to negative emotions. Future studies should explore
the long-term effects of this experience on the participants. Future studies should also explore
other spiritual journeys in order to fully capture how these experiences can have an impact on
a persons life experience.
5.0 Acknowledgement
This research is a sub-topic of ongoing PhD research study and funded by Long Term
Research Grant Scheme (LRGS), University Science of Malaysia and Ministry of Higher
Education, MyBrain Program (MyPhD).
220
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6.0 References
Ahmed, Q. A., Arabi, Y. M., & Memish, Z. A., 2006. Health risks at the hajj. The Lancet,
367,
1008-1015.
Al-Faisal, R,. 2009. Hajj. United Kingdom: Garnet Publishing.
Ayten, A., 2010. Hajj. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Page 375-376.
Chaplin, J. D., 1985. Dictionary of psychology. 2nd edition. New York: Dell Publishing
Company.
Coleman, J. C. & Glaros, A. G., 1983. Contemporary psychology and effective behaviour.
5th edition. Glenview III: Scott Foresman & Co.
Deacon, L., 2013. Brilliant psychology. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.
Ibrahim, M. K., 2013. Travelog Haji: Mengubah Sempadan Iman. Perpustakaan Negara
Malaysia: PTS Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Intan, H. M. Hashim, Zulkarnain, A. H., Noraida, A. G., Nor Diana, M., Shukran, A. R.,
Zarina, M. S., Jasni, S., Zhooriyati, S. M., Salahuddien, A., and Mohamad, A. S., 2013.
The dynamics of emotion at crowded places during Umrah: A qualitative study. In: 5th
National seminar on hajj best practices on crowd & health issues. Pulau Pinang,
Malaysia. 27-28 August 2013. Hajj Research Cluster.
Kalat. J.W., & Shiota, M. N., 2007. Emotion. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth/Vicki
Knight
Publishing.
Lazarus, R.S., 1991. Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mahmood Nazar, M., 1990. Pengantar Psikologi Satu Pengenalan Asas Kepada Jiwa Dan
Tingkah laku Manusia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Plutchik, R., 1982. A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions. Social Science Information, 21,
529-553.
Shafi, S., Booy, R., Haworth, E., Rashid, H., & Memish, Z. A., 2008. Hajj: Health lessons for
mass gatherings. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 1, 27-32.
Solomon, R. C., 2008. The philosophy of emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L.
F.
Barret (Eds.), Handbook of emotions. New York: Guilford Press.
221
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Racial Microaggression among Malaysian University Students: Exploring

the Themes
Mitshel Lino* & Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
mitshel.mitshel@gmail.com
Abstract
Does racism still exist in modern day society? Arguably it should have been reduced or even
non-existent along with the societal development and enactment of anti-discriminative law.
This is especially true among the educated population in university who are encouraged to
behave in egalitarian and objective manners. However, the suppression of overt racism acts
through anti-racism civil laws, 1Malaysia policy and university policy that emphasizes on
equality have transformed racism into modern racism Racial Microaggression, an indirect
and subtle form of racism that may consciously and unconsciously performed by the
perpetrator and often caught the victims off-guard. The present study aims to uncover the
themes of racial microaggression among Malaysian public university students. Qualitative
study involving face-to-face, one-to-one, in-depth interviews was conducted with 40
undergraduates, from 4 racial groups (Malay, Chinese, Indian and East Malaysian) recruited
through purposive and snowball sampling. Interpretational Phenomenological Analysis was
used to analyse the data, which allowed participants to fully share their experiences and
phenomenology. Results indicated 11 themes such as: (i) Paradox of over-scrutiny/ overlook,
(ii) Differential treatment towards people from different race/ religion, and (iii) Assumption
of superiority/ inferiority/ intelligence due to race. The findings of this study are useful in
revealing and understanding the phenomena of racial microaggression instead focusing on
traditional form of racism which are plenty in the existing literatures. The present study may
provide educational insights into the reality of inter/ intra-ethnic interaction in university
setting and therefore, able to raise awareness and help to develop effective measurements to
reduce such behaviours.
Keywords: Modern racism; Subtle racism; Implicit racism; Implicit prejudice.
1. Introduction
Racial microaggression is defined as brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral and
environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile,
derogatory or negative racial slights and insults that potentially have harmful or unpleasant
psychological impact on the target person or group (Sue et al., 2007). In the present study, it
is operationally defined as a salient act in everyday verbal and non-verbal communication and
mostly automatic and often performed unconsciously, that both the perpetrators and targets
often do not realize when it is taking place.
In Malaysia, National integration is a phenomenon as much as national disintegration

(Huntington, 1965, p. 392). Despite Malaysian governments effort to integrate the
multiethnic groups in Malaysia under the 1 Malaysia6 policy, Malaysia still mainly
operates as a multicultural society where the population consists of various and diverse ethnic
groups and backgrounds. Within this type of society, Malaysians comprise of several major
61 Malaysia integration policy was introduced by Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak to foster unity and sense of nationalism
among different ethnic groups in Malaysia (Bahagian Penerbitan Dasar Negara, 2009)
222
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ethnic groups and each of this group generally practices different religions, speaks a
different languages, and adopts fairly different and unique customs (Hashim et al, 2012). In
academic context, vernacular schools allow for children of certain ethnic background to
attend schools that are taught in certain languages. For instance, students of chinese
ethnicity may attend Chinese schools that are taught in Mandarin whereas Malays are more
likely to attend the national secondary schools which are taught in Bahasa Malaysia. While
this practice supports cultural independence, it also limits interactions between people of
different ethnic groups and can potentially segregates them futher.
Within this fragmented society, racial stereotypes and prejudices may be lurking that
further translated in the acts of racism. Yet, overt acts of racism are not acceptable. This is
especially in view of Malaysian civil laws that prohibit overt act of prejudice and racism such
as: The Internal Security Act 82 (1960), the revised Sedition Act 15 (1969) and the Printing
Presses and Publications Act 301 (1984). In addition, there are many governmental
campaigns as part of the attempt to build solidarity within Malaysian society. One such
example is 1 Malaysia, a campaign designed to foster the spirit of oneness among
Malaysians. Within this campaign, colorblindness and neutrality of law are fostered
(Bahagian Penerbitan Dasar Negara, 2009). While this may discourage overt acts of racism,
the same cannot be said for the more subtle acts such as racial microagression.
We argue that overt act of racism is especially low among educated youth, such as university
students due to the existence of anti-discriminative clause by Federal Government Gazette,
under section 8 that prohibits the discrimination of races and religion in various aspects of
university bureaucracy (Attorney General Chamber, 2011) and university guiding principle
that dictates maintaining socio-cultural integrity and sensitivities (USM Official Web Portal,
2013). However, the same conclusion may not be true for microaggression because it is often
covert and difficult to be detected (Sue et al., 2007). Due to its subtle and indirect nature,
subtle racism is often overlooked and understudied, partly due to lack of awareness,
negligence, discredit or even denial towards the issue on the behalf of both the victims and
perpetrators.
In addition, most academic literatures on racial microaggression are found in western context
while little has been done on the eastern context. Therefore, the current understanding of the
racial microaggression topic is prevalent to western context and has limited applicability on
eastern context due to cultural difference. This study explores racial microagresion within the
context of Malaysian university students. It is particularly interested in the themes of racial
microagresion as experienced by Malaysian university students of different ethnicities.
2. Literature review
While consciously working hard to be egalitarian, certain values pertaining to how people
react to others outside their group or race may still be unconsciously adopted and can be
translated into the act of racial microaggression. The present study aimed to scientifically test
whether or not racial microaggression really exist in Malaysian university context. Within
academic setting and in the effort to conform to certain egalitarian value to appear socially
desirable, racial microagression may grow strong and alive (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1996).
Looking at the past literatures in Western context, several themes of racial microaggression
were discussed in the following, with many researches mainly explored in the American
university contexts. Inside the college classroom context, Sue, Lin, Torino, Capodilupo and
Rivera (2009) found that difficult racial dialogue often occurred between the student of color
223
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
with other white students or instructors in the US. Several themes of racial microaggression
emerged from their research, and they are broadly classified under three major domains:
(i)Racial microaggressions as precipitators of difficult racial dialogues, (ii) Reactions to
difficult dialogues and (iii) Instructor strategies for facilitating difficult dialogues. Some
examples of the themes from the first domain are such the subjects in the research described
that they were being inferred as being less intelligent as their white peers, when their white
peers spoke for them (ascription of intelligence) and their opinions/ answers are often
ignored/ rejected in the class (denial of racial reality) or someone spoke slowly when
explaining what the instructor said in the class to an Asian American student, assuming the
latter student could not speak fluent English. However, in reality, he or she speaks fluent
English (alien in own land).
In addition to difficult racial dialogue inside the classroom setting, African American female
students experienced racial microaggressions in form of invisibility in the class. They often
have their opinion dismissed as not important or being avoided because of their race. One
African American participant in McCabes (2009) study professed that she often wondered
what her white peers perceived of her; whether they avoided sitting next to her because of her
race or her body odor. She found it painful whether others interacted with her because of her
merits as a student or her race. Such doubt is attributed to the subtle nature of racial
microaggression; the victims often in dilemma about its existence or to dismiss it as
innocuous.
In contrast with the sense of invisibility in the classroom, many African American college
female students experienced the paradox of invisibility. According to McCabes (2009)
study, aside from being invisible, they were often singled out by the lecturers to be a
spokesperson for their race (since there is usually small number of them in a class). Two
participants in the study felt the pressure to be the representatives of their race, because they
felt that their opinions would be construed as representing the whole culture while in reality,
no group of people all think alike. The burdens of such situation became more intense when
the topic of the lecture explicitly focused on race. Such incident illustrated covert verbal and
non-verbal microaggression performed by the lecturers or peers that indirectly indicated the
African American students are different. As a result, they often felt anxious and isolated
(McCabe, 2009).
Outside the classroom context, paradox of invisibility also occurs in form of assumption of
criminality on African American students. An African American student participant in
McCabes (2009) study reported that he was stopped and checked by police when he was
walking towards his car at night after a party (McCabe, 2009). While the most glaring
incident is the omnipresence of authorities in the dorm on the floor housing mostly Black
men than other floors. The authorities charged stricter penalties to black men than students
from other races committing the same offences. An example from McCabes study was one
of the African American male participant was sent to jail for bringing in alcohol to the dorm.
described this as paradox of invisibility; that is, the black men are either overlooked or
closely scrutinized due to negative stereotype attached to their race and gender. In this
study, themes of racial microagression as experienced by university students were examined.
Although many social scientists may argue that the mechanism behind racial prejudice and
discrimination operates on a similar premise across different cultures and countries (Essed,
1991); however, the situation in Malaysia is unique in that diverse society, it is not possible to
interact without being aware of ones own group thus creating a ground for social
categorization process to take place that can further enhance intergroup prejudice and
224
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
conflicts including inter-racial of nature. Social identity theory by Tajfel (1974) proposed
three mental processes that lead people to divide others into the in-group and out-group;
thus influencing how people react to those who they perceived as in-group and out-group.
This process may be the basis of racial microagression as likely to be experienced by the
participants in this study. Participants were university students from different ethnic groups
and their experience of racial microagression may indeed be influenced by the interactions
with people within and outside their ethnic group.
3. Methodology
The present study has been approved by Human Research Ethics Committee. In order to
explore the phenomenology, i.e. the worldview and perception of the participants with racial
microaggression experience, the data of this study was obtained through qualitative strategy,
specifically face-to-face, one-to-one interview.
A total of 40 Malaysian from a public university from Northern region in Malaysia,

consisting of 12 males and 28 females undergraduates from second year (and above) of
studies were recruited through convenience and proportionate sampling. The proportion was
such that 10 students were recruited from each race: Chinese, Malay, Indian and other
(Sabahan, Sarawakian and racially mixed parentage). All participants were recruited across
22 different majors and 12 different schools across the campus to ensure diverse sampling
and sampling representativeness across the university.
List of materials used for the interview were: An audio recorder, informed consent form,
debriefing statement form, demographic information forms and a list of interview questions.
All forms and questions were self-generated by the author. The first author acted as the
Principle investigator and sole researcher. The first authors status as a non-Malaysian served
as an advantage in gaining Malaysian participants trust in confiding their racial
microaggression experiences.
An example of an interview question:

1. Every day, you come into contact with people such as friends, room-mates,
classmates, lecturers and other staff in the university. What were some of the subtle
ways that these people treat you differently because of your race? Would you mind
providing some examples? (who, what, where, when, how)
Recruited participants were interviewed in a one-to-one, face-to-face setting with the

researcher, which lasted for approximately 40 minutes. The collected data was analysed using
Interpretational Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) which allows participants to fully share
their experiences and phenomenology (Langdridge, 2004). The researcher can derive
subjective worldview and yet identify general themes to draw conclusion about the
participants experience of microaggression. Hence, rich information can be obtained to
further the knowledge of microaggression in Malaysia.
225
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Result
Table 1: Themes of Racial Microaggression
No. Themes Malay Chinese Indian Others

1. Paradox of over-scrutiny/ overlook
2. Differential treatment towards people from
different race/ religion
3. Assumption of superiority/ inferiority/
intelligence due to race
4. Insensitivity towards the existence of other
race
5. In-group exclusivity
6. Alien in own land
7. Language barrier as a precursor to racial
microaggression
8. In-group benefit
9. Second-class citizen
10. Denial of racial experience
11. Preferential interaction with other race
Table 1 described the overall themes obtained from the one-to-one interview session. The
detailed description of each themes of racial microaggression is presented in the following.
Theme 1: Paradox of scrutiny/ overlook
The recipients of racial microaggression - due to their racial identity either become the focus
of others attention or negligence. In the first case, their miniscule behaviors were easily
picked up by others, causing them to be punished. Meanwhile, the latter cause the recipients
to be avoided or ostracized for participation in various activities. In facing such paradox,
many participants from different races felt that they could not live like other commoners
Theme 2: Differential treatment towards people from different race/ religion
The participants (as perpetrators or recipients) performed or experienced unequal treatment in
non-obvious way due to their racial identity
Theme 3: Assumption of superiority/ inferiority/ intelligence due to race
The participants were perceived to be more superior, inferior and also more/ less intelligent
on the basis of their race. Often time they felt the burden to prove themselves to others.
Consequently, they were ridiculed, ostracized or admired on the basis of stereotype against
them
Theme 4: Insensitivity towards the existence of other race
The perpetrator performed a discreet act that may offend or neglect people from other race
because they failed to take into consideration the different needs or feeling of other race
226
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Theme 5: In-group exclusivity

The participants perceived that different racial groups express their preference to stick with
their own race due to perception of in-group similarity and out-group differences
Theme 6: Alien in own land
Participants were perpetually perceived as outsiders in their own homeland despite their
nationality as Malaysians. All races except the Malay participants experienced this condition.
Theme 7: Language barrier as a precursor to racial microaggression
Participants perceived that the lack of common language in the interaction across different
races as a precursor towards the experience of racial microaggression and hindrance from
unity. All races except the Malay participants experienced this condition.
Theme 8: In-group benefit
Participants perceived that usually the members of a particular race will only share benefit
among themselves
Theme 9: Second-class citizen
Participants perceived they were treated as inferior as compared to other race when attending
certain events or obtaining service
Theme 10: Denial of racial experience
Due to the subtle nature of racist encounters, the participants experience of racial
microaggression were denied by their confidant
Theme 11: Preferential interaction with other race
The perpetrators actually prefer to interact with people outside their own race because of they
perceive certain negative traits attached to their own racial group
5. Discussion, Future Implication and Conclusion
Racial microaggression is apparent among university students in Northern region in Malaysia

despite the egalitarian attitude required of academicians in university setting. Some general
themes that are recurring across different races, such that Paradox of over-scrutiny/
overlook, Differential treatment towards people from different race/ religion, Assumption
of superiority/ inferiority/ intelligence due to race, Insensitivity towards the existence of
other race, In-group exclusivity.
Meanwhile, the Alien in own land and Language barrier as a precursor to racial
microaggression were not experienced by the Malay participants since they are considered
as the native population in Malaysia whose mother tongue is Bahasa Malaysia, the national
language of Malaysia; therefore, they neither experienced communication hindrance nor
perceived as outsiders
Although there are similarities among the themes from the current study with the themes from
the past literature, the context in which the theme occurred slightly differed. For instance, the
theme Alien in own land from the U.S context implied that the perpetrators assumed the
recipients of racial microaggression to be foreigners. However, in Malaysia, the perpetrators
were fully aware that the recipients are local Malaysians, with the exception that the
recipients identity (Chinese and Indian Malaysian) is often purportedly accused to be similar
227
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
to that of the Chinese from China and Indian from India respectively despite most of them
hold Malaysian citizenships and being the 3rd or 4th generation living in Malaysia.
Some themes that are uniquely pertinent to Malaysian context include: Differential treatment
towards people from different race/ religion, Insensitivity towards the existence of other
race, and In-group benefit. This is due to the participants experiences and perceptions on
unequal opportunities within the university bureaucracy, such as distribution of academic
scholarship, university admission and others. Altogether, both factors may have contributed
to the invisible gap between the ethnic in-group and out-group perceived by the research
participants.
This study highlights that racial microagression is experienced across ethnic groups and it is
important to further study this issue. This study stresses the importance of perceptions of
in-group and out-group interactions may play a role in shaping individuals experience of
racial microaggression. Further investigation is required to understand the specific
mechanisms of how in-group and out-group interactions and perceptions may help to shape
ones experience of racial microaggression.
This study is limited to the experience of racial microaggression among university students in
northern region in Malaysia, which may not be generalized into the population of other age
group from non-university background or population of students from other university in
Malaysia.
Despite the fact that this study is still at the explorative stage to uncover the reality of racial
microaggression in Malaysia, it provides a platform for the Malaysian university students to
voice their opinions, to make the invisible, visible, and therefore, to increase awareness and
understanding of the existence of racial microaggression phenomenon in Malaysia. Further
quantitative study may be done to confirm the prevalence of this issue across wider
population in Malaysia.
6. References
Attorney General Chambers of Malaysia, 2011. The Constitution of the Universiti Sains
Malaysia. [pdf] Available at: http://legal.usm.my/phocadownload/perlembagaanusm.pdf
[Accessed 13 July 2015]
Bahagian Penerbitan Dasar Negara, 2009. 1 Malaysia: Rakyat Didahulukan Pencapaian

Diutamakan. [pdf] Available at: http://www.kpkk.gov.my/pdf/Booklet_1Malaysia.pdf
Essed, P., 1991. Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory. sage series on
race and ethnic relations, vol. 2. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Hashim, I., Mohd-Zaharim, N. & Khodarahimi, S., 2012. Factors predicting nter-ethnic
friendships at workplace. Interpersona, 6 (2), pp.191-199
Huntington, S. P., 1965. Political development and political decay in world politics. New
Jersey: Cambridge University Press.
Langdridge, D., 2004. Introduction to research methods and data analysis in psychology.
Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
228
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
McCabe, J., 2009. Racial and gender microaggressions in a predominantly-white campus:

experiences of black, latina/o and white undergraduates. Race, Gender and Class, [e-journal]
16(1-2), pp.133-151. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
http://lib.usm.my [Accessed 13 July 2015]
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal K. L.,
& Esquilin, M., 2007. Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical
practice. American Psychologist, [e-journal] 62(4), pp. 271286. Available through:
Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website http://lib.usm.my [Accessed 13 July 2015]
Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P., 2009. Racial
microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and
Ethnic Minority Psychology, [e-journal] 15(2), pp.183-190. Available through: Universiti
Sains Malaysia Library website http://lib.usm.my [Accessed 13 July 2015]
Tajfel, H., 1974. Social identity and intergroup behavior. Social Science Information, 13,
pp.65-93
The Commissioner of Law Revision Malaysia, 2006. Laws of Malaysia: Act 82. [pdf] Internal
Security Act 1960. Available at: http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%202/Act%2082.pdf
The Commissioner of Law Revision Malaysia, 2006. Laws of Malaysia: Act 15. [pdf]
Sedition Act 1969. Available at: http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%201/Act%2015.pdf [pdf]
The Commissioner of Law Revision Malaysia, 2006. Laws of Malaysia: Act 301. [pdf]
Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984. Available at:
http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%207/Act%20301.pdf [Accessed 13 July 2015]
USM Official Web Portal, 2013. Thrusts & Guiding Principles. [online] Available at:
https://www.usm.my/index.php/en/info-gateway/2013-07-03-07-57-25/thrusts-guiding-princi
ples [Accessed 13 July 2015]
229
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Brainwave Theta Signal Responses During Receptive Auditory Quranic and

Non-Quranic Stimulation: A Pilot Study
Nur Syairah Ab Rania, *, Muzaimi Mustaphaa,b, Faruque Rezac, Muhammad Amiri Ab
Ghanid
aDepartment of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health
Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia

Email: nursyairahabrani@yahoo.com
bCenter of Neuroscience Services and Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus,
16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
Email: mmuzaimi@usm.my
cDepartment of Neurosciences, School of Medical Science, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health
Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
Email: faruque@usm.my
dDepartment of Quran and Hadith, Sultan Ismail Petra International College, Nilam Puri,
Kelantan, Malaysia
Email: amirighani@yahoo.com
Abstract
Rhythmic perception often invokes desirable responses from both emotionally and bodily
reactions. These physical and physiological responses are recognised to promote a sense of
calmness and general well-being, despite unclear underlying neural mechanisms in the brain.
This preliminary study examines the neural representation involving auditory stimulation of
rhythmic Quranic verse and non-Quranic rhythms. Six healthy adult volunteers (3 muslims, 3
non-muslims) were consented, recruited and underwent EEG recording of the brain activity for
theta power as an indicator of state of calmness. Using eight different stimuli, a real-time
recording of the brainwave signals (theta power in 1v x 10-6) were analysed by fast fourier
transform to approximate the brain areas that emit these signals. The brainwave theta power for
Quranic verse with Murattal Asim recitation form (meansd,12.7 28.4) showed high power
significance compared to Tarannum recitation form (3.24 3.83) (p=0.002). When Quranic
verses recitation forms were compared to non-Quranic rhythms, recitation form of Murattal
Susi (2.123.92) revealed high power in theta brainwaves compared to Hare Krishna chanting
(1.35 1.82, p= 0.05) and Monochord tone (1.91 2.30,p=0.029). As for non-Quranic
rhythms, Monochord (1.912.30) indicated high theta power compared to Hare Krishna (1.35
1.82) (p=0.08) whereas Arabic Poem (1.240.93) showed lower power compared to Hare
Krishna (1.35 1.82) (p=0.048). The preliminary result of this study suggests that rhythmic
Quranic verse recitations elicit the theta responses more readily in human brain compared with
conventional non-Quranic rhythms.
Keywords: Theta brainwave; Quranic rhythm; Spontaneous MEG; EEG
230
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1. Introduction
Music therapy has been used in rehabilitation to stimulate brain functions involved in
movement, cognition, speech, emotions and sensory perceptions (Bradt et al. 2010).
Individuals with moderate depression are suggested to use music as their therapy to enhance
the effect of psychological support. This therapy has statistically significant effect and showed
a better improvement in their symptom compared to psychological support alone
(Castillo-Prez et al. 2010). Several brain areas are known to be involved in musical features
processing (Alluri et al. 2013). It has also been shown that spectral power changes in the theta
and alpha frequency band occurred with relaxation and meditation approach (Jacobs &
Friedman 2004). Monochord sound has also been reported to alleviate pain, enhance body
perception and relaxation, and often used in music therapy (Lee et al. 2012). Theta brainwave
in particular, has received considerable attention from researchers (Hsieh & Ranganath 2014)
with observation of activations in the pre-frontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex of the
brain, although involvement of theta brainwave in relation to the calming effect of rhythmic
Quranic verse recitation remains unexplored. Such brain signal can be recorded using
electroencepalography (EEG) and magnetoencepalography (MEG) (Bressler & Kelso 2001;
Kamal et al. 2013). In the present research, we report preliminary result that aimed to uncover
the neural representation for the rhythmic Quranic verses in comparison with non Quranic
rhythm.
2. Material and Methods
Participants
Six normal and healthy young adults (four males and two females, 21-35 years old) from
multi-ethnic/religion background (3 Muslims, 3 non-Muslim) were recruited and consented.
The exclusion and inclusion criterion were set to ensure that only the targeted volunteers were
selected. Subjects were then subjected to the MEG-EEG real-time recording in magnetically
shielded room at MEG-EEG laboratory, Hospital USM. The study had received the Ethical
Approval from USM Human Ethics Committee ( FWA Reg No: 00007718; IRB Reg No:
00004494)
Stimuli
Spontaneous pre-auditory test was applied to all participants as the control stimulus. There
were two categories of stimuli (Quranic verses and non-Quranic rhythms) of receptive
listening. Quranic rhythm included the recitation of Quran with different styles (Murattal Asim
Tartil, Murattal Susi and Tarannum Asli) while second category represent by sounds of Hare
Krishna chanting, and Monochord. Arabic News and Arabic poem were used as the negative
controls.
Subject preparation
Head position indicator (HPI) system was used to locate the position of the head within the
probe to identify the signal sources relative to the head. The nasion, left and right preauricular
point (LPA and RPA) were identified accordingly.This anatomical landmarks (or cardinal
point) served to integrate the source model into an anatomical image. The distances larger
during HPI fitting were adjusted to below of 5mm and the EEG impedance were measured
below 5kOhm.
231
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
EEG data acquisition

All the volunteers underwent a spontaneous EEG (figure 1) recording of the whole brain. The
measurement was obtained by the whole head Elekta Neuromag 306-channels MEG system
(Stockholm, Sweeden) simultaneously with compatible Waveguard EEG cap 61 electrodes
from Antneuro(German) in seated position. Using eight different stimuli, the receptive
listening data acquisitions were conducted in awake state with eyes closed for three minutes per
stimulus and one minute gap before the next stimulus presentation. An anti-aliasing (low pass
filter) was set at 330Hz, 0.1Hz as the high pass and the sampling rate was set at 1000Hz.
Pre-processing
Spatiotemporal signal space separation (TSSS) was applied to each raw data to reduce the
movement artifacts for signal arising from inside or outside of the sensor arrays, biomagnetics
sensors or external interference sources according to previous protocol (Gross et al. 2013;
Taulu et al. 2005; Taulu & Simola 2006)
Spectral Analysis
A real-time recording of the brainwave signals (theta power in 1v x 10-6) were analysed by
fast fourier transform to approximate the brain areas that emit these signals that represented the
emotional state of calmness (figure 2). We investigated the various frequency bands from low
frequency to high frequency (delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma) for left frontal (Fp1, AF3,
AF7, F1, F3, F7, FC1, FC5, FT7), right frontal (Fp2, AF4, AF8, F2, F4, F8, FC2, FC6, FT8),
left parietal (P1, P3, P7), right parietal (P2, P4, P8), left temporal (T7, TP7), right temporal (T8,
TP8), left occipital (PO3, PO7, O1), right occipital (PO4, PO8, O2) and midline brain (Fpz,
AFz, Fz, FCz, Cz, CPz, POz, Oz). These EEG raw data were transformed to frequency domain
by non-parametric methods, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). The FFT size was set at 1024 and
its step was 512 using Hanning window. The spectral analysis involved the transformation of
signals in time domain into the frequency domain. Oscillatory signal component was defined in
time frequency domain with a more compact representation in the spectral domain. (Gross et al.
2013). Data were analysed by non-parametric independant t-test using IBM SPSS 22.0.
Figure 1: Left- Layout of WaveGuard EEG cap 61 channels and selected 45 points of interest. Right-
WaveGuard EEG cap 61 channels was placed on a volunteer head.
232
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Figure 2: A real time recording from MEG and EEG. Left:During recording in MEG room. Right panel:
Signal in time domain and Signal in frequency domain
3. Result
Table 1 showed the brainwave theta power for various Quranic verses and non-Quranic
rhythms. The recorded activity from right and left frontal areas for theta power implies
correlation with the state of calmness.
Table 1: Mean and SD of theta power (1x1012) with t-test

BIL PAIR* N MEAN** SD CORRELATION SIG
1 Murattal Asim vs 6 12.7833 28.4703 .967 .002

Tarannum Asli 3.8368
3.2427
2 Murattal Susi vs Hare 6 2.1208 3.9236 .941 .005
Krishna 1.3538 1.8226
3 Murattal Susi vs 6 2.1208 3.9236 .857 .029
Monochord 1.9167 2.3025
4 Hare Krishna vs 6 1.3538 1.8226 .926 .008
Monochord 1.9167 2.3025
5 Hare Krishna vs Arabic 6 1.3538 1.8226 .815 .048
Poem 1.2410 .9383
*Significant with p<.05 **mean in x10-12
233
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Figure 3 : Theta power during stimuli
The theta relative power was analysed for the 9 brain areas (left frontal, right frontal, left parietal,
right parietal, left temporal, right temporal, left occipital, right occipital, and midline). Figure 3
indicated that left frontal has constant in theta power while all the Quranic verses represented as
highest in theta power at the right frontal.
STIMULI IN LEFT VS RIGHT BRAIN AREA

1.60E-11
Relative Power (x10e-12V)
1.40E-11
1.20E-11
1.00E-11
8.00E-12
6.00E-12
4.00E-12
2.00E-12
0.00E+00 Left Frontal
Right Frontal
Theta brainwave in different stimulus
Figure 4 : Power in theta brainwave during stimuli at left and right frontal
4. Discussion
The theta brainwaves recording were widely burst in the right frontal cortices during the
concentration of Quranic receptive listening in apparently healthy, normal subjects. Rhythmic
Quranic verses were taken as means to achieve meditative concentration in this study, as
reflected by the state of calmness with theta power. The basic neurophysiology of EEG rhythms
has relation in behavior and neuronal processes as reported by Jensen and Vanni (2002).
234
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Frontal brain area has been shown to be activated during meditation concentration using other
form of practices. (Sa 1996; Aftanas & Golocheikine 2001).
Moderate tempo recitation of the Quranic verse seems to elicit highest brain theta power
compared with other styles of recitation, as shown by Murattal Asim (moderate tempo) versus
Tarannum Asli (slower tempo). The moderate tempo of Quranic recitation is commonly used in
Muslim daily live while Tarannum Asli recitation most common practiced in special ceremony
and competition.
Intriguingly, when Quranic verses recitation form were compared to non-Quranic rhythms,
recitation form of Murattal Susi (2.123.92) revealed higher power in theta brainwaves
compared to Hare Krishna chanting (1.35 1.82, p= 0.05) and Monochord tone (1.91
2.30,p=0.029). In additional, the right frontal area indicated that Quranic verses represent the
highest of theta power. Collectively, these findings suggest that, for both muslim and
non-muslim groups, though deduced from a small number of subjects in this study, highlighted
theta power dominance for rhythmic Quranic verse stimuli.
As for non-Quranic rhythms, Monochord (1.912.30) indicated higher theta power compared
to Hare Krishna (1.35 1.82) (p=0.08) whereas Arabic Poem (1.240.93) showed lower power
compared to Hare Krishna (1.35 1.82) (p=0.048).
5. Conclusion
The preliminary result of this study suggests that rhythmic Quranic recitations elicit the theta
responses more readily in human brain compared with conventional non-Quranic rhythms.
6. Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the USM Grant (1002/CNEURO/910114). We also thanks to
Safira Elaina, Hazim Omar, Alwani and all neuroscience members.
7. References
Adults, A., States, U., Barnes, P. M., Powell-griner, E., Mcfann, K., & Nahin, R. L. (2004).
Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use. doi:10.1016/j.sigm.2004.07.003
Aftanas, L.I. & Golocheikine, S. a., 2001. Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower
alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: High-resolution EEG
investigation of meditation. Neuroscience Letters, 310(1), pp.5760.
Alluri, V. et al., 2013. From vivaldi to beatles and back: Predicting lateralized brain responses
to music. NeuroImage, 83, pp.627636. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.06.064.
Bradt, J. et al., 2010. Music therapy for acquired brain injury. Cochrane database of systematic
reviews (Online), (7), p.CD006787.
Bressler, S. & Kelso, J. a S., 2001. Cortical coordination dynamics. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 5(1), pp.2636.
235
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Castillo-Prez, S. et al., 2010. Effects of music therapy on depression compared with

psychotherapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 37, pp.387390.
Gross, J. et al., 2013. Good practice for conducting and reporting MEG research. NeuroImage,
65, pp.349363. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.001.
Hsieh, L.-T. & Ranganath, C., 2014. Frontal midline theta oscillations during working memory
maintenance and episodic encoding and retrieval. NeuroImage, 85 Pt 2, pp.7219.
Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23933041 [Accessed July 10, 2014].
Jacobs, G.D. & Friedman, R., 2004. EEG Spectral Analysis of Relaxation Techniques. , 29(4),
pp.245254.
Jensen, O. & Vanni, S., 2002. A new method to identify multiple sources of oscillatory activity
from magnetoencephalographic data. NeuroImage, 15, pp.568574.
Kamal, N.F., Mahmood, N.H. & Zakaria, N.A., 2013. Modeling Brain Activities during
Reading Working Memory Task: Comparison between Reciting Quran and Reading
Book. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 97, pp.8389. Available at:
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877042813036525 [Accessed October 9,
2014].
Lee, E.J. et al., 2012. Monochord sounds and progressive muscle relaxation reduce anxiety and
improve relaxation during chemotherapy: A pilot EEG study. Complementary Therapies
in Medicine, 20(6), pp.409416. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2012.07.002.
Sa, K., 1996. Magnetoencephalography and Electroencephalography. Science, 26, pp.7981.
Taulu, S. & Simola, J., 2006. Spatiotemporal signal space separation method for rejecting
nearby interference in MEG measurements. Physics in medicine and biology, 51(7),
pp.17591768.
Taulu, S., Simola, J. & Kajola, M., 2005. Applications of the Signal Space Separation Method.
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 53(9), pp.33593372.
236
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
URBAN AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
237
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Cabaran Kehidupan Penduduk Kampung Bandar dan

Persekitarannya di Malaysia
Mohamad Shaharudin Samsurijan a,*, Mohd Shukri Hanapib & Azahan Awangc
a Bahagian Perancangan dan Pengurusan Pembangunan,
Malaysia
msdin@usm.my
b Pusat Kajian Pengurusan Pembangunan Islam,
Malaysia
hshukri@usm.my
c
Program Pengurusan Persekitaran,
Fakulti Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Malaysia
azahan@ukm.edu.my
Abstrak
Proses pemodenan, pembandaran dan perindustrian yang berlaku di negara ini sejak mencapai
kemerdekaan 57 tahun lalu telah banyak merombak struktur masyarakat dan cara hidup
penduduk khususnya di bandar. Perkembangan ini telah memberi kesan langsung ke atas
kualiti hidup penduduk kampung bandar. Penduduk kampung bandar merupakan sebahagian
daripada penduduk bandar, tinggal di kawasan kampung yang terkepung atau dikelilingi oleh
persekitaran pembangunan bandar. Kajian ini menghujahkan bahawa kualiti hidup masyarakat
kampung bandar dipengaruhi dua keadaan iaitu persekitaran kampung bandar dan komuniti
yang tinggal di kawasan tersebut. Hasil kajian literatur mendapati pengaruh persekitaran
kampung bandar dapat dirungkaikan menerusi dasar semasa kerajaan; kritikan dan pandangan
negatif penduduk sekitar terhadap kawasan kampung bandar; dan kemudahan di bandar.
Manakala keupayaan komuniti yang tinggal di kawasan kampung bandar terjelma menerusi
keupayaan merebut peluang ekonomi di bandar; keupayaan menyesuaikan diri dengan
persekitaran bandar; serta layanan daripada pihak berkuasa tempatan. Persekitaran kampung
bandar dan penduduknya turut menerima kesan langsung dari kepesatan pembangunan di
bandar serta kepesatan pertumbuhan penduduk di bandar.
Kata kunci: Kualiti Hidup, Kampung Bandar, Persekitaran Bandar, Keupayaan.

1. Pengenalan
Persekitaran bandar menyediakan pelbagai kemudahan kepada penduduk kampung bandar.

Kemudahan dan infrastruktur yang tersedia di persekitaran bandar menjadikan kehidupan di
bandar lebih bermakna dalam memenuhi keperluan dan kehendak penduduk bandar. Jurang
keperluan persekitaran bandar dan luar bandar yang jauh berbeza menjadikan kualiti hidup
penduduk bandar sering kali dilihat lebih baik menerusi pelbagai kemudahan infrastruktur
serta perkhidmatan perbandaran yang diterima (Azahan Awang et al. 2008), selain daripada
faktor persekitaran fizikal dan penduduknya (Azahan Awang 2004; Heller & Hadler 2006;
Narayana 2009). Hasil bancian Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia tahun 2010 menunjukkan
seramai 71% daripada jumlah penduduk Malaysia tertumpu di bandar. Cabaran yang dihadapi
238
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ialah untuk menyediakan kemudahan kepada bandar bagi memastikan bahawa faedah
kepadatan tidak terjejas berikutan peningkatan jenayah, pencemaran dan kesesakan (Malaysia
2010). Peningkatan jumlah penduduk di bandar dilihat turut memberi kesan langsung kepada
penduduk di persekitaran kawasan kampung bandar. Sepanjang dekad yang lalu, Malaysia
melalui proses pembandaran yang pesat dengan penduduk di kawasan bandar meningkat pada
kadar 2.2% berbanding penduduk luar bandar pada kadar 1.6% bagi tempoh 2000 hingga
2009. Penduduk bandar di Semenanjung Malaysia merangkumi 67% daripada jumlah
penduduk, dengan pertumbuhan kawasan bandar pada kadar 2.1% berbanding dengan
pertumbuhan kawasan luar bandar pada kadar 1.4% untuk tempoh yang sama (Malaysia
2010).
2. Isu dan Persekitaran Penduduk Kampung Bandar
Kualiti hidup masyarakat kampung bandar dapat dilihat dalam dua keadaan iaitu persekitaran
kampung bandar dan komuniti yang tinggal di kawasan tersebut (rujuk Rajah 1.1).
Persekitaran bandar menyediakan asas kepada pembentukan kualiti hidup penduduk kampung
bandar. Bandar dikatakan sebagai sebuah petempatan kekal yang secara relatifnya besar dan
padat serta pelbagai kemudahan yang terdapat di bandar seolah-olah menggambarkan bandar
sebagai sebuah tempat yang sesuai bagi mendapatkan kualiti hidup yang baik berbanding
dengan kawasan luar bandar (Azahan Awang 2004; Azahan Awang et al. 2008; Lee Kok Chai
& Wan Rozali 2007). Menurut Ye Liu et al. (2012) penduduk kampung bandar memilih untuk
terus kekal di bandar bukan kerana peluang pekerjaan dan untuk meningkatkan kualiti hidup
semata-mata tetapi turut dipengaruhi oleh faktor warisan, tradisi dan budaya. Penduduk
kampung bandar merupakan penduduk asal di persekitaran bandar tersebut sejak sebelum
kawasan itu bergelar bandar atau dibangunkan sebagai sebuah bandar. Perubahan masa dan
ruang telah menyebabkan penduduk kampung bandar terasing dan terkepung di tengah-tengah
pembangunan bandar (Li Ling & Li Xin 2011; Ye Liu et al. 2012; Yuting et al. 2010).
2.1 Dasar Kerajaan
Menurut Jane Jacobs (1961), Dasar Perancangan Moden yang diperkenalkan (merujuk kepada
dasar yang diperkenalkan di New York, Amerika Syarikat pada tahun 1960an) boleh
memusnahkan dan melenyapkan komuniti yang berada dalam bandar. Proses pembangunan
dan perbandaran yang dilakukan dengan tidak memikirkan masyarakat yang sedia ada dalam
bandar berkenaan boleh mengundang bencana kepada komuniti sedia ada, yang akhirnya
mengakibatkan komuniti sedia ada dan tinggal di dalam bandar terpaksa menyesuaikan diri
dan terpaksa hidup secara bertungkus-lumus untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut.
Isu yang berkaitan dengan kampung bandar telah pun dibincangkan sejak sekian lama, cuma
bezanya di sini istilah kampung bandar itu sendiri. Namun, isunya tetap sama, iaitu jaminan
kualiti hidup masyarakat yang tinggal di dalam kawasan bandar. Menurut Jane Jacobs
(1961) pembangunan perbandaran seharusnya sentiasa memikirkan golongan ini, agar apa
yang dirancangkan tidak menindas atau menganiayai komuniti yang berada di sekitarnya
239
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Isu dan Persekitaran

Penduduk Kampung Bandar
Persekitaran Komuniti
Kampung Bandar Kampung Bandar
Dasar Merebut
semasa Peluang
kerajaan
Cabaran
Pembangunan
bandar
Kritikan dan Menyesuaik

tanggapan an diri
negatif
Kemudahan di
bandar Layanan pihak
berkuasa
Kadar tempatan
pertumbuhan
penduduk
Kualiti Hidup Penduduk Kampung Bandar
Rajah 1: Isu dan kualiti hidup persekitaran kampung bandar
Di Amerika Syarikat konsep pembangunan kampung bandar telah diperkenalkan pada tahun
1973 oleh Taylor. Konsep ini merupakan sebahagian daripada proses pembandaran terancang.
Konsep kampung bandar yang diketengahkan ini membolehkan masyarakat yang bakal
tinggal di dalamnya melalui suasana hubungan kejiranan yang lebih mesra, persekitaran yang
lebih selamat, kemudahan yang efektif, dapat mengurangkan kesesakan lalu lintas, serta
semua urusan harian boleh dilaksanakan dalam lingkungan kawasan kampung bandar (Aldous
1992; Brindley 2003; Tait 2003), bahkan bakal penduduk turut diberi peluang untuk
mencadangkan reka bentuk pembangunan kawasan kampung bandar (Brindley 2003;
Landman 2004; Muray 2004). Konsep yang diperkenalkan ini telah berjaya menarik minat
beberapa negara maju lain seperti Britain, Perancis, Itali dan Greece untuk dilaksanakan ke
dalam pelan perancangan pembangunan negara tersebut. Namun, bagi Landman (2004) dan
Muray (2004), mereka berpendapat pembangunan konsep kampung bandar ini sebenarnya
bergantung kepada tahap penerimaan masyarakat dalam bandar tersebut kerana semua ini
melibatkan kualiti hidup masyarakat yang akan tinggal di dalamnya.
Isu berkaitan pertumbuhan semula (regeneration) bandar dan pembangunan semula
(redevelopment) bandar telah membawa kepada era baru perubahan masyarakat bandar (Jung
et.al. 2011; Mark 2012; Micheal 1995; Mike 2011). Perkembangan ini sudah pasti akan turut
melibatkan penduduk yang tinggal di kawasan kampung bandar. Konsep pembangunan ini
dikatakan dapat memaksimakan ruang yang terdapat di bandar dan pada masa yang sama
mampu meletakkan kualiti hidup penduduk bandar pada tahap yang terbaik (Mark 2012; Mike
240
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2011). Namun apa yang berlaku di bandaraya Seoul, Korea Selatan sebahagian besar daripada
projek-projek pembaharuan bandar berlaku pada tahun 1980-an, selepas Undang-undang
Pembangunan Semula Bandar (Urban Redevelopment Law) diluluskan pada tahun 1976.
Projek pembangunan semula dan pembaharuan bandar dilihat mampu menjadikan
persekitaran bandar lebih teratur dan bersistem. Perkembangan ini membolehkan pihak
pemaju (syarikat pembinaan) dan pemilik rumah atau tanah di sekitar bandar utama Seoul,
Korea Selatan menjalankan projek secara usahasama atau perkongsian. Projek ini yang telah
dimulakan secara sukarela di bawah arahan jawatankuasa pemilik rumah dan
pegawai-pegawai syarikat pembinaan, yang dipilih oleh wakil-wakil pemilik rumah,
usahasama ini secara teori untuk membina rumah pangsa atau rumah bertingkat serta
berkongsi keuntungan. Namun, dianggarkan kurang daripada 20% daripada penduduk asal
(penduduk kampung bandar) mampu untuk membeli sekurang-kurangnya satu unit apartmen,
manakala selebihnya penduduk asal tidak mampu memilikinya kerana tidak mempunyai
sumber kewangan yang mencukupi (Seong-Kyu Ha 2004).
Contoh lain yang dapat dilihat, isu yang timbul di kawasan Kampung Baru Kuala Lumpur
yang merupakan antara kawasan kampung bandar yang terletak di tengah-tengah ibu kota.
Pihak berkepentingan telah merancang bagi pembangunan semula kawasan tersebut. Dewan
Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur menjangkakan nilai tanah di kawasan itu boleh melebihi RM20
bilion jika penduduk menerima konsep pembangunan itu sepenuhnya. Namun, apa yang
berlaku ke atas rancangan pembangunan semula kawasan Kampung Baru Kuala Lumpur
dilihat gagal menarik keyakinan penduduk. Salah satu faktor adalah kurang keyakinan
penduduk terhadap pihak pemaju yang menawarkan nilaian hartanah di bawah nilai sebenar.
2.2 Cabaran Pembangunan bandar
Perkembangan pesat pembandaran di bandar-bandar besar dalam era moden di abad ke-21
telah menjadi semakin ketara terutamanya di kebanyakan negara-negara membangun (Anuar
Amir 2004; Lee Kok Chai & Wan Rozali 2007). Pembandaran dianggap penting sebagai
pemangkin kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi di samping dapat meningkatkan kualiti hidup
penduduk. Namun, Anuar Amir (2004), Lee Kok Chai dan Wan Rozali (2007) turut memberi
gambaran kesan pembandaran yakni banyak kampung-kampung yang terletak di sempadan
bandar telah tenggelam dalam arus pembangunan. Kebanyakan petempatan ini telah lama
wujud dan masih tidak membangun kerana tidak diberi tumpuan dalam dasar-dasar
pembangunan bandar.
Contohnya di China yang telah mengalami tiga gelombang besar perkembangan pembandaran
iaitu pada tahun 1980an, sekitar tahun 1992 dan pada tahun 2003. Perkembangan ini telah
menyebabkan berlakunya rebakan bandar yang besar. Zon-zon pembangunan telah
diperluaskan sehingga melangkaui kawasan-kawasan tanah pertanian (Yuting Liu et al. 2010).
Apa yang dikhuatiri adalah berkaitan dengan komuniti yang tinggal di kawasan kampung
bandar yang terdapat di dalam bandar besar seperti bandar Shenzhen dan Guangzhou. Lokasi
kawasan kampung bandar telah menjadikan penduduk di kawasan berkenaan sebahagian
daripada penduduk bandar (Li Ling & Li Xin 2011; Yan Song &Yves Zenou. 2011;Yuting
Liu et al. 2010). Namun, He et al. (2009), Nguyen dan Micheal (1996) dan Yuting Liu et al.
(2010) melihat kebanyakan penduduk di kampung bandar tidak pernah diberi keistimewaan
dari segi peluang pekerjaan serta pampasan yang munasabah berikutan pengambilan kawasan
tanah pertanian yang telah diambil.
241
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.3 Menyesuaikan diri
Kajian yang dilakukan Yan Song dan Yves Zenou (2011) ke atas penduduk kampung bandar
di bandar Shenzhen, China telah menunjukkan bahawa persekitaran kawasan kampung bandar
telah memaksa penduduknya bertungkus-lumus menyesuaikan diri dengan kehidupan di
bandar. Namun, tidak nampak pula tanda-tanda penduduk kampung bandar mengambil ikhtiar
lain untuk keluar dari kawasan berkenaan. Situasi ini menunjukkan bahawa tahap kualiti
hidup penduduk di kawasan kampung bandar tersebut mempunyai tahap kualiti hidup yang
mungkin telah memenuhi kehendak dan keperluan semasa penduduk, sehingga menyebabkan
penduduk tidak keluar dari kawasan kampung bandar tersebut.
2.4 Layanan pihak berkuasa tempatan
Bagi Gu dan Shen (2003) pula mendapati sungguhpun kawasan kampung bandar (masyarakat
di China) terletak di dalam perbandaran, suasana perkampungan masih lagi seperti kawasan
pedalaman, kesannya kawasan kampung bandar seolah-olah sebuah kawasan yang terasing.
Terasing daripada perancangan pembangunan, kemudahan infrastruktur serta layanan
daripada pihak berkuasa perbandaran. Walau bagaimanapun, disebabkan oleh kemajuan
kawasan di sekitar perkampungan tersebut. Pemilik tanah di kawasan kampung bandar di
China telah mengambil peluang untuk memanfaatkan kawasan yang dimiliki untuk menarik
masyarakat yang bekerja di bandar tinggal di kawasan kampung bandar, jadi pemilik tanah
telah mendirikan atau membina bilik-bilik untuk di sewa (Li Ling & Li Xin 2011; Xie 2005;
Yanliu & Bruno 2012; Ye Liu et al. 2012; Yuting Liu et al. 2010). Keadaan ini telah
membawa kepada beberapa masalah sosial seperti isu keselamatan dan pelacuran (Xie 2005).
2.5 Kritikan dan tanggapan negatif
Kawasan kampung bandar sering kali berhadapan dengan kritikan dan pandangan yang
negatif dari penduduk bandar sekitar dan pihak berkuasa tempatan. Kawasan kampung bandar
sering kali dikaitkan dengan kecacatan pemandangan di bandar, menggangu proses
pembangunan bandar dan pembinaan rumah baru secara ad-hoc oleh penduduk kampung
bandar (Pu Hao et al. 2011; Xie 2005). Perkembangan ini telah membawa kepada beberapa
cadangan oleh pihak berkuasa untuk mengambil alih kawasan kampung bandar bagi
membangunkan semula kawasan ini dengan cara yang lebih terancang, manakala masyarakat
yang berada di dalamnya akan dipindahkan ke kawasan penempatan baru yang dianggap lebih
sempurna dan berkualiti (Pu Hao et al. 2011; Xie 2005).
2.6 Kadar pertumbuhan penduduk dan daya saing di bandar
Di bawah unjuran pertumbuhan semasa, kawasan bandar di Semenanjung Malaysia perlu

menampung pertambahan enam juta penduduk bagi tempoh 2010 hingga 2020 (Malaysia
2010). Kawasan untuk pembangunan, khususnya di Greater Kuala Lumpur (Greater KL)
adalah terhad dan tidak dapat menampung permintaan yang meningkat. Rancangan Malaysia
ke-10 (RMK-10) bagi tempoh 2011-2015, pembangunan bandar padat akan digalakkan untuk
menampung pertumbuhan tersebut. Perkembangan ini sudah pasti akan memberikan impak
yang besar kepada kualiti hidup penduduk di kawasan kampung bandar untuk terus berdaya
saing atau sebaliknya.
RMK-10 yang telah dilancarkan pada bulan Jun 2010, menunjukkan komitmen kerajaan
dalam perancangan bandar yang dilihat lebih menjurus kepada pendekatan pembangunan
242
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
berteraskan rakyat. Kerajaan ketika ini sedang mereka bentuk infrastruktur ke arah
mengurangkan jarak perjalanan dan menggalak aktiviti mesra rakyat di dalam persekitaran
bandar dengan menumpu kepada pelbagai aktiviti dan kemudahan yang mudah diakses
(Malaysia 2010). RMK-10 telah menunjukkan kesedaran kerajaan bahawa tanpa sistem
pengangkutan awam yang berfungsi dengan baik, kesesakan, kehilangan produktiviti serta
kemerosotan kualiti hidup akan menyebabkan bandar besar dan sederhana kekurangan daya
saing serta kurang kesesuaian untuk didiami. Rancangan ini secara tidak langsung akan
memberikan kesan yang positif kepada penduduk kampung bandar untuk terus tinggal di
kawasan kampung bandar.
Di Malaysia, persoalan yang timbul di sini sejauhmanakah keistimewaan yang diterima oleh
penduduk kampung bandar di Malaysia ketika ini. Mungkinkah kualiti hidup penduduk
kampung bandar jauh lebih baik dari apa yang berlaku di kawasan petempatan kampung
bandar di bandar Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam, bandaraya Seoul, Korea Selatan serta bandar
Shenzhen atau Guangzhou, China. Kajian ini merungkaikan sejauhmanakah situasi ini
dihadapi penduduk yang tinggal di kawasan kampung bandar di Malaysia menerusi karakter
individu, karakter sosial dan karakter persekitaran dan sejauhmanakah tahap kualiti hidup
semasa mereka.
3. Perbincangan isu dan cabaran kehidupan penduduk kampung bandar
Perubahan struktur kawasan kampung bandar melalui proses pemodenan, pembandaran dan
perindustrian adalah sesuatu yang sukar dielakkan. Pembangunan pesat persekitaran bandar di
Malaysia ketika ini menjadikan ruang bandar semakin sesak dan padat. Ruang dan peluang
yang tersedia kesan dari perkembangan bandar tersebut telah mewujudkan persaingan yang
sengit dalam merebut sumber ekonomi yang tersedia di bandar. Kajian yang dilakukan Yan
Song dan Yves Zenou (2011) ke atas penduduk kampung bandar di bandar Shenzhen, China,
persekitaran kawasan kampung bandar telah memaksa penduduknya bertungkus-lumus
menyesuaikan diri dengan kehidupan di bandar. Namun, tidak nampak pula tanda-tanda
penduduk kampung bandar mengambil ikhtiar lain untuk keluar dari kawasan berkenaan.
Rentitan itu kajian ini melihat bahawa tahap kualiti hidup penduduk di kawasan kampung
bandar tersebut mempunyai tahap kualiti hidup yang mungkin telah memenuhi kehendak dan
keperluan semasa penduduk sehingga menyebabkan penduduk tidak keluar dari kawasan
kampung bandar tersebut.
Teori urbanisme yang dikemukakan oleh Louis Wirth (1938) menghujahkan bahawa
persekitaran bandar telah mendedahkan penduduk di dalamnya kepada satu gaya kehidupan
yang dikenali sebagai gaya hidup bandar. Gaya hidup bandar dilihat sebagai ancaman kepada
aspek keutuhan hubungan sesama penduduk khususnya ke atas budaya setempat. Gaya hidup
bandar dikatakan membentuk hubungan yang terpilih berdasarkan status kedudukan,
kelemahan ikatan persaudaraan, kemerosotan hubungan kekeluargaan, kehilangan kejiranan
dan melemahkan asas tradisional perpaduan sosial. Semua ini berlaku akibat daripada gaya
hidup bandar yang tidak memberi ruang kepada aktiviti kehidupan sosial yang lebih terbuka
berbanding dengan fokus tujuan untuk berada di persekitaran bandar. Gaya hidup tersebut
wujud akibat di pengaruhi oleh persekitaran kejiranan sosial yang terdiri dari pelbagai budaya
dan latar belakang. Akibatnya berlakulah tindakan diskriminasi, wujud prejudis dan pelucutan
hak daripada ahli-ahli yang dominan (penduduk baru) berbanding dengan masyarakat tuan
rumah (penduduk tempatan). Namun, sejauhmanakah teori ubanisme ini mempengaruhi atau
dialami penduduk kampung bandar di Malaysia?
243
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Aspek ruang dan masa telah membentuk tekanan pembandaran di sekitar kawasan kampung
bandar sehingga menyebabkan kawasan ini telah terkepung oleh pembangunan yang telah
dibangunkan secara terancang (Mohd Yusof et al. 2011). Kawasan kampung bandar sering
kali menerima kritikan dan pandangan yang negatif dari masyarakat sekitar, pihak berkuasa
tempatan dan pemaju (Li Ling & Li Xin 2011; Xie 2005). Perkembangan ini telah membuka
kepada beberapa cadangan bagi menstrukturkan semua kawasan kampung bandar seperti
pengenalan konsep pembangunan semula (redevelopment) bandar dan pertumbuhan semula
(regeneration) bandar (Jung et al. 2011; Mike 2011; Seong-Kyu Ha 2004; Yan Song & Yves
Zenou 2011). Menurut mereka kedua-dua konsep ini dikata mampu untuk menambahbaik
serta memaksimakan ruang dalam bandar, yang secara langsung dapat meningkatkan tahap
kualiti hidup penduduk kampung bandar secara keseluruhannya. Namun, sejauhmana tahap
keupayaan penduduk kampung untuk terus menerima konsep pembangunan seperti ini dalam
usaha mereka mencapai kualiti hidup yang baik?
Apa yang pasti tahap keupayaan dan penilaian kualiti hidup itu sendiri bersifat anjal dan
berterusan serta mempunyai nilai pertimbangan dan keupayaan tersendiri bagi setiap individu
(Danny et al. 2007; Diener et al. 1997; Kahnemen et al.1991; Sen 2002; Sirgy 2011), justeru
adalah tidak adil bagi para penyelidik untuk meletakkan penilaian kualiti hidup bagi sebuah
komuniti dengan hanya menilai petunjuk yang mungkin tidak sesuai bagi sesuatu kawasan
tersebut. Keadaan ini akan memberikan gambaran yang salah terhadap keupayaan dan status
sebenar kualiti hidup sesuatu komuniti yang tinggal di satu-satu kawasan. Pengalaman,
kepuasan dan kegembiraan sesebuah komuniti itu mampu meletakkan nilai sebenar status
kualiti hidup mereka berdasarkan tahap capaian yang memenuhi keperluan dan kehendak
komuniti tersebut (Cummins 2000; Dissart et al. 2000; Massam 2002; Turksever et al. 2001).
Kajian ini turut menghujahkan bahawa skor penilaian kualiti hidup yang tinggi masih belum
mampu mengambarkan tahap kualiti hidup sebenar komuniti bagi sesuatu kawasan. Konsep
kualiti hidup amat berkait rapat dengan persekitarannya (Azahan Awang et al. 2008, 2009;
Haller et al. 2006; Narayana 2009). Secara konsepnya, persekitaran yang selesa didiami akan
memberikan nilai kualiti hidup tersendiri kepada komuniti yang tinggal di sesuatu kawasan
walaupun kualiti hidup penduduk kawasan tersebut jauh lebih rendah dari kawasan sekitarnya
(Danny et al. 2007; Narayana 2009; Sen 2002). Namun, pasti ada aras kualiti hidup tertentu
yang menyebabkan penduduk tidak mahu keluar dari persekitaran tersebut, dan
sejauhmanakah tahap ketersediaan diri, sosial dan persekitaran membentuk keupayaan
penduduk di kawasan tersebut untuk terus kekal di situ seperti selesa dengan budaya, amalan
dan tradisi setempat (Abdul Hadi 2004; Abdul Hadi et al. 2011). Akhirnya mempengaruhi
kadar penghijrahan keluar, kadar kehadiran pendatang, aktiviti harian penduduk dan
penubuhan persatuan komuniti setempat.
4. Kesimpulan
Mengarah kepada pengurusan persekitaran, secara ekologinya penduduk kampung bandar

merupakan sebahagian daripada penduduk bandar. Penduduk kampung bandar sentiasa
berhadapan dengan perubahan persekitaran bandar baik dari segi fizikal, sosial mahupun
ekonomi. Perubahan ini telah memaksa penduduk kampung bandar untuk menyesuaikan diri
dengan persekitarannya. Namun, sejauhmanakah penduduk kampung bandar dilihat sebagai
sebahagian daripada penduduk bandar menerusi perkhidmatan perbandaran yang diterima,
kemudahan infrastruktur dan perhubungan yang sempurna, peluang pekerjaan yang
disediakan, keupayaan dalam merebut peluang ekonomi, tahap pendidikan, tahap kesihatan,
244
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
jaminan keselamatan, penyertaan sosial, persekitaran perumahan, persekitaran kerja, dan

persekitaran alam sekitar.
5. References
Abdul Hadi Harman Shah. 2004. Membentuk pesekitaran untuk kemampanan budaya
setempat. Dlm. Jamaluddin Md Jahi, Mohd jailani Mohd Nor, Kadir Arifin & Azahan
Awang (pnyt.). Alam Sekitar Dan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Malaysia, hlm 29-34.
Bangi: Pusat Pengurusan Persekitaran, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia:
Abdul Hadi Harman Shah, Abdul Samad Hadi, Shaharudin Idrus & Ahmad Fariz Mohamed.
2011. Planning for regional sustainability in uncertain times: urbanisation through the
waves of global crises. Akademika 81 (2): 41-48.
Aldous, T. 1992. Urban Villages: A Concept For Creating Mixed-Use Urban Developments
On A Sustainable Scale. London: Urban Villages Group.
Anuar Amir. 2004. Merentasi dikotomi bandar/desa: ke arah pewilayahan petempatan yang
mengalami tekanan pembandaran. Jurnal Alam Bina 6 (2): 69-86.
Azahan Awang. 2004. Kearah penilaian kualiti hidup mampan masyarakat bandar di
Malaysia. Dlm. Jamaluddin Md Jahi, Mohd Jailani Mohd Nor, Kadir Arifin & Azahan
Awang (pnyt.). Alam Sekitar Dan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Malaysia, hlm. 244-255.
Bangi: Pusat Pengurusan Persekitaran, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Azahan Awang, Abdul Hadi Harman Shah & Kadarudin Aiyub. 2008. Penilaian makna kualiti
hidup dan aplikasinya dalam bidang pengurusan persekitaran di Malaysia. Akademika
72: 45-68.
Azahan Awang, Jamaluddin Md Jahi, Lukman Z.. Mohamad, Kadarudin Aiyub & Kadir
Arifin. 2009. The quality of life Malaysias intermediate city: urban dwellers
perspective. European Journal of Social Sciences 9 (1): 161-167.
Brindley, T. 2003. The social dimension of the urban village: a comparison of models for
sustainable urban development. Urban Design International 8: 5365.
Cummins, A.R. 2000. Objective and subjective quality of life: an interactive model. Social
Indicator Research 52: 55-72
Danny Ruta, Laura Camfield & Cam Donaldson. 2007. Sen and the art of quality of life
maintanance: toward a general theory of quality of life and its causation. The Journal
Of Socio Economic 36: 397-423.
Diener, E. & Suh, E. 1997. Measuring quality of life: economic, social indicator and
subjective indicator. Social Indicator Research 40: 189-216.
Dissart, J.C. & Deller, S.C. 2000. Quality of Life in planning literature. Journal of Planning
Literature 15 (1): 135-161.
Gu, C. L. & Shen, J. F. 2003. Transformation of urban socio-spatial structure insocialist

market economies: the case of Beijing. Habitat International 27(1): 107-122.
245
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Haller, M. & Hadler, M. 2006. How social relations and structure can produce happiness and
unhappiness: an international comparative analysis. Social Indicators Research 75:
169-216.
He, S.J., Liu, Y.T., Webster, C. & Wu, F. 2009. Property rights redistribution, entitlement
failure, and the impoverishment of landless farmers. Urban Studies 45(9): 183-197.
Jane Jacobs. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Ulang cetak. Canada:
Random House Inc.
Jung-Ho Yu & Hae Rim Kwon. 2011. Critical success factors for urban regenaration projek in
Korea. International Jurnal Of Projek Management 29(7): 889-899.
Landman, K. 2004. Sustainable urban village concept: mandate, matrix or myth?. CSIR
Building and Construction Technology.
http://www.buildnet.co.za/akani/2003/jul/07_landman.pdf.html. [27 Jun 2011]
Lee Kok Chai dan Wan Rozali Hj Wan Hussin. 2007. Kualiti hidup sosial dan isu-isu
perumahan: kajian kes di Pulau Pinang. Kertas Kerja Untuk Prosiding Universiti
Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
Li Ling Hin & Li Xin. 2011. Redevelopment of urban villages in shenzhen, china-an analysis
of power relations and urban coalitions. Journal Of Habitat International 35: 426-434.
Louis Wirth. 1938. Urbanisme as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology 44: 1-24.
Malaysia. 2010. Rancangan Malaysia ke Sepuluh (2011-2015).
Mark Deakin. 2012. The case for socially-inclusive visioning in the community-base
approach to sustainable urban regenaration. Sustainable Cities and Society 3: 13-23.
Massam, B.H. 2002. Quality of life: Public planning and private living. Progress In Planning
58: 141-227.
Micheal Leaf. 1995. Inner city redevelopment in China: implication for the city of Beijing.
Journal of cities 12 (3): 149-162.
Mike Biddulph. 2011. Urban desingn, regeneration, and the entreprenuerial city. Progress in
Planning 76 (2): 63-103.
Mohd Yusof Hussain, Mohamad Shaharudin Samsurijan, Suraiya Ishak & Abd. Hair Awang.
2011. Hubungan kejiranan dalam membentuk kesejahteraan hidup masyarakat
kampung bandar: kes Kampung Berjaya dan Kampung Mempelam, Alor Setar,
Malaysia. Geografia Online Malaysian Journal Of Society And Space 7 (3): 36 44.
Murray, C. 2004. Rethinking neighbourhoods: from urban villages to cultural hubs. Dlm. D.
Bell, & M. Jayne (pnyt.). City Of Quarters: Urban Villages In The Contemporary City,
hlm. 25-43. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
246
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Narayana, M.R. 2009. Education, human development and quality of life: measurement issues
and implications for India. Social indicator Research 90: 279-293.
Nguyen Quang Vinh & Michael Leaf. 1996. City life in the village of ghosts:a case study of
popular housing in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. International Habitat 20 (2): 175-190.
Pu Hao, Richard Sliuzas & Stan Geertmen. 2011. The development and redevelopment of
urban villages in Shenzhen. Journal Of Habitat International 35: 214-224.
Sen, A. 2002. Rationality and Freedom. Boston: Harvard University Press.
Seong-Kyu Ha. 2004. New shantytowns and the urban marginalized in Seoul Metropolitan
Region. Habitat International 28: 123-141
Sirgy, M.J. 2011. Theoretical perspectives guiding QOL indicator project. Social Indicator
Research 103: 1-22.
Tait, M. 2003. Urban village as self-sufficent, integrated communities: a case study in

Londons Docklands. Journal of Urban Design International 8: 37-52.
Turksever, A.N. & Atalik, G. 2001. Possibilities and limitations for the measurement of the
quality of life in urban area. Social indicators research 53: 163-187.
Xie, Z.K. 2005. The Transition from Village to Urban Community: A Study of Institution,
Policy and the Urban Village Problem During the Urbannization in China. Beijing:
China Social Sciences Press.
Yanliu Lin & Bruno De Meulder. 2012. A conceptual framework for the strategic urban
project approach for the sustainable redevelopment of villages in the city in
Guangzhou. Habitat International 36: 380-387.
Yan Song & Yves Zenou. 2011. Urban villages and housing values in China. Journal of
Regional Science and Urban Economic (2011): 1-11.
Ye Liu, Zhigang Li & Werner Breitung. 2012. The social network of new-generation migrants
in Chinas urbanized villages: a study case of Guangzhao. Journal Of Habitat
International 36:192-200.
Yuting Liu, Shenjing He, Fulong Wu, Chris Webster. 2010. Urban village under China Rapid
Urbanization: Unregulated Assets and Transitional Neighbourhood. Journal of Habitat
International 34: 135-144.
247
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Local Perception on Social Impact of Indonesian Workers in the Rural

Areas
Suziana Mat Yasina, Ibrahim Ngahb
a
Email: suziana.my@usm.my
b
Centre for Innovative Planning & Development, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor,
Malaysia
Email: b-ibrhim@utm.my
Abstract
The presence of the Indonesian workers in rural areas in Malaysia is a controversial issue that
is perceived as having both positive and negative consequences. This article will look into
the consequences of the Indonesian workers for local communities in Johor, Malaysia from
the perspective of the local people. It focusses on the local peoples perceptions with regard to
the incorporation of Indonesian workers into their local communities and social consequences
of the Indonesian workers. By using structured questionnaires the total of 671 local
respondents were interviewed during this study. Result shows the Indonesian workers social
impact is small. This is due to working time constraints, the low level of integration and the
influence of the local mindset, which is that the Indonesian workers come as helpers in the
agriculture sector and are nothing much to do with the building of social capital. The social
contributions of the Indonesian workers are limited to activities related to their skills and
general participation. This study also shows that the local peoples perceptions towards the
Indonesian workers in their areas are based on a xenophobic reaction, which causes negative
responses and a high level of rejection of the integration of Indonesian workers.
Key word: Indonesian workers, rural development, social consequences, xenophobic reaction
1. Introduction
The presence of the Indonesian workers in rural areas in Malaysia is a controversial issue that
is perceived as having both positive and negative consequences. While the inflow of foreign
labours contributed to the economy in term of overcoming labour shortage and keeping the
economy going it also causes numerous social issues, crimes and problems with squatting
(Azizah Kasim, 2014). The immigrants working behaviour; hard-working tendencies and
ability to carry out the work required have a positive effect on rural development (Kasimis et
al., 2010; Pye et al., 2012; Azizah, 1997; Zawawi, 2005; Hoggart and Mendoza, 1999).
Immigrants not only carry responsibilities to top up the workforce in times of labour scarcity,
but also fulfil some social responsibilities at the local level.
Research on immigrants impact on rural socioeconomic development has found that

immigrants make a major positive contribution to local development, but the locals start to
become more vigilant when relationships between the local society and immigrants grow
closer (Kasimis and Papadopoulos, 2005). The concern raised by the local people over close
relationships with immigrants which is due to a xenophobic reaction (Fakiolas, 1999; Kasimis
and Papadopoulos, 2005). This xenophobic reaction, as argued by Fakiolas (1999), reflects the
local societys fear of the increased crime rate (drug trafficking, gangsterism, robberies)
associated with Albanian immigrants and violence in 1998 and the increased number of
248
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
unregistered immigrants in Greece. However, Fakiolas (1999) only mentioned the national
situation, not referring to any specific type of locality, and argued that in many cases, criminal
violence to which immigrants contributed was backboned by local people. On the negative
side of it, Azizah Kassim (2014) highlighted the following concerns:
Reliance on foreign workers can delay up-grading of technical skills, mechanization and
automation.
Employment of foreign workers could lead to decline in productivity in some sectors of
the economy, depresses local wages and drains the economy due to remittances sent to
country of origin;
High cost of monitoring, control, detention and deportation of illegal immigrants;
Worry of the intrusion of foreign nationals into the state electoral roll which may upset
the balance of power between the various ethnic-based political parties in the state;
Worry about the impact of illegal entry on border and internal security and diplomatic
relations;
The tendency among low skill foreign workers to violate Malaysian laws such as armed
gang robberies, murder, smuggling of prohibited commodities especially drugs,
manufacture of forged documents and commercial crime.
The presence of immigrants also contributing to the spread of communicable diseases
such as Malaria, tuberculosis and hepatitis B.
The presence of a large number of low skill foreign workers place a heavy stress on state
medical facilities as well as other social services and public amenities.
This article will look into the impact of the Indonesian workers for local communities in
Johor, Malaysia from the perspective of the local people. It focusses on the local peoples
perceptions with regard to the incorporation of Indonesian workers into their local
communities and social impacts of the Indonesian workers.
2. Methodology
Johor is located near to several Indonesian islands, has made Johor one of the most famous
entry-points to Malaysia for Indonesian immigrants. Since different types of rural areas have
different settings and social/cultural contexts, this study chose three different types of rural
settlement, namely traditional villages, private plantation estates and FELDA settlements. The
structured questionnaire was designed for the respondents focused mainly on exploring the
local opinion towards the immigrants presence and their implications for the community. In
general, a purposive sampling technique was applied for local respondents. The sample was
based on the household, with the heads of households being selected as respondents. In total
671 of local respondents were interviewed during this study. The characteristic of the villages
and the distribution of samples is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The summarised profiles of study areas

Village FELDA Taib FELDA Sungai Pasir Logok Kampung Kampung
Andak Tunggal Papan/ Melayu Raya Parit Raja
Kampunga Darat
Tanjung
Serindit
Type of FELDA FELDA Private Private Traditional Traditional
settlement settlement settlement plantation plantation Village Village
estate estate
Location Kulai Jaya Kota Tinggi Kota Tinggi Kota Tinggi Pontian Batu Pahat
Areas (ha) 3202 2403 3029 2091 600 192
249
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Year 1960 1974 1975 1973 1959 1925

Established
No. of 620 530 47 30 187 314
Houses
Population 3224 2067 160 120 916 1382
size (local)
No of foreign 59 63 300 189 30b 30b
workers
Sample of 177 221 42 10 90 131
local people
n=671
a
The household of Kampung Tanjung Serindit was included in the survey for the Sungai Papan estate,
since the location of the housing area of the Sungai Papan Estates is adjacent to Kampung Tanjung
Serindit and they share the same facilities, such as mosques, a primary school and local businesses .
b
Estimated
3. Findings
Local respondents were asked about their general feelings towards the presence of Indonesian
immigrants within their communities. Using a Likert scale, respondents were asked to rate
their feeling from very comfortable to very uncomfortable. The majority of the
respondents (61.3%) felt neutral about the presence of the Indonesian workers in their area,
while 27% indicated that they were uncomfortable or very uncomfortable and 11.7% felt
comfortable or very comfortable. This indicated that the presence of Indonesian workers was
generally acceptable to the majority of local people. Based on fieldwork interviews, the
response of biasa saja or neutral was based on two factors:
1. The local people acknowledge the roles of the Indonesian workers in helping them
with the supply of human resources in the rural sectors, which also increases rural
production especially in the agriculture sector.
2. Furthermore, for FELDA and estate settlements, the Indonesian workers have been
placed in separate accommodation from the local people. In traditional villages, many
immigrants live in the farm areas, which are quite far from the villagers, and only a
few Indonesian workers live in rented houses within the local communities. The
isolation from the local community contributes to the local respondents sense of
comfort towards the Indonesian workers, as they feel that the Indonesian workers do
not interfere with their daily lives.
Table 2 shows that 45.9 % of the respondents were willing to invite Indonesian workers to
local ceremonies or festivals such as marriage ceremonies, the slaughtering of animals during
Eid Adha and certain community voluntary works (gotong royong). This indicates the
closeness of relationship between the local people and the Indonesian immigrants.
Respondents who invited Indonesian workers to their feasts gave the reason that these
workers had close relationships with the locals and were diligent workers. Those respondents
who did not invite immigrants to such events stated that they were not comfortable with the
Indonesian workers and did not have close relationships with them.
Table 2: Local respondents tendency/willingness to invite the Indonesian workers to their

local feasts by types of rural settlement
Local responds Types of settlement (%) Total
FELDA Traditional village Estate % n
250
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Yes 47.7 38.9 61.5 45.9 308
No 52.3 61.1 38.5 54.1 363
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 671
(n) (398) (221) (52)
Note: Pearson Chi-Square = 10.007, df=2, P=0.007

There is a statistically significant difference between areas
Source: Fieldwork, 2012
Respondents were asked about eleven issues relating to the presence of Indonesian workers.
The respondents were asked to state their level of agreement with the issue statements based
on a five-point scale, with a score of 1 representing high agreement and 5 representing high
disagreement. Four items that seemed to receive higher agreement among respondents were:
1. Enforcement action should be taken towards the illegal Indonesian immigrants.
2. The Indonesian immigrants in this area could communicate in understandable Malay
language.
3. The Indonesian workers in this area could be invited to attend feasts organized by the
locals.
4. The Indonesians in this area developed a good relationship with the locals.
The five items that received high disagreement were:

1. Indonesian immigrants who have lived Malaysia for a long period should be granted
Malaysian citizenship.
2. Indonesian immigrants who have the ability to teach Islam should be granted high
social status in the village.
3. Indonesian immigrants in this area could be involved in societies or associations in
this village.
4. Indonesian immigrants who have the ability to teach Islam should be given the
opportunity to hold positions as board members in the local mosque.
5. Indonesian immigrants should be allowed to marry local people.
These results indicate that local people tended not to be tolerant of the presence of illegal
immigrants. They tend to agree that Indonesian immigrants can communicate in Malay
language and have good relations with the locals and accept the invitations to local feasts.
However, they tended not to agree that the Indonesian immigrants should be given the status
of citizenship after a long period of living in Malaysia. Also, the locals tended to disagree that
the immigrants should involved in local societies or organisations or be allowed to teach or
play roles in the local mosque even if they have good religious knowledge. However, they
tend to have mixed responses to the issue of granting permanent residence for immigrants
who stay in Malaysia for many years.
Turning now to the local responses about intermarriage of Indonesian workers with local
people, more than 45% of the respondents indicated that they did not agree with
inter-marriage with Indonesian immigrants; 28.7% indicated they were unsure, while 24.6%
of those surveyed gave a positive response towards intermarriage with Indonesian workers. In
a separate section, local respondents were also asked about the number of intermarriage cases
that they knew of in their areas. A total of 81.3% of the local respondents reported that they
knew of cases of intermarriage between the Indonesian workers and natives born in their
areas. The number of cases of intermarriage mentioned by the respondents ranged from one to
251
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
three (reported by 52.9%), followed by four to six cases (reported by 28.5%). Only 4.8% of
respondents recorded knowing of more than thirteen cases of intermarriage locally.
Despite the rise of social problems created by the immigrants, which have been given
considerable publicity by social media, efforts were made to uncover the locals perceptions
towards social issues among the immigrants. In brief, local respondents in this study had
shown expressed various opinions towards the questions asked. The majority (51.3%) of the
locals mentioned that Indonesian workers did not contribute to the increase of social
problems.
Table 3: Local respondents opinions on social issues created by Indonesian workers and the
types of settlement
Question Responds Types of settlement (%) Total
FELDA Traditional Estate % n

village
The presence of Yes 52.0 42.1 28.8 46.9 315

Indonesian workers
has increased the No 46.7 54.8 71.2 51.3 344
social problems in my
Not sure 1.3 3.2 - 1.8 12
area
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 669
(n) (398) (221) (52)
Note:a Pearson Chi-Square =16.957,df=4, P=0.002

*There is a statistically significant difference between areas
Source: Fieldwork, 2012
There was a significant association between local respondents types of settlement and their
opinions on Indonesian workers contributions to social issues. As shown in Table 3, the
majority (52.0%) of respondents in FELDA settlements agreed that the presence of the
Indonesian immigrants had raised the number of social issues in their area. However,
respondents spontaneously mentioned to the researcher that the increase in social problems
was caused by outsider immigrants, not those who lived within their areas. In contrast, the
majority of respondents in traditional villages (54.8%) and estates (71.2%) indicated that the
presence of Indonesian workers was not a contributing factor to the social issues in their areas.
The 315 respondents (47.8%) who held the opinion that Indonesian workers did increase the
social illness in their areas were further asked to describe the types of social illness created by
the Indonesian workers in a multiple response question. A huge percentage of the social
problems created by the immigrants are burglary (89.5%), followed by theft (47.9%). Other
crimes reported are pukau (black magic), indecent manners, and being home wreckers.
Regarding drug-related issues, the majority (73.1%) of the respondents reported that
immigrants were not contributors to the raised number of drug addicts in their areas, while
only 7.8% indicated that the drugs problems in their areas were caused by Indonesian
immigrants. A minority (38.2%) of the respondents indicated that the presence of Indonesian
immigrants caused the local women to feel unsafe outside their homes, while the majority of
58.9% disagreed with this statement.
252
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Discussion
The level of Indonesian workers socialisation with the local community is generally low in
all six areas of study. This implies that the locals do not welcome the presence of the
immigrants in their areas. The locals perceive the immigrants as a stock of additional human
resource to help them with rural production. They are regarded as being meant for the 3Ds job
types, reflecting the creation of a new social class that ranks at the lowest level. As the result,
the level of integration is minimal. This has caused the Indonesian workers to experience
unfavourable social conditions. However, as compared to foreign workers from other sources,
Indonesian workers still enjoy some benefits from sharing a similar culture with the local
people. In this study, the privilege received by the Indonesian workers is only limited to
economic opportunities, not socialisation access, as compared to other immigrants, who have
difficulties in being accepted by the local people.
Although the Indonesian workers share a similar culture with local communities, this still
does not outweigh the negative local perception towards them. This unfavourable social
perception has diminished the immigrants opportunities to gain more income (Djaji, 2003)
and also hinders their involvement with local political membership, which influences their
ability to succeed in their destination countries (Bloemraad, Korteweg, & Yurdakul, 2008). As
a whole, while the majority of the local respondents tend to reject integration with the
Indonesian workers, they do show a slight open-door attitude in giving the immigrants some
space to socialise with the local community. In brief, the local opinion towards
incorporating with the Indonesian workers was viewed as a shallow basis of integration. The
local views on integration with the Indonesian workers are limited to day-to-day activities,
while contact/interaction is minimal (such a giving a smile or raising a hand when they meet
and engaging in buying and selling activity, and the Indonesian workers not contributing to
unrest). On the other hand, findings indicate that the local community is not ready for better
integration with Indonesian immigrants.
In general, the local behaviour towards the presence of the immigrants was also affected by
the low level of socialisation in the study areas. The immigrants participation in local social
activities was restricted to certain types of activity, mostly local community feasts. It is hard
for the local community to accept the immigrants participation in organisations that would
lead to social capital building. The attitude and perceptions of the locals, as stated in the
previous section, is a result of xenophobic feelings, which stimulate a defensive attitude
towards extending relationships and integration with the immigrants.
Limited socialisation with local people means that the immigrants find it difficult to
participate in social capital building with local people. Despite these difficulties, they do make
some social contributions. The survey of Indonesian workers revealed that the majority of
Indonesians in all areas had been involved with gotong-royong (communal work) in the
village. Furthermore, skilled and talented Indonesian workers were also asked by the locals to
do jobs related to their personal skills. Through informal interviews, the local people claimed
that they sometimes asked Indonesians to do tasks such as traditional massaging, teaching the
Quran to the local children, teaching planting skills, cleaning their houses, cooking for big
ceremonies and carpentry. The data indicates that the immigrants also play multifunctional
roles in the community. However, their roles in contributing to the social community are not
really significant due to time constraints and the types of settlement in which they live.
253
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The local community, which is already prone to the mindset that the Indonesian workers are
threatening the local economic and political power, have thwarted attempts to participate in
local organisations, even very small ways, such as becoming members of the local mosque.
For example, by comparing participation in social capital among immigrants across nineteen
countries, Kestler and Bloemraad (2010) found that immigrants in countries with greater
economic insecurity were likely to face more difficulty in engaging with the local social
capital because there is a sense that they are a threat to the natives. In relation to the findings
of this study, all six study areas are rural sectors facing economic insecurity and the locals are
struggling to achieve better socioeconomic conditions. As a result, the local communities feel
that they need to protect what they have achieved so far, resulting in a negative attitudes
towards the building of social capital with immigrants.
Contrary to the public discourse, which associates immigrants with social problems, this study
has demonstrated that the majority of local respondents have the opinion that the Indonesian
workers in their areas are not responsible for the social issues highlighted. This result may be
related to the pattern of Indonesian workers settlement in the study areas. However, careful
consideration is needed in reflecting the relatively high proportion of local respondents from
FELDA areas who indicated that the presence of Indonesian immigrants had increased the
social problems in their areas. This might be because respondents in FELDA areas were
overwhelmed by the few cases of social problems caused by immigrants, which might have
come from the spread of hearsay, and such rumours might have generated the local peoples
xenophobia. FELDA and private estate settlements have adopted strict policies and
regulations as precautions in response to public concern about immigrants causing social
problems. Such strict policies are designed to prevent their immigrant workers from causing
any social problems to the local community, which would ultimately become a problem for
the management.
5. Conclusion
The Indonesian workers social impact is small. This is due to working time constraints, the
low level of integration and the influence of the local mindset, which is that the Indonesian
workers come as helpers in the agriculture sector and are nothing much to do with the
building of social capital. The social contributions of the Indonesian workers are limited to
activities related to their skills and general participation. The presence of the Indonesian
workers in rural areas is not seen as a trigger for increased social problems. Despite the social
issues and crime generated by immigrants that have been highlighted in the media, the local
people perceive that these are under control. However, the xenophobic attitudes which have
been developed through negative portrayals in mass media and rumours have contributed to
the low level of integration between the local community and the immigrants, although they
share similar ethnic roots.
This study also shows that the local peoples perceptions towards the Indonesian workers in
their areas are based on a xenophobic reaction, which causes negative responses and a high
level of rejection of the integration of Indonesian workers. On the other hand, local rejection
is even higher towards non-Indonesian immigrants. The roles of religion and similarities in
language and culture no longer guarantee the Indonesian workers better integration with the
local society. For that reason, the contribution of the Indonesian workers is significant only to
the economic development of the rural settings.
254
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Most of the Indonesian workers contributions towards local development are almost entirely
overlooked due to the strong negative perception of foreign workers developed by the local
people (xenophobic reaction). Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate the contribution
of the Indonesian workers to rural development, while at the same time considering the fears
of the local people towards the foreign workers, in order to ensure that the process of policy
and development planning is relatively flexible in responding to the needs of rural
development. The Indonesian workers roles towards socialisation with the local people did
not significantly contribute to the host society. Indonesian workers were only minimally
integrated with the local people, and this prevented them from participating in social activities
within the local community. In brief, the pattern of immigrants engagement with the local
community was no more than a basic, functional relationship without a personal touch.
References
Azizah, K.,1997. Illegal alien labour in Malaysia: Its influx, utilization, and ramifications.
Indonesia and the Malay World, 25(71), pp 50-81. doi: 10.1080/13639819708729889
Azizah Kassim., 2014. Recent Trends in Transnational Population Inflows into Malaysia:
Policy, issues and Challenges, Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies 51(1), pp.
9-29
Bloemraad, I., Korteweg, A., & Yurdakul, G., 2008. Citizenship and immigration:
Multiculturalism, Assimilation, and challenges to the nation-state. Annual Review of
Sociology, 34, pp. 153-179. doi: DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134608
Djaji, S., 2003. Assimilation of immigrants: Implications for human capital accumulation
of the second generation. Journal of Population Economics, 16(4), pp. 831-845. doi:
10.1007/s00148-003-0162-1
Fakiolas, R., 1999. Socio-Economic Effects of Immigration in Greece. Journal of European
Social Policy, 9(3), pp. 211-229. doi: 10.1177/095892879900900302
Hoggart, K., & Mendoza, C., 1999. African Immigrant Workers in Spanish Agriculture.
Sociologia Ruralis, 39(4), pp. 538-562. doi: 10.1111/1467-9523.00123
Pye, O., Daud, R., Harmono, Y., & Tatat., (2012). Precarious lives: Transnational
biographies of migrant oil palm workers. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 53(3), pp. 330-342.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8373.2012.01496.x
Zawawi, I., 2005. Return of the lazy native : explaining Malay/immigrant labour transition in
Terengganu plantation society. In R. Hassan (Ed.), Local and Global Social
Transformation in Southeast Asia. Leiden: BRILL.
255
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Potensi dan Pendekatan dalam Perancangan Pembangunan Pelancongan

Pacuan Komuniti di bawah Inisiatif Pusat Transformasi Luar Bandar
(RTC) Kedah, Malaysia
Hartini Ahmada,*, Nor Intan Saniah Sulaimanb Azhari Md Hashimc,

aKolej Perniagaan, Universiti Utara Malaysia
Email: hartini@uum.edu.my
bKolej Sastera dan Sains, Universiti Utara Malaysia
Email: norintan@uum.edu.my
cFakulti Seni Lukis & Seni Reka, Universiti Teknologi MARA Kedah, Malaysia
Email: azhari033@kedah.uitm.edu.my
Abstrak
Pusat Transformasi Luar Bandar (RTC) merupakan sebuah pusat pelaksanaan pelbagai
program pembangunan dalam merealisasikan matlamat membangunkan masyarakat luar
bandar dari pelbagai segi seperti perkhidmatan, ekonomi, sosial, teknologi dan pendidikan.
Pada asasnya terdapat lapan (8) inisiatif yang menjadi fokus pelaksanaan program transformasi
masyarakat luar bandar oleh RTC yang diterajui oleh pelbagai kementerian berkaitan iaitu
penyediaan latihan kemahiran kepada penduduk luar bandar, penyediaan kios informasi,
memupuk pertanian bernilai tinggi, pemprosesan produk agro-makanan, pengurusan rantaian
bekalan hasil pertanian, kerjasama universiti, perkhidmatan keselamatan makanan dan
farmaseutikal, dan kemudahan pembiayaan kewangan kepada usahawan luar bandar. Namun
bagi RTC Kedah, terdapat inisiatif ke-sembilan (9) iaitu pembangunan pelancongan yang
diterajui oleh Kementerian Pelancongan dan Kebudayaan Malaysia. Kertas kerja ini
membincangkan potensi produk pelancongan tempatan dan pendekatan strategik dalam
perancangan pembangunan pelancongan di Negeri Kedah yang dipacu oleh masyarakat luar
bandar selari dengan peranan dan fungsi RTC. Dengan pelbagai nilai keunikan yang dimiliki
selain Pulau Langkawi, fokus pelancongan bagi RTC Kedah dengan mengambil kira objektif
transformasi masyarakat luar bandar, boleh dikembangkan melalui beberapa sektor utama iaitu
penginapan, pengangkutan, pusat membeli-belah, makanan dan minuman, sukan dan rekreasi,
produk pelancongan tempatan, serta kesenian, kebudayaan dan sejarah. Bagaimanakah
masyarakat luar bandar boleh memainkan peranan utama dalam memacu industri pelancongan
tempatan dan apakah pendekatan strategik yang bersesuaian dalam perancangan pembangunan
pelancongan oleh RTC Kedah dan kementerian penerajunya.
Kata kunci: pembangunan luar bandar, pembangunan pelancongan, penyertaan komuniti,

produk pelancongan luar bandar.
1.0 Pengenalan
1.1 Program Transformasi Luar Bandar
Program Transfomasi Luar Bandar (RTP) yang diperkenalkan di dalam Bajet 2012, merupakan
satu lagi inisiatif di bawah pelan transformasi negara bagi mengubah Malaysia menjadi negara
berpendapatan tinggi dan negara maju. RTP berhasrat untuk menarik pelaburan, mewujudkan
256
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
aktiviti ekonomi dan pekerjaan serta memberi peluang kepada generasi muda untuk kembali,
hidup dan bekerja di kawasan luar bandar. Bagi melaksanakan RTP, Pusat Transformasi Luar
Bandar atau Rural Transformation Center (RTC) telah ditubuhkan oleh kerajaan Malaysia.
Kementerian Kemajuan Luar Bandar dan Wilayah (KKLW) dan Kementerian Pertanian dan
Industri Asas Tani (MoA) merupakan kementerian utama yang menerajui pelaksanaan
program-program di bawah RTC. RTC yang dilaksanakan melalui inisiatif Strategi Lautan
Biru Kebangsaan (National Blue Ocean Strategy, NBOS), turut melibatkan kerjasama pelbagai
kementerian lain, antaranya Kementerian Pendidikan, Kementerian Kesihatan dan
Kementerian Kewangan.
1.2 Pusat Transformasi Luar Bandar (RTC) di Negeri Kedah
RTC ialah pusat kemudahan setempat yang menawarkan pelbagai perkhidmatan daripada
agensi-agensi kerajaan serta melaksanakan inisiatif-inisiatif RTC bagi meningkatkan tahap
kualiti hidup penduduk di kawasan luar bandar dengan berkonsepkan Satu Hentian, Pelbagai
Perkhidmatan. RTC Kedah telah dirasmikan oleh Yang Amat Berhormat Perdana Menteri
Dato Sri Najib Tun Abdul Razak pada 24 April 2014. Lokasinya yang terletak di Pekan Napoh,
daerah Kubang Pasu, Jitra, Kedah dikelilingi kira-kira 120 buah kampung dengan populasi
227,054 penduduk. RTC Kedah boleh diakses melalui Lebuhraya Utara-Selatan, terletak di
laluan utama ke Perlis dan Thailand (Ahmad, et al., 2015).
Terdapat lapan (8) inisiatif yang menjadi fokus pelaksanaan program transformasi masyarakat
luar bandar oleh RTC adalah seperti latihan kemahiran, kios informasi 1Malaysia, pertanian
bernilai tinggi, pemprosesan produk agro-makanan, pengurusan rantaian bekalan hasil
pertanian, kerjasama universiti, perkhidmatan keselamatan 1Malaysia, dan kemudahan
pembiayaan kewangan. Namun di bawah pelaksanaan RTC Kedah, terdapat inisiatif tambahan
iaitu inisiatif ke-sembilan (9); pembangunan pelancongan yang diterajui oleh Kementerian
Pelancongan dan Kebudayaan Malaysia.
1.3 Inisiatif 9: Pembangunan Pelancongan Negeri Kedah
Inisiatif ini merupakan inisiatif tambahan bagi RTC Kedah selain RTC Terengganu yang
diterajui oleh Kementerian Pelancongan dan Kebudayaan Malaysia (MOTAC). Melalui
inisiatif ini, potensi pelancongan negeri boleh diperkembangkan melalui RTC dalam
mengetengahkan lokasi pelancongan, kebudayaan, produk tempatan, malah meningkatkan
ekonomi masyarakat luar bandar melalui eko-pelancongan, homestay dan sebagainya.
1.4 Perancangan Pembangunan Pelancongan Negeri Kedah
Negeri Kedah terletak di utara Semenanjung Malaysia dengan keluasan 9,425 km2. Kedah juga
dikenali dengan sejarah kegemilangan Kerajaan Kedah Tua serta penemuan-penemuan struktur
dan artifak yang menyumbang dalam merungkai sejarah awal ketamadunan manusia seperti di
tapak arkeologi Lembah Bujang dan Gunung Jerai (Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri Kedah, 2015).
Ibu negeri Kedah adalah Alor Setar merupakan tempat yang mempunyai kepelbagaian tempat
menarik untuk dikunjungi dengan bangunan-bangunan bersejarah dan unik serta lokasi-lokasi
eko-pelancongan. Malah Kedah juga terkenal dengan Pulau Langkawi yang merupakan pulau
pelancongan bertaraf dunia. Dengan pelbagai nilai keunikan yang dimiliki, selain Pulau
Langkawi, fokus pelancongan bagi RTC Kedah dengan mengambil kira faktor transformasi
masyarakat luar bandar, boleh dikembangkan melalui beberapa sektor utama (Ahmad, et al.,
2015).
257
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.0 Prospek Produk Pelancongan di Kedah melalui Pacuan Komuniti
2.1 Sektor Penginapan
Sektor penginapan merupakan elemen penting dalam memenuhi keperluan asas pelancong.
Selain hotel, terdapat banyak inap desa atau homestay yang boleh dipromosikan. Melalui
pengurusan yang cekap, perusahaan inap desa ini boleh menawarkan pelancong asing
pengalaman gaya hidup desa melalui penganjuran aktiviti komuniti. Bagi pelancong tempatan
pula, inap desa selalu menjadi pilihan kerana kos yang lebih rendah berbanding hotel. Selain
itu, kewujudan inap desa seperti Homestay Kampung Pisang,Jitra (Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri
Kedah, 2015) dapat menarik minat pelancong luar dan tempatan sebagai pilihan bagi percutian
keluarga seperti bagi tujuan menghadiri kenduri perkahwinan atau semasa musim puncak
seperti majlis konvokesyen pengajian dan cuti sekolah. Program inap desa ini dilihat dapat
menyemarakkan kerjasama masyarakat setempat malah perusahaan ini dapat menjana sumber
pendapatan yang lumayan.
2.2 Sektor Pengangkutan
Kecekapan sistem pengangkutan dapat menggalakkan kehadiran pengunjung dan pelancong.

Selain keperluan mempertingkat mutu perkhidmatan teksi dan bas, terbaru dengan adanya
kereta api elektrik; Electric-Train-Set (ETS) oleh Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) yang
menghubungkan Kuala Lumpur - Padang Besar, Perlis yang mengambil masa selama 4 jam 45
minit dilihat dapat memberi impak kepada peningkatan bilangan pelancong dan sektor
pelancongan Kedah. Selain itu, cadangan pembinaan lapangan terbang baharu di Kulim juga
merupakan input positif dalam menjana perkembangan pelancongan di Kedah.
2.3 Sektor Membeli-belah
Kedah juga merupakan lokasi tumpuan untuk membeli belah. Terdapat kompleks
membeli-belah zon bebas cukai di Bukit Kayu Hitam yang terletak di sempadan
Malaysia-Thailand selain di Pulau Langkawi. Selain itu, di Alor Setar pula, terletak Kompleks
Pekan Rabu yang memasarkan pelbagai produk keluaran tempatan seperti kraf tangan, pakaian,
dan produk makanan.
Satu budaya membeli-belah yang unik di kalangan masyarakat di Malaysia adalah

berkonsepkan pasar sehari, pasar malam atau pasar pagi yang kebiasanya diadakan sekali
atau dua kali sahaja dalam seminggu. Konsep ini boleh diadaptasi di RTC Kedah dalam
menjenamakan sebuah pasar sehari yang mengangkat produk-produk hasil tempatan dari
masyarakat luar bandar (Ahmad, et al., 2015).
2.4 Sektor Makanan dan Minuman
Terdapat banyak makanan dan minuman popular di Kedah yang menjadi buruan para
pelancong khususnya pelancong tempatan apabila datang berkunjung ke Kedah. Selain
pengaruh masakan Thai seperti tom yam dan som tam serta restoran makanan laut yang
sangat mudah didapati, terdapat banyak lagi menu yang unik dan menjadi menu signature di
Kedah. Antara kedai makanan yang popular ialah Laksa Beras Teluk Kechai, Laksa Ikan
Seekor, Mee Abu, Popia Jamal Zee Fee, Bihun Sup Bamboo Pekan Rabu, Nasi Lemak Haji Ali,
Tat Nasi Ayam, Mee Udang Galah, Haji Johari Cendol Pulut dan banyak lagi.
258
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Faktor penjenamaan dan memiliki keunikan tersendiri membolehkan sesuatu jenama restoran
ini mengangkat sesebuah menu menjadi popular dan menjadi antara lokasi wajib singgah oleh
para pelancong. Di RTC Kedah, kewujudan Restoran Gelas Besar misalnya, mampu menjadi
salah satu jenama yang dikenali umum sekiranya dipromosikan dengan lebih menarik. Di RTC
Kedah juga terdapat kios yang menjual produk tempatan seperti kuih tradisional hasil keluaran
anak tempatan. Selain menjadikan jenama ini terkenal, ia juga menjadi tarikan kepada
pelancong untuk singgah ke RTC.
2.5 Sektor Produk Agro
Bagi Negeri Kedah, antara produk tempatan yang sinonim adalah pekasam dan ikan masin,
madu lebah kelulut, madu lebah Tualang, kuah rojak Mak Bee dan kuih-kuih tradisional. Di
RTC Kedah, terdapat pelbagai produk hasil keluaran masyarakat setempat yang berpotensi
dikembangkan sebagai produk pelancongan seperti produk makanan dan minuman. Namun,
bagi menjadi salah satu produk pelancongan, perusahaan-perusahaan ini memerlukan bantuan
teknologi dan pembiayaan bagi menghasilkan produk dalam skala kuantiti yang besar untuk
memenuhi permintaan yang tinggi. Penganjuran program seperti Mini Karnival Usahawan
Desa Zon Utara 2014 dilihat dapat menjadi platform untuk usahawan desa memperkenalkan
produk keluaran. Malah penganjuran program seperti Hari Kubota dan Karnival Orkid juga
secara tidak langsung mampu untuk menarik pelancong dari luar kawasan untuk datang ke RTC
Kedah.
2.6 Sektor Sukan dan Rekreasi
Aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi juga berpotensi tinggi di Kedah dengan kewujudan pelbagai lokasi
eko-pelancongan selain Pulau Langkawi. Antara yang popular adalah Taman Rekreasi Air
Darulaman, Sungai Sedim Tree Top Walk, Air Panas Ulu Legong, Tasik Pedu dan Gunung
Jerai. Bagi pelancong yang meminati sukan golf, boleh berkunjung ke padang golf sekitar
daerah Kubang Pasu seperti Black Forest Golf & Country Club di Bukit Kayu Hitam,
Darulaman Golf & Country Club di Jitra dan Kelab Golf Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Selain itu, penganjuran program tahunan secara besar-besaran seperti sukan berbasikal, Le
Tour di Langkawi dan pameran akrobatik pesawat; Langkawi International Maratime and
Aerospace Exibition (LIMA) misalnya, dapat meningkat jumlah kehadiran pelancong ke
Kedah. Dengan komitmen dari Kerajaan Negeri, Kementerian Pelancongan dan pihak RTC,
pelbagai aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi yang lebih menjurus kepada penglibatan masyarakat luar
bandar boleh dijadikan sebagai program tahunan secara besar-besaran seperti penganjuran
aktiviti-aktiviti sukan tradisional atau lasak.
2.7 Sektor Kesenian, Kebudayaan dan Sejarah
Seiring dengan kekayaan sumber sejarah di Kedah, sektor kesenian, kebudayaan dan sejarah
pastinya tidak boleh dilupakan. Muzium Arkeologi Lembah Bujang di Gunung Jerai ada
menyimpan rahsia asal usul ketamadunan manusia yang dikatakan antara terawal di dunia. Bagi
mengenali sejarah kegemilangan kerajaan Kedah Tua, terdapat Muzium Negeri dan Muzium
Diraja boleh dikunjungi. Bagi menyusuri sejarah Malaysia pula, terdapat Rumah Merdeka iaitu
kediaman Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra, Perdana Menteri Malaysia yang pertama dan Rumah
Kelahiran Tun Mahathir Mohamed iaitu Perdana Menteri keempat yang berasal dari negeri ini.
Terdapat banyak lagi bangunan bersejarah dan mercu tanda seperti Menara Alor Setar, Masjid
259
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Al-Bukhary, Muzium Padi dan Balai Nobat yang boleh dikunjungi oleh pelancong
(Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri Kedah, 2015).
Namun, kewujudan muzium, bangunan bersejarah dan mercu tanda sahaja tidak memadai
sebaliknya lokasi-lokasi ini memerlukan penganjuran program dan aktiviti menarik supaya
dapat menarik kunjungan pelancong secara berterusan. Oleh itu, selain penganjuran program di
RTC sendiri, pelbagai program kemasyarakatan boleh dianjurkan di lokasi-lokasi bersejarah
ini. Selain mempromosi pelancongan, kita juga dapat memberi pendedahan berkenaan
kesenian, kebudayaan dan sejarah Kedah khususnya kepada generasi belia masa kini agar lebih
berjati diri dan menyayangi negeri dan negara tercinta.
3.0 Perancangan Pembangunan Pelancongan Pacuan Komuniti melalui RTC Kedah
3.1 Peranan Masyarakat Luar Bandar
Melalui KKLW dan juga beberapa kementerian lain, peranan masyarakat luar bandar dalam
memacu pembangunan pelancongan di Negeri Kedah dapat dipertingkatkan melalui inisiatif
pembangunan modal insan luar bandar misalnya melalui sektor penginapan serta sektor
makanan dan minuman. Golongan ini dilihat sangat signifikan dalam memacu pembangunan
pelancongan di negeri Kedah khususnya selain sebagai pemangkin kepada transformasi
ekonomi, sosial dan teknologi di sekitar RTC Kedah. Sebagai contoh penglibatan masyarakat
dalam sektor pelancongan misalnya program homestay, dilihat dapat membantu dalam
mempromosikan sektor pelancongan terutama pelancongan berkonsepkan kehidupan
masyarakat desa.
3.2 Pemangkin Transformasi Ekonomi, Sosial dan Teknologi
RTC dilihat sebagai pemangkin dalam mentransformasikan ekonomi, sosial dan juga teknologi
masyarakat luar bandar dengan melaksanakan satu pusat yang boleh menjana pendapatan,
membuat keputusan yang cepat bagi menjadi lebih dinamik dan fleksibel, dan fokus kepada
meningkatkan ekonomi penduduk luar bandar.
RTC perlu memberi perhatian bagi yang sewajarnya terhadap bidang teknologi termasuk
teknologi maklumat. Terdapat perubahan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian termasuk
meningkatkan pengeluaran melalui penggunaan teknologi mesin dan kaedah yang sesuai. RTC
Kedah perlu membuka peluang melalui pelaksanaan norma-norma dan gelagat kerja seperti
mempelbagaikan akses kepada sistem pengeluaran yang lebih baik dan teknologi yang sesuai
digunakan oleh usahawan seperti e-perdagangan, sistem perbankan berasaskan internet.
3.3 Tadbir Urus
Tujuan tadbir urus yang baik di RTC adalah untuk menggalakkan penyampaian perkhidmatan
yang lebih baik dan meningkatkan akauntabiliti melalui pengukuran penanda aras dalam tadbir
urus. Tadbir urus berkaitan dengan proses di mana organisasi diurus, dikawal dan
dipertanggungjawabkan. Ia merangkumi kuasa, akauntabiliti, kepimpinan, kepimpinan, arahan
dan kawalan dilaksanakan dalam organisasi (Australian National Audit Office (1999);
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2004)).
260
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
RTC ditubuhkan untuk menggabungkan kampung-kampung yang berdekatan dalam

pelaksanaan aktiviti-aktiviti yang berorientasikan nilai tambah tinggi. Seperti yang dilaporkan
di dalam Ahmad, et al. (2015), di RTC, penduduk tempatan akan dapat:
Menjual produk pertanian dalam bentuk nilai-tambah tinggi secara terus;
Membeli bekalan dan perkhidmatan untuk pengguna pada harga yang lebih rendah;
Dapatkan kemahiran, latihan dan program pembangunan keusahawanan;
Mempunyai akses kepada bantuan kewangan dan perkhidmatan lain secara terus;
Perkongsian dan pertukaran maklumat dan pengetahuan.
Dengan pelaksanaan program-program ini, kerajaan berhasrat untuk menjadikan masyarakat

luar bandar lebih berdaya maju dan dapat meningkatkan kualiti dan kuantiti produk
masing-masing supaya dapat dipasarkan di seluruh negara dan seterusnya menembusi pasaran
eksport yang dapat mempertingkatkan taraf ekonomi penduduk.
3.4 Penjenamaan dan Promosi
RTC perlu proaktif dalam era komunikasi pantas dan media sosial dengan mewujudkan satu
imej jenama yang akan menggambarkan perkhidmatan yang diberikan di pusat untuk
masyarakat luar bandar. Platform media sosial seperti Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn dan
Twitter juga medium yang kuat untuk mempromosi jenama. Ini boleh dicapai melalui peluang
kerjaya dan prospek yang berpotensi untuk membantu penjenamaan RTC.
3.5 Hubungan Strategik
Hubungan strategik antara Mini RTC - RTC - UTC merupakan salah satu bahagian penting
dalam inisiatif RTC yang bermatlamat meningkatkan kesejahteraan usahawan luar bandar dari
segi peningkatan hasil masyarakat umumnya. Responden percaya bahawa penubuhan RTC
melalui hubungan strategik akan membantu meningkatkan projek-projek pertanian bernilai
tinggi oleh masyarakat luar bandar. Masyarakat juga mengalu-alukan RTC sebagai pusat
pengumpulan hasil setempat, pusat pengedaran bagi barangan segar dan percaya RTC Kedah
mampu menjadi pusat pengumpulan, pengedaran, dan perdagangan produk dari usahawan dan
produk desa sekitarnya. Responden dari masyarakat juga menunjukkan minat mereka dalam
mempromosikan produk tempatan melalui atas talian, terutama produk pertanian, perikanan,
ternakan, makanan dan minuman serta produk kraftangan.
3.6 Kemampanan Pembangunan
Dalam memacu pembangunan pelancongan di Negeri Kedah, pengurusan dan pemantauan

harus diwujudkan. Secara teori, kemampanan pembangunan boleh dilaksanakan tanpa
pengurusan atau pemantauan, namun secara realistik ianya hampir tidak dapat dilaksanakan
tanpa keduanya. Kriteria ini dapat menilai kewujudan dan kualiti pengurusan pelancongan.
4.0 Kesimpulan
Keterlibatan komuniti dalam pembangunan pelancongan adalah dilihat sangat positif dalam
usaha kerajaan untuk mempertingkatkan kualiti hidup masyarakat luar bandar. Produk
pelancongan bukan hanya tertumpu kepada kawasan dan alam semulajadi yang indah malah
boleh dipelbagaikan seperti program agro pelancongan. Oleh demikian, usaha dan pendekatan
yang telah diambil oleh agensi kerajaan melalui RTC Kedah secara tidak langsung membantu
komuniti luar bandar terutamanya terlibat dalam pembangunan pelancongan Negeri Kedah.
261
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5.0 Rujukan
Australian National Audit Office (1999). Principles and better practices: Corporate governance
in commonwealth authorities and companies. Canberra: ANAO.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2004). Measuring Sustainable

Development: Integrated Economic, Environmental and Social Frameworks. Paris: OECD
Publishing.
Ahmad, H. et al., 2015. Kajian Bersepadu Pusat Transformasi Luar Bandar (RTC) Zon Utara,
Kedah: Laporan Akhir.
Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri Kedah, 2015. Portal Rasmi Kerajaan Negeri Kedah. [Online]
Available at: http://portal.kedah.gov.my/sample-levels/20-profil-negeri/1-sejarah
[Accessed 12 Mac 2015].
262
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
METHODS, IDENTITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL
263
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Disability and Self-Identity: An Auto-Ethnography

Khu Li Huang
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: khu_fang@yahoo.com
Abstract
The objective of this study is to celebrate the value of ones own unique body and liberate one
from the constraints imposed to the disabled by our society, economy and political structure.
Critical analysis brought ones conscious mind to strengthen ones persistent spirit to advocate
for the social accessibility and inclusion which are the best for everyone. Thus, the identity
theories brought the author to the journey of self-designation and redefinition of self by
delving into the in-depth meanings between self and disabling structure. Likewise, the sincere
self-internalization leads her to liberate herself from the brainwashing traps that try to put the
blame on her impaired body and imprisoned around the cripple identity of disabled people.
Therefore, throughout the method of auto-ethnography, we are writing about our selves
and/or our selves in our cultures in the journey of self-redefinition and recovery. Three
themes emerged after the thoughtful self-internalization: i) disability is not the problem, ii)
disability is the strength and iii) discovering the mission. In a nutshell, the impaired body is
not to be blamed but loved and embraced for its uniqueness that help to become critically
aware that the disability can be the greatest resource for personal wisdom to seek perfections
within imperfections.
Keywords: disability, self-identity, auto-ethnography
1. Introduction
In the first part, I shared my personal experience from being able-bodied to being disabled. The
impaired body exposed me to the deficiencies of the disabled constructed by our society.
Throughout the auto-ethnographic approach, I had the opportunity to reconstruct my
self-identity, to discover the source of my strength and self-worth. Finally, this process enabled
me to discover the true meaning of disability.
2. Background of study
When I was 16, I met with an accident. I became a quadriplegic. My life then changed
completely and differently because of this motor accident.
I cannot do anything by myself. I cannot dress myself. I cannot write. I cannot sit. I cannot
walk. I cannot manage my daily affairs.I want to not be disabled. But my life deemed not
worth living because of my physical disability
Remarks such as you are crippled, you are useless, you are abnormal and so pitiful
were used to describe me.
In my case, the impairment, from the medical aspect, is considered as high-level of

impairment, incurable and permanent disability. I have been categorized into the disability
group based on these two points, deficiency of my physical being and incurable by medical
intervention.
264
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
So everyone around me felt pity for me. It was as if I deserved the comfort to sooth my pain
due to my impaired body. I cannot describe how helpless I feltand my parents desperate
desire to find the medical cures was overwhelming.
In 2000, my parents sent me to a Handicapped Centre which is a special place to

accommodate disabled people. They hoped that I could learn some skills and get some
training. But such centres create the illusion that we need to depend on them in order to
survive. These Handicapped Centres treats us as the symbol in their charitable endeavors. If
you request for charity, people will not take the disability rights into consideration. It helps
create the dependency.
Awful!..Once upon a time, I took it for granted that I deserved to be treated specialI
thought the Handicapped Centre was the best place to train usBut that is not the case...Such
Centres add to the disablement of disabled people
We are not being educated to meet our needs. We are not taught and motivated to air our
grievances to the right authority.
I had no idea what I wanted to do in my life. Where I should go? Thoughts like I cannot do it
or I was not good enough were deeply rooted in my mind.
After I left the Handicapped Centre, I started college life in 2006. It was then that I started to
realize how the able-bodied perceived disabled people when I was part of them.
Some of my classmates told me that in the beginning, they were afraid to talk to meto
look at meand even to ask about my past
It was not smoothly sailing when I applied to do a diploma in the college. At the beginning,
the college did not accept my application and suggested that I find a Special school. But I had
no idea where such a Special school for diploma was
I think because of my persistence, they agreed to accept my application but I was asked to
write a letter to promise that I would not further my studies to the Advanced Diploma level
at the KL campus because there were not disabled friendly.
Inevitably, social acceptance is very important to facilitate social engagement of disabled to

increase understanding of social diversity. However, when the body has been marked as
disabled, a social stigma is automatically attached (Link and Phelan, 2001). Social system
brainwashes our minds to believe that we do not belong to the normal world because we
have been categorized as a special group. Furthermore, the disabled group is perceived as a
homogeneous minority group without considering the varying types and degrees of
impairment.
In addition, the stereotypic portrayal of disability as sub-human makes people perceives us

on the basis of our disability without distinguishing us based on other characteristics such as
gender, race, age and sexuality that make the same subject unique (Linton, 1998). Likewise,
the negative labeling of disability devalues us without considering us as humans who have
ambition, value, aspirations and can make their own decisions. Therefore, disability contains
265
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
unspoken assumptions to illustrate the identity and status of disabled people. These unspoken
assumptions control our mind.
As what happened in our everyday life, we construct our identity according to having (or
lacking) certain physical attributes, character traits and abilities to represent ourselves and
give the meanings to our performance (Goffman, 1959). This is the self-constructed image in
a mental platform that defines our identity. Therefore, everyone possesses a sense of self that
defines who they are. However, the fact is, not everyone is able to establish a well-defined
identity (Ickes, Park and Johnson, 2012) without having the strong capacity of self-realization
and self-reflection (Leary and Tangney 2003, p. 3).
Thus, we need to understand how the disability identity has been understood is governed by
the ideologies that give the meanings to who they are and how they should be treated (Stets
and Carter, 2011). Deficiency ideology towards disability is the process to legitimate the
coercive power and sustain the interest of the powerful group to keep the subordination status
of disabled people. As discussed by Griffo (2014), the disability models such as worth-based
model, charity model, medical model, productivist model, welfare/protective model and
compensation model overlap and combine, producing vulnerability image of disabled people
and influence policies and practices.
Disabled people are subjected as passive, useless, incompetent, sick and incapable (Peters,
2010). It is because our society has a set of the hidden rules to classify and justify the
difference between the abnormal and normal merely based on physical traits. Thus, disabled
people have been devalued as the second citizenship. This devaluation persists due to the
lack of the political will to enable the social system, even though there are both international
and local disability policies that aim to protect the rights of the disabled. But there is no strict
enforcement to encourage the integration of the accessibility and inclusive policies into every
sphere of social development and system (Griffo, 2014).
Thus, it is important to scrutinize the disability as the social product that justified by the
vulnerable identity of the disabled people as irrelevant and weak because of the inability of
his/her physical condition to fulfill the social expectation in the normal society. Thus, as
mentioned by Ketner, Buitelaar and Bosma (2004), the complex relation of cultural, physical
and social processes form the disability identity as one who is oppressed by society.
Consequently, the disabling process and practice devalue our quality of being and
undermine our psycho-emotional well-being (Reeve, 2002).
3.1 Present studies
Inevitably, disabled people pinpointed as the stigmatized status by society find it difficult to
maintain a strong sense of self. But throughout the strong and critical self-reflection, it enables
us to retrieve ourselves from a sense of inferiority. This situation enables us to think sharply
on how the meaning of disability is used, structured and justified in the normal world and the
inconveniency caused to the disabled. As argued by Shakespeare,
is an aspect of the stories we tell ourselves, to others. Previously, there was a limited
range of narrative devices and themes available to people with impairment: now, new stories
are being told, and we are creating ourselves for ourselves, rather than relying on the
traditional narratives of biomedical intervention or rehabilitation, of misery, decline and
death. (1996, p. 95).
266
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Therefore, we need to engage in a process of self-internalization and elaborate our

experiences enabling personal and social identities for social changes.
Thus, in line with the structural symbolize interactionism, I employ the two dimensions of
identity theory, self-designation and self-internalization (Stryker and Burke, 2000). The aims
are to analyze the linkage between social structure and self-identity through the internalization
of our cognitive scheme to process the deep self-conversation to seek the actual self. Identity
is not only the active and dynamic understanding of self (Hauge, 2007) but it is also fluid,
changeable (Rhodes, P. Et al., 2008). Thus, we always have to make the choice to choose our
identities (Giddens, 1991) and to be understood by self-presentation in everyday life (Lawler,
2015).
4. Methodology
An auto-ethnography chosen because it is the research method that engages one to voice,
self-reflect and reflexivity (Hamdan, 2012) to understand multiple and shifting identities
(Cheng, 2008) that connect our collective self to our culture and society (Ellis and Bochner,
2000). Auto-ethnography allows the processes of outward reflection on the social and cultural,
that influence ones personal experiences; then, evaluate the inward self-interpretation
towards the vulnerable self by either accepting, resisting or rejecting the cultural presumption
(Ellis and Bochner, 2000). The goal is to explain how the self is embedded into and
influenced by social structure and how self affects social behavior.
Thus, the lens of disability identity through auto-ethnography is not only the good entry point
to challenge inferiority identity (Titchkosky, 2003) but it is also to increase self-understanding
through the gaze of others to mirror what is me/you and not me/you (Yuval-Davis, 2010).
In fact, I wrote about my disability story but I am talking to you. I hope my self-narrative
experience enables you to re-energize and refresh your self-awareness by sharing the strong
beliefs that tie us together and to liberate us from this disabling system and initial meaningful
social change. Indeed, auto-ethnography is a powerful tool to understand ones self and
expose ourselves to multiple layers of consciousness (Ellis, 2004) for eternal liberation,
empowerment and enablement (Cheng, 2008).
5. Analysis
Below is the description of three themes that emerged after the self-internalization on the
relationship between self and structural.
5.1 Disability is not the problem
Stryker and Burker (2000) mentioned that the identity concept is the process to internalize the
self-designation. Designation is the symbol and the meaning of role involvement that is
attached to social position and role expectation. Therefore, the relationship or interaction in
any particular context hinges on the attached roles we play, how others expect us to behave
and how we perceive, define and behave assign the meaning between our self and structure.
Society defines disabled people as victims of misfortune, otherness and exploits them as
charity objectification, special or advertise them as inspirational (Cameron, 2008;
Lawson, 2001; Peters, 2010). All these symbols continue to brainwash disabled people that all
the problems and difficulties are caused by their impaired body condition. But disability is not
born but produced by our society (Finkelstein, 2001). It is always a direct consequence of a
267
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
disabling society and system that robs the disabled of self and self-confidence. In fact, our
disabled social, cultural and political systems are exclusively privileged to serve the
able-bodied people. This is because the disabled are unproductive and do not contribute to the
national economy and are not tools of political interests. But they are a social dependency
and a burden (Priestley, 2003).
If everyone prefers brown hair but you have red hair, the red hair is defined as unattractive
and automatically you become an oddball in the eyes of the majority. You are disabled and
disadvantaged by your difference (Baciu, Alexiu andBrneanu, 2015). Inevitably, the ways of
society defines and classifies as able-bodied or disabled, attractive or unattractive, worthy or
worthless hinged on a majority consensus and preference. It is how our society treats people
with different body conditions. This is how our society sustains the power of superiority to
disempower and reinforce inferiority of the disabled. .
Indeed, disability is not the problem. As stressed by Oliver (1996), disability has nothing to do
with the body. It is the physical trait of a human being that warrants the embracement of
accessible and inclusive systems to enable and empower the participation of the disabled.
There should be no distinguishing between the disabled and the able-bodied because we share
the common rights of living. We have the right to enjoy school, lead active social lives, be
involved in entertainment & recreation activities, to have a job, to marry, have a family, to be
loved and to love the others.
5.2 Disability is the strength
Disability is not the problem but it is the strength. As previously noted, disability identity is
the social product (Ketner, Buitelaar andBosma, 2004) of the complex interaction between our
impairment and the environment that is influenced by multiple factors i.e. biological,
environmental, social, cultural and political to understand the construction process of the
disability identity (Rhodes, P. Et al., 2008). This is how the social process imposes the
definition to the external public self of the disabled.
Nevertheless, identity is the center of ones being and essential self (Blasi, 1993). We should
critically and reflectively question ourselves, Who are we?, How we interpret our self?
and What do we privilege?. Rather than be controlled by how society perceives us because
of our observable disability. We need to see the disability as the strength rather than
weakness.
Thus, we need to build up a mature, stable and well-defined identity to strengthen the strong
sense of self (Erikson, 1968). As supported by the identity theory, social forces shape the
self-consciousness (Hunt, 2003). If we cannot accept the reality of our disability, we are
unable to appreciate our inner capabilities. It is because of our negative perception that makes
us more incapable. The identity is part of the strong sense of self (Ickes, Park and Johnson,
2012). Strong sense of self enables us to express ourselves proactively. It is because we know
who we are. On the other hand, social ties reshape our self-identity and reassign the
self-meaning in our attached roles and performances (Walker and Lynn, 2013).
I have the greatest teacher, Chong San, who inspires me to learn from the power of the natural
to discover the potential strength in my inner determination.
If you see our environment, you can find out that there are always some imperfections within
perfections. The flowers are beautiful because of the presence of leaves and grass. He said.
268
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Everything becomes lighter and positive as I realize that I am unfortunate because of my

imperfection, but I will not complain. I will just play the role of leaves and grass to the
perfection of those who are more fortunate. The comparison in the nature is quite clear.
Everything has a role to play. The fortunate must contribute to the perfection of the world. I
must contribute also.
We, as disabled people, have our role to play too. By given the example, disability rights
movement initiated by disability activists collectively is the driving force of change in policy,
social norm and politic (Symeonidou, 2009). Therefore, we need to reinterpret cultural
meaning of disability and reconstruct strong sense of self in the company of truth seekers who
always uplift our spirits in this long and arduous journey of life (Hayashi and Okuhira, 2001).
We are normal, active and in healthy spirit to fight for our rights and choose the lives that we
want.
5.3 Discovering the missions
Through the self-internalization, I realize how the self-identity as both a social product and
social force that not only expand our knowledge about self but also shape our
self-consciousness to challenge social stratification (as suggested by Hunt (2003) to contribute
to the development of sociological social psychology in future studies). Precisely, the body I
have has given me the power and ability to discern the richest of hopes and understanding of
life. The deep insights empower me to see my perfections within my imperfections. Finally, I
develop my own sharpness and analytical ability to reclaim my dignity and sense of worth to
set myself and others free from social stratification by advocating for social accessibility and
inclusion. The aims are to enable the disabled and empower the disempowered.
Indeed, accessibility and inclusion are the capacitors/facilitators for the social engagement of
disabled people who have the different degrees of body capacity, needs of equipment to help
the mobility and solid support from the society. As mentioned by Cepolina and Tyler (2004),
accessibility produces the chance of interaction between a persons body functions, the
activity and the physical environment. This indicates whatever the body functions of the
disabled, the inclusive and accessible environment enable their involvement in the desired
activity. Inevitably, the importance of accessibility in our environment must be considered
because the accessibility increases not only the person's capability to complete an action but
also the capability required by the environment for that action to be completed (Cepolina and
Tyler, 2004).Therefore, accessibility and inclusion strategies are the best approach for
independent living of disabled people like what have developed in other countries.
6. Conclusion
In a nutshell, I see the value in my unique body and my self. Self is liberated through new
understanding, and then others too can be liberated through sharing of ideas. I demand for
rights of the disabled as a citizen in this country. Accessibility and inclusion are the proactive
strategies to serve the citizens needs. Governing authorities should take responsible steps to
create the enabling society for all people and empowering the social ties for humanity.
So who is disabled if they close their eyes to the injustice? Who is disabled if they close their
ears to the truth? Who is disabled if they do not take proactive action? Who are cripple in
spirit if they live in fear and kowtow to power and authority without question and sense of
justice? In fact, disability is the mentality and spiritual problem of those who do not dare see
the accessible and inclusive as real possibilities to enable and empower our collective self.
269
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Thus, loving, affirming and celebrating ones own unique body and seeing it as a gift is the
first thing we must do. Then we will have the courage and power to fight for accessible and
inclusive rights without distinguishing between you and me.
People like to see the Leaning Tower of Pisa because they want to know why this tower
cannot fall and when this tower will fall. I will not fall down. I want to be the Leaning Tower.
It is because I fully understand,
One will only suffer temporarily if he or she changes but one will suffer permanently if he or
she does not change.
I write my disability story but I am talking to you. Are you ready for change?
7. References
Baciu, E.-L., Alexiu, T.M. and Brneanu, A.G., 2015. Where Do We Stand on Disability?
European and Romanian Policy Developments Regarding the Inclusion and Protection of
Disabled Persons over the Last Quarter of Century. Social Work Review / Revista de
AsistentaSociala, (1), pp.4358. Available at:
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?Direct=true&db=sih&AN=102016125&site=ehost-liv
e.
Blasi, A., 1993. The development of identity: Some implications for moral functioning. The
moral self, 99-122.
Cameron, C., 2008. Further towards an affirmation model. Disability studies.
Cepolina, E.M. and Tyler, N., 2004. Microscopic simulation of pedestrians in accessibility
evaluation. Transportation Planning and Technology, 27(3), pp.145180. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0308106042000228734.
Cheng, H., 2008. Autoethnography as method. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Ellis, C., 2004. The ethnographic I. Oxford: altamiraPress.
Ellis, C. S. and Bochner, A., 2000.Autoethnography, personal narrative, reflexivity:
Researcher as subject.
Erikson, E. H., 1968. Identity: Youth and crisis. Oxford, UK: W. W. Norton.
Finkelstein, V., 2001.The social model repossessed. The Disability Studies Archive UK,
Centre for Disability Studies, University of Leeds. Available online at:
www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-stud
Giddens, A., 1991.Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age,
Stanford University Press.
Goffman, E., 1959. The presentation of self in everyday life.New York, Anchor Books.
Hamdan, A., 2012.Autoethnography as a genre of qualitative research: A journey inside out.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 11, 585-606.
Griffo, G., 2014. Models of disability, ideas of justice, and the challenge of full participation.
Modern Italy, 19, 147-159.
Hauge, . L., 2007. Identity and Place: A Critical Comparison of Three Identity Theories.
Architectural Science Review, 50, 44-51.
Hayashi, R., and Okuhira, M., 2001. The Disability Rights Movement in Japan: Past, present
and future. Disability & Society, 16(6), 855869. doi:10.1080/09687590120083994
Hunt, M. O., 2003. Identities and Inequalities. Advances in identity theory and research.
Springer.
Ickes, W., Park, A. and Johnson, A., 2012. Linking Identity Status to Strength of Sense of Self:
Theory and Validation. Self and Identity, 11(4), pp.531544. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.625646.
270
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ketner, S.L., Buitelaar, M.W. and Bosma, H.A., 2004. Identity Strategies Among Adolescent
Girls of Moroccan Descent in the Netherlands. Identity, 4(2), pp.145169. Available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s1532706xid0402_3.
Lawler, S., 2015. Identity: Sociological Perspectives, Wiley.
Lawson, J., 2001. Disability as a Cultural Identity. International Studies in Sociology of
Education, 11, 203-222.
Leary, M. R. and Tangney, J. P., 2003.Handbook of Self and Identity, Guilford Press.
Link, B. G. and Phelan, J. C., 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annual review of Sociology,
363-385.
Linton, S., 1998. Claiming Disability: Knowledge and Identity, NYU Press.
Oliver, M., 1996.Understanding disability: From theory to practice., Available at:
http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1995-99021-000 [Accessed April 17, 2015].
Peters, S., 2010. The heterodoxy of student voice: challenges to identity in the sociology of
disability and education. British Journal of Sociology of Education. Available at:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2010.500092 [Accessed April 17,
2015].
Priestley, M., 2003. Disability: A life course approach, Polity Cambridge.
Reeve, D., 2002.Negotiating Psycho-emotional Dimensions of Disability and their Influence
on Identity Constructions. Disability & Society, 17(5), 493-508. Doi:
10.1080/09687590220148487
Rhodes, P. Et al., 2008. Disability and identity: the challenge of epilepsy. Disability & Society,
23(4), pp.385395. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09687590802038910.
Shakespeare, T., 1996. Disability, identity and difference. Exploring the divide, 94-113.
Stets, J. E. and Carter, M. J., 2011.The moral self applying identity theory. Social Psychology
Quarterly, 74, 192-215.
Stryker, S. and Burke, P. J., 2000.The past, present, and future of an identity theory. Social
Psychology Quarterly, 63, 284-297.
Symeonidou, S., 2009. The experience of disability activism through the development of the
disability movement: how do disabled activists find their way in politics? Scandinavian Journal
of Disability Research, 11(1), 1734. doi:10.1080/15017410802461905
Titchkosky, T., 2003. Disability, self, and society, University of Toronto Press.
Walker, M. H. and Lynn, F. B., 2013. The Embedded Self: A Social Networks Approach to
Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 76, 151-179.
271
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Two Conceptions of Social Capital in Malaysia

Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamida,*, Noor Azizah Ahmadb
a,b School of Social Development
UUM College of Arts and Sciences

*Email: shukri@uum.edu.my
Abstract
This paper discusses two conceptions of social capital in Malaysian society. The discussion is
based on the findings of two separate studies on social capital in the state of Kedah, Malaysia.
The first study employed a qualitative approach focusing on two religious communities in the
Kuala Muda District. The second study utilised a survey method and had produced a localized
instrument for measuring social capital. The findings from both studies illuminate some of the
types of social capital that can be associated with the Malaysian social fabric. In the first
instance social capital can be conceived as emerging from religious communal setting and
comprises three (3) different yet interrelated social realms. These types of social capital can
further be differentiated based on levels of social organization the micro-level and
macro-level. The second conception of localized social capital suggests that it can be measured
based on six (6) areas of communal relations that can typically be found in Malaysian society. It
portrays the importance of considering indigenous social setting in formulating localized
conception of social capital. This paper concludes with a discussion on the implications that
these findings have on social capital research in Malaysia particularly on how they can be
utilised to investigate indigenous conceptions of social capital.
Keywords: social capital, Malaysian society, religious community, communal relations.
1. Introduction
As a concept, social capital has garnered immense attention amongst scholars for the last few
decades. Despite of this upshot in popularity (see Halpern, 2005), the response towards its value
as an analytical tool has been a mixed one however. On the one hand the proponents of the
concept often praise the idea as something that is very beneficial academically (e.g. as a
conceptual tool) as well as in real life (e.g. as a policy tool) (Putnam, 2000). On the other hand,
there are sceptics who consider it as being too broad (Macinko and Starfield, 2001; De Hart &
Dekker, 1999), meaningless (Halstead and Deller, 2015; Fine, 2001) or downright empty
(Thompson, 2011). Essentially, what creates this divide can easily be seen from the variety of
definitions offered for what it actually means. Some considers this to be the smoking gun that
tells the story of conceptual uncertainty when its comes to the concepts true value (Portes,
1998).
One undeniable fact however is that the concept has been used extensively in many areas of
research and even policy. In research, social capital has been shown time and again to be a
useful concept in understanding the benefits of such intangible resources as friendship,
neighborhood relations, family bond and racial ties (Putnam, 1993; Pekkanen, Tsujinaka and
Yamamoto, 2014; Nason, Gonzalez L. and Sharma, 2013, Letki, 2008). In the policy arena,
similar usefulness has been shown to have emerged from the application of the concept such as
those demonstrated by the The World Bank (2011) and OECD (Scrivens and Smith, 2013).
272
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Banking on what is considered the positive side of the argument, this paper argues that the
concept has its value if applied with clearly defined scope.
As such any effort at conceptualizing and measuring social capital are deemed worthwhile.
Particularly in the case of Malaysia, where the idea of social capital has yet to catch on, there are
still much room for local intellectuals to venture into. As proposed by Krishna (2002), social
capital should be looked upon as a concept which must be tailored to local situations in order to
be useful. It is therefore the contention of this paper that any effort to specify and measure social
capital using local setting should be given due attention in order to stimulate intellectual debates
and thereby produce more indigenous ideas related to the concept.
As a country that has so much diversity, the task of identifying and measuring social capital in
Malaysia can be challenging. A sweeping definition that tends to cover as much ground as
possible has very little use in this kind of setting. Similar thing can be said about borrowing
existing conceptualizations of social capital to be used in local context since the suitability of
such measures can easily be brought into question. It is therefore imperative that a localized
conception of social capital be formulated so as to identify the specific nature of the types of
resources that can be used to measure it. This paper reports two studies which have been
conducted to identify and measure social capital in this country. Both studies represent two
distinct ways of conceptualizing social capital which in each case should reflect a localized
conceptions of the construct.
2.0 Social Capital and Religious Life
The first study involves an in-depth investigation into the underlying processes of social capital
formation. The study set out to discover how social capital can be conceived based on the actual
patterns of community life. For that reason, a qualitative research design and a theory building
approach were used to study closely the social relationship that exists in two selected
communities in Kedah. The aim was to conceptualize social capital formation based on
indicators derived and abstracted directly from data. In effect, the research design represent a
non-conventional method of development of theoretical constructs. The outcome of the study
was formulated into a framework that describes the typology and mechanics of social capital
formation (Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid, 2014).
The findings suggest that vibrant communal life is a fertile ground for social capital production.
In the two case studies, the communal relationship was facilitated by strong religious affiliation.
The choice for the religious basis was deliberate since in many explications, religion was often
cited to be one of the major sources of social capital. Hence, in both instances, community
members showed a considerable attachment to religious practices. The attachment eventually
translates into a highly productive community life in which a lot of benefits were generated for
the members. As this study was conducted qualitatively, the evidence for such affiliations were
also qualitative in nature. Amongst the observed indicators include:
Strong sense of identity and high regard for community norms and
values. Throughout both communities, the presence of shared norms were obvious. By
and large community members share common views and demonstrate high admiration
and attachment for their community. There was an aura of sense of identity coming from
the members whenever they converse about their community. Because of this, whatever
norms and values that were shared were observed and adhered to faithfully by
community members.
273
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
A noticeably active and influential authority structures that supervise the

community affairs. Through these structures, various community activities were
organized, the welfare of the less fortunate members of the communities were looked
after and community norms were enforced with noticeable effect. The authority
structures were closely related to the religious entities thus making them much more
effective in managing the community affairs.
A significantly high number of people turning up for religious events
such as congregational prayer and religious lectures. Normally it is very challenging for
a community to sustain a sizeable number of congregants who attend prayer sessions
regularly, especially during odd hours such as the before dawn (fajr) prayer. Yet in these
two communities, the numbers of people involved in such activities are relatively higher
compared to other communities.
Further analyses of these evidence suggest that not only social capital can be conceptualized as
resources that occur within different social realms, it also exists on different layers of social
organization, i.e., the micro and the macro. The findings of this study reflect much of what has
been theorized in social capital literature: that social capital is essentially multidimensional in
nature. As shown in the framework in Figure 1 the social domains are typifications of different
areas within community life capable of generating social capital. These domains are:
Figure 1 : An explanatory framework of social capital formation
Source: Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid (2014). The role of religious congregation in the formation of community social
capital: A case study in the district of Kuala Muda, Kedah. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Universiti Sains Malaysia, p. 307.
1. Communal domain - a social sphere within the community in which people

develop and share common values. The agreement people held towards certain set of
values, norms and cultural practices is an indicator of the process of social capital
production within this particular domain.
274
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Associative domain - a social sphere where people actually engage one

another through investment of time and energy. A belief in commonness and sharing of
identity will amount to nothing if people still reluctant to invest time and money towards
realizing them. Social capital is borne not simply out of conviction but also through action.
3. Bureaucratic domain - a social sphere where community affairs are
administered, often by a structural entity that functions on behalf of the community. Certain
amount of organizational competency is needed to translate different types of resources
available in the community into social resources.
Because social reality is often viewed as comprising different layers of social organizations, the
production of social capital can also be viewed as comprising of at least two different types:
relational and structural social capital.
While the outcome managed to portray the inner workings of religious-based community
leading to the production of social capital, the nature of the study itself offers very limited
opportunity for generalization. It can be argued that, based on the patterns observed, social
capital formation does occur in these two communities as shown in the framework, still, it
might be a little bit ambitious to say that the same pattern also occur in other communities. It
can however be concluded that in so far as the community bears a lot of resemblance with the
sampled ones, such as in terms of the quality of relationship, the centrality of the religious
institutions, and the active participation of its members, social capital may have been borne the
same way as depicted by the framework.
3.0 Six Dimensions of Social Capital
The second study was also conducted in the state of Kedah using a quantitative approach (Najib
Ahmad Marzuki, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid and Mohd. Sobhi Ishak,
2014). The study aimed to develop a set of indicators for measuring community social capital in
local setting. But instead of developing the indicators from scratch, the study opted to use an
existing measure of community social capital as a template. Bullen and Onyx (1998) has
developed an instrument for measuring community social capital in five communities in New
South Wales, Australia. While in terms of specifics communities that exist in Australia cannot
be said to have much resemblance to those in Malaysia, yet the broad contours of community
life in both countries (as well as many other countries in the world) are basically similar. For
this reason, the study looked upon the existing measure developed by Bullen and Onyx to be a
suitable model of measurement to form a basis.
In order to test the suitability of the original indicators in local context, two focus group sessions
were organized involving 18 individuals from a local community. During the sessions, the
participants were asked a series of questions that reflect the original social capital indicators.
They were allowed to discuss freely about how they conceive the same ideas by reflecting upon
their own social experiences. For example, in the original set of indicators, the construct
participation in local community contains such themes as volunteerism, involvement,
membership, roles, participation and contribution. From the focus group discussion it was
found that the themes differ quite significantly and were better captured by alternative themes
such as responsibility and helping out (Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid, Noor Azizah Ahmad,
Najib Ahmad Marzuki and Mohd Sobhi Ishak, 2013).
Table 1 : A comparison between original instrument and the adapted.
275
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Original Instrument (Bullen & Onyx 1998) Adapted Instrument

No. of No. of
Social Capital Elements Social Capital Dimensions
Items Items
Participation in the local community 5 Penglibatan dalam aktiviti komuniti 12
Proactivity in a social context 6 Proaktiviti dalam konteks sosial 12
Feeling of trust and safety 5 Rasa percaya dan selamat 10
Neighborhood connections 5 Hubungan kejiranan 14
Tolerance of diversity 2 Toleransi kepelbagaian 10
Value of life 2 Nilai kehidupan 12
Family and friends connections 3
Work connections 3
Source: Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Najib Ahmad Marzuki and Mohd Sobhi Ishak (2013). Developing
social capital indicators for malaysian society: Some findings from a pilot study. Proceedings of 4th. International Conference on
Education and Information Management (ICEIM-2013), p. 362
Out of the original eight (8) indicators as proposed by Bullen and Onyx, the study had identified
only six (6) indicators that can be suitably used to measure social capital locally. Table 1 shows
the comparison between the original indicators and the ones that were used in this study.
As shown in Table 1, all except two of the original indicators were retained. The two indicators
which were omitted were found to be redundant or irrelevant. For example, it was found that
the construct family and friends connections was very much redundant with neighborhood
connections. This is because in local context the distinction between friends and neighbors is
often negligible.
The study proposes that in Malaysian context, social capital can be conceptualized and
measured along these six (6) dimensions:
Participation in local community (penglibatan dalam aktiviti komuniti). This

dimension refers to the extent to which people get involve in community affairs. In
Malaysian context, this translates into behavioral manifestations such as helping people,
joining community activities and becoming part of community.
Proactivity in social context (proaktiviti dalam konteks sosial). This
dimension measures the extent to which people are willing to take an initial step in making
something worthwhile, such as removing obstacles, keeping the environment clean and
initiating good deeds. This kind of behavior also involves disregard for compensation or
reward.
Feeling of trust and safety (rasa percaya dan selamat). Feeling of safety while
alone is one of the manifestations of social trust. Trust is often accompanied by the feeling
of safety. In Malaysian neighborhood, the ability to walk alone at night without fear is a
significant indicator of social capital.
Neighborhood connections (hubungan kejiranan). Keeping good relations
with neighbors is one of the hallmarks of Malaysian society. To a large extent, neighbors
rank alongside friends and family in terms of the type of relationship that should be
fostered.
276
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Tolerance of diversity (toleransi kepelbagaian). Being a multicultural and

multireligious society, Malaysians are accustomed to the idea of racial, ethnic and religious
tolerance. Being able to tolerate differences amongst people of different social background
is another crucial measure of localized social capital.
Value of life (nilai kehidupan). Value of life measures the outlook that one
has over ones life, particularly in relation to ones community. A positive outlook towards
ones life indicate satisfaction with being part of a community. It reflects on how one
perceives the treatment from the surrounding community.
The findings of the study suggest that localized social capital, while on the outset appears to
comprise similar set of indicators as that of the original source, yet the distinction are actually in
the way the constructs are defined and conceptualized bearing the conditions and cultural
content of local communities. Cultural differences and practices have a very significant impact
upon the way social capital are conceived. In similar vein, for a measurement to bear
meaningful result, the indicators used to gauge the occurrence of social capital should be made
to reflect local customs and practices.
4.0 Discussion and Conclusion
This paper presents two studies on social capital in Malaysia. The aim is to demonstrate distinct
ways the concept of social capital can be conceived within local context. The first study
suggests that social capital is a resource that emanate from tight community setting. In this
instance strong religious affiliation is the core that makes the community rich in social capital.
The findings echo many assertions made by scholars about the nature of social capital - that it
can be a social resource generated at the level of community. A significant aspect about social
capital that this particular study had managed to portray is that there are at least three (3) social
domains which can be found in a typical community capable of producing social capital.
The second study develops indicators for social capital that are deemed suitable for local
context. The study utilizes an existing measure of social capital as a foundation for a similar
attempt but using local setting. A combination of qualitative interviews and quantitative method
of analysis has managed to produce an instrument of measurement. The outcome is a set of six
(6) indicators of localized social capital. The resulting indicators are reflective of existing
conceptualization but the content and context in which the indicators were produced reveal
some significant differences within the idea of social capital as it exist in local setting.
Interest in the idea of social capital in this country has yet to bloom. If global trend is an
indication, it is simply a matter of time before the idea becomes mainstream amongst scholars
in Malaysia. It is therefore imperative that there exist a realization towards the need to generate
more localized conceptions of the concept. For a construct that is very complicated and
multidimensional as social capital, more research needs to be carried out and more exploration
made towards enhancing our grasp of the idea. More indigenous conceptions of social capital
will enable more accurate understanding and measurement which is crucial if such
understanding and measurement are to be used towards critical ends.
277
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5.0 References
Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid, 2014. The role of religious congregation in the formation of
community social capital: a case study in the district of Kuala Muda, Kedah. Ph.D. Universiti
Sains Malaysia.
Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Najib Ahmad Marzuki and Mohd Sobhi
Ishak, 2013. Developing social capital indicators for malaysian society: some findings from a
pilot study. In: Proceedings of 4th. International Conference on Education and Information
Management (ICEIM-2013), pp. 361-367.
Bullen, P. & Onyx, J., 1998. Measuring social capital in five communities in NSW a
practitioners guide. [pdf] Available at: <http://www.mapl.com.au/pdf/scquest.pdf> [Accessed
15 June 2015].
De Hart, J. and Dekker, P., 1999. Civic engagement and volunteering in the Netherlands: A
Putnamian analysis. In: J. Van Deth, M. Maraffi, K. Newton and P. Whiteley, eds. 1999.
Social capital and European democracy. London: Routledge. pp
Fine, B., 2001. Social capital theory versus social theory: political economy and social science
at the turn of the millennium. London: Routledge. Ch.4.
Halpern, D., 2005. Social capital. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Halstead, J. M. and Deller, S. C., 2015. Social capital and community development: an
introduction. In: J. M. Halstead and S. C. Deller, eds. 2015. Social capital at the community
level: an applied interdisciplinary perspective. London: Routledge. Ch.1.
Krishna, A., 2002. Active social capital: tracing the roots of development and democracy.
Columbia: Columbia University Press.
Letki, N., 2008. Does diversity erode social cohesion? Social capital and race in British
neighbourhoods. Political Studies, 56(1), pp. 99 126.
Macinko, J. and Starfield, B., 2001. The utility of social capital in research on health
determinants. Milbank Quarterly, 79(3), pp. 387-427.
Najib Ahmad Marzuki, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid and Mohd. Sobhi
Ishak, 2014. Pembentukan indikator modal sosial komuniti: ke arah penjanaan instrumen
modal sosial komuniti di Malaysia. FRGS Research Report. Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Nason, R. S., Gonzalez L., A. C. and Sharma, P., 2013. Exploring transgenerational
entrepreneurship: the role of intangible resources. In: P. Sharma, P. Sieger, R. S. Nason, A. C.
Gonzalez L. and K. Ramachandran. eds. 2013 Introduction: exploring transgenerational
entrepreneurship: the role of resources and capabilities. Massachussetts: Edward Elgar
Publishing. Ch.1.
Onyx, J. and Bullen, P., 2000. Measuring social capital in five communities. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 36(1), pp. 23-42.
278
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pekkanen, R. J., Tsujinaka, Y. and Yamamoto, H., 2014. Neighborhood associations and local
governance in Japan. New York: Routledge.
Portes, A., 1998. Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual
Review of Sociology 24, pp. 1-24.
Scrivens, K. and Smith, C., 2013, Four interpretations of social capital: an agenda for
measurement, [pdf] OECD Statistics Working Papers, 2013/06, OECD Publishing. Available at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jzbcx010wmt-en [Accessed 10 June 2015].
Thompson, D., 2011. Social capital and its popularity. International Journal of Social Inquiry,
4(11), pp. 3-21.
World Bank (2011). Overview: social capital. [online] Available at:<

http://go.worldbank.org/C0QTRW4QF0> [Accessed May 2015].
279
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Teaching research methods: common misconceptions related to random

sampling
Premalatha Karupiaha
aUniversiti
Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: prema@usm.my
Abstract
This paper is motivated by some common misconceptions among young researchers on random
sampling in survey research. In order to identify if these misconceptions are common among
researchers, the author conducted a content analysis of 38 journal articles that have been
published in peer reviewed journals from July 2013 to June 2014. Two misconceptions were
identified among young researchers and in published articles i.e. meaning of random sampling
and the use of inferential statistics with data from a non-random sample. The number of
published article with these misconceptions is small but it presents a challenge to the teaching
survey research methods and graduate supervision.
Keywords: probability sampling, inferential statistics, random sampling
1. Introduction
This paper is motivated by some common misconceptions among young researcher on random
sampling when conducting a survey as part of their research. It is based on the authors
experience as a research methodology lecturer, trainer and graduate supervisor. Young
researchers here refer to undergraduate and graduate students who are conducting a social
science research. However, in order to identify if these misconceptions are common among
other researchers, the author conducted a content analysis of journal articles that have been
published in peer reviewed journals. This paper therefore discusses not only the common
misconceptions experienced as a teacher but also similar misconceptions identified in published
journal articles.
2. Methods
The content analysis used a sample of 38 journal articles published between July 2013 to June
2014 identified through a search in Proquest Sociology using the terms random sample or
random sampling. The sample only included peer-reviewed articles in English published in
scholarly journals. There were 39 articles in this search but one was excluded because it was
irrelevant to the study. This analysis used a purposive sampling technique, therefore, the
findings are not meant for generalization.
The analysis of the articles focused on two aspects. The first round of analysis focused on how
the sample was selected in each article. It looked not only if the article used words such as
random and probability when describing the sample. In addition to this, it also looked at how
the sample was actually selected (i.e. if the author has described the process of selecting the
sample). Some of the things identified were how the questionnaires were distributed and to
whom it was distributed.
280
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The second round of analysis looked at the types of analysis used in analyzing the data which
have been collected from the sample. In addition to this, the author also looked at how the
findings were interpreted and the type of generalization used in each article and if there are any
cautions regarding the type of generalization that is being made according to the type of sample
being used in the study.
3. Findings
From the authors experience of being a teacher and supervisor for more than ten years, one of
the most common misconceptions among young researcher is on the meaning of the word
random in random sampling. A random sample refers to a sample which is selected using
probability techniques. Examples of random sampling techniques are: simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling (see Blaikie, 2003 and Neuman,
2014 for a detailed discussion on sampling techniques).
In daily life, it [random] can mean unpredictable, unusual, unexpected, or

haphazard. In mathematics, random has a specific meaning: a selection process
without any pattern. In mathematics, random processes mean that each element will
have an equal probability of being selected (Neuman, 2014: 254).
In other words, young researchers have difficulties understanding the technical meaning of the
word random. Their understanding is based on the way the word random is used in everyday
life. Therefore, many researchers use the term random sample to describe various types of
non-probability sampling.
Related to this, they also have problems in selecting a suitable procedure to select a random
sample. Random sampling, for example, is often mistakenly used to describe distribution of
questionnaires to random respondents, which is a type of non-probability sampling technique
(convenience sampling).
Similar misconceptions were identified in the articles. From the content analysis, two articles
clearly used the word random to describe convenience sampling. One article, for example,
explained that the researchers used a random sampling by distributing the questionnaires to
random strangers.
Another common problem identified both in the papers and among students is the use of
inferential statistics with data from a non-random sample. Inferential statistics is used to
generalize the results from a random sample to the population from which the sample was
drawn. This analysis is suitable for data collected from a random sample with a high response
rate. This analysis is not suitable for data from a population or if the data was collected from a
sample selected using a non-random technique (Blaikie, 2003).
The content analysis showed that seven articles used inferential statistics with data from a
non-random sample. The first two are related to the misconception on the meaning of a random
sample. Another three used inferential statistics on data from a non-random sample (either
convenience or snowball sampling) even though both articles clearly acknowledged that the
results cannot be generalized to the population. Another two articles used a non-random sample
but used the bootstrapping procedures to do significance tests.
281
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Implications for teaching and supervision
Even though the number of articles which show misconceptions related to random sampling is
small, it presents a challenge to the process of teaching research methods. It is difficult for
students to understand the need to follow basic statistical assumptions in data analysis when
some published articles also do not follow these assumptions closely. Similarly, the technical
meaning of the word random is also lost in some of these articles and similar meaning may be
used by the young researchers. The discrepancy between what is presented in statistics and
research methods text and how it is used in actual research can be very confusing for young
researchers and this becomes a challenge in teaching and supervising young researchers.
Similar problems may arise when the work of these young researchers are being examined in
the form of theses and dissertations. Therefore, it is important that the young researchers
understand the basic assumptions related to random sampling and inferential statistics. This
would enable them to select a suitable sampling technique and analysis for their study and
defend their selection in the examination process.
5. Limitations
Only one database was used to select a sample of published journal articles. Future research
should include more databases in the selection of journal articles. This study focused only on
articles in sociology. In addition to this, terms used for the search of articles should include
other related terms such as probability sampling or sample.
6. References
Blaikie, N. 2003. Analyzing quantitative data: From description to explanation. London:

Sage Publications.
Neuman, W. L. 2014. Social research methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Essex: Pearson.
282
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
FINANCIAL AND MONETARY ECONOMICS
283
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Does Financial Development Promote Output Growth in West Africa?

Evidence from Cote DIvoire and Nigeria
Kizito Uyi Ehigiamusoe1,*, Hooi Hooi Lean 2

1
ehiuyikizexcel@yahoo.com
2
hooilean@usm.my
Abstract
Cote DIvoire and Nigeria though members of the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS), differ in many aspects. While the former is the largest economy among
the West Africa Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) that use common central bank
and currency with seven other nations, Nigeria is the largest economy among the
non-WAEMU states. The level of financial development differs in the two countries and to a
large extent, is expected to have implications for output growth. Consequently, this paper
empirically examines and compares the relationship between financial development and
output growth in the two countries. It employs econometric techniques to investigate the
relationship using data for the 1980-2013 periods. Evidence from the study revealed the
existence of long-run relationships between financial development and economic growth in
both countries. It was discovered that financial development has a negative and significant
impact on economic growth both in the long-run and in the short-run in Nigeria. But the study
found no evidence to support supply-leading, demand-following, or complementarity
hypotheses in Cote DIvoire. The paper recommended a reassessment of the present financial
sector reforms in WAEMU member countries with a view to making it more efficient and
responsive to output growth.
Keywords: Financial development, Output growth. West Africa Economic and Monetary
Union (WAEMU).
1.0 Introduction
The nexus between financial development and output growth has been a subject of debate
among scholars and researchers since the time of McKinnon, (1973) and Shaw, (1973), and
will continue to dominate discussion in the next decades. A large and expanding literature
have been empirically investigating the direction of the causal relationship between financial
development and economic growth. But the empirical results have been mixed as evidence
abound to support supply-leading hypothesis, demand-following hypothesis, complementarity
hypothesis and neutrality hypothesis. The supply-leading hypothesis contends that financial
development promotes economic growth through resources mobilization/allocation and
reduction in information, transaction and enforcement costs. These have been documented in
King and Levine, (1993); Beck et al. (2000); Christopoulos and Tsionas, (2004); Levine,
(2005); Shan and Jianhong, (2006); Wong and Zhou, (2011) and Amoro et al. (2014).
284
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Also, the demand-following hypothesis believes that economic growth leads to the expansion
and development of the financial system as empirically revealed by Demetriades and Hussein,
(1996); Ang and McKibbin, (2007); Blanco, (2009) and Zaka and Mamadou, (2010).
Furthermore, the complementarity or feedback hypothesis opines that a bidirectional causal
relationship exists between financial development and economic growth as observed in the
works of Al-Yousif, (2002); Apergis et al. (2007); Bangake and Eggoh, (2011); Adusei,
(2013) and Chortareas et al. (2015). Finally, the neutrality hypothesis is of the view that no
causal relationship exists between financial development and economic growth. Evidence in
support of this hypothesis are documented in Atindehou et al. (2005); Kar et al. (2010);
Grassa and Gazdar, (2014) and Meyah et al. (2014).
This analysis shows the absence of consensus among scholars on the causal relationship
between financial development and output growth. Therefore, the findings obtained from
empirical researches could be as a result of the data, methodology, case study and proxies
used by the researchers in the study. As noted by Adu et al. (2013), the growth effect of
financial development is very sensitive to the choice of proxy. Ang, (2008) also observed that
though the positive effect of financial development on economic growth have become a
stylized fact, but there are some methodological reservations about these empirical results.
The results could also differ from one country to another, depending on whether the country is
classified as advanced economy, emerging market, low income country or resources-endowed
nation. Calderon and Liu, (2003) opined that the effects of financial development on output
growth differ between developing and industrialized nations. Though reforms that contribute
to the process of financial deepening may also contribute to the process of economic
development, but the results of the relationship between finance and growth could be
country-specific. That was why the World Bank, (1993) asserted that, there cannot be
wholesale acceptance of the view that financial development leads to economic growth,
neither can it be generally accepted that finance follow growth among countries, because
nations differ in-terms of institutional characteristics, economic policies and the
implementation of the policies.
Consequently, some empirical studies have been conducted on the relationship between
financial development and economic growth in West Africa countries though the results have
also been conflicting and inconclusive (such as Shittu, 2012; Maduka and Onwuka, 2013 and
Meyah et al. 2014). But none of such empirical studies has attempted to compare the finance
growth nexus in WAEMU and non WAEMU member countries. Cote DIvoire is a WAEMU
member country that has a common central bank and use a common currency with seven other
states in West Africa, while Nigeria is the largest non-WAEMU member state with a different
central bank and national currency. The level of financial development differs in the two
countries and to a large extent, is expected to have implications for output growth. Despite
this categorizations, empirical studies that examine and compare the finance-growth link in
these countries are very scanty or non-existence to the best of our knowledge. This study is an
attempt to fill this gap. Does financial development have more impact on output growth in
WAEMU member country than in non-WAEMU member country?
Consequently, the broad objective of this paper is to empirically examine and compare the
relationship between financial development and output growth in Cote DIvoire and Nigeria.
Following this introduction, the rest of the paper is divided into three Sections. Section two
presents the methodology adopted for the study. Section three contains the empirical results
and findings, and the final Section summarizes the study and makes some policy
recommendations.
285
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.0 Methodology
The study employed econometric techniques to examine the relationship between financial
development and output growth in Cote DIvoire and Nigeria. Johansen cointegration
Techniques, Ordinary Least Squares and Error Correction Model were employed to examine
both the long-run and short run dynamics of financial development on economic growth. The
data for the study covering 1980-2013 periods were sourced from World Bank and
International Monetary Fund Databases.
2.1 Model Specification
Having reviewed several theories and previous empirical studies, the paper employs the
following model, which is a modification of the models used by Christopoulos and Tsionas,
(2004) and Shittu, (2012). Economic growth (GDP) is expressed as a function of financial
development (FD) and other control variables (Z). The control variables included in the model
in line with the determinants of traditional growth theories include; growth of capital stock
(CAP), growth of labour (LAB), trade openness/GDP (TRADE), government
expenditure/GDP (GOVEXP) and inflation (INFL). Financial development (FD) is proxied
alternatively by broad money supply/GDP (M2/GDP) and credit to private sector/GDP
(CPS/GDP), while economic growth is proxied by GDP per capita.
GDPt f ( FDt , Z t ) (1)
Where: Z t (CAPt LABt TRADE t GOVEXPt INFLt ) (2)
GDPt f ( FDt CAPt LABt TRADE t GOVEXPt INFLt ) (3)
GDPt 0 1 FDt 2 CAPt 3 LABt 4TRADE t 5 GOVEXPt 6 INFLt t (4)
The natural logarithm of equation (4) gives equation (5) as
log GDPt 0 1 log FDt 2 log CAPt 3 log LABt 4 log TRADE t 5 log GOVEXPt
6 log INFLt t ) (5)
Where: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 = parameters to be estimated, t = Error term at time t
a priori expectation: 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 > 0; 6< >0
3.0 Empirical Results and Findings
3.1 Unit Root and Johansen Cointegration Tests
Before estimating the model, the study conducted unit root test to ascertain the stationarity of
the data using both the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and the Philips-Perron (PP). The
results revealed that all the variables are stationary at first difference except the growth of
labour that is stationary at levels in Cote DIvoire. In Nigeria, all the variables are stationary
at levels except GDP, growth of labour and trade openness that are stationary at first
difference. Furthermore, the Johansen Co-integration test was also conducted to ascertain the
existence of a long-run relationship between financial development and output growth. The
hypothesis which states there is no long-run relationship between the two variables was tested.
The results show the existence of 3 cointegrating equations for Cote DIvoire and 4
cointegrating equations for Nigeria. The hypotheses that state there are no long-run
relationships between financial development and output growth in Cote DIvoire and Nigeria
are rejected at 5% significance level. This implies that a long-run relationship exists between
financial development and economic growth in the two countries.
286
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.2 Long-Run Estimation Results
The result of the estimated long-run relationship between financial development and output
growth for Cote DIvoire as presented in Table 3.1 indicates that some of the variables in the
model satisfy the a priori expectations with respect to their signs while others did not. While
financial development and investment have positive signs, the other variables have negative
signs. All the variables are statistically significant at 10% significance level except financial
development. This implies that financial development measured by ratio of broad money
supply to GDP does not have a significant impact on growth. Another measure of financial
development namely; the ratio of credit to private sector to GDP was also used for analysis
and the result was that same. As for Nigeria, all the variables included in the model satisfy
the a priori expectations with respect to their signs except financial development. Financial
development, government expenditure and inflation are statistically significant at 5% level.
Using the ratio of private to credit to private sector as proxy for financial development, the
result also shows that financial development has a negative impact on economic growth. This
implies that a decrease in financial development will increase economic growth in Nigeria.
The respective adjusted R2 and Durbin Watson statistics reveal the explanatory power and the
absence of serial auto correlation in the models, respectively.
Table 3.1 Long-run Estimation Results for Cote DIvoire and Nigeria
Cote DIvoire Nigeria
Variable Coefficient t-Statistic Prob. Coefficient t-Statistic Prob.
Constant 0.70 3.18 0.00 0.19 0.25 0.80
M2/GDP 0.16 0.70 0.48 -0.93 -5.67 0.00
CAP 0.19 2.13 0.04 0.11 0.43 0.66
LAB -0.17 -2.40 0.02 0.52 1.22 0.23
TRADE -0.77 -2.51 0.01 0.14 1.00 0.32
GOVEXP -0.10 -2.02 0.05 0.17 2.07 0.04
INFL -0.00 -1.92 0.06 -0.16 -3.67 0.00
R-Squared 0.42 0.61
Adjusted R2 0.28 0.52
F-Statistic 3.17 6.95
Prob (F-statistic) 0.01 0.00
Durbin-Watson stat 1.86 1.54
CPS/GDP 0.09 0.36 0.71 -0.80 -2.13 0.04
3.3 Short-Run Estimation
To capture the short-run dynamics using the residuals from the co-integration regression as
the error correction term, the study further examined the short-run impact of financial
development on economic growth. Starting with the over-parameterised model, we then tested
down (dropping the variables with low t-statistic) until we arrived at our preferred
parsimonious model as shown in Table 3.2. The result of Cote DIvoire revealed that most of
the variables in the model satisfy the a priori expectations with respect to their signs in the
short-run. Also, most of the variables are statistically significant at 5% significance level
except financial development. This shows that financial development does not have
significant impact on economic growth in the short-run in Cote DIvoire. As for Nigeria,
financial development has a negative and statistically significant impact on economic growth
in the short-run. This implies that a unit decrease in financial development will increase
growth by 0.8 percent. The other control variables included in the model satisfy the a priori
expectation in-terms of their signs and have significant impact on growth. The estimated
287
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
coefficient of the error correction terms ECM (-1) show negative statistically significant
values in terms of the associated t-values and probability values for both countries. The
adjusted R2 and Durbin-Watson statistic for the two countries indicate strong explanatory
power of the models and suggest that the models are free from serial auto correlation,
respectively.
Table 3.2 Short-run Estimation Results for Cote DIvoire and Nigeria
Cote DIvoire Nigeria
Variables Coefficient t-Statistic Prob. Variables Coefficient t-Statistic Prob.
Constant -1.064 -2.503 0.022 Constant -7.471 -3.271 0.006
M2/GDP 0.001 0.002 0.997 M2/GDP -0.828 -7.496 0.000
GOVEXP 0.079 0.574 0.573 LAB 1.604 3.544 0.004
TRADE -0.818 -3.760 0.001 TRADE 0.465 3.662 0.003
GOVEXP(-3) 0.440 3.236 0.004 GOVEXP 0.274 3.093 0.009
INFL(-1) 0.007 2.432 0.026 INFL -0.158 -4.616 0.000
CAP(-1) -0.339 -1.059 0.304 M2/GDP(-1) 0.182 1.467 0.168
M2/GDP(-2) -0.044 -0.272 0.788 M2/GDP(-2) -0.426 -2.471 0.029
LAB(-2) -0.060 -0.848 0.408 LAB(-2) 1.760 3.486 0.004
TRADE(-1) 1.815 3.998 0.000 CAP(-2) 1.334 3.366 0.005
GDPPC(-3) -0.268 -2.188 0.042 GDPPC(-2) -0.568 -2.662 0.020
ECM(-1) -0.272 -1.753 0.097 ECM(-1) -0.846 -3.110 0.009
R-squared 0.795 0.923
Adjusted
R-squared 0.650 0.814
F-statistic 5.502 8.497
Prob(F-statisti
c) 0.000 0.000
Durbin-Watso
n stat 1.930 2.272
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
The study examined the relationship between financial development and output growth in
WAEMU member (Cote DIvoire) and non-WAEMU member (Nigeria) states. The study
employed econometric techniques using data for 1980-2013 periods, sourced from World
Bank and International Monetary Fund Databases. Evidence from the study revealed the
existence of long-run relationships between financial development and economic growth in
both countries. In Nigeria, the study showed that financial development has a negative and
significant impact on economic growth both in the long-run and in the short-run. The
implication of this result is that a decrease in financial development will promote economic
growth in Nigeria. This study agreed with the findings of Maduka and Onwuka (2013) on the
inverse relationship between financial development and economic growth. On the other
hand, the study found no evidence to support supply-leading, demand-following or
complementarity hypotheses in Cote DIvoire. Though the relationship between financial
development and output growth was positive but its impact was statistically insignificant. This
study corroborated the study of Meyah et al (2014) that found evidence to support the
neutrality hypothesis in Cote DIvoire. The paper recommended a reassessment of the present
financial sector reforms in WAEMU countries with a view to making it more efficient and
responsive to output growth. It is also necessary for the non WAEMU countries to give
emphasis to the development of other growth conditioning variables with a view to ensuring
sustainable output growth.
288
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5. References
Adu, G., Marbuah, G. and Mensah, J.T. 2013. Financial Development and Economic Growth
in Ghana: Does the measure of Financial Development Matter? Review of
Development Finance, 3(4), 192-203.
Adusei, 2013. Finance-Growth Nexus in Africa: A Panel Generalized Method of Moments
(GMM) Analysis. Asian Economic and Financial Review, 3(10), 1314-1324.
Agbetsiafa, D. 2004. The Finance Growth Nexus: Evidence from Sub-Sahara Africa. Savings
and Development, 28 (3), 271-300.
Akinlo, A.E. and Egbetunde, T. 2010. Financial Development and Economic growth: The
Experience of 10 Sub-Sahara African Countries Revisited. The Review of Finance and
Banking, 2(1), 17-28.
Al-Yousif, Y.K 2002. Financial Development and Economic Growth: Another look at the
evidence from developing countries. Review of Financial Economics, 11(2), 131-150.
Amoro, G., Herve, D. B and Mingaine, L. 2014. The Study of Causal relationship Between
Foreign Direct Investment, Financial Market Development and Economic Growth for
Eight West African Countries: Evidence from Panel Data Analysis. Research Journal
of Economics and Business Studies, 3(8), 42-65.
Ang, J.B 2008. Survey of Recent Development in the Literature of Finance and Growth.
Journal of Economic Surveys, 22(3):536-576.
Apergis, N., Fillippidis, I. and Economidou, C 2007. Financial Deeping and Economic
Growth Linkages; A Panel data Analysis. Review of World Economics, 143 (1),
179-198.
Atindehou, R.B, Gueyie, J.P and Amenounve, E.K. 2005. Financial Intermediation and
Economic Growth: Evidence from Western Africa. Applied Financial Economics. 15
(2005), 777790.
Bangake, C. and Eggoh, J. C. 2011. Further Evidence on Finance-Growth Causality: A Panel
Data Analysis. Economic Systems, 35 (2011) 176188.
Beck, T., Levine, R. and Loayza, N. 2000. Finance and the sources of Growth. Journal of
Banking and Finance, 28. 423-442.
Blanco, L. 2009. The Finance-Growth Link in Latin America. Southern Economic Journal, 76
(1), 224-248.
Calderon, C. and Liu, L. 2003. The Direction of Causality between Financial Development
and Economic Growth. Journal of Development Economics, 72(2003) 321-334.
Chortareas, G., Magkonis, G., Moschos, D. and Panagiotidis, T. 2015. Financial Development
and Economic Activity in Advanced and Developing Open Economies: Evidence from
Panel Cointegration. Review of Development Economics, 19(1), 163177.
Christopoulos, D.K. and Tsionas, E.G. 2004. Financial Development and Economic Growth:
Evidence from Panel Unit Root and Cointegration Test. Journal of Development
Economics, 73(2004), 55-74.
Demetriades, P.O. and Hussein, K.A. 1996. Does Financial Development Cause Economic
Growth? Time-Series Evidence from 16 Countries. Journal of Development
Economics, 51(1996). 387-411.
Ghirmay, T. 2004. Financial Development and Economic Growth in Sub-Sahara African
Countries. Evidence from Time Series Analysis. African Development Bank,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, UK. Pp. 415-432.
Grassa, R. and Gazdar, K. 2014. Financial development and economic growth in GCC
countries: A comparative study between Islamic and conventional finance.
International Journal of Social Economics, 41(6), pp.493 514.
289
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kar, M., Nazlioglu, S. and Agir, H. 2010. Financial Development and Economic Growth
Nexus in the MENA Countries: Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis.
Economic Modelling, 28(2011), 685-693.
King, R. G. and Levine, R. 1993. Finance, Entrepreneurship and Growth: Theory and
Evidence. Journal of Monetary Economics, 32, 513-542.
Levine, R. 2005. Finance and Growth: Theory and Evidence, in Aghion, P. and Durlauf, S.N
(2005) Handbook of Economic Growth. ELSEVIER Publishers, USA, (1), 865-934.
Maduka A.C and Onwuka K.O 2013. Financial Market Structure and Economic Growth:
Evidence from Nigeria. Asian Economic and Financial Review, 3(1), 75-98
McKinnon, R. I. 1973. Money and Capital in Economic Development; Washington D.C. The
Bookings Institution.
Meyah, K., Nazlioglu, S. and Wolde-Rufael, Y 2014. Financial Development, Trade
Openness and Economic Growth in African Countries: New insights from a Panel
Causality Approach. Economic Modelling 37 (2014), 386-394
Shan, J. and Jianhong, Q. 2006. Does Financial Development Lead Economic Growth? The
Case of China. Annals of Economics and Finance, 1 (2006), 197-216.
Shaw, E. 1973. Financial Deepening in Economic Development: New York, Oxford
University press.
Shittu, A.I. 2012. Financial Intermediation and Economic Growth in Nigeria. British Journal
of Arts and Social Sciences, 4(2), 164-179.
Wong, A. and Zhou, X. 2011. Development of Financial market and economic Growth:
Review of Hong Kong, China, Japan, The United States and The United Kingdom.
International journal of Economics and Finance, 3 (2), 111-115.
World Bank, 1993. The Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. Ney York,
Oxford University Press.
Zaka, R. and Mamadou, D. B. 2010. Financial Development and Economic Growth: Evidence
from West Africa. Economic Bulletin, Volume 30, No 4, pp. 2996-3009.
290
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
An Islamic-Based Human Development Index with Special Reference to

Debt Indicators
Nor Asmat bt Ismail
University Sains Malaysia
11800 Minden
Pulau Pinang
norasmat@usm.my
Abstract
The debate on how to measure development and progress of societies has been discussed by
many researchers. Different normative theories have been proposed and many more measures
or indices have been devised from both the conventional and the Islamic viewpoint. These
range from simple measures such as GDP per capita to a more complex Human Development
Index (HDI). Some of these indices measure progress and development through the degree of
reduction in income poverty. Some go further and try to measure growth in social
opportunities and distribution of those opportunities within low income groups so as to
measure inclusiveness of growth. Some go even further and attempt to measure capabilities
deprivation and the extent to which these deprivations can be reduced. Going yet further,
some measures are focused on freedom deprivation to gauge the reduction in
multidimensional poverty. From an Islamic viewpoint, many scholars have attempted to
extend the Human Development Index in the direction of Maqasid al-Shariah. However, all
indices that have been developed by earlier researchers do not take into account the practice of
debt. Since debt may have correlation with other variables in the Maqasid al-Shariah,
especially property as well as education and faith elements, this study suggests that the debt
variable should be considered in the measurement of HDI.
Introduction
The Human Development Index (HDI) is the index used by the United Nations to measure the
progress of a country. The HDI is a statistical tool used to measure a countrys overall
achievement in its social and economic dimensions. The social and economic dimensions of a
country are based on the health of people, their level of educational attainment and their
standard of living. The HDI was created to emphasise that people and their capabilities should
be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of the average achievement in
key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and have
a decent standard of living.
The HDI is the geometric mean of normalised indices for each of the three dimensions. The
HDI examines three basic dimensions to measure the growth of a country and its achievements
in human development. The first of these is the health of the people. This is measured by life
expectancy at birth and those with higher life expectancies rank higher than those with lower
life expectancies. The second dimension measured in the HDI is a the overall knowledge level
of a country as measured by the adult literacy rate combined with the gross enrolment ratios of
students in primary school through to university level. The third dimension in the HDI is the
standard of living. This dimension is measured by the Gross Domestic Product per capita in
terms of purchasing power parity, based on US dollars. Those with higher standards of living
291
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
rank higher than those with lower standards of living. By combining these three dimensions, an
overall HDI for a country can be obtained.
Criticisms of the Human Development Index
1. From the conventional perspective
Throughout the time it has been in use, the HDI has been criticised for a number of reasons. One
of them is its failure to include ecological considerations while focusing only on national
performance and ranking. In the current HDI, developed nations and oil-rich countries are
placed highly without regard to how much their development paths cost the planet and imperil
the future development of humanity (Togtokh 2011). In 1992, the first UN Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, defined the three pillars of sustainable development: economic, social
and environmental growth. Globally, humanity has had remarkable success with the first two
of these but failed to tackle all three dimensions simultaneously, owing to reductionism,
fragmentation, division and territoriality. The HDI is emblematic of this fragmented approach.
The revised index should include the per capita carbon emissions of each nation, and so
become a Human Sustainable Development Index (HSDI) (Togtokh 2011).
Bravo (2015) added a CO2 emission dimension to the three components of the commonly used
HDI, namely Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, educational achievements and life
expectancy. Although far from being an adequate indicator of the sustainability of a country,
the HSDI improves over the HDI, which totally ignores the environmental aspects of human
development. HSDI also holds the merit of being easily calculable from publicly accessible
data.
The methodology has become the focus of public debate and criticism. Weighing the three
components of the index equally suggests a perfect substitution between longevity,
knowledge, and living standards and, therefore, implicit trade-offs between the three
dimensions (Desai, 1991, Kelly, 1991). As a result, countries ranked very closely together can
have significantly different development indices in a given dimension. Moreover, as the
absolute value of each component affects the level of the HDI, the maximum and minimum
values selected affect the value of the index, resulting in a change in the ranking order
(Noorbakhsh, 1998). Hopkins (1991) stated that there was no a priori rationale as to why life
expectancy and literacy could even be added together. Most researchers who have proposed
modifications to the standard HDI have maintained the additivity of the components in their
indices. These include the Modified HDI (Noorbakhsh, 1998) and the Rescaled New HDI
(Mazumdar, 2003) that use Euclidean vector distance. Desai (1991) suggested a log additive
formula to restrict substitutability. Sagar and Najam (1998) propose a reformed HDI by
multiplying component indices instead of averaging them. In this case, simultaneously high
values for all three component indices are required to obtain a high value HDI.
Another criticism centres on the choice of dimensions included in the HDI. Political freedom
and civil rights are popular dimensions (Boer & Koekkoek, 1993; Desai, 1991, Hopkins,
1991; and Khatib, 1994). Stewart, Ranis, and Samman (2006) suggested that as a
multi-dimensional process, the HDI should include development aspects such as peace,
security, environmental concerns, cultural freedom, and access to social services. The first
human development report (HDR) did discuss human freedom and human rights, stating that
human development is incomplete without human freedom, but also that while the need for
292
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
quality judgment is clear, there is no simple quantitative measure available yet to capture the
many aspects of human freedom. (HDR, 1990).
There is also the concern of combining stock variables such as adult literacy and flow
variables like the combined enrolment ratio in the construction of the HDI. Due to this
potential for misuse of data, the HDI thus cannot capture the short-run changes in human
development in a country. It is also not very sensitive to policy changes and as such may
frustrate the policy makers. Ignorance of this problem could lead to an inappropriate
comparison across countries (Hou, et al., 2014). Hopkins (1991) also criticised the time lags
associated with the impact of policy changes on adult literacy and life expectancy and, hence,
the HDI partially measures the outcomes of past efforts and not just the present situation.
Hou, et al. (2014) constructed an index consisting only of indicators that reflect current flows in
order to capture the pure flow of human development in the areas of material well-being, health,
and education. In contrast to the existing HDI which mixes stock variables including life
expectancy and literacy rate with flow variables such as GDP per capita and gross enrolment
ratio, Hou and colleagues used the flow variables of the under-five mortality rate to replace life
expectancy and the gross primary-school enrolment ratio instead of literacy rate together with
GDP per capita to form a new index, the HDIF.
The HDI also is criticised because it only looks at the average achievements and, thus does not
take into account the distribution of human development within a country (Sagar & Najam,
1998). When constructing distribution-sensitive measures of human development, limited data
availability concerning the distribution of human development achievements seriously
constrains the analysis. Household income surveys are today widely undertaken and, hence
provide data on income distribution, but it is much more difficult to obtain data on inequality
for life expectancy, educational achievements and literacy. There is empirical evidence that
mortality as well as educational attainment varies with income and wealth in both rich and
poor countries (Harttgen, 2008).
In the past, several attempts have been made to integrate inequality into the HDI. Hicks
(1997) suggested a process to discount each dimensional index by one minus the Gini
coefficient for that dimension before the arithmetic mean over all three dimensions is taken.
Therefore, high inequality in one dimension lowers the index value for that dimension, and
hence its contribution to the HDI. Although the idea of such a discount factor is rather
intuitive, the Gini-corrected HDI has not been widely used. One reason might be that it is
conceptually unclear and empirically it is very difficult to calculate a Gini coefficient for life
expectancy. Another reason might be that it is not clear how to interpret the interaction
between the Gini coefficient and the average achievement in a component and across
components (Harttgen, 2008).
The gender-related development index, or GDI, was another attempt in that direction. Its
motivation was the emphasis given by the 1995 Human Development Report on gender
inequalities. The GDI adjusts the HDI downward by existing gender inequalities in life
expectancy, education, and incomes. The GDI calculates each dimension index separately for
men and women, and then combines both by taking the harmonic mean, penalising
differences in achievement between men and women. The overall GDI is then calculated by
combining the three gender-adjusted dimension indices by taking the arithmetic mean.
293
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Harttgen et al. (2008) suggested the generation of a separate HDI for different segments of the
income distribution. More precisely, household income and demographic data are used to
compute the indices of the three dimensions for the quintiles of the income distribution. This
allows on the one hand the tracking of the progress in human development separately for the
poor and the non-poor, and on the other hand to compare the level of human development
of the poor to the level of the average population and the level of the non-poor.
2. From an Islamic perspective
The existing HDI published by UNDP might be the most comprehensive indicator, but it is not
fully compatible or sufficient for measuring human development from an Islamic perspective
because the underlying theory and concept to develop the HDI is not based on Maqasid
al-Shariah (Anto 2009). The objective of economic development in the Islamic perspective is
to achieve a comprehensive and holistic welfare both in this world and in the hereafter. Based
on this objective, the conventional indicators of economic development are insufficient to
measure the level of economic development from an Islamic perspective.
Anto (2009) proposed a new model for measuring economic development in Islamic terms
which he called the Islamic Human Development Index (I-HDI). The I-HDI is considered
within the framework of the Maqasid al-Shariah, which is basically concerned with the
promotion of human wellbeing and relief from hardship through the preservation of self,
wealth, posterity, intellect and faith. The fulfilment of these five basic needs will be the
condition for achieving welfare and happy living in the world and the hereafter which is called
falah. I-HDI is a composite index of several indicators derived from basic needs within the
framework of Maqasid al-Shariah combining both quantitative variables and variables
expressing perceptions. These dimensions measure both performances of material welfare as
well as non-material welfare. Material welfare relates to the performance in fulfilment of
property needs. The Islamic system would prefer a relatively lower level of property ownership
with a better distribution of income/wealth. Non-material welfare relates to all things that are
not directly related to material aspects but fundamental for achieving maslahah (faith, human
self, intellect, posterity). The longer life, the better, as a longer life could be assumed to be a
wider opportunity for doing many good things that benefit the achievement of maslahah.
Knowledge and science has a pivotal position for development, so that all of the members of
society should deserve to receive education. The development process will be more efficient
and effective if the family and social relationships among society members is in harmony.
Family also takes an important role in building the next generation which is important for
sustaining development, and finally, the role of religiosity within society is beyond debate from
the Islamic perspective.
Islam takes a broad and encompassing view of human development and asserts the centrality
of achieving the Maqasid al-Shariah in any public policy. The existing development indices
do not completely conform to the normative judgments of Islam especially because of their
disproportionate emphasis on the material aspect of the development and their disregard for
the dimensions which are crucial for the world hereafter. This highlights the need for an index
which accommodates the dimensions which are consistent with Maqasid al-Shariah (Rafi
Amir-Ud-Din 2014).
The important feature of the Islamic concept of development is that it considers development
as a multidimensional activity and seeks to establish a balance between different factors and
forces. The approach of neoclassical economics was mistaken in taking an isolated view of
294
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
economic activity by excluding many dimensions of real life (Zaman & Asutay 2009). The
Islamic concept of development is comprehensive in character and includes moral, spiritual
and material dimensions. Development becomes a goal and a value-oriented activity, devoted
to the optimisation of human well-being in all these areas (Ahmad 1994). HDI only measures
human abilities and performance from the physical aspects such as health, educational level and
lifestyle. It does not take into account the actual function of man based on the Islamic based
development worldview, that is, man as a servant and khalifah of Allah SWT that can be
measured by the spiritual aspects, such as faith and piety (Shukri Hanapi & Shereeza 2014).
Human Development from an Islamic perspective

A standard definition of economic development is ... removal of poverty, unemployment,
inequality, illiteracy, and ill-health, and one of ensuring participation in government...
incorporating, in the final result, the technological safeguards for human development and
conserving of the biosphere that has been developed. This concept of economic development
has its roots in the post-enlightenment period. Islam, however, does not subscribe to this
materialistic worldview, nor does it consider human life to be determined by material,
psychological, instinctive or environmental forces (Chapra 2008).
The Islamic approach to development rests on a set of well-defined philosophical foundations
(Ahmad 1994). The first foundation is Tawhid, which posits the unity and sovereignty of Allah
and helps define the nature of the relationship between man and his Lord as well as the
relationship between man and man. The principle of Tawhid entails that there is a unity of
purpose in the design of this universe, and any dichotomy is at best a state away from the
equilibrium which will be removed over time. In the world hereafter, the angularities in both the
human relationships as well as the other dimensions of the universe will be physically removed:
Nothing crooked or curved wilt thou see in their place (Qurn, 20: 107). The Rabubiyya
principle entails that human beings as well as other creatures are governed by a Power who is
Benevolent, Compassionate and Merciful. This principle assures human beings that the
resources essential for a good life in this world exist and they do not have to conduct their life in
a mad pursuit of the necessities of life. Such philosophical constructs as fatalism and
determinism stand opposite to the Rabubiyyah principle because the former isms see man as a
puppet in the hands of forces which are indifferent to his plight and man is totally helpless
against these forces.
The Khilafah principle provides that human beings are responsible for their deeds and actions,
and this principle refutes all such isms which take a non-serious or hedonist view of life.
Tazkiyyah, the fourth principle, means purification and growth. The Islamic concept of
development directly follows from this principle because it addresses itself to the problem of
human development in all its dimensions: development is concerned with growth towards
perfection through purification of attitudes and relationships. The result of tazkiyah is falah
prosperity in this world and the hereafter (Ahmad 1994). Chapra (2007) includes another
dimension of Adalah (justice) that provides for the satisfaction of the needs of everyone, and
ensures equitable distribution of income and wealth and environmental protection. At a more
abstract level, Islam considers development in terms of a journey along the sirat (path),
suggesting that Islam has a dynamic concept of development which requires continuous
struggle on the part of Muslims. Those who are successful on this journey are referred to as
muflihin (successful ones) or muhsinun (achievers of perfection) (Zaman & Asutay 2009).
Unlike the secular market paradigm, human well-being in Islam does not depend essentially on
the maximisation of wealth and consumption. It requires a balanced satisfaction of both
295
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
material and spiritual needs of the human personality. The spiritual need is not satisfied only by
the five pillars of Islam, it requires individuals to shape their behaviour in accordance with the
Shariah (Islamic teachings), which is designed to enable the realisation of Maqasid al-Shariah,
namely socio-economic justice and the well-being of all Gods creatures. Neglecting the
spiritual needs or physical needs impedes the realisation of true well-being and exacerbates the
symptoms of anomie, such as frustration, crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, divorce, mental
illness and suicide, revealing a lack of inner life satisfaction of individuals. The extrapolation of
the texts of the Qurn and the Sunna and the legal provisions of worship and transactions, show
that human development is a legitimate target which must be established in the nation by their
various practices. Human development is known as an economic, social, cultural and political
process for continuous improvement of the welfare of all individuals on the basis of their active
and meaningful participation in development and equitable sharing of the wealth generated. It is
based on the satisfaction of basic human needs on an ongoing basis to ensure safety and social
stability. In the Qurn this concept results in reconstruction and reform on the ground. Al araaf
-56 Do no mischief on the earth, after it has been set in order, but call on Him with fear and
longing (in your hearts): for the Mercy of Allah is (always) near to those who do good (Medhi
2014).
A philosophical foundation of the Islamic approach to development should contain seven
foundations. They are its mould, actors, time-scale, framework, methods, means and ultimate
aim. The mould of Islamic development is the Islamic worldview (tasawwur), while the actors
of Islamic development are human beings, the time-scale covers three worlds of pre-birth,
present and Hereafter, the framework is the Islamic obligatory knowledge, the methodology is
the worship (ibadah) of God, the means are the natural resources, and the ultimate aim is the
pleasure of God (mardatillah) (Muhammad Shukri Salleh 2013).
Discussion and Suggestions

The debate on how to measure development and progress of societies has been joined by
many researchers. Different normative theories have been proposed and many more measures
or indices have been devised from both the conventional and Islamic viewpoints. These range
from simple measures such as the GDP per capita to more complex forms of the Human
Development Index. Some of these indices measure progress and development through the
degree of reduction in income poverty. Some go further and try to measure growth in terms of
social opportunities and the distribution of those opportunities within low income groups so as
to measure inclusiveness of growth. Some go even further and attempt to measure deprivation
of capabilities and the extent to which these deprivations can be reduced. Going even further,
some have focused on freedom deprivation to measure the reduction in multidimensional
poverty.
From the Islamic viewpoint, many scholars, for example Dar (2004), Anto (2009), Rehman &
Askari (2010), Medhi (2014), Salman & Hamid (2014), have attempted to extend the Human
Development Index in the direction of Maqasid al-Shariah. Dar (2004) developed the
Ethics-Augmented Human Development Index (HDI-E). He integrated for the first time an
explicitly ethical dimension through the incorporation of faith, freedom and the family values
aspect in the Human Development Index. Anto (2009) suggested that human development
from the Islamic perspective must be based on Maqasid al-Shariah and subsequently
developed an index of human development based on the principles of Islam. He improved his
index by including the right to freedom and the protection of the environment. Rehman &
Askari (2010) measured the degree of religiosity of Islamic countries to reflect the correlation
296
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
between Islam and economic performance, the standard of living and development in general.
Medhi (2014) showed the impact of the objectives of Maqasid al-Shariah on human
development. All these indices facilitate a cross-country comparison. Salman & Hamid (2014)
indicated different ideas and provided detailed indices at regional or at household/individual
levels within each country. All these indices are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Indices and its measurements
Author(s) Index Measurement Calculation

The index for life expectancy is
Dar (2014) EHDI 1. Life expectancy index
adopted from HDR (UNDP).
The index for education is
2. Education index
adopted from HDR (UNDP).
The GDP index is also adopted
3. GDP index
from HDR (UNDP).
The data on carbon dioxide
4. Carbon dioxide emissions
emissions per capita is culled
index
from the HDR (UNDP).
The freedom index is adopted
5. Freedom index
from the AHDR (UNDP).
The family value index is
6. Family value index
proxied by the fertility rate.
The faith index is gauged using a
simple scoring on three
7. Faith index
factors, visibility of religion,
legal system and government.
Faith index
Anto
I-HDI 1. Faith index Corruption rate
(2009)
Criminal rate
Life index
Life expectancy rate
2. Life index
Drug abuse rate
Smoking prevalency
Science index
Education
3. Science index
Literacy rate
Family-social index
Fertility rate
4. Family-social index Morality rate
Divorce rate
Property index
GDP per capita
Economic growth
5. Property index
Gini ratio
Poverty rate
297
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7

Freedom index
6. Freedom index Political freedom
Environment index
7. Justice index
C02 emission rate
Gender equality indicator
Other non-discriminatory
indicators
Rehman &
1. Economic opportunity and Labour market indicator
Askari EI2
Economic freedom Ease of doing business indicators
(2010)
Economic freedom indicator
Business and market freedom
indicator
2. Justice in all aspects of
economic management i.e.
Property and contract rights
property rights and the
sanctity of contracts
3. Better treatment of workers
Equal employment and job
including job creation and
creation
equal access to employment
Education index indicator
4. Higher education
Education public expenditures
expenditures relative to GDP
indicator
including equal access to
Education equality indicator
education
Education effectiveness indicator
5. Poverty eradication, aid, and
providing basic human Poverty effectiveness indicator
needs, no hoarding of wealth Provision of healthcare
i.e. economic equity, and indicators
less opulence in Alms/charity indicator
consumption
6. A more even distribution of
No reliable proxy
wealth and income
7. Better social infrastructure Fiscal freedom indicator
and provision of social Taxation level indicator
services through taxation Freedom from government
and social welfare indicator
8. Higher savings and
investment rates i.e. Quality of economic spending
management of natural and Savings indicator
depletable resources
9. Higher moral standard,
Transparency international
honesty and trust exhibited
indicator
in the marketplace and in all
Freedom from corruption
economic interactions i.e.
indicator
less corruption
298
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7

Investment freedom + financial
10. Islamic financial system 1:
freedom
no exploitive speculation
Banking sector indicator
and risk sharing as opposed
Financial market risk indicator
to debt contracts i.e. a
Investment, portfolio and capital
supportive financial system
flows indicator
11. Islamic financial system 2:
financial practices that
Absence of interest indicator
includes the abolition of
interest
12. Higher trade/GDP, higher
foreign aid/GDP and higher
Macro-economic indicator
degree of environmental
Economic development success
preservation and vigilantly
indicator
supervised markets i.e.
Degree of globalisation and trade
overall state effectiveness in
indicator
achieving economic
General prosperity indicator
prosperity - general
economic prosperity
Health care index
Medhi Human rights index
1. Hifdh al- Nafs
(2014) Crime index
Poverty gap
Percentage of total expenditure
in religious education
Government favouritism of
2. Hifdh al- Din
religion index
Government regulation of
religion index
Primary enrolment rate
Secondary enrolment rate
3. Hifdh al- Aql
Public spending on education,
total (% of GDP)
International property rights
4. Hifdh al-Mal index
Inclusive wealth index
Divorce rate
5. Hifdh al-Nasl
Child mortality rates
Human development index
6. Human wellbeing
(UNDP)
Salman &
Attendance in religious services
Hamid 1. Faith
Importance in life: Religion
(2014)
State of health
2. Life
Satisfaction with your life
299
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7

Traits in women: Women
educated
3. Intellect
Justifiable: drinking alcohol
Highest education level attained
Importance in life: Family
A woman has to have children to
be fulfilled
4. Posterity Justifiable: Homosexuality
Prostitution
Abortion
Divorce
Satisfaction with financial
situation of household
5. Property
Scales of income
Income level
However, all indices that have been developed by earlier researchers in Table 1 do not take
into account the practice of debt. In the property dimension, for example, all the researchers
measured the ownership of the property based on income. In fact, even if the income earnings
are high, but with high debt then high income does not put a person at a higher level of
satisfaction. Conversely, even if income earnings are low but the person has no debt, there is a
possibility of people with a lower income to reach a higher level of satisfaction. So, the
quality of life of a person cannot be measured by income alone without taking other things
into account, for example debt.
Debts that are not managed properly will provide only temporary satisfaction and will bring
punishment in the hereafter. The following are a few hadith that discuss the matter. For
example, the hadith narrated by Muslim, 6/38:
Forgiven are all sins for those who die a martyrs death unless he has a debt (to humans).
Another hadith narrated by Al-Bukhar 1/24: The Prophet SAW taught his followers to pray
regularly to be discharged from debts.
Oh Allah, I seek refuge in you from sin and debt. Then someone asked: Why do you often
seek protection from debt? The Prophet said: If a person owes a debt, when he speaks, he
lies; when he promises, he reneges.
Another hadith narrated by An-Nasaie, 2/316:

Oh Allah, I seek refuge from sin and debt. Someone asked: Are you equating atheism with
debt, O Messenger of Allah? The Prophet replied: True.
From a legal standpoint, debt is permissible (harus). However, this status can change according
to the scenario. It may be necessary (wajib) when the debtor intends to meet his basic needs
(dharuri). It may be forbidden (haram) if the debtor intends to show off or to do things
forbidden by Islam. Another aspect that should be considered is the method of borrowing. If a
person wants to borrow, he must ensure that the method of borrowing must be permitted by
300
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Islam, namely either Qard al Hasan (interest free loan) or through an Islamic financing facility
based on a valid purchase offered by Islamic financial institutions. Based on the discussions
above, the debt variable may have correlation with other variables in the Maqasid al-Shariah,
especially the property, education and faith elements. So the debt variable should be considered
when measuring HDI.
References
Ahmad, K., 1994. Islamic Approach to Development: Some Policy Implications, Institute for
Policy Studies.
Anto, H. 2009. Introducing an Islamic Human Development Index (I-HDI) to Measure
Development in OIC Countries. Islamic Economic Studies, 19(2), 69-95.
Bper, L., & Koekkoek, A. 1993. Human development report: Fad or fixture? Development
Policy Review, 11, 427-438.
Chapra, M. 2007. Islam and Economic Development: A Strategy for Development with Justice
and Stability, Adam Publishers.
Chapra, M. 2008. The Islamic Vision of Development. Thoughts on Economics, The Quarterly
Journal of Islamic Economics Research Bureau (Bangladesh), 18(3), pp.738.
Chuluun Togtokh. 2011. Time to stop celebrating the polluters. Nature International Weekly
Journal of Science. Available online:
http://www.nature.com/news/time-to-stop-celebrating-the-polluters-1.9370.
Dar, Humayon A. 2004. On making human development more humane. International Journal of
Social Economics, 31(11/12), 1071-1088.
Desai, M. 1991. Human development: Concepts and measurement. European Economic
Review, 35(2:3), 350-357.
Giangiacomo Bravo. 2015. The human sustainable development index. Ecological Indicators,
50, p. 258-259.
Hartgen, K., Klasen, S., & Misselhorn, M. 2008. A Human Development Index by Income
Groups. World Development, 36(12), 2527-2546.
Hopkins, M. 1991. Human development revisited: A new UNDP report. World Development,
19(10), 1469-1473.
Hou, J, Walsh, P. P. & Zhang, J. 2014. The dynamics of Human Development Index. The Social
Science Journal,
Kelly, A.C. 1991. The human development index: handle with care. Population and
Development Review, 17(2), 315-324.
Khatib, H. 1994. The human development index as a policy and planning tool. A paper prepared
for Human Development Report Office. New York: UNDP.
Mazumdar, K. 2003. A new approach to human development index. Review of Social
Economy, 61(4), 535-549.
Medhi, M. 2014. A structural model for human development, does maqasid al shariah matter!.
Islamic Economic Studies, 22(2), 47-64.
301
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mohd Shukri Hanapi and Sheereza Mohamed Sariff. 2014. Human performance measurement
in the human development index (HDI): An analysis of adequacy. Available online:
http://www.academia.edu/
Muhammad Shukri Salleh. 2013. Philosophical foundations of Islamic development: Khurshid
Ahmads conception revisited. International Journal of Education and Research, 1(7).
Noorbakhsh, F. 1998. A modified human development index. World Development, 26(3),
517-528.
Rafi Amir-Ud-Din. 2014. Maqasid al-Shariah: Are we measuring the immeasurable?. Islamic
Economic Studies, 22(2), 1-32.
Salman, S.A., & Hamid, H. 2014. Towards a maqasid al Shariah based development index.
IRTI Working paper series. Available online:
http://www.irti.org/English/Research/Document/WP-1435-18.pdf.
Sagar, A.D., & Najam, A. 1998. The human development index: A critical review, Ecological
Economics, 25, 249-264.
Stewart, F., Ranis, G., & Samman, E. 2006. Human Development: Beyond the HDI (QEH
Working Papers qehwps135). Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford.
Zaman, N. & Asutay, M. 2009. Divergence between aspiration and realities of islamic
economics: a political economy approach to bridging the divide. International Journal of
Economics, Management and Accounting, 7(1).
302
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Foreign Direct Investment led sustainable development in Malaysia: An

application of the autoregressive distributed lag model.
Abdul Rahim Ridzuana*, Nor Asmat Ismailb, Abdul Fatah Che Hamatc,
Abu Hassan Shaari Mohd Nord, Elsadig Musa Ahmede
a
Faculty Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Melaka City Campus, Malaysia
aimaz84@yahoo.com
b,c
norasmat@usm.my, abdfatah@usm.my
d
School of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
ahassan@ukm.edu.my
e
Economics Unit, Faculty Business,Universiti Multimedia, Melaka, Malaysia
elsadig1965@gmail.com
Abstract
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) played a significant role as a driver of growth in developing
countries such as Malaysia. FDI also acts as a driver for sustainable development as addressed
by United Nation (UN) and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD). Realizing the importance of FDI, Malaysia has implemented various strategic
policies to attract more FDI inflows into the country. In this paper, the impacts of FDI on
sustainable development was evaluated based on three different econometric models, namely,
the of model of growth (GDP), model of income distribution (GINI) and model of pollution
havens (CO2). In this study, annual data covering the period from 1970 to 2013 were estimated
using ARDL estimation techniques.The findings of long run elasticites indicated that FDI
inflows have successfully led to higher growth, better income distribution and lower pollution
level in Malaysia. With rising competition from around the world, the study recommends that
policymakers should develop better plans to maintain sustainable FDI inflows since FDI is a
very important instrument that helps the country to achieve sustainable development.
Keywords: Sustainable development, foreign direct investment, bound test, Malaysia
1.0 Introduction
As one of the developing countries in Asian region, Malaysia has recorded encouraging
economic growth rates yearly since earlier 1990s. High growth rates of Malaysian economy
were driven by the countrys long term goal known as Vision 2020, introduced by the former
prime minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad in early 1990s.The main objectives of Vision 2020
are to transform the country into a developed nation with equitable income distribution among
the races. However, emphasizing on growth alone is not enough as the country should aim for
an even higher mission of achieving sustainable development (SD), a mission that was critically
addressed by the United Nations. To achieve this mission, FDI is seen as one of the key factors
that can promote SD through its effect on components of SD, namely, growth, income
distribution and pollution. The upward trend of FDI inflows and GDP per capita in Malaysia
303
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
can be seen in Diagram 1 below. The recession in 1985 was accompanied by a fall in FDI. The
1997 financial crisis and its post-year coincided with lower FDI inflows and it is observed that
growth levels had dropped especially for 1998. Malaysian FDI inflows achieved its highest
level of about USD 8538.46 million in 2011 followed by highest GDP per capita in year 2013
(USD 8211.50). The higher flow of FDI in Malaysia was also due to the successful ASEAN
(Association of South East Asian Nations) regional plans such as AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade
Area) and AIA (ASEAN Investment Area) that transformed ASEAN region into a hub of
investment.
16,000
14,000
FDI Inflow 12,000

(Million)/ 10,000
GDP per 8,000
capita dollars 6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Malaysia FDI inflow

Malaysia GDP percapita
Year
Diagram 1: Malaysia FDI inflow and Growth
Given the rising trend of FDI inflows in 44 years of observations, it is wise to test how far this
FDI inflow will lead to sustainable development in Malaysia. Three different models that
contained the essential elements of SD in Malaysia were constructed for this study. FDI was
treated as one of the independent variables in these models, namely, the model of growth (GDP
percapita as dependent variable), model of income distribution (GINI coefficient as dependent
variable) and model of pollution haven (CO2 as dependent variable). ARDL-bound testing
approach was used to test these models. The findings of this research would be useful for
policymakers and add a new body of knowledge for the study of sustainable development. The
rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents a review of past empirical studies.
Section 3 describes the models and the techniques used in the analysis, while Section 4 will
focus on empirical analyses of the results. Section 5 concludes the paper.
2.0 Literature review
The more recent studies on the relationship between growth and FDI have shown mixed
findings. Nair-Reichert and Weinhold (2001), Durham (2004) and Andreas (2006) are among
the studies that find that FDI has a significant positive effect on economic growth. In contrast to
these studies, there are studies that show non-significant or negative effect between FDI and
economic growth (Akinlo, 2004; Ayanwale, 2007). However, the relationships between FDI
and growth vary from country to country [Borensztein et al., 1998; Bende-Nabende et al. 2001].
For example, Chowdhury and Mavrotas (2003) finds unidirectional causality running from
growth to FDI in the case of Chile but uncovers bidirectional causalities for Thailand and
Malaysia. Bende-Nebende and Ford (1998) shows that the outputs of less developed countries
respond more positively to FDI. Blomstrom et al. (1994) finds that FDI has a positive impact on
growth in rich countries. Few studies have found that FDI can contribute to growth through
capital formation and technology transfer (Blomstrm et al. 1996) along with accumulation of
knowledge due to labor training and skill acquisition (De Mello, 1999). Based on the
relationship between income distribution and FDI, Feenstra and Hanson (1997) has argued that
FDI inflows into developing nations can lead to higher wages for skilled than unskilled
304
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
workers, resulting in widening income inequalities. On the other hand, it is also possible for
FDI inflows to improve income inequality. The reason is that multinational companies (MNCs),
by providing developing nations with capital and technology, will improve their corporate
governance and propagate better management practices. These forces, in turn, raise
productivity and promote economic growth (Markusen and Venables, 1999). In the case of the
impacts of FDI on pollution level, Eskeland and Harrison (1997) has found that there is no
significant correlation between environmental regulations in industrialized countries and the
foreign investments in developing countries. In addition, Kolstad and Xing (2002) discovers
that some developing countries tend to utilize lax environmental regulations as a strategy to
attract dirty industries from developed countries.A more recent study based on Vector Error
Correction (VEC) model, Baek and Koo (2008), has found that FDI inflows play a pivotal role
in determining the short and long run movements of economic growth through capital
accumulation and technical spillovers in India and China. However, FDI inflows in both
countries were found to have detrimental effects on environmental quality.
3.0 Methodology
In this study, the short and long-run dynamic relationships between economic growth and FDI
(which is the main focus of the study) are estimated by using the proposed ARDL bound testing
approach. Table 1 below shows the construction of each model based on past studies.
Table 1: Construction of the models

Model Construction of the model
Model of LNGDP = 0 + 1LNCAPt + 2LNLABt + t -------(1)
growth The derivation of the model from equation 1 was based on a simple production
function in the log linear form (LN). CAP (gross fixed capital formation % of
GDP) and LAB (total labor force) are introduced in the model to control for
additional determinants of growth, and GDP (real gross domestic product
percapita constant at 2005) in order to reduce the problem of omitted variable
biases. We rename CAP to GDI to standardize with other two models.
LNGDP = 0 + 1LNGDIt + 2LNLABt + 4LNHCt +t ---(2)
To strengthen the empirical results, HC (human capital development using
expenditure education index on labor force as proxy) was added into equation 2
because this measure is most significantly correlated with economic growth.
LNGDP = 0 + 1LNGDIt + 2LNLABt + 3LNHCt + 4LNFDIt +5LNTOt +
t ---(3)
In equation 3, FDI (foreign direct investment inflow % in GDP) was added as
recommended by Sahoo and Mathiyayazhagan (2003). Lastly, trade openness
(TO) proxy by trade share of GDP which is also crucial for acquiring the
potential growth impact of FDI is added as suggested by Balasubramanyam et.al,
(1996).
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are expected to have a positive signs.
Model of LNGINI = 0 + 1GDPt + 2LNFDIt + 3LNGDI + t -------(4)
income Equation 4 is a modified version (log linear form) from the theoretical framework
distributio suggested by Tsai (1995).
n LNGINI = 0 + 1GDPt + 2LNFDIt + 3LNGDI + 4LNTO + 5LNFD +
6LNPOP + t -------(5)
Equation 4 was extended with the inclusion of three other variables. TO have
been employed by many past researchers. Next, the inclusion of FD (financial
development) is essential since it is an important factor in affecting the income
305
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
inequality. In addition, POP (population growth %) is also included as one of the

potential determinants of income distribution in Malaysia.
1 and 6 is expected to have positive signs while other variables (2, 4, 5) are
expected to be negative.
Model of LNCO2 = 0 + 1GDPt + 2LNFDIt + 3LNTO + t -------(6)
pollution Equation 6 above is proposed based on model introduced by Lee (2013) in a log
haven form.
LNCO2 = 0 + 1GDPt + 2LNFDIt + 3LNTO + 4LNENYt + 5LNGDI + t
-------(7)
Other potential determinants such as ENY (energy consumption) were added in
equation 7 following Ang (2008). ENY is considered an important determinant of
CO2 (emission percapita). GDI is added in the model to test its correlation with
GDP besides FDI.
1 is expected to have a positive sign while 2, 3, 4 and 5 are expected to be
negative.
Unit root test and ARDL bounds tests for cointegration
In time series analysis, the variables must be tested for stationarity using the conventional ADF
tests and the PhillipsPerron (PP) test. The ARDL bounds test is based on the assumption that
the variables are I(0) or I(1) and the variables are not I(2) to avoid spurious results. In the
presence of variables integrated of order two, the values of F statistics provided by Pesaran et al.
(2001) cannot be interpreted. Next, in order to empirically analyze the long-run relationships
and short-run dynamic interactions among the variables of interest, ARDL cointegration
technique was applied as a general vector autoregressive (VAR) model. The ARDL
cointegration approach was developed by Pesaran et al. (2001). The bounds test is mainly based
on the joint F-statistic whose asymptotic distribution is non-standard under the null hypothesis
of no co-integration. The null hypothesis of no co-integration is rejected when the value of the
test statistic exceeds the upper critical bounds value, while it is not rejected if the F-statistic is
lower than the lower bounds value. Otherwise, the co-integration test is inconclusive.
3.1 Sources of data
The main sources of data used in this research are from World Development Indicator 2015
published by World Bank. Annual data of 44 years starting from 1970 up to 2013 are
collected for this study. The GINI coefficient data is taken from University of Texas Income
Inequality Project (UTIP). All variables were transformed into log linear form in order to
translate the result into long run elasticities. The estimation was run by using the E-views
version 9.
4.0 Empirical testing

The analysis began with unit root tests for all variables in the three models constructed for this
study. Table 2 shows a confirmation of a mix of stationarities at I(0) and I(1) for the variables
used in each model,thus fulfilling the necessary criteria which enable us to proceed with with
ARDL analysis.
Table 2: Results of Unit Root tests

Model Variable ADF test statistic PP test statistic
Intercept Trend and Intercept Trend and
intercept intercept
Model of Level LNGDP -1.52(0) -1.99(0) -1.48(1) -2.08(2)
306
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Growth LNGDI -1.72(1) -3.05(1) -1.99(1) -2.45(0)

LNLAB -1.27(0) -1.60(0) -1.27(1) -1.64(1)
LNHC -1.44(0) -4.51(1)*** -1.62(9) -2.44(7)
LNFDI -2.84(8)* -5.54(0)*** -5.58(1)*** -5.54(1)***
LNTO -0.89(0) -0.89(0) -0.89(2) -0.86(0)
First LNGDP -5.61(0)*** -5.77(0)*** -5.62(1)*** -5.77(0)***
difference LNGDI -4.19(0)*** -4.21(0)*** -4.04(4)*** -4.05(4)**
LNLAB -6.42(0)*** -6.40(0)*** -6.42(1)*** -6.40(2)***
LNHC -5.87(1)*** -5.95(1)*** -5.78(3)*** -5.99(4)***
LNFDI -2.84(9)* -2.64(9) -25.10(24)*** -24.83(25)***
LNTO -5.70(0)*** -5.75(0)*** -5.67(2)*** -5.72(3)***
Model of Level LNGINI -5.99(0)*** 5.91(0)*** -6.04(2)*** -5.98(2)***
Income LNGDP -1.52(0) -1.99(0) -1.48(1) -2.08(2)
Distribution LNTO -0.89(0) -0.89(0) -0.89(2) -0.86(0)
LNPOP 0.03(3) -1.36(3) 0.38(4) -0.84(4)
LNFD -2.54(0) -2.90(0) -2.74(5)** -2.81(3)
LNGDI -2.48(1) -2.50(1) -2.40(2) -2.37(1)
LNFDI -2.84(8)* -5.54(0)*** -5.58(1)*** -5.54(1)***
First LNGINI -7.11(2)*** -7.55(2)*** -22.97(41)*** -36.14(20)***
difference LNGDP -5.61(0)*** -5.77(0)*** -5.62(1)*** -5.77(0)***
LNTO -5.70(0)*** -5.75(0)*** -5.67(2)*** -5.72(3)***
LNPOP -1.54(2) -2.50(2) -1.97(3) -2.30(3)
LNFD -5.92(1)*** -6.11(1)*** -6.44(4)*** -7.00(6)***
LNGDI -4.71(0)*** -4.64(0)*** -4.65(3)*** -4.58(3)***
LNFDI -2.84(9)* -2.64(9) -25.10(24)*** -24.83(25)***
Model of Level LNCO2 -0.74(0) -2.42(0) -0.71(2) -2.44(2)
Pollution LNGDI -2.48(1) -2.50(1) -2.40(2) -2.37(1)
Haven LNFDI -2.84(8)* -5.54(0)*** -5.58(1)*** -5.54(1)***
LNENY -1.03(0) -2.12(0) -1.54(11) -2.19(1)
LNGDP -1.52(0) -1.99(0) -1.48(1) -2.08(2)
LNTO -0.89(0) -0.89(0) -0.89(2) -0.86(0)
First LNCO2 -7.68(0)*** -7.58(0)*** -7.68(0)*** -7.58(0)***
difference LNGDI -4.71(0)*** -4.64(0)*** -4.65(3)*** -4.58(3)***
LNFDI -2.84(9)* -2.64(9) -25.10(24)*** -24.83(25)***
LNENY -6.63(0)*** -6.71(0)*** -6.97(7)*** -9.63(14)***
LNGDP -5.61(0)*** -5.77(0)*** -5.62(1)*** -5.77(0)***
LNTO -5.70(0)*** -5.75(0)*** -5.67(2)*** -5.72(3)***
Note: 1. ***, ** and * are 1%, 5% and 10% of significant levels, respectively. 2. The
optimal lag length is selected
automatically using the Schwarz information criteria for ADF test and the bandwidth
had been selected by using the
NeweyWest method for the PP test. 3. Number in parentheses is standard errors
Table 3 shows the results of ARDL tests for co-integration. The maximum lag of 4 was
imposed in each model using Schwarz Bayesian criterion (SIC). Model of growth and
pollution haven followed the second set of critical value table given that the number of
variables, k is equivalent to 5 while model of income distribution follow critical value where k
is equivalent to 6. The F stat for each model (3.56, 3.42 and 8.77) is higher than the upper I(1)
critical value table (for k =6 and 5) and significant at 1% level, thus confirming the existence
of long run relationships.
307
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 3: Results of ARDL tests for co-integration

Model maximu SIC F Statistic
m lag (Lag order)
Model of Growth 4 (1,2,2,0,0,2) 3.56***

Model of Income 4 (4,0,1,4,0,0,0)
3.42***
distribution
Model of Pollution Haven 4 (1,4,3,4,4,3) 8.77***
#
Critical Values for F-statistics Lower I(0) Upper I(1)
1% 2.88 3.00
k=6 5% 2.27 3.28
10% 1.99 2.94
1% 3.06 4.15
k=5 5% 2.39 3.38
10% 2.08 3
Note: # The critical values are obtained automatically under eviews9,k is number of variables,
critical values for the bounds test: case III: unrestricted intercept and no trend. *, **, and ***
represent 10%, 5% and 1% level of significance,respectively.
Results from Table 4 confirm that all models passed all diagnostic checks which render the
long term estimates of these models to be reliable. In summary, the models have no evidence
of serial correlation and heteroscedasticity effects in disturbance terms. Besides, these models
also passed the Jarque-Bera normality test which suggest that the errors are normally
distributed and all models are well specified. The model used is also under stable condition
based on cumulative sum of recursive residual (CUSUM) and CUSUM of square
(CUSUMSQ) results.
Table 4: Result of Diagnostic Checks

Serial Functional
Normality Heteroscedasticity
correlation form
Model 2 (2) 2 (1) CUSUM* CUSUMSQ*
2 (1) 2 (1)
[p-value] [p-value]
[p-value] [p-value]
Model of Growth 0.01[0.90] 0.63[0.43] 3.24[0.19] 1.81[0.17] S S
Model of Income
2.09[0.14] 0.07[0.79] 0.96[0.61] 1.22[0.31] S S
distribution
Model of
2.63[0.12] 1.73[0.23] 2.64[0.26] 0.68[0.78] S S
Pollution Haven
Note. S signifies stable model.* Graf can be obtain through request to the main author. The
numbers in brackets [ ] are p-values.
Table 5 below shows the long run elasticities for each model tested in this study. Based on
model of growth, GDI, HC, FDI and TO are positive and significantly (at 1% and 10%
significance levels) influence the growth of Malaysia economy. TO and FDI are considered as
important measures of openness strategies in promoting economic growth especially for
developing country like Malaysia. The magnitude of 0.021 and 0.520 implies that a 1%
increase in FDI and TO increases the economic growth of Malaysia by around 0.02% and
0.52%, respectively. Next, based on the model of income distribution, the results show that
FDI, GDI and TO improve the income distribution (GINI) in the country while GDP and POP
308
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
worsen the income distribution. The finding of negative relationship between FDI and GINI in
Malaysia was in line with the study done by Choi (2004) while the finding of a negative sign
for TO tallies with the empirical results from Reuveny and Li (2003). The justification on this
estimation is that trade openness should reduce the wage gap between skilled and unskilled
labors. Therefore, it should become a source of reducing income inequality (Mundel, 1957).
Based on the model of pollution haven, all variables are found to significantly (at 1%
significance level) influence the pollution (CO2) in the country. Higher FDI inflow and GDP
are found to reduce the CO2 level. The negative sign for GDP suggests the existence of an
inverted-U-shaped relationship between income and environmental quality, suggesting that
environmental quality worsens at low levels of income, and then improves as income
increases. This finding is consistent with the finding from Jalil and Mahmud (2009). In
addition, the finding that FDI inflows lead to adverse environmental consequences in
Malaysia is also consistent with the the finding by Merican et. al. (2007). Lastly, the rise of
TO, ENY, GDI and POP increase the pollution level in the country.
Table 5: Results of Estimation of Long Run Elasticities

Model of Growth Model of Income Model of Pollution
LNGDP Distribution Haven
ARDL(1,2,2,0,0,2) LNGINI LNCO2
ARDL(4,0,1,4,0,0,0) ARDL(1,4,3,4,4,3)
Constant 0.11 Constant 7.091*** Constant -4.805***
LNGDI 0.233*** LNGDP 0.461*** LNGDP -0.836***
LNLAB 0.002 LNFDI -0.037*** LNFDI -0.127***
LNHC 0.309*** LNGDI -0.282*** LNTO 0.748***
LNFDI 0.021* LNTO -0.415*** LNENY 1.235***
LNTO 0.520*** LNFD 0.027 LNGDI 0.092***
LNPOP 0.357***
Note: (*),(**),(***) indicate significant at 10%,5% and 1% significance level
respectively. Number in parentheses is
standard errors.
Lastly, Table 6 below reveals the outcome for short run elasticities. Based on lag 0 (grey area)
for the model of growth, TO does not influence growth while other variables have significant
positive relationships with growth except for LAB. As for the model of income distribution,
FDI and TO are found to significantly improve income inequality while rising GDP and POP
significantly worsen income distribution. For the model of pollution haven, GDP and ENY
have positive influences on pollution while other variables such as FDI, TO and GDI are able
to improve the environmental quality (pollution) in Malaysia. The long run relationship were
supported by the negative and significant values of error correction term (ECT) for each
model. ECT reflects the speed of adjustment for each model and the negative value means that
the variables in each variable will converge in the long run. The highest speed of adjustment is
detected for the model of pollution haven (-1.55), followed by model of income distribution
(-0.67) and model of growth (-0.29). Approximately, 155%, 67% and 29% disequilibria from
the previous years shock converge back to the long run equilibrium in the current year.
Overall, the respective R squares for all three models suggest that almost 99%, 73% and 98%
of the independent variables in equations are able to explain the dependent variables (GDP,
GINI and CO2).
309
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 6: Results of Estimation of Short Run Restricted Error Correction Model

(ECM)
Model of Growth Model of Income Model of Pollution Haven
Distribution
D(LNGDI) 0.31*** D(LNGINI(-1)) -0.649** D(LNGDP) 3.792***
D(LNGDI(-1)) -0.08*** D(LNGINI(-2)) -0.781*** D(LNGDP(-1)) -0.223
D(LNLAB) -0.007*** D(LNGINI(-3)) -0.599*** D(LNGDP(-2)) 0.863
D(LNLAB(-1)) -0.005* D(LNGDP) 0.298** D(LNGDP(-3)) 2.304***
D(LNHC) 0.09** D(LNFDI) -0.039*** D(LNFDI) -0.088***
D(LNFDI) 0.006** D(LNGDI) 0.018 D(LNFDI(-1) -0.087***
D(LNTO) 0.068 D(LNGDI(-1)) -0.134 D(LNFDI(-2) 0.119***
D(LNTO(-1)) -0.16*** D(LNGDI(-2)) 0.071*** D(LNTO) -0.757**
ECT(-1) -0.29*** D(LNGDI(-3)) -0.330*** D(LNTO(-1)) 1.227***
D(LNTO) -0.279** D(LNTO(-2)) -2.191***
D(LNFD) 0.240 D(LNTO(-3)) 0.977***
D(LNPOP) 0.240* D(LNENY) 0.773***
ECT(-1) -0.67** D(LNENY(-1)) -1.052***
D(LNENY(-2)) -0.228
D(LNENY(-3)) -0.322
D(LNGDI) -0.633***
D(LNGDI(-1)) 0.735***
D(LNGDI(-2)) -0.766***
ECT(-1) -1.55***
R square 0.99 R square 0.73 R square 0.98
Note: Dependent variable is D(LNGDP). (*),(**),(***) indicate significant at
10%,5% and 1% significant level.
5.0 Conclusion
The role of FDI as a driver for sustainable development in Malaysia has been confirmed in
this research. The study shows that FDI inflows have not only increased growth, but also have
improved income distribution and the quality of the environment in Malaysia. Based on this
finding, there is a clear need for Malaysia to maintain a sustainable FDI flow into the country
since its presence will help the country achieve sustainable development. Therefore, this study
recommends that Malaysian policymakers should undertake serious measures to revise
existing policies and their implementations especially on how to transform this country as the
main hub of investment in Asian region in order to receive sustainable inflow of FDI from
other countries
6.0 References
Akinlo A., 2004. Foreign Direct Investment and Growth in Nigeria: An Empirical
Investigation. Journal of Policy Modeling, 26, pp.627-639.
Andreas J., 2006. The Effects of FDI Inflows on host Country Economic Growth. CESIS
Electronic UK. Working Paper Series No. 58.
Ang,J., 2008. Economic development, pollutant emissions, and energy consumption in
Malaysia. Journal of Policy Model, 30,pp.271-278.
Ayanwale, Adeolu B., 2007. FDI and Economic Growth Evidence From Nigeria. AERC
Research Paper 165, April, Nairobi Kenya
310
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Balasubramanyam, V.N., M. Salisu, and D. Dapsoford., 1996. Foreign Direct Investment and
Growth in EP and IS Countries. Economic Journal, 106,pp.92-105.
Bende-Nebende, A. and A. Ford.,1998. FDI, Policy Adjustments and Endogenous Growth:
Multiplier Effects from a Small Dynamic Model for Taiwan, 1959-1995. World Development,
26(7),pp.1315-1330.
Baek, J. and W.W. Koo, 2008. A dynamic approach to the FDI-environment nexus; The case of
China and India. Proceeding of the presentation at the American Agricultural Economics
Association Annual Meeting, July 27-29, Orlando, FL.,pp.1-32.
Bende-Nebende, A.A., J.L. Ford, S. Sen, and J. 1Slater.,2000. Long-run Dynamics of FDI and
Its Spillovers onto Output: Evidence from the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Region,
University of Birmingham,
Choi,C.,2004. Foreign direct investment and income convergence.Applied
Economics,36,pp1045-1049.
Blomstrom, M.A., A. Kokko and M. Zejan.,1994. Host Country Competition and Technology
Transfer by Multinationals. Weltwirtschaftliches Archive, Band 130,pp.521-533.
Blomstrm, M, Lipsey, RE and Zejan, M.,1996. Is fixed investment the key to economic
growth?. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111,pp.26976.
Borrnztein E., J. Gregrio and J. Lee.,1998. How Does Foreign Direct Investment Affect
Economic Growth?. Journal of International Economics, 45(1),pp.115-135.
Chowdhury, A and G. Mavrotas.,2003. FDI and Growth: What Causes What?. Paper presented
at the Wider Conference, September.
De Mello, L.,1999. Foreign Direct Investment Led Growth: Evidence from Time Series and
Panel Data. Oxford Economic Papers, 51,pp.133-151.
Durham, J.,2004. Absorptive Capacity and the Effects of Foreign Direct Investment and Equity
foreign portfolio investment of economic growth. European Economic Review,
48(2),pp.285-306.
Eskerland, G.S., & Harrison, A.,E.,1997. Moving to greener pastures? Multinationals and the
Pollution-Haven Hypothesis. (World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. WPS1744).
Feenstra, R.C. and Handson, G.H.,1997. Foreign Direct Investment and Relative Wages:
Evidence from Mexicos maquiladoras. Journal of International Economics, 42,pp.371-393.
Jalil,A.,Mahmud, S.F.,2009. Environment Kuznets curve for CO2 emissions: a cointegration
analysis for China. Energy Policy. 37,pp.5167-5172
Kolstad, C.D. & Xing, Y.,2002. Do lax environmental regulations attract foreign direct
investment?. Retrived in January, 8, 2012 from Springer database.
Lee,W.J.,2013. The Contribution of foreign direct investment to clean energy use, carbon
emissions and economic growth. Energy Policy. 55,pp.483-489.
Markusen, J., & Venables, A.,1999. Foreign direct investment as a catalyst for industrial
development. European Economic Review, 43,pp.335-356.
Merican Y,Yusop Z,Noor ZM, LawSH.,2007. Foreign direct investment and the pollution in
five ASEAN nations.International Journal of Economics and Management.1,pp.24561.
Mundell,R.A.,1957.International trade and factor mobility. American Economic
Review.47(3),pp.321-335.
Nair-Reichert, U. and Weinhold, D.,2001.Causality Tests for Cross-Country Pane1ls: New
Look at FDI and Economic Growth in Developing Countries. Oxford Bulletin of Economics
and Statistics, 63, pp.153171.
Pesaran, M., Shin, Y., 1999. An autoregressive distributed lag modelling approach to
311
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
cointegrtion analysis. In: Strom,S.(Ed.), Economterics and Economic Theory in the 20th
Century: The Ragnar Frisch Centennial Symposium. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Reuveny, R., & Li, Q.,2003. Economic Openness, Democracy, and Income Inequality: An
Empirical
Analysis. Comparative Political Studies,36(5),pp. 575-601.
Sahoo, D. & Mathiyazhagan, M.K.,2003. Economic growth in India: Does foreign direct
investment inflow matter? The Singapore Economic Review, 48(2),pp.151-171.
Tsai, P.L., (1995). Foreign Direct Investment and Income Inequality. World Development,
23(3),pp.469-483.
University of Texas Income Inequality Project (UTIP), 2005. Retrived on May, 2014, from
http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/data.html.
312
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
INTERDISCIPLINARY
313
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Satisfaction and perception of residents with bioclimatic design strategies

A Discovery from Racial and Ethnic Perspectives
Adi Ainurzaman Jamaludin,

Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science
University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur
Email: adiainurzaman@um.edu.my
Abstract
A satisfaction and perception survey was carried out to assess the effects of recent adoption of
bioclimatic design strategies in influencing the residents comfort levels and the
appropriateness of an old building to meet the needs of contemporary life. This residential
building is located in Kuala Lumpur and was recognised as a residential college building with
the most considerate implementation of bioclimatic design strategies, particularly in terms of
the daylighting and natural ventilation. As relying on 95% confidence level and 5% margin of
error from the overall population, a total of 266 responses retrieved were fully supplied by the
respondents. The majority of respondents are satisfied and feel comfortable with regards to all
performance indicators including the architectural elements, visual comfort, thermal comfort
and indoor air quality. Numerous differences were discovered by comparing the responses
among the race and ethnic groups, obviously on visual comfort, thermal comfort and indoor
air quality, the usage pattern of windows and ceiling fan, and thermal sensation which was
based on 7 point of scale. As conclusion, the bioclimatic design strategies including
daylighting and natural ventilation at an old residential building are still appropriate to meet
the needs of contemporary life. However, there is still room for improvement, especially on
the acoustic. The racial and ethnic composition considerably influence the satisfaction and the
perception level of respondents and these aspects should be highly considered in
implementing the improvement measures to ensure the comfort level of the room.
Keywords: bioclimatic design, ethnic, racial, residential building, survey.
1. Introduction
The residential college building is a multi-residential building which provides accommodation

for university students. This building is also referred as a hostel which contains leisure areas,
lounges, meeting rooms and laundry facilities (Jamaludin, 2014). Dayasari Residential
College (DRC) established in 1966 with 18,212.51m2 of total floor area. This residential
college is low-rise, naturally ventilated building and able to accommodate 847 residents at one
time. The building arrangement is based on the internal courtyard arrangement that
encourages various implementations of bioclimatic design strategies, especially under the
daylighting and natural ventilation conditions (Jamaludin, et al., 2011).
Bioclimatic elements in buildings were introduced by Olgyay during 1950s and were
developed as a process of design during the 1960s; which included the disciplines of human
physiology, climatology and building physics (Olgyay, 1963). The bioclimatic design system
creates some internal conditions of comfort by using natural energy sources and sinks;
without the use of any electromechanical devices or systems (Yeang, 2008; Hyde, 2000).
Therefore, the system is seen as able to reduce the operating costs, enhance building
marketability, reduce potential liability from indoor air quality problems and increase
occupants performance and productivity (Tiyok, 2009).
314
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The buildings orientation to the sun path of DRC is north-south that reduces the glare and the
thermal effects inside the rooms (Ahmad, 2008). At the west-east orientation, there are only
service areas, such as toilets, bathrooms, stores, staircases and balconies. The internal
courtyard provides daylight and natural air in the corridor and staircase area whereas inside
the room daylight and natural air can be obtained through the transom on top of the entrance
door and the wall. DRC was designed with glare protection and adjustable/fixed opening
options. There are two types of windows with tinted glasses, centre pivot and awning. The
window to wall ratio (WWR) is quite big, 0.66, while the window area is 6.41m 2. The
combination of operable window and transom on top of the entrance door and the wall forms
cross-flow/two sided ventilation (Tantasavasdi, Srebric and Chen, 2001). The presence of the
wall opening in the room creates a wind pressure inside the room. In order to produce
significant shadow effects to the rooms, there are large horizontal overhangs along the
window in each room.
2. Research Methodology
The survey done by Jamaludin, et al. (2014) have been adapted to restructure the
questionnaires. The questions have been improved to obtain a clearer picture of satisfaction
and perception level of the residents towards the recently implemented bioclimatic design
strategies. The questionnaires use a Likert Scale format where each number generally
responds to a specific scale as listed below,
-2: very poor/not at all/very uncomfortable/much decreased/too dark/very dissatisfied/
very noisy,
-1: poor/slightly/uncomfortable/decreased/dark/dissatisfied/noisy,
0: fair/moderate/neither/no changes,
+1: good/very/comfortable/increased/bright/satisfied/quiet,
+2: very good/extremely/very comfortable/much increased/too bright/very satisfied/
very quiet.
ASHRAE 7 point of the thermal sensation scale has been adopted in the further questionnaires
of thermal comfort (Singh, Mahapatra and Atreya, 2011). The scale ranges from -3 to +3
where, -3: cold, -2: cool, -1: slightly cool, 0: neutral, +1: slightly warm, +2: warm, and +3:
hot. Further survey was done by focusing on the usage pattern of the windows and ceiling fan.
The questionnaires were distributed to all residents with the minimum number of feedbacks
and with reliance on 95% of the confident level and 5% margin of error from the overall
population at each residential college. A simplified formula introduced by Yamane (1967)
was used to calculate the sample sizes,
n = N / 1 + N (e) 2
where, n is sample size, N is the population size and e is the level of precision. In this study,
the level of precision is 0.05. All the collected questionnaires were analysed statistically by
using a statistical software package.
The results of the satisfaction and perception survey of residents at DRC are presented in
Table 1. According to the percentages, the majority of respondents were experiencing a
satisfactory level of comfort in all performance indicators, except for the acoustic elements.
About 50.2% of respondents claimed that the general room and residential building layout
315
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
which is the internal courtyard with open corridor were good. Meanwhile, 49.8% agreed that
the rooms had fulfilled their needs very much.
Table 1: The result of satisfaction and perception survey
Likert scale /
The performance indicators Residents responses (%)
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
Architectural The general room layout 1.5 7.5 27.2 50.2 13.6
elements The residential building layout 0.4 8.7 28.7 50.2 12.1
The adequacy of room in fulfil the needs 1.1 11.4 25.5 49.8 12.2
The overall quality of the residential building 1.1 6.0 28.7 52.1 12.1
The overall comfort level of the room 0.8 4.5 29.1 53.6 12.1
Visual comfort The adequacy of daylighting in the room 4.2 12.0 34.4 40.9 8.5
The overall quality of daylighting in the room 1.5 7.7 28.8 48.5 13.5
Thermal comfort The thermal comfort of the room 3.4 11.7 29.7 43.6 11.7
& IAQ The ventilation & IAQ of the room 1.9 13.4 29.8 46.2 8.8
Acoustic comfort The noise/vibration level in the room 2.7 15.6 41.6 33.6 6.5
The majority of the residents which were represented by 52.1% felt good about the overall
quality of the residential building and 53.6% of respondents were comfortable with the
overall condition of the room. Regarding the visual comfort aspects, the majority of
respondents (48.5%) were satisfied with the overall quality of daylighting in the room. They
claimed that the adequacy of daylighting in the room was bright (40.9%).
Under the thermal comfort and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) elements, the majority of
respondents felt good with both indicators, which are the thermal comfort in the room
(43.6%) and the ventilation and IAQ of the room (46.2%). We noted that 59.7% of
respondents were highly reliant on the ceiling fan at the highest speed of five (50.2%), rather
than natural ventilation through the opening of windows in order to promote air circulation
and movement inside the room, as presented in Table 2.
Table 2: The usage pattern of windows and ceiling fan

Residents responses (%)
The frequency of ceiling fan Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Every time
usage in a day 0.4 3.1 10.9 26.0 59.7
One Two Three Four Five
The fan speed is often used
0.4 2.7 17.1 29.6 50.2
The frequency of the windows Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Every time
is kept open in a day 18.3 14.8 21.0 30.4 15.6
The reason for not opening the Insect Safety Rain Dust Privacy Monkey Others
windows 3.4 16.1 6.3 9.8 20.5 38.0 5.9
Further survey on the usage pattern of windows and ceiling fans at DRC revealed that the
monkey (38%) became the main reason for the residents to not open the windows, which
was then followed by privacy (20.5%), safety (16.1%), dust (9.8%), rain (6.3%),
others (5.9%) and insect (3.4%). However, some of the residents are still keeping the
windows frequently open (30.4%). Comparatively, the insects were the main reason why
residents did not open the windows of residential buildings in the hot-humid climate of
Malaysia (Kubota, Chyee and Ahmad, 2009).
The level of acoustic comfort is not very clear when the majority of respondents who were
represented by 41.6% had voted neither for the noise/vibration level in the room.
316
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Regarding thermal comfort elements, a detailed survey has been done by adopting thermal
sensation votes on ASHRAE 7 point sensation scale, which ranges from -3 to +3. The
majority of the respondents, 39.3% claimed to have been feeling neutral, as presented in
Table 3.
Table 3: Thermal sensation votes

ASHRAE 7 point sensation scale / Residents responses (%)
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Cold Cool Slightly cool Neutral Slightly warm Warm Hot
0.4 7.0 8.7 39.3 25.2 16.5 2.9
Further statistical analysis was done by comparing the percentage of respondents with regard
to race and ethnicity. Numerous differences were discovered by comparing the responses
among the race and ethnic groups, obviously on thermal comfort and indoor air quality, visual
comfort, the usage pattern of windows and ceiling fan, and thermal sensation, as presented in
Figure 1 to 3. The dissimilarities of beliefs, traditions, and ways of life influence the
behaviour and thermoregulatory responses (Katsuura, et al., 1993; Chung and Tong, 1990;
Yang and Wang, 2013). The majority of the Chinese and Other respondents rated one notch
lower as compared to the overall rate (Table 1) in some parts of the elements. The majority
of Chinese respondents claimed that the adequacy of daylighting in the room was neither
(adequate nor inadequate). Whilst, the usage pattern of windows was quite confusing when
the majority of Chinese respondents voted sometimes and never for the frequency of the
windows being kept open in a day and the time the windows has are always open in a day,
respectively. For Other racial and ethnic groups, the majority of them claimed that the
residential building layout, adequacy of daylighting, overall quality of daylighting were fair.
The safety, rain, dust, privacy, and the existence of wild animals like monkeys become
reasons for Other respondents for not opening the windows due to the equal percentage for
each reason cited (20%).
The majority of the Indian respondents rated one rate higher than the overall results for certain
performance indicators. The general room layout was voted to be very good, and the
noise/vibration level in the room was regarded as quiet. Most of them felt that the thermal
comfort level of the room was slightly warm. By contrast, the ventilation and IAQ of the
room had been rated one rate lower than the overall results. The majority of the Indian
respondents voted fair for this performance indicator. Regarding the usage pattern of
windows, safety has become the main reason for the Indian respondents to not open the
windows.
There are no obvious differences in the Malays responses compared to the overall rate,
except for responses on the ventilation control of the room. The majority of the Malay
respondents voted fair for this particular performance indicator.
4. Conclusions
The majority of the respondents are at a comfort level in all performance indicators of
architectural elements, visual comfort, thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Therefore, the
bioclimatic design strategies including daylighting and natural ventilation at an old residential
building are still appropriate to meet the needs of contemporary life. However, there is still
room for improvement, especially on the acoustic comfort.
317
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The general room layout The adequacy of room in fulfil the needs
100 100
80 80
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
Malay Chinese Indian Others Malay Chinese Indian Others
Racial & ethnic Racial & ethnic
-2 Very poor -1 Poor 0 Fair +1 Good +2 Very good -2 Not at all -1 Slightly 0 Moderate +1 Very +2 Extremely
The residential building layout The overall quality of the residential building
100 100
80 80
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-2 Very poor -1 Poor 0 Fair +1 Good +2 Very good -2 Very poor -1 Poor 0 Fair +1 Good +2 Very good
The overall comfort level of the room

100
80
Responses (%)
60
40
20
0
Malay Chinese Indian Others
Racial & ethnic
-2 Very uncomfortable -1 Uncomfortable 0 Neither +1 Comfortable +2 very comfortable
Figure 1: The result of satisfaction and perception survey on architectural elements

according to the race and ethnicity
318
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The adequacy of daylighting in the room The thermal comfort of the room
100 100
80 80
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-2 Too dark -1 Dark 0 Neither +1 Bright +2 Too bright -2 Very poor -1 Poor 0 Fair +1 Good +2 Very good
The overall quality of daylighting in the The ventilation and IAQ of the room
room
100
100
80
80
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60 60
40 40
20
20
0
Malay Chinese Indian Others 0
Racial & ethnic Malay Chinese Indian Others
Racial & ethnic
-2 Very dissatisfied -1 Dissatisfied 0 Neither
+1 Satisfied +2 Very satisfied -2 Very poor -1 Poor 0 Fair +1 Good +2 Very good
The noise/vibration level in the room

100
80
Responses (%)
60
40
20
0
Racial & ethnic
-2 Very noisy -1 Noisy 0 Neither +1 Quiet +2 Very quiet
Figure 2: The result of satisfaction and perception survey on visual comfort, termal
comfort & IAQ and acoustic comfort according to the race and ethnicity
319
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The frequency of the windows is kept open The fan speed is often used
in a day
100%
100%
80%
80%
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60%
60%
40%
40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Every time One Two Three Four Five
The frequency of ceiling fan usage in a day The reason for not opening the windows
100%
100%
80%
80%
Responses (%)
Responses (%)
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Every time Insect Safety Rain Dust Privacy Monkey Others
Thermal comfort based on ASHRAE 7 sensation scale

100%
80%
Responses (%)
60%
40%
20%
0%
Racial & ethnic
Cold Cool Slightly cool Neutral Slightly warm Warm Hot
Figure 3: The usage pattern of windows, ceiling fan and the thermal comfort based on
ASHRAE 7 sensation scale according to the racial and ethnic groups
340
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The racial and ethnic composition considerably influence the satisfaction and the perception
level of respondents. Therefore, these aspects should be highly considered in implementing
the improvement measures to ensure the comfort level of the room. For further research, it is
necessary to has greater number of respondents exceeding the minimum number of feedbacks
with a 95% of confident level and 5% margin of error to represent the overall population.
The combination of subjective and objective evaluation would give a more comprehensive
result for the investigated issues.
5. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Dayasari Residential Colleges at the University of Malaya
campus for their permission to carry out the survey. This analysis was financially supported
by the Institut Pengurusan dan Pemantauan Penyelidikan (IPPP), University of Malaya under
BKP Grant (BK010-2015).
6. References
Ahmad, S.A., 2008. Kuala Lumpur: A hot humid climate. In: R. Hyde, ed. 2008. Bioclimatic
Housing: Innovative Designs for Warm Climates. UK: Earthscan. pp.269-293.
Chung, T.M. and Tong, W.C., 1990. Thermal comfort study of young Chinese people in Hong
Kong. Building and Environment, 25(4), pp.317-328.
Hyde, R., 2000. Climate responsive design: A study of buildings in moderate and hot humid
climates. New York: E&FN Spon.
Jamaludin, A.A., 2014. Performance of bioclimatic design strategies at residential buildings in
University of Malaya. Ph. D. University of Malaya.
Jamaludin, A.A., Inangda, N., Ariffin, A.R.M. and Hussein, H., 2011. Energy performance of
three residential college buildings in University of Malaya campus, Kuala Lumpur.
Journal of Design and Built Environment, 9, pp.59-73.
Jamaludin, A.A., Keumala, N., Ariffin, A.R.M. and Hussein, H., 2014. Satisfaction and
perception of residents towards bioclimatic design strategies: Residential college
buildings. Indoor and Built Environment, 23(7), pp.933-945.
Katsuura, T., Tachibana, M.E., Okada, A. and Kikuchi, Y., 1993. Comparison of
thermoregulatory responses to heat between Japanese Brazilians and Japanese. Journal of
Thermal Biology, 18(5-6), pp.299-302.
Kubota, T., Chyee, D.T.H. and Ahmad, S., 2009. The effects of night ventilation technique on
indoor thermal environment for residential buildings in hot-humid climate of Malaysia.
Energy and Buildings, 41(8), pp.829-839.
Olgyay, V., 1963. Design with climate: Bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Singh, M.K., Mahapatra, S. and Atreya, S.K., 2011. Adaptive thermal comfort model for
different climatic zones of North-East India. Applied Energy, 88(7), pp.2420-2428.
Tantasavasdi, C., Srebric, J. and Chen, Q., 2001. Natural ventilation design for houses in
Thailand. Energy and Buildings, 33(8), pp.815-824.
Tiyok, P., 2009. Towards Indonesias Sustainable future: Green building council Indonesia.
FuturArc, 14, pp.116-119.
Yamane, T., 1967. Statistic, an introductory analysis. New York: Harper & Row.
Yang, R. and Wang, L., 1990. Development of multi-agent system for building energy and
comfort management based on occupant behaviors. Energy and Building, 56, pp.1-7.
Yeang, K., 2008. Ecodesign: A manual for ecological design. London, UK: John Wiley & Son
Ltd.
341
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
GENDER
342
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Double Abandoned: Experiences and Narratives of Single Mothers de facto
Nor Hafizah Selamat*, Farah Syazwani Hayrol Aziz and Noraida Endut
Centre for Research on Women and Gender (KANITA)
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Email: hafiz@usm.my
Abstract
Although a substantial body of literature exist on single mothers in Malaysia, literature that
focuses specifically on the livelihood of single mothers de facto is almost non-existent. Single
mothers de facto is referring to a category of single mothers who are by law they are not
categorized as single mother but in reality they are living like any other single mothers such
as abandoned wives. The status of single mothers de facto is much more complicated than
those single mothers who are divorced because their separation is not legally approved and
therefore they do not have divorce certificate. By using in-depth interviews and observation,
this paper will explore the experiences and narratives of 5 single mothers de facto in Penang.
The findings revealed that single mothers de facto are more vulnerable and marginalised than
legally separated single mothers (divorced). Due to their status as not legally separated, they
are not able to obtain divorce certificate. Not having a divorce certificate would also means
that they are not legally single mother and therefore they are, in many cases, not qualified to
be registered as member of Single Mothers Association and almost often being deprived
from getting government assistance. This has led to what is called as Double Abandoned
phenomenon when not only are they being abandoned by their husbands (or sometimes
families) but also by the relevant institutional agencies. Their continued struggles often
revolve around the issue of mental and physical abuse, getting employment, childcare,
struggling with custody, poverty and getting financial. It is suggested that the government
should seriously addressing the struggles and challenges faced by these single mothers de
facto so that a better provision of support and facilities can be made available to this group of
single mothers.
Keywords: gender, livelihood, single mothers de facto, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Conventionally, single mother refers to a woman who is widowed and had to continue the
task of raising children or a woman who has been divorced and was given custody of her
children (Rohaty and Mohammed Rais 1999; Bakri 2002). Although there is no precise
statistics on the number of single mothers in this country, the increase rate of divorces among
young couples reflect an increase in the number of single mothers. In 2000, the number of
single mothers in Malaysia is about 620,359 people. The number is only taking into account
the women who are widow or balu (death of spouse) (529,701) and divorcee or janda
(90,655) people (Thuaibah@Suaibah et al 2004). According to the Organization of Women in
Malaysia, female-headed households increased from 126,510 in 2000 to 600,000 in 2004
(Women Development Organization 2004).
Single mother is define as a woman who was not living with the husband and has to fend for
herself and also her children; women who are in the process of divorce; woman who has a
sick husband and not able to provide for a living and need special care, and women who are
raising children without the help of a husband (Rohaty and Mohammed Rais 1999, Bakri
2002). Recently, Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development has redefines the
343
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
term of single mother by categorizing it into three different groups. However, the definition
seems to ignore the other group of women who are being abandoned by their husbands, often
referred as abandoned wives. Abandoned wives can fall into the category of those women
who are not recognized by law as single mothers but in reality they are living and facing
hardships like any other single mothers because the structure and dynamics of this family
relationship is in similar state of any divorced household and families (Bakri 2002). They are
still in the marriage because of polygamy or in the process of divorce proceedings which
usually will take years to settle but the wives have to provide income for the children after
being abandoned by their husbands
Although a substantial body of literature exist on single mothers in Malaysia but due to lack
of clarity and inclusiveness in defining single mothers in Malaysia, study that focuses
specifically on the livelihood of single mothers de facto is not that many. This paper will be
looking at how these single mothers de facto are coping with their livelihood and their
experiences of being a single mother de facto. This study is therefore aimed to explore the
experiences, challenges and narratives of single mothers de facto.
2. Single Mothers De Facto
It has been estimated that in Malaysia, single mothers make up 5.4 per cent (505,757) of total
female population in 2010 (Department of Statistics Malaysia 2010). In Penang, at least two
Single mothers Association has 1000 single mothers registered with them. However, the
actual number of single mothers in the state of Penang is estimated to be much more. It is
even more difficult to estimate the number of single mother de facto in Malaysia because
many of them have never registered with any Single Mothers Group/association. As recently
defined by the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, single mothers can
be categorized in three categories including single mothers who is called as balu (death of a
spouse) and janda (a divorcee). In this paper, we would like to argue that single mothers de
facto should include those women who lives or permanently separated without legal divorce
but in reality they are living like any other single mothers who have divorce certificate. This
would include those women who are abandoned by their husbands with no maintenance
(nafkah) and no talaq is pronounced. They are basically living without the presence of a
husband and are responsible for raising her children and manage her family.
Single mother de facto carries the meaning that they are not recognized by law as single
mothers but in reality they are living like any single mothers who become the sole bread
winners for their families. The life of single mothers de facto is also much more complicated
and vulnerable than other group of single mother who are legally divorced. Since they are
being abandoned by husbands and are not legally separated, they do not have divorce
certificate (sijil cerai). In Malaysia, sijil cerai is considered as a license for single mothers to
get access to government aids and assistance. Not having a divorce certificate would also
mean that they are not entitled to any kind of government assistance and support that are
available to single mothers who have divorce certificate. Not having divorce certificate will
also push further this single mother de facto into a vulnerable life condition due to various
challenges such as financial challenges, lack of specialized job skills. They therefore have to
undertake multiple jobs in order to make ends meet for the family.
According to a national survey done by United Nation Development Program (UNDP),

together with Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, it is shown that
about 5% of single mothers in Malaysia belong to Single Mother de facto category. It is also
344
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
reported that fewer than 60,000 of the 500,000 Malaysian women whom are widowed,
divorced or permanently separated receive aid as single mothers. Only 66,243 of single
mothers received aid from the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development
from January to June 2013. In Malaysian society, a famous Malay proverb digantung tak
bertali (strapless hanging) and salai tak berapi (smoked without fire) epitomized the
struggle faced by this single mothers de facto. Even though widowhood is the largest
underlying cause of single motherhood in Malaysia, women who has been abandoned by their
husbands is more prevalent to be living in lower income groups. These women have to rely on
their own survival skills in order to support themselves and their families
Based on literature review, the study of single mothers de facto in Malaysia is very limited.
Instead of using the term of single mother de facto, many of the studies are using the term of
single mother who are strapless hanging (gantung tidak bertali). Women who have not been
financially independent during marriage need sustainable financial sources to restart their new
single lives, even if they were already earning before becoming single mothers. Poverty
amongst single mothers is caused by many factors such as low income job, low income self-
employment, unemployment, low education level, lack of sufficient skills and age factor
(Rohayu et al 2011; Faizah and Azian 2013; Diyana et al 2009). At the same time, single
mothers also have to face challenges such as the issues of stigma, role conflict and emotional
relationship with children, court visits and problems in dealing with ex-husbands (Upasana
and Sunita 2012; Diyana et al 2009; Hamid et al 2010) and lack of formal support (Noraida et
al 2015).
Other factors of being single mothers are poverty, migration from the rural to the city and
rapid urbanization. Studies have shown that being a single mother is also connected with labor
migration, for example the wives were left-behind' because their migrant husbands are absent
for extended periods. Sometimes the migrant husbands will send back remittances on a steady
basis but there are also cases where husbands disappeared after migrating to the city
(Kangethei and Mafa Itai 2014; Meda 2013). Men may initially leave home to earn wages
for the family's benefit but their commitment sometimes fades and they tend to loosen their
loyalty to the family left behind. Migrant husbands often constitute new families in the place
where they migrate without formally breaking the ties with their first families.
4. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework used for this study is based on the vulnerability context
perspectives. It will be used to explore the livelihood of single mothers de facto, their
challenges and constraint. People are according to the Sustainable Livelihood framework
considered to live within a vulnerability context which implies that they are exposed to risks,
both through sudden shocks (violent, unexpected events such as natural disasters or economic
crises and price fluctuations), stresses (changes in laws and policies) and temporal changes
such as seasonality which is considered low-level environmental stress to livelihood strategies
and means that the availability of resources increases or decreases depending on season.
These external factors are generally impossible for people to control, forcing them instead to
adapt their strategy by morphing it into a coping strategy. These coping strategies can include
lending money, sales of physical assets and/or the usage of stocks. With regards to the human
Deputy Minister: Fewer than 5% of single mothers receive aid, Star Online, November 2013.
345
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
geographic theoretical framework of place, it is also necessary to analyse the place people live
in, not just from a vulnerability perspective but also seeing possibilities and how people make
use of place (practice place) in order to further their livelihood goals.
A series of in-depth interviews were carried out with single mothers de facto. Their names
were suggested by the two Penang Single Mothers Associations. Since this is a preliminary
study of single mother de facto, this paper draws on the narratives of five respondents from a
total of 15 respondents. The respondents are single mothers who are Malay, age ranged
from 30 60 years old and either being left by husband or left her husband for reason of not
being provided with maintenance, taking another wife (polygamy), having an affair with
another women and domestic violence. Only three of them received secondary education
while the other two only received primary education. Three of them are working as factory
workers and the other two are housewives. Majority of them are having between 2 6
children. Respondents were encouraged to share stories about how they dealt with their
husbands behavior and the day when they decided enough is enough, the coping strategies
they developed when dealing with the incidents, their experiences with Religious Department
and the court and how they found support to dealt with the issue. This paper takes a narrative
analysis approach, using the narratives of respondents as empirical evidence from which
anthropological information can be drawn (Franzosi, 1995).
6. Analyses and Findings
6.1 Single Mother De Factos Phase of Life: Vulnerability Phase

The life of single Mother de facto can be best approached in a phased way which can be
divided specifically into six phases. These 6 phases include the phase where marriage
problems started to emerge, separation phase, adjustment and coping phase and finally life
stability phase. In each phase, the element of vulnerability is consistently exist which includes
the feelings of shocks and feeling of abandonment. Majority of respondents claimed that
problems started to emerge in their marriage when their husbands began to show a changed of
behavior after they found out that their husband were having affairs with another women and
practicing polygamy. Financial problems due to husbands who were unemployed have led to
an abusive relationship. One of the respondents, Narimah still remembers the day when her
husband used to be a very responsible husband but after a decade of marriage her husband
became another person after he decided to take another wife who happened to be her good
friend at work. She said, right after he married, he seldom came home and never give me
anymore nafkah (maintenance). He used to come back once a week but now not anymore.
Rosiah who is unemployed claimed that her marriage started to crumble when her husband
were having an affair with several women. Her husband was unemployed throughout their
marriage and she was the one who provide income for the family.
he is very hot temper, never care for the children, always called his children with names. He
can just leave us for a few weeks and sometimes for months. When he is not around, things
would be very quiet, so peaceful and my children are happy too. Then, out of the blue, he will
come back home again and started asking for money and continuously getting angry at his
children. After a few years, I said enough and enough.
As for Salbiah, her describing her 15 years of marriage as a happy marriage but never
expected that leaving him was the best options. Salbiah said that, he was a good husband
346
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
when he was younger but had a changed of behaviour when he was in his 50s after mixing with
with bad people. He began to leave us for an extended period of time. He used to give nafkah
nafkah but not anymore as most of the money was spent on gambling and women. Things
become too exhausted after constant fighting and argument. One day he showed up at my house
house and I warned him not to step into my house as I heard from a neighbour that he already
pronounced talaq (divorce) in front of his friends at the nearby coffee shop. Since then, I never
never see him again.
6.2 Journey to the Court
The court experiences are the most emotional and exhausting journey as described these
single mothers de facto. Throughout this journey, they felt embarrassed, feeling abandoned
and sometimes they feel numb as they did not know what options they have to deal with the
next phase of their lives. During the coping phase, many respondents took a few months to
finally have the courage to go to Religious Department and Shariah court to seek advice on
her status and to find out procedures for divorce application. Narimah narrates,
When my husband found out that I went to the Religious Department to find out about my
status and the procedure to apply for a divorce, my husband scolded me,...why are you asking
me to go to the Religious Department when I dont have any intention to divorce you. So, stop
going to the Religious department.
When asked whether she really wanted to get a divorce, Narimah took some time to say,
...I dont really want to ask for a divorce. I was advised by an ustazah not to ask for a
divorce because my husband did not want to divorce me. If I kept on asking for a divorce, I
will be accused of shaking up the Arasy of the Lord. Thats what people always say.
Narimah admitted that it was not so much about the journey to the court that she decided not
to proceed with divorce application. It was her children who told her not apply for divorce and
instead told her to just ignore him. According to Narimah, her children still love their father
and did not want their father to be seen negatively by neighbors and their friends who were
also working at the same Religious Department. As for Salbiah, after having two failed
marriages, she described the journey to court was such a tiring and exhausting journey -
physically and mentally. For her, divorce certificate was not that important anymore as she
never has any intention to remarry. She just wanted to lead a peaceful life with her children.
Frequent trips to Religious Department as experienced by these single mothers de facto has
not only cost them with physical and mental stress but also affected their working hours and
their relationships with colleagues and employer. Zubaidah, for example, who works as
factory worker, sacrificing her whole annual leave so that she could go to the Religious
Department to find the status of her divorce application.
Now, I dont have any more annual leave to take. My manager warned me if I kept on
taking on leave, I will lose my job. At this moment, my job is more important than the divorce
certificate. But, without it [certificate], my life will always like thisvulnerable.
6.3 Economic Challenges
347
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Financial and childcare is the two biggest challenges faced by single mother de facto right after
the separation phase. Based on the table below, majority of single mothers have to find new
sources of income after the separation process as they need to support their children as some of
them did not anymore receive any assistance or maintenance from their husbands. For example,
Naimah who used to work as factory worker and earned around RM1000 had to resign after her
husband taking another wife. She had to do different kinds of small business to survive.
Meanwhile, Salmiah had never had any working experience but she was forced to work
different kind of jobs to support her children which include becoming bus conductor and
part-time factory worker.
6.4 Government Policies and Assistance: Life without Divorce Certificate
As described by one of the respondents, life without divorce certificate is so bleak. I am

stuck,... dont know where to go. As explained earlier, going to Religious Department and
Sharia court for divorce proceeding was such an exhausting experience. Similar to that, the
respondents frequent trips to various different government agencies to seek for financial
assistance were even more frustrating and sometimes they faced humiliating experiences.
Rosiah claimed that I never get any assistance. I have to write many letters to seek financial
assistance or donation. Safia, another respondent also claimed that she did not get any
assistance and she did not even know where to apply. I am still busy with the court case and
now depending fully on my salary and my parents for the childcare. Julia was not that lucky
when her assistance discontinued after moving to another state. Julia explains, I used to
get financial assistance from MAIM and Social Welfare. When I moved here (another state I
was told, ..you are not single mother [since she cannot produce divorce certificate]. If we give
you the assistancewhat would happen if your husband coming back again? So, thats it. Now
I dont get any financial assistance. I dont know where to ask anymore? Without divorce
certificate, life is hard. Now, I just stop [asking].
Based on the experience and narration above, not having divorce certificate becomes a major
obstacle for single mother de facto to rebuild their life after being abandoned by their
husbands. Divorce certificate is considered a gateway for single mothers to seek a suitable
assistance but the journey to get the certificate is such an arduous journey because the
challenges are coming from both sides, husband and relevant government agencies. It is hard
to get husbands cooperation to attend divorce proceedings and at the same time they are
being sidelined from getting access to financial assistance by the local authorities for not
having divorce certificate. Majority of respondents felt that they were being abandoned not
only by their husbands but also by the system that are supposed to assist them which lead to a
phenomenon called double abandoned.
7. Conclusion
The above narratives provided by respondents show the vulnerability of Single Mothers de
facto for not having divorce certificate. The lack of support in terms of policies and assistance
has increased the rates of poverty and those single mothers de facto who have small children
are much more disadvantage than those who are older and have grown up children with
employment. Rather than viewing the challenges faced by these single mothers de facto as
individual struggle, more important issues to be addressed is to critically interrogate the lack
of support and to evaluate policy making to ensure good governance has been practiced.
Government should not only lumping together single mothers into one category but more
focus and attention should be given to single mothers de facto in order to enhance the
348
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
wellbeing and livelihood of the group by providing them the needed support, facilities and
opportunities so that they are not being abandoned for the second time.
8. References
Bakri, M., 2002. Malaysia in the Era of Globalisation. Lincoln: Writers Club Press.
Diyana, I., Doris, P. and Nor Aini, I, 2009. Isu dan Cabaran Ibu Tunggal Dalam Menghadapi
Perubahan Persekitaran Global. Prosiding Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia (PERKEM 1V),
[online] Kuantan, Pahang, 2-4 Jun 2009. Available through:
<http://www.ukm.my/fep/perkem/pdf/perkemIV/PERKEM2009-1-21.pdf> [Accessed 18 June
2015]
Evans, M., 2011. Single Mothers in Malaysia: Social Protection as an Exercise of Definition
in Search of Solution. International Conference: Social Protection for Social Justice
Institute of Development Studies, UK. [online] 13-15 April 2011. Available through:
<https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Evans2011SinglemothersandsocialprotectioninMalaysiaC
SPconferencedraft.pdf > [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Faizah, A. and Azian, A., 2013. Profile of Single Mothers in Southern Malaysia and Issues
Afflicting Their Lives. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, [e-journal] 16(1) pp 197
206. Available through:
<http://www.bjournal.co.uk/paper/BJASS_16_2/BJASS_16_02_09.pdf> [Accessed 17 June
2015]
Franzosi, R., 1998. Narrative Analysis-Or Why (And How) Sociologists Should be interested
in Narrative. Annual Review of Sociology, [e-journal] 24, pp. 517 554. Available through:
<http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.517> [Accessed 12 June
2015]
Hamid, T., Mottan, J. and Tyng, S., 2010. Keluarga Induk Tunggal: Penekanan Kepada
Cabaran Keluarga Ibu Tunggal. Keluarga dan Keibubapaan (Edisi 3). Selangor: Penerbit
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Kangethei, S. and Mafa I., 2014. Dynamics Associated with Phenomenon of Matrifocality
(Single Motherhood) in Zimbabwe: A Literature Review. J Sociology SocAnth, [e-journal]
5(2) pp. 131-139. Available through: <
http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSSA/JSSA-05-0-000-14-Web/> [Accessed 18
June 2015]
Meda, S., 2013. Single Mothers of Nairobi: Rural-Urban Migration and the Transformation of
Gender Roles and Family Relations in Kenya. Urban People, [e-journal] 15(2) pp. 279 307.
Available through:
<http://lidemesta.cz/archiv/cisla/15-2013-2/single-mothers-of-nairobi-rural-urban-migration-a
nd-the-transformation-of-gender-roles-and-family.html> [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Rashmi, V., 2014. Emotional and Psychological Problems of Single Parents (Special
Reference Indoce City). Asian Resonance, [e-journal] 3(2) pp. 185 186. Available
through: <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v474/n7352/full/nature10190.html>
[Accessed 19 June 2015]
349
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Rohaty, M. and Muhammad Rais, A.K., 1999. Ibu tunggal: Menelusuri Rintangan Hidup
dengan Keyakinan. Pelanduk: Selangor.
Rohayu, R., Sharipah, S., Yusmarwati, Y., Maziana, M. and Abdul Rasid, A.R., 2011.
Poverty Alleviation among Single Mother in Malaysia: Building Entrepreneurship Capacity.
International Journal of Business and Social Science. [e-journal] 2(17), pp. 92 99. Available
through: <http://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_17/13.pdf> [Accessed 17 June 2015]
Thuaibah@Suaibah et al, 2004. Aktiviti Keusahawanan di Kalangan Ibu Tunggal di Negeri

Johor: Kajian Terhadap Faktor Penglibatan dan Kejayaan Dalam Bidang Perniagaan. Jurnal
Kemanusiaan. [e-journal] 4, pp. 53-75. Available through:
<http://www.management.utm.my/download/jurnal-kemanusiaan/bil-04-dis-2004/93-aktiviti-
keu
sahawanan-di-kalangan-ibu-tunggal-di-negeri-johor-kajian-terhadap-faktor-penglibatan/file.ht
ml > [Accessed 17 June 2015]
Upasana, S. and Sunita, M., 2012. A Study about Stress among Single Parent and Parenthood
in Lucknow city. Advance Research Journal of Social Science, [e-journal] 3(2), pp. 290 291.
Available through: <
http://www.researchjournal.co.in/online/ARJSS/ARJSS%203(2)/3_A-290-291.pdf >
[Accessed 16 June 2015]
Youngblut, J., Brady, N., Brooten, D. And Thomas, D., 2010. Factors Influencing Single
Mothers Employment Status. Health Care for Women International, [e-journal] 21(2), pp.
125136. Available through: Taylors and Francis Online <
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/073993300245357 > [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Zarina, M. And Kamil, A., 2012. Sustaining the Livelihood of Single Mothers through Wealth
Creation and Saving Opportunities: A Long Road Ahead. International Journal of Trade,
Economics and Finance, [e-journal] 3(2) pp. 126 131. Available through: <
http://www.ijtef.org/papers/185-Q10014.pdf> [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Website References
Department of Statistics, Malaysia, 2010. Population distribution and basic demographic
characteristic report 2010. [online] Available at <http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/<
[Accessed 16 June 2015)
United Nations Development Program, 2012. MDG1 and 3 Towards a National Action Plan
to Empower Single Mothers project. [online] Available at
<www.undp.org.my/news_details.php?> [Accessed 19 June 2015]
350
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Am I in Bad Company?
The Narratives of Misery amongst Psychiatric Patients
Nur Zafifa Kamarunzamana,*, Nor Hafizah Hj Selamata,b
aCenter for Research on Women and Gender (KANITA), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Emel: nurzafifa125@gmail.com
b
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Emel: hafiz@usm.my
Abstract
Depression categorized as disruptive mood dysregulation disorder that modifies a persons

verbal and behavioral patterns in everyday life. Changes in mood such as agitation, aggressive
and anti-social behavior seem to take control over the life domains that eventually limits a
persons performance in his/her social roles. Thus, the article aims to explore the narrative of
patients depressive feeling due to depression. The study employs in-depth interviews with six
depressive patients who undertook treatments in Penang and Kedah general hospitals
psychiatric department for at least 12 months. The respondents consist four female and two
male patients. The data then analyzed using the narrative method with the assistance of
Atlas.ti, version 7.0 software. The initial findings unveiled that feeling of depression includes
being anxious, loneliness, hopelessness, unworthiness and premature death served as a
sub-themes of misery. The misery experience is similar between genders, however, vary on
the degree of exposure to depression. These findings are consistent with the Diagnosis and
Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder V, however, contested with feminist literature
particularly in explaining the degree of serious impairment.
Keywords: Depression, Loneliness, Hopelessness, Unworthiness, Suicidal, Misery
1.1 Introduction
Depression is not alien to our everyday language today. Essentially, depression also known as
a unipolar disorder, distress or stress (Wilhelm 2006, Dziegielewski 2010). Some scholars
postulate that most of the time depression co-existed with an impairment that limits individual
capabilities in life (Chonody and Siebert 2008). Patients who seek help in psychiatric unit
risks themselves to a great misunderstanding by others (Crabtree and Chong 1999, Crabtree
2012). The social stigma that works based on stereotyping, prejudices and discrimination
would impair depressive patients from exercising their rights, for example, the right to be
healthy and independent (Corrigan et al. 2014). These social barriers might reflect the neglect
of people with mental illness as an active human capital, and pushing them to take the sick
role to maintain social exclusion (Boo et al. 2011, Seloilwe and Thupayagale-Tshweneagae
2007). Furthermore, Wang (2011) further argues that in Eastern setting, the experience and
conception of mental illness are not well documented and research, hence understanding the
meaning of patients everyday life in the context is relatively small. More so, the definition of
depression is varied across cultures, depending on how the culture describes and perceived the
nature of the illness. This statement supported by Foucault in his book titled The Order of
Things that he regards mental illness as a product of socio-historical rather than pathological.
He also addresses that the gap created by practitioners are to enhance control over the body
through medical practices, which he termed biopolitics (Turner 1987). Thus, with the above
351
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
arguments, the article aims to explore the narrative on the feeling of depression by the
psychiatric patients.
1.2 Depression and Gender
Depressive disorder in DSM-V comprises mood dysregulation, major depressive disorder

(MDD), dysthymia, depressive based on usage of medical or due to other medical condition
(American Psychiatric Association 2013). The characteristic of a patient who have the major
depressive disorder is those who have a depressive episode for at least two weeks or longer,
with distinct changes in self-isolation. Among others diagnostic criteria are a loss of interest
or anhedonia; weight loss or weight gain; insomnia or hypersomnia; restlessness; agitated;
restlessness; fatigue; worthless; indecisiveness; and suicidal ideation (American Psychiatric
Association 2000, American Psychiatric Association 2013).
Gender is a powerful tool to identify power relations that control access to capitals, resources
and opportunities in everyday life. However, it has not been a primary interest for many
medical sociologists and social epidemiologists to use gender as a lens for investigation. On
the other hand, gender usually utilized to segmenting the diagnosis. For example, male
patients usually diagnose as having schizophrenia, anti-social behavior, and substance abuse;
while women are more often diagnosed as having the affective and somatoform disorder
(Macintyre et al. 1996, Aneshensel et al. 1991, Seedat et al. 2009). Some have reported many
health practitioners at the primary care having a high probability to misdiagnose female
patients as having a physical ailment such as a migraine or a backache, which in turn making
late or no specific treatment given to the patients (Richardson and Puskar 2012). More often,
misdiagnosis failed to prevent depressive patients from premature death, seeing that women
are higher in seeking for help (Luoma et al. 2002, Bertakis et al. 2000, Chandra and
Minkovitz 2006, Macintyre et al. 1996, Ojeda and McGuire 2006, Tseng 2001).
1.3 Study method and protocol
In this article, the findings presented merely a preliminary one that involved only six
respondents (four female patients, and two male patients). Data gathered using
semi-structured interview, carried out between November 2014 until February 2015. The
recruitments follow these inclusion criteria: a)age 18 and above; b)clinically diagnosed with
depression/ major depressive disorder; and c)attending the governmental mental health care
for at least 12 months. For data collection purpose, two hospitals in Pulau Pinang and Kedah,
Malaysia had chosen for field works undertakings. The recruitment made based on the referral
by the psychiatrists and/ or medical officers. However, it is made discreetly to ensure
voluntary participation from the potential respondents preserved. At this end, the Malaysian
Ministry of Health and University ethical clearance have been granted, followed, and the
informed consent forms were presented.
1.4 Narratives and the meaning of feeling in depression
Loneliness
Loneliness is one of the main criteria described by the respondents. More often, the sense of
isolation occurs when a patient experience adverse life-events that coupled with bereavement
(American Psychiatric Association 2013), such as the passing of the loved one. As Fatin
described,
My first experience of depression was after my dad died that I felt
ummpp a big hole has left a chuck like is taken out, that is my safety
352
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
net. I didnt know at that point of time, depression That was depression, I
I didnt know. (Fatin, 43)
At the same time, depression tends to withdraw individual from his or her social circle
without them notice. The feeling of wanting to be alone might intrigue other sets of the
problem, such as relationship distortion that deal with trust. Rokiah, 63, who is a pensioner,
identify the withdrawal happened when friends started to visit and shared unpleasant
experience about the related illness that she had diagnosed:
The worry was added up with neighbors who came to tell, their acquaintance
or relatives did surgery to remove part of the brain, straight away became
insane.... At the beginning they (friends) always visit, asking how am I doing.
But I am just like this (refuse to talk) (Rokiah, 63) [emphasis added]
Simultaneously, a majority of the respondents have the desire to confide the illness that they
are experiencing with their loved one. Likewise, most patients believe it is necessary to
express the ordeal of over-stimulation explicitly to release the stress they had. However, the
majority found that they had no friend to share or communicate with, that sometimes deals
with the issue of trust. For example, Nicky, 24, who was a college student, experiencing a mix
stressor from troubled family situation, struggles in her studies, and friends to be trusted as it
would jeopardize her reputation as a high achiever in her university that might spread rumors
at the job market later:
No, I didnt. I was alone. Because I was scared that my secret of this
[illness] was going to.. you know, people knew about it so yeah. it is, but I
am scared the consequences of telling. So its better for me to keep it to
myself so people dont know (Nicky, 24)
Despite patient susceptible to self-isolation, the problem such as feeling neglected by the
loved ones have high possibility to occur. This sense of overly sensitive feeling came from
overstimulation of external or internal factors that ruminate inside the individual that cause
physical and emotional pain and discomfort. Devi, 28 years old newly wedded teacher felt
ignored and lonely when her husband was repeatedly out-stationed to find more job
opportunities in the big city.
Similarly with Chin, 26, who currently working at his fathers craft shop, felt his parents were
insensitive on handling his grief over his grandmothers passing. The situation gets gloomier
when the parents hardly talk to him and most of the time the conversation sparks a heated
argument, as he described:
Ever since my grandmother died, I've been worried. I kind of aimless. My
father and my mother, they were less pay attention to me ... I, my grandmother
loved me so much. That time, they didnt did not care my feeling after
grandmother passed away. (Chin, 26)
Anxiety and loss of interest

Anxiety is usually co-morbid with depression. Anxiety detected in all respondents who
illustrated that it just more than feeling of uneasiness but also coupled with physical illness. In
one of the case, Rokiah did not aware that her anxiety developed as early as her marriage life,
as described by her husband that she used to grumble about almost everything. Moreover,
Rokiah described it was even better to stay in the bed rather facing the world. Besides she also
characterizes her exhaustion as to why she has stopped doing the house chores and decline on
going to feast invitation:
"Ive always got tired. Lie down, sleep on the couch until afternoon.
Another thing, I did not want to go anywhere, I like to stay home. If there is
353
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
invitation to feast, uncle often goes alone, because I wanted to stay home
(Rokiah, 63)
One of the male respondents, Chin, illustrated how his stressors that are job stress and
relatives who love to compare him with the others contributing to his ill health. The agitated
and nervous feeling that he had shaped a perception of being the target for sabotage,
misunderstood by the others, and felt like a loser:
Aha, I had a lot of stress working there. They assigned a lot of work, and
many more to come. After that I cannot even sleep at night. And I dont
have appetite. Always sick, having fever.... Another thing, relatives always
asked where I work. I feel very upset. When Happy New Year comes, I was
already worried.... They like to compare you and their children. I felt, wah!
Feeling stress... always compare!!! (Chin, 26)
Despite fatigue and falling sick, Mail who was previously active in sports described how
anxiety attacked his physical health while physician took approximately two years to figure
out that he has depression. The fear made him withdrawn from society, worrying that he will
be facing physical breakdown while he is alone or in front of other people:
"It is like short of breath feeling like, Eh! Am I dying? This all numb limbs
... the whole body cold, shivering find myself having difficulties of
breathing, like suffocated.... I cannot work, upset, sitting in the house alone,
afraid, really could not get along with people" (Mail, 26)
Simultaneously, Nicky who woke up with a panic attack during the examination week was
denied with medical help when she seek for assistance at the Universitys Health Unit. Like
other respondents, Nicky also experienced physical symptoms that were uncommon for her.
However, the medical assistance who attended her ignored her request to get medical help:
It has happened somewhere during my 2nd semester of diploma Okay, so I
woke up I had these palpatations on my heart. I realized that these palpations
were not something usual it was more of a panic attack or anxiety attack so I
seek help to the Health Unit, unfortunately the doctor said that we cannot help
you . (Nicky, 23)
Devi, on the other hand, developed panic attack and phobia when she is facing her school
problems. She depicted that she was experiencing institutional bully and discrimination by
denying her role and right as a teacher. School, as a small social institution with close-knit
members transporting grapevine faster, than in a bigger organization. Worrying about what
others might think about her, she was nervous to face her colleagues:
I start scared and I get phobia. I cannot think of the school, I cannot receive
call from the school, when I see the phone call, I cannot! I cannot! (Devi, 28)
Concomitantly, Fatin who was brought up in amongst readers in the family realized she give
up reading sometimes ago since she had depression:
One thing that I realized that I have lost, is, I have lost the interest in reading.
I buy magazines every month, I dont read them. (Fatin, 43)
Hopelessness and unworthiness

Hopelessness is a feeling of losing hope and despair with the whole world. For a depressive
patient, the romantic of perceived hopelessness inundated through misunderstanding and
rejection from others. As illustrated by the patients experience, despair exists hand in hand
with a feeling of unworthiness. In this context, a majority of the respondents reported felt the
abjection of being sick and impair from routine physical activities when depression strikes.
For example, Devi who expressed that the sense of being bullied by the senior teachers and
rejection from teaching her primary subject made her despairs with the workplace and the
system as whole that she described as an unfair system:
354
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
I cannot stand when they were overboard. So when I am ready to discuss

(about my subjects), the principal said, Your confirmation is in my hand.
So got any problem with principal or whatever, they got the right. They got the
right. (Devi, 28) [Emphasis added]
On the other hand, Chin felt hopeless and worthless when he cannot reach the materialistic
achievements as his parents and relatives wishes:
He (dad) compared me with my friend, he said he (friend) had bought a
car. He (dad) said I have nothing. He says, "You only ride motorcycle".
Talk... like he always says I am already "out". He said I was "out". He said if
one purchases a car, then this is the real achievement (Chin 26) [emphasis
added]
Similarly for Mail, describes how people misinterpret his physical symptoms as fictive. The
transition between being sympathy and empathy become hostile, and disparaging well
observed:
"but sometimes I feel that they do not understand me For the days of pain,
perhaps today they act like this in front of your wife and you, possibly they
listen to your illness. Maybe tomorrow they said, Eh! You always fell sick
everyday. They behave in derogatory manner, "Why you always sick, you
have weak antibody". They would talk so many other things. But they do not
know how I feel. Sometimes even siblings did not understand." (Mail, 26)
Surviving in four miscarriages and perceived how her mother failed to console her grief, Fatin
in the opinion that support for the loved ones is crucial to pick herself back. Being denied
to grief and facing unsympathetic environment that portraying sense rejection from her
mother in law and family members made her hopeless and unworthy:
My child has just died At the same time, my mother disallowed me to
cry. I felt like the world is coming down on me, you know I had, I mean I
am pregnant and then I had D&C then, I was depressed again in Pakistan
because I felt my mother-in-law did not did not was not happy to see me.
She didnt accept me (Fatin, 43)
For Rokiah, her feeling of unworthiness rummage with her menopauses contemplating
feeling that she felt useless that she could not be a good wife to the husband. Traditionally,
women regard as functional when her physical body remained as the same as early marriage
on sexuality. This statement expressed by Rokiahs husband that she agreed during the
conversation with both her and her husband:
There is some other reason, because of menopause, she worries, anxious, I
would have other girl, she said go and get marry, she was useless, that I didnt
care for her anymore. This is her feeling. (Rokiahs husband)
Suicidal
Suicidal ideation and attempt are synonym with depressive patients and often the questions
asked in a mental health questionnaire. The findings identify at least three respondents who
experienced psychotic hallucination during the downfall of depression in their life. Chin who
never reported his illusion depicted his episode as the following:
Last time, at first I heard voices. Now, no more. The voice asked me to
commit bad things, like smack other people. At the beginning, the voices
asked me to kill myself, the voices were so loud. Asking me to to cut here
[showing his wrist]. I did. (Chin, 26) [emphasis added]
Fatin, who has been hallucinating since her fathers passing described that the voices
suggest solution to end the pain that she had by suiciding. As a Muslim who still
355
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
comprehend the teaching that the suiciding is never near to escaping from her problem, she
rationalized how she always go back to her Islamic faith to reach her soberness in reality:
Okay the problem with me is if I am too depressed I feel suicidal. Very easily
to feel suicidal that I wanna take my own life. I do not want to cause trouble
to others, let me take my own life. But because I am a Muslim, I have faith, we
always hold on to Allah. And I still call upon Ya Allah, Ya Allah, Ya Allah.
(Fatin, 43)
Struggling with studies and depression is not a pleasurable moment for Nicky. According to
her, she was lucky to be accepted in one of the local university at Northern Region, and
successfully secure a superior notch scholarship in Malaysian university after a rigorous
screening. However, her depressive mood growing even more1 when she was pursuing her
dreams where sleepless night and hallucinating episode came frequently than before:
Okay it was toward the exam week actually, if I was not mistaken was
revision week so everybody was revising and I was unable to concentrate so I
had moments where I was hallucinating, I was hearing things telling me you
know, go jump down a building you know, go find a knife and kill yourself.
(Nicky, 23)
1.5 Discussion and conclusion
This research examined six respondents who have diagnosed clinically as having major
depressive disorder or depression in general. The findings perceived as a preliminary analysis
of the conception of depressive sense can be grouped in the theme of misery. It gave a
glimpse of challenges to patients with depression struggles in their daily lives. These five
sub-themes addressed by the findings consistent with the DSM-V with an explanatory
spectrum of major depressive disorder. More specifically, the stories narrated by the
respondents are interconnected with other symptoms simultaneously, and how they been
pulled from other direction in life, with some of these stimuli conflicting between self, family
expectation, workplace pressure, and society anticipation. The narratives also highlight how it
is important to understand the spectrum ensuring patients with depression can boost their
potential at the workplace and contribute to the society as a whole.
The finding, however, did not identify any gender differences in the feeling of depression,
however, vary in degree. Loneliness, feeling of anxiety, loss of interest, hopelessness,
unworthiness and suicidal ideation experienced by all of the respondents; despite the gender.
In the same realm, respondents reported having the feeling of impairment by being
depressive. This is particularly true when examination through the sense of hopelessness and
unworthiness took place, where they seem to build the fortress of self-limitation in their daily
lives. Rather this seen as self-harmful for the other, it is a necessary reasonable action to
protect them from being hurt by their social environment. This is consistent with Davar,
who postulates patients have a tendency to drown in their struggles and potentially lose their
self-identity due to compromises with their social environment (2008).
In the same light, Garland-Thomson (2002) address the impairment that they felt, is socially
constructed by the capitalist and society that such feeling is somewhat inferior and inadequacy
that embedded in everyday language. This might answer the question of varying degree
between genders of being depressive. Those that assume to be normative embodiment are
framed by a Western framework of abnormalities. Thus, men and women who suffer from a
mental disease are both discriminated by the authority and public at large. However, the
degree of oppression is somewhat different, where women endure the effect more. This is true
where women hold minor in power relations in the society. Busfield (1988) asserts women
356
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
deprecated from internal and external forces in patriarchy system. The internal force came
from the family members who believe women are valueless; while the external force
originated from the society members who approve the means of patriarchal power (Basu,
2012). Hence, the very situation increases pain and heighten the tendency of developing
mental illnesses amongst women more than men, if not impacted female more than the male
patient. However, this statement does not deny that men also suffer in the realm of mental
disorders.
In the nutshell, the study conducted as an early attempt to understand how the patients
conceptualize misery. This data regards as important for both patients and caregiver to have a
mutual understanding of the experience based from patients narration and can be
complimentary to DSM-V used by the health practitioners. The sense of misery is a precursor
of psychological disturbances. Hence, social supports such as employer, spouse, family and
friends should be sensitized on individual changes and encourage him/her to seek help.
Although this finding is the preliminary basis, this can be one step to close the gap what has
been addressed by Wang (2011) that more research needed to investigate the mental illness
conception in Eastern countries.
2.0 References
American Psychiatric Association, 2000. Summarized criteria from the dianostic and
statistical manual of mental disorder. 4th, rev. ed. Washington: American Psychiatric
Press.
American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders. Fifth ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Aneshensel, C. S., Rutter, C. M. and Lachenbruch, P. A. 1991. Social structure, stress, and
mental health: Competing conceptual and analytical models. American Sociology
Review, [e-journal] 56(2), pp. 166-178. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia
Library website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 3 December 2013]
Bertakis, K. D., et al. 2000. Gender Differences in the Utilization of Health Care Services.
The Journal of Family Practice, [e-journal] 49(2), pp. 147-152. Available through:
Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 3 December 2013]
Boo, S. L., Loong, J. and Ng, W. S. 2011. Work experiences of people with mental illness in
Malaysia: A preliminary qualitative study. The Qualitative Report, [e-journal] 16(1),
pp. 162-179. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
<http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 12 December 2013]
Busfield, J. 1988. Mental illness as social product or social construct: A contradiction in
feminists' arguments? Sociology of Health and Illnesses, [e-journal] 10(4), pp.
521-542. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
Chandra, A. and Minkovitz, C. S. 2006. Stigma starts early: Gender differences in teen
willingness to use mental health services. Journal of Adolescent Health, [e-journal]
38(6), pp. 754 e751-754.e758. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library
website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 2 February 2014]
Chonody, J. M. and Siebert, D. C. 2008. Gender differences in depression: A theoretical
examination of power. Affilia, [e-journal] 23(4), pp. 338-348. Available through:
Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
<http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 2 February 2013]
357
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Corrigan, P. W., Powell, K. J. and Michaels, P. J. 2014. Brief battery for measurement of
stigmatizing versus affirming attitudes about mental illness. Psychiatry Research,
[e-journal] 215(2), pp. 466-470. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library
website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 5 April 2014]
Crabtree, S. A., 2012. Rainforest asylum: The enduring legacy of colonial psychiatric care in
Malaysia. London: Whiting & Birch Ltd.
Crabtree, S. A. and Chong, G. 1999. Mental health and citizenship in Malaysia. International
Social Work, [e-journal] 43(2), pp. 217-226. Available through: Universiti Sains
Malaysia Library website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 3
December 2013]
Davar, B. V. 2008. From mental illness to disability: Choices for women users/survivors of
psychiatry in self and identity constructions. Indian Journal of Gender Studies,
[e-journal] 15(2), pp. 261290. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library
website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 1 January 2014]
Dziegielewski, S. F., 2010. DSM-IV-TR in action. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Garland-Thomson, R. 2002. Integrating disability, transforming feminist theory. NWSA
Journal, [e-journal] 14(3), pp. 1-32. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia
Library website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 24 March 2014]
Luoma, J. B., Martin, C. E. and Pearson, J. L. 2002. Contact with mental health and primary
care providers before suicide: A review of the evidence. American Journal Psychiatry,
[e-journal] 159(6), pp. 909-916. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library
website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 3 December 2013]
Macintyre, S., Hunt, K. and Sweeting, H. 1996. Gender differences in health: Are things
really as simple as they seem? Social Science and Medicine, 42(4), 617-624.
Ojeda, V. D. and McGuire, T. G. 2006. Gender and racial/ethnic differences in use of
outpatient mental health and substance use services by depressed adults. Psychiatry
Quarterly, 77(3), 211-222.
Richardson, L. and Puskar, K. 2012. Screening Assessment for Anxiety and Depression in
Primary Care. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, [e-journal] 8(6), pp. 475-481.
Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
Seedat, S., et al. 2009. Cross-national associations between gender and mental disorders in the
World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Archive General
Psychiatry, [e-journal] 66(7), pp. 785-795. Available through: Universiti Sains
Malaysia Library website <http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 6 June
2014]
Seloilwe, E. S. and Thupayagale-Tshweneagae, G. 2007. Community mental health care in
Botswana: Approach and opportunities. International Council of Nurses, [e-journal]
pp. 173-178. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
<http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 7 November 2014]
Tseng, W., 2001. Handbook of Cultural Psychiatry. United States of America: Academic
Press.
Turner, B. S., 1987. Medical power and social knowledge. New Delhi: Sage Publication India
Pvt. Ltd.
Wang, J. Y. 2011. Services user's personal experience and interpretation of mental illness:
oriental narratives. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, [e-journal] 58(4), pp.
425-432. Available through: Universiti Sains Malaysia Library website
<http://www.lib.usm.my/index.php/en/>[accessed 10 May 2015]
Wilhelm, K., 2006. From Nosology to global burden. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Press.
358
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Analysing Travel Experiences of Young Travelers at Penang Island using

Netnography Approach
Farah Syazwani Hayrol Aziz* and Nor Hafizah Selamat

Centre for Research on Women and Gender (KANITA)
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Email: farah.hayrolaziz@gmail.com
Abstract
Travel experience has been enriched especially with the rise of technology among the young
travelers. There are many medium available online to express the travelers experiences while
they were on their vacation. It has become a necessity for people to capture their holiday by
blogging about them and using features such as geo-tag in social media. This paper is an
exploration of young tourist experiences by using the Netnography approach. Netnography is
an ethnographic approach adapted to the study of online communities. This approach is used to
observe how young people have carefully chosen images or narratives about places they visit.
By employing this observation, such virtual field work has enabled the Internet to be
conceptualized as both culture and context for social interaction. The Internet is an open context
for social interactions in which practices, meanings and identities are intermingled. The study
had chosen 10 blogs of different authors, consisting of five mens and five womens authors.
The aim of this paper is to explore the narratives and images about Penang Island that these
authors have reported in their blogs. Initial findings suggested that there are some differences in
what the women and men travelers blogged about. Young women tend to focus on features of
food and landscape, while the men mostly blog about their reviews of places they visited. Thus,
the findings may provide useful information for Tourism Industry, especially in transforming
the whole experience of holiday with the presence of such advance technology. The paper also
hopes to revolutionize the way ethnographic study is conducted, by widening the source of
information through the use of online medium such as social media and online websites.
Keywords: Nethnography, Tourism Industry, Blogging, Gender Studies, Malaysia
1. Introduction
There is an interesting rise of technology usage while travelling. Many people use the internet
to tell families and friends, or even to the public about their travelling experiences. Tourists
digitalized stories and images, therefore in turn they are being read and share by others. Apart
from that, gadgets are essential for tourists while they were in a journey to somewhere new.
Global Positioning System or GPS is vastly used to locate a popular, local destination while
travelling. Cameras are used to capture special moments. Smart phone can basically do
everything one can imagine, from finding famous restaurant, snapping food pictures and
uploading them into social media, as well as to read the daily news. Smart phone are beginning
to transform how new generation engaged in their everyday lives. Only a few years ago,
smartphones are the minority in the mobile phone community, but the multi-usage of this tricky
device has rapidly shifting toward increased screen time, especially among youth generation.
There are many medium available online, especially to express the travelers experience while
they were in their vacation. The abundance of social media has made the consumption of
359
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
tourists time to be divided between enjoying the real scenery, and attempts they make to
capture the scenery using their phone. Nowadays it has become a necessity for people to capture
their holiday by blogging about them and using features such as geo-tag in social media. There
are numerous number of websites dedicated specially for different purposes; such as Swarm to
check-in at favorite hotspots, Instagram to post vacation pictures, Twitter to lively update any
travel activities, and of course Facebook as the most famous social media has become the
favorite platform for youngsters to share their journey with friends and families.
Therefore, there is a relationship between how young people consume social media in the
production of gendered space of tourism (Zhang & Hitchcock 2014). There are studies of the
gendered spaces of tourism, especially to understand the spatially nature of power relations.
This paper attempts to undercover what are the meaning of entries posted on the Internet, by
comparing the differences or similarities (if any) both by young male and female. Social media
was chosen as a study site, as it has become a tool to enhance the understanding of men and
women as consumers of travel. As Aspola, Gonick and Harris (2005) argued, the Internet has
become an important site for young females to express themselves as individuals, in developing
a collective identity and social attitude through dialogues with other young women. It is
therefore important to understand the link between tourism and self-actualisation as proven by
the blog/post/entries in the social media. A thematic and discursive analysis is conducted by
looking at blog posts of young travelers at Penang Island, and how do they have systematically
narrate their experiences or journeys in specific manner.
1.1 The tourist gaze in tourism

Today everything exists to end in a photograph. (Sontag 1979, p. 24)
The quote above has accurately mentioned how the culture of taking pictures has developed to a
new level. Tourists are more likely to photograph what they see and like. John Urry (1990) has
noted how in different societies and especially within different social groups, the tourist gaze
has changed and developed. What is the tourist gaze? It presupposes a system of social
activities and signs which locate the particular tourist practices, through the contrasts implied
with non-tourists social practices (Urry 1990, p.2). While most of the time the tourist gaze is
directed to features of landscapes and townscape which separate them off from everyday
experience, people in recent years have developed a sense of lingering to everyday activities as
well while consuming the gaze. For example, pictures of food were taken before they eat as it is
a social norm nowadays to post pictures of beautifully created dish to the social media. The rise
of technology has once again alter how do we see everyday experience that seems ordinary, to
some occasion that people with smart phones has managed to turn into something
extraordinary.
Therefore, how do gender and the tourist gaze related? Through the practice of consumption,
individuals and groups were exercising cultural capital by expressing taste and articulating a
sense of identity. It is often through travelling that women can have a sense of challenging
gender roles to create a sense of self, and as a means of exercising self-determination and
empowerment (Freysinger & Falnnery 1992; ONeill 1993; Yonemary 2004). The motivational
dimensions of travelers are a sum of experience, escape, relaxation, social and self-esteem
(Chiang & Jogaratnam 2006). By applying the concept as above, this paper seeks to
understand the concept of tourist gaze from an Asian perspective, through examining the
holiday experiences of young travelers in Penang.
360
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
In order to investigate the intricate qualitative aspects of the tourism experiences and practices
among young travelers in Penang areas, a netnographic interpretive methodology was used.
Netnography, or ethnography on the Internet is a new qualitative type of research methodology
that adapts ethnographic research techniques to the study of cultures and communities which
have been emerged through computer-mediated communications (Kozinets 2002, p. 2).Over
the past several years, many anthropologists, sociologists and qualitative marketing researchers
have written about the need to adapt existing ethnographic research techniques to the many
cultures and communities that are emerging though online communications (Kozinets 1999;
Escobar 1994; Miller & Slater 2000). The Internet is known as an open context for social
interactions in which practices, meanings and identities are intermingled. It has become a
suitable site to probe the different issues associated with the fields of consumer of Tourism
Industry.
While Netnography is a form of ethnographic research that has been adapted to include an
understanding of the influence of the Internet on contemporary social worlds, it has been
extended to the analysis of blogs within the context of tourism. Thus, the Internet has become a
fieldwork site in its own right. The main characteristic of social media is that they enhance
collaboration and sharing of information online because they are built around software which
makes it possible for individuals to communicate and form communities using their computers
(Cooke & Buckley 2008). Penang Island was chosen as the location because recently, it has
grown into a city where art lovers and new trends were arising rapidly. The establishment of
many new cafes and drawing of street arts have successfully attracted youngsters to visit
Penang and blogged about their experiences.
Netnography involves some data gathering from various online sources such as social
networking sites, chat forums, weblogs, and blogs. Researchers may identify specific online
communities of interest, join and participate in them, or simply observe them a practice
known as lurking that may enable an individual to learn about a given virtual community
(Zhang and Hitchcock 2014). Many considerations were taken while adapting this technique as
it involves personal writing of the author, and meant to be read by his or her blog followers.
Comments were left at every page so that the authors were aware that their content were being
analysed critically.
2.1 The Selection of Blogs

We have chosen ten blogs entries, with five men and five women authorship in order to make a
comparative study of how these young travelers consume their travel experiences through
social media. Apart from blogs entries, we have also been looking at social media with the
specific hashtag such as #penangtravelogue, #penangtrip #penangstreetart, #penangfood and
several others. The function of these hashtag is to classify or group together the activities or
places visited by the travelers and it have become an accessible content for public. Through
these observations on the net, content analysis is used to expedite the coding & analysis of data
(Kozinets 2002).
2.2 Data collection

It was necessary to identify whether a given certain blog was owned by male or female authors.
Blogs not relating to the subject of holidaying in Penang were also excluded. The final sample
turned out to comprise ten blog threads of five male and five female authors, along with 17 blog
posts. It is important to identify the suitable blog post in order to analyse the content within a
similar spectrum of interest. It is also a challenging process to identify male authors as oppose
to female authors. Most of the time, blog owned by male author lacked the criteria of travelogue
361
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
experience that the study required. When the blogs were finalized, the next step is to make sure
that the content is analysed using a systematic process, in which this study choose to apply
Geertzs thick description into reading the posts written by these bloggers. In understanding
what ethnography is, it is crucial to grasp what anthropological analysis as a form of knowledge
is all about (Geertz 1973). Thick description deals with finding the difference ways in which
something that people say and do, to find meaning, and later situated them in meaningful
structure. By looking and reading at the blog posts, it is necessary to try and extract the
narratives to a larger picture of what young travelers who travelled to Penang Island focus on
when they review the vacation online, and how does it differs between men and women.
3. Analysis and Discussion
In order to start the thick description, we have formed several thematic categories in order to
analyse the narratives. The similar categories will enable the data analysis content to be
conducted through a systematic manner as Kozinets (2002) has suggested. The netnographer
must contextualize the online data as analysis is commencing, in which it often proven to be
more challenging in the online context of netnography (Kozinets 2002, p. 6). By taking this
into consideration, the study decided to categorize the analysis in several categories; food
experiences, local heritage they visited, a new sensation of street art along Georgetown area,
and also type of accommodation they choose to stay in.
3.1 Food Experiences

Authors of the blogs have all mentioned these categories in their posts, hence making the
analysis process to be an organize one. Majority of the bloggers wrote that their main
motivation to Penang Island was to experience its food and delicacy. The selections of food
these bloggers choose to feature in their blogs have also affected the popularity of the
stall/restaurant mentioned. Geo-tag features have enabled the blogger to share the location of
the food stall, thus when readers searched for certain keywords online, their blogs which had
tagged the location will appear among the search list. The two-way interaction between
reader and blogger is how the blog get traffics.
Given the centrality of food and dining culture in Malaysia, Penang is famous for its food
culture. Many of the bloggers recommend similar food stall to be visited in Penang Island.
Generally, foods that were mentioned are famous food sold at the hawker stall. Apart from that,
coffee culture also has become increasingly well-known among youngsters who visited Penang
Island, especially in Georgetown area. Based from the observation of the blogs, female authors
tend to upload and explicitly explain each one of the food and drinks they ordered at every
location. Male authors were most likely to upload a bunch of photos without giving any
explanation. This shows that male authors enjoy food differently than female. They had
included a little detail to the narratives as they might be focusing on the whole dining
experiences.
3.2 Local Heritage

Beside the uniqueness of Penangs food, tourists also are attracted to visit the Island because of
the abundance of local heritage in the city. Digitalized tourist content in blogs and social media
analyses how participative information technology and tourists reviews of heritage sites
contribute to the tourism heritage experience. From these observations, it enables the researcher
to examine how social media and user generated content contribute to an understanding of the
consumption of heritage sites and discusses new forms of technologically mediated authenticity
in tourism (Munar & Ooi 2012, p.3). With the inscription of George Town as a UNESCO
362
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
World Heritage Site in July 2008, much attention has been paid to its heritage sites.
From the observation on these ten blogs, this has become one of the must-do activities when
they visit Penang Island. However, most of them were most likely to visit heritage sites that
have been altered to their preferences. International tourists especially love to know Penangs
history and they paid much attention to visit these heritage sites. From the comparative analysis
done on these blogs, male authors tend to have more interest in visiting heritage sites compared
to female authors. Female authors who went to religious sites or historical buildings tend to
upload several photos to their blogs, while male authors spent some time in narrating the
historical backgrounds of places they visited. This shows that male have more interest in the
historical elements of Penang Island than female authors.
3.3 Sensation of Street Art

Another new sensation that is rising to be one of the top reasons why tourists choose to visit
Penang is the emergence of street art all over the city. Street art is visual art created in public
locations, usually consisted of unsanctioned artwork executed outside of the context of
traditional art exhibition. In Penang, the collection of street art all over the city mimicked the
life in the city and the wrought-iron caricatures with anecdotal descriptions of the streets that
they adorn (extracted from Street Arts brochure, Tourism Penang). Tourists, local or foreign
enjoyed this newest addition to the city and many have shown an effort to snap pictures with the
art and upload them online for friends and families to see.
In terms of activities done in Penang Island, all ten blogs had narrated extensively about their
experiences of visiting Street Art along Georgetown area. Penang Street Art has in the past
few years enhanced its appeal as a tourist destination. This began with Marking Georgetown
in 2009, in which it has brought the telling of street and social history through the use of
caricatures. Even though many of the bloggers who came and visited those arts have little or
zero knowledge about the history behind the paintings, they seem to enjoy taking pictures and
trying to understand what the meaning of those paintings/arts. Male authors seem to upload the
photo of Street Art without having any human subject in it, or in other words they do not pose
together in the photo. However, it is different for female authors. Their blogs were filled with
photos of the Street Art including themselves with their friend together in the photo.
Therefore, there is quite a disparity in what is chosen to be featured in blogs of these male and
female authors.
3.4 Type of Accommodation

There are many types of accommodation offered at Penang Island. It ranges from five-star
hotel, to a newly built resort. Apart from that, tourists to the Island also are more likely to stay in
alternative accommodation such as boutique hotel or bed and breakfast concept place. There
are some latest collections of boutique hotels sprouting around Georgetown area. It redefines
luxury and comfort to a new whole level. For instance, one blogger has listed down the hotels
distinct features while being soak in the historical value, as well as being filled with gorgeous
interiors. These characteristics are very intricately interesting for the youngsters to get the
information as they tend to be influenced by reviews provided on the net.
As tourists mostly choose accommodation that suits their personal preferences, it is slightly
difficult to do comparison as some of the authors came with friends or families, thus affected
their choice of stay. However, young travelers to Penang Island were most likely to experience
alternative type of accommodation offered around the city. Not only the interior is very much
unique as it consists of old, refurbished building. It is also because of the location that situated
363
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
in the middle of the town that enables them to have walking distance access to hawker stall or
even Street Art location. Boutique hotels and cheap budget hostels were most likely to be
featured in these blogs as it offers new experience that is most probably unique in Penang
Island.
4. Young travelers in Penang: Blogs Followers
Based from the observation done through netnography approach, there is significant impact of
young travelers who blogged about their experiences in Penang. These bloggers have indirectly
served their role as unofficial tourist guide to their own followers. Through the sharing of
stories and information, it has becomes a way of interaction between authors and readers. The
potential visitors to Penang were most likely to be attracted to visit the Island after they have
read the posts by these bloggers. The travelogue posted can sometimes leave quite a big impact
to Tourism Industry in Penang Island as some of these blog authors have hundreds, or even
thousands of readers who enjoy surfing through their blogs.
Besides that, due to the easy access of information available on these blogs, it has significantly
directed the tourist gaze to what have been hyped on in these blogs. Readers were most likely to
be eager to try on what is suggested by the authors in the blogs themselves, thus these authors
act like a virtual tourist guide. It has also transformed the need to consult travel agency before
going for a vacation in past years. Now, due to the free information, as well as free reviews
provided on the net, tourists are keen to consult blog posts rather than paying high price to know
more about the place they about to visit.
Thus, the investigation into the blogs of young travelers to Penang Island mirrored the themes
of famous cultures and influence of technology that enable tourists to share travelling
experiences. The comparative analysis of both male and female authors in their travelogue has
shown how both genders differ in some aspects, in which they focused on different things while
travelling. Social media are now avenues for people to evaluate and express their experiences of
authenticity at heritage sites.
5. Conclusion
What does online travel writing means? Netnography allows researchers to conduct an in-depth
reading of individual blogs, thus interpreting authors writing independently, or by
cross-comparison. Online travel writing enabled the authors to express themselves without
having to limit themselves to anything. They could simply critiques a certain restaurant that
sells bad food, or review a hotel that provides bad, slow services. Online-sphere has made an
ordinary people turned into an independent food critique or hotel reviewer.
This study reinforces Urrys general hypothesis: the Tourist Gaze is a culturally learned way
of reflecting what the tourist expects to see. It also follows that the gaze is gendered and what
this netnographic analysis of young travelers in Penang Island shows is that the gendered gaze
is socially contingent phenomenon. What does this mean? Women from new developing
economies are actors in a social process, which is involving tourism producers and consumers
as much as tourists from the West before them.
Thus, the findings may provide useful information for Tourism Industry, especially in
transforming the whole experience of holiday with the presence of such advance technology.
Usage of technology from both male and female travelers had enabled the tourism industry to
364
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
transform into a new way of looking at heritage sites. Penang Island used to be regarded as old
city with old buildings, but with the rise of street art sensation, and also digitalized information
on the net, young travelers were more likely to visit the Island. This has also indirectly making
the youngsters to become more interested in knowing and learning the history of Penang Island
while having fun strolling around the city. Finally, the paper also hopes to revolutionize the way
ethnographic study is conducted, by widening the source of information through the use of
online medium such as social media and online websites. The net has proven to be a new
medium that managed to transform how people interact and the world has become limitless
through the rise of the Internet.
5. References
Aapola, S., Gonick, M., and Harris, A., 2005. Young femininity girlhood power and social
change. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Chiang, C. Y., and Jogaratnam, G., 2006. Why do women travel solo for purposes of leisure?
Journal of Vacation Marketing, [e-journal] 12(1), pp.5970. Available through: Sage Journals
<http://jvm.sagepub.com/content/12/1/59.abstract> [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Cooke, M. and Buckley, N., 2008. Web 2.0, social networks and the future of market research
International Journal of Market Research, [e-journal] 50(2), pp. 267-292. Available through:
<http://www.arraydev.com/commerce/JIBC/2014-01/ErragchaOpinionv01.pdf> [Accessed 18
June 2015]
Errington, F. and Gewertz, D., 1989. Tourism and anthropology in a post-modern world,
Oceania, [e-journal] 60, pp. 37-54. Available through: Wiley Online Library
<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1989.tb00350.x/abstract> [Accessed
18 June 2015]
Escobar, A., Hess, D., Licha, I., Sibley, W., Strathern, M., and Sutz, J., 1994. Welcome to
Cyberia: Notes on the Anthropology of Cyberculture [and Comments and Reply]. Current
Anthropology, [e-journal] 35(3), pp. 211 231. Available through: JStor
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2744194> [Accessed 19 June 2015]
Freysinger, V. J., and Flannery, D., 1992. Womens leisure: Affiliation self-determination
empowerment and resistance. Society and Leisure, [e-journal] 15(1) pp. 303322. Available
through: Taylor Francis Online
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07053436.1992. 10715419> [Accessed 18 June
2015]
Geertz, C., 1973. Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture in The
Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books.
Urry, J., 1990. The Tourist Gaze in the Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary
Societies. London: Sage.
Kozinets, R. V., 1999. E-tribalized marketing?: The strategic implications of virtual

communities of consumption. European Management Journal, [e-journal] 17(3) pp. 252264.
Available through: Science Direct website
365
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S02632373 99000043> [Accessed 15 June

2015]
Kozinets, R. V., 2002. The field behind the screen: Using netnography for marketing research
in online communities. Journal of Marketing Research, [e-journal] 39 pp. 6172. Available
through: < http://www.nyu.edu/pages/classes/bkg/methods/netnography.pdf> [Accessed 19
June 2015]
Maccannell, D., 1992. Empty Meeting Grounds: The Tourist Papers. Routledge, London and
New York.
Miller, D. and Slater, D., 2000. The Internet: An Ethnographic Approach. Oxford: Berg.
Munar, A. M. and Ooi, C. S., 2012. What Social Media Tell Us about the Heritage Experience
in CLCS Working Paper Series, Department of International Economics and Management:
Copenhagen Business School, [online] pp. 1 18. Available through:
<http://openarchive.cbs.dk/bitstream/handle/10398/8439/Can-Seng_Ooi_WP120330.pdf?sequ
en ce= 1> [Accessed 19 June 2015]
ONeill, G., 1993. A Night Out with the Girls. London: Womens Press.
Sontag, S., 1979. On Photography. London: Allen Lane.
Waller, J., and S. Lea., 1999. Seeking the Real Spain? Authenticity in Motivation. Annals of
Tourism Research, [e-journal] 26, pp. 110-129. Available through:
<http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1409966/> [Accessed 18 June 2015]
Zhang, Y. and Hitchcock, M. J., 2014. The Chinese Female Tourist Gaze: A Netnography of
Young Womens Blogs on Macao, Current Issues in Tourism, [e-journal] pp. 1 18. Available
through: Taylor and Francis Online <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13683500.
2014.904845> [Accessed 19 June 2015]
Street Arts Brochure, 2015. [online] Available at: <www.tourismpenang.net.my/pdf/street-art

brochure.pdf> [Accessed on 14 June 2015]
366
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kill me but make me beautiful: Cosmetic Nose Surgery and Embodiment of

Pain
Reihaneh Attaran*, Prof. Dato' Dr. Rashidah Shuib

Center for Research on Women and Gender, Universiti Sains Malaysia
*attaran_r@yahoo.com, rashidahshuib@usm.my
Abstract
This study was conducted in Tehran (capital of Iran), which currently hosts one of the largest
cosmetic nose surgery markets in the world. It examines women undergoing cosmetic nose
surgery and highlights their particular attitude towards pain pre and post-surgery. It also
considers womens justification for undergoing cosmetic nose surgery despite risks and pains.
Within feminist studies on cosmetic surgery the pre-surgery pain is mostly defined as mental
pain and women concern about the size or shape of their noses which they perceived as not
normal, while post-surgery is physical pain. Extracting data from semi-structured
interviews, in Tehran, it is shown how pain is confronted or rejected by women who undergo
cosmetic nose surgeries. Since women argue they undergo cosmetic surgery to put an end to
their pains and sufferings. However, they usually deny negative emotions and ignore pain
after the surgery.
Keywords: cosmetic nose surgery, pain, women
1. Introduction
Women have a long tradition of bearing pain to achieve beauty. Bound feet, constraining
corsets, surgical alteration of the face and body, all demonstrate the life-threatening actions to
which women will perform to improve their bodies to meet the cultural requirements of
femininity, even if in the process they risk their life. Kill me but make me beautiful, is a
Persian proverb that reflects the importance of beauty for Iranian women. It is culturally
accepted for Iranian women to bear any pain and difficulty to be more attractive (Zokaei,
2012). However, it seems beautification methods such as make-up, tattoo, hair coloring, are
no longer sufficient and this has spurred new methods into the beauty market. The latest has
been more invasive techniques such as cosmetic surgery. Cosmetic surgery is a method to
make permanent changes on the body. In a way this is similar to plastic surgery that also
ends in permanent changes but the rationale for these two surgeries differ; the former aims at
restoring, repairing or reconstructive dysfunctional body parts due to birth defects, burns,
trauma or diseases, while cosmetic surgery improves appearance. According to Gimlin
(2007)cosmetic surgery is a tool to enhance body and change its appearance.
In Iran, cosmetic nose surgery is in the number one place, meaning the most popular, in the
list of cosmetic surgeries (Balali and Afshar, 2010). Women undergo cosmetic nose surgery to
change the shape and size of their noses, make it snub, remove the dump or up-turn it. The
important issue regarding cosmetic surgery is its apparently voluntary nature that have
attracted lots of debates. Feminist scholars such as Bordo (2009) argue that women choose to
undergo cosmetic surgery to be more beautiful, while Davis (2009) believes women
choose cosmetic surgery to be normal, to be just like anyone else. Other reasons which
367
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
influence women to undergo cosmetic surgery are attributed to culture, patriarchal society,
media and consumer culture (Morgan, 2009).
One side of the debates regarding cosmetic surgery has been the most basic, and that has to do
with the risks of operation and post-surgery pain and problems which are also the result of
any surgeries. Some problems associated with cosmetic nose surgery include, anesthesia
complications, respiratory problems, the nose being dented or malformed, swollen nose,
bruising, bleeding, infection, nasal blockage, sinus pain and congestion during the winter
months, growth of extra tissue or bone, and loss of the sense of smell. However, these known
risks are not putting people off. In fact any operation may have lots of complications, yet in
cosmetic surgery people volunteer to undergo the procedure which means they are willing to
undertake the risks and the pain. In the medical language this is an elective aesthetic surgery
which is, by definition, not prompted by a health issue, and indeed has been understood in
terms of both beauty and identity (Gimlin, 2007). Women undergo cosmetic surgery in order
to be more attractive.
Like any other surgeries, an important feature of cosmetic surgery is that people who undergo
cosmetic nose surgery experience physical pain. Hadjistavropoulos et al. (1996) describes the
difference between post-surgery pain in cosmetic surgeries to other surgeries asthis kind
of pain is not therapeutic and does not result from the attempt to restore or to maintain health
(p.2). However, the voluntarily nature of cosmetic surgery, does not make any changes to the
level of pain, which means the pain after surgery is still the same as in any other surgeries.
Feminist scholars have lots of debates on this issue; on the fact that women would still decide
to undergo the surgery despite knowing all the potential complications and the pain that they
would have to bear post-surgery. One camp argues that women who decide to undergo
cosmetic surgery are already in pain that is emotional pain. Kathy Davis (1995), a liberal
feminist, considers womens decision to undergo cosmetic surgery as a solution to their
emotional pain as a result of not being able to meet the beauty standard which is imposed on
them across several sources. Her argument is in the same line with modern medicine that
discusses the body in conflation with its rejected imagery is reviewed and rewritten as a site
of pain not physiological pain- but psychological pain of exclusion (Northrop, 2012). In
short, women who fail to reach the beauty standards in society experience psychological pain.
According to Parker (2010) patients and surgeon both accept the cultural constraints on
women and consider their decision to undergo cosmetic surgery and bear some physical pain
as normal. In a sense this is akin to plastic surgery that attempts to rebuild dysfunctional or
abnormal body parts except that in this case the abnormality part is in the minds of the
patients.
Davis (2003, 2009)who studied cosmetic surgery focuses her interest on the mental pain
which hurts women who have emotional concerns about the shape or size of their noses or
breast or other body parts that have failed to follow the beauty standards in society. In the
Netherlands and the United Kingdom, surgery for women experiencing psychological pain is
often provided free and fully sanctioned by the medical establishment, especially when it is
seen as repair of defective bodies. These surgeries are then seen as alleviating the mental
pain suffered by women. In fact women who decide to undergo cosmetic surgery bear some
degree of mental pain, though the weakness of justifying cosmetic surgery with mental pain
is ignoring social and cultural structures which impose pain on women (Bordo, 2009, Davis,
2009).
The principal aim of this article is to explore the concept of pain for Iranian women who have
undergone cosmetic nose surgery. The pain includes the mental pain pre-surgery as Davis
discusses and physical pain post-surgery. It aims to define how women experience the mental
pain pre-surgery and how they define the physical pain post- surgery, and to find out whether
368
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
these women who have experienced the pain post-surgery would opt for another surgery all
over again?
2. Methodology
This research is towards my PhD dissertation and it was conducted in the region of Tehran,
Iran. Qualitative method of data collection and evaluation were used. Semi- structure,
in-depth interview were carried out with women who have done cosmetic nose surgery. Out
of 31 interviews, in order to analyze more, related data, 18 interviews were selected for this
paper. Interviews were conducted in Persian, the official language in Iran. They were
conducted in various places, face-to-face, with the use of a voice recorder. The age of
respondents ranged from 22 to 45 years. Each interview lasted between 45 minutes to 2 hours.
This study followed the standards for the conduct of good qualitative research as described by
Berg (2007). During the interview participants were encouraged to express their feelings and
thoughts. Participants were informed that the interview is recorded and verbal consent were
taken and recorded during interview. As Bhutta (2004), argues:
Many individuals in developing countries are wary of voluminous and complex
consent forms because they are perceived as carrying other legal risks. Alternative
methods for documenting consent, such as witnessed consent, may be more
acceptable to the community (p.5).
Accordingly, as the audio recording began, the research topic and aims were explained and
verbal consent formally taken.
Thematic Analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data of the interviews. To ensure
credibility of this research, triangulation of sources was applied. There are various types of
triangulation in qualitative research. In this research triangulation was applied on source. With
the purpose of source triangulation women who were selected for this research got diversity
on their: level of education, employment status, and age. Field notes were applied as a
complementary source of data in line with triangulation, to increase credibility of the research.
3. Findings
In this section, first the concept of pain in the pre-surgery stage would be discussed followed
by womens experiences and definitions of pain post-surgery. Also, participants assessment
of two kinds of pain would be reviewed.
Pre-surgery stage: At the pre-surgery stage, women mostly narrate their experiences of
psychological pain and how they suffered by being different. Their definition of pain was the
pain of exclusion and being abnormal which Davis (2003, 2009) refer to as mental or
psychological pain.
Mina (39 years), talks about the pre-surgery pain. When she was asked whether she reflected
on the potential surgical complications and pains prior to surgery, she said: No, I didnt. I
was bearing lots of stress and pressure. I just thought about my nose and changing it. Every
morning when I woke up, I thought, how many more days I have to bear this nose.
Another respondent Fariba (30 years) stated: I wanted to do cosmetic nose surgery, even at
the cost of death. I felt depressed because of my nose and I was ready for any risks to get rid
of it. I felt no one looked at me because my nose was abnormal, and this made me unhappy
all the time. This is how Laleh (29 years) describes her feelings before her nose surgery.
While Farzaneh (44 years) talks about her experiences at pre- surgery stage, she considers
social forces as a reason for her decision. She said: Everyone told me how beautiful I would
be if I undergo cosmetic nose surgery. At first I didnt pay attention but after a while I became
sensitive and begin thinking about it. Mina (39years) had the same experience while several
369
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
times she heard people talking about her nose and even making fun of her. While she was
struggling with an unrequited love, the boy whom she was in love with called her Nose,
Nose. She said: .I was ruined then. I was extremely humiliated.
Maryam (34 years) narrates how her family made joke of her nose sometimes. She said: My
uncle made joke of my nose. It doesnt bother me so much, but it affected me somehow.
When I was thinking about cosmetic surgery I remembered his jokes.
First time when Donya (30years) thought about her nose, was when a guy in the street said
that her nose resembled walnuts. She said:
I was on my way back home from school, when he shouted, look at her nose, its a
walnut in her face. That day when I looked in the mirror, I felt it was really like a
round walnut. It was the first but not last. I received lots of comments on my nose
from men and women.
Most participants in this research expressed social and cultural forces as an effective factor for
their decision- making. They mostly emphasize at the importance of beauty for women in
Iran, and its effects on their whole life, including dating, marriage and job market. It seems
that all these women were suffering deep emotional pain because they really felt abnormal
and felt being excluded in the society. All women in this research considered the mental pain
and stress before surgery unbearable and they wanted to be normal like everyone else. For the
women who were interviewed in this research, cosmetic nose surgery was a response to the
mental pressure which is mostly imposed on them. In short, cosmetic nose surgery was a way
of improving their mental health which was threatened. Their justifications follow the
feminist scholar Kathy Davis (1995, 2003,2009) who relates womens tendency towards
cosmetic surgery to their mental condition which originates from society and culture.
Post-surgery: Another serious pain during cosmetic nose surgery is the physical pain and
complications post-surgery. Most participants in this research define the physical pain
bearable and worth it. Maryam (33 years) believes the pain post-surgery is more acceptable
than the pain she bore pre-surgery. She said: For me it took three hours to regain
consciousness. I was in the recovery room for a long time. Also as she said her nose bled the
day after surgery and she had to stay in hospital for one more night. However, Maryam
argues:
It is all worth it. Even though there were lots of complication following my surgery, I
am now more satisfied with my nose and face compared to pre-surgery. I feel more
confident contacting men and women. Cosmetic nose surgery has improved the
quality of life for me.
Sahar (23 years) is in the same line, while she discusses her mood pre and post- surgery. She
deeply believes her mood has changed so much after cosmetic nose surgery. Now she felt free
of stress and depression. Another respondent, Mahtab (26 years) said:
The emotional pain prior to my nose job was greater than the pain I had after nose
job. The latter was for a few weeks, but if I hadnt done the surgery, I would have to
tolerate my nose and those bad feelings for my whole life.
In response to the question whether she is planning for another cosmetic surgery or not, she
said, Yes, I am thinking about breast augmentation. I can tolerate any pain for the sake of
beauty.
Zahra (29) who is not really satisfied with her nose, explained:
Even though I am not so happy with the shape of my nose after surgery, but I feel
better now. I preferred a doll-shape nose but my nose is natural after surgery.
However, I know at least I have done something to improve it. I am not ashamed of
my nose anymore.
370
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Most of the respondents in this research experienced surgical complications and pain. They
were mostly scared when the time came for surgery. However, despite all the drawbacks they
claimed the pain and complication post-surgery were all worth it and they would do it again if
they had to do so. To these participants, the psychological pressure that they felt prior to
surgery was more painful than the physical pain post-surgery. As Morgan (2009) argues,
women bear lots of pressure to be perfect. Davis (1995, 2003, 2009) also believes that one of
the reasons for womens tendency towards cosmetic surgery is mental pain which has been
imposed on women across several sources. Cosmetic surgery not only has the potential to
produce remarkable changes on the body, but also on the mind, and the sense of self (Synnott,
2002). The underlying assumption here is that it is worth spending money, endure pain and
even risking sacrificing ones life for the sake of beauty. According to the respondents
accounts, when they compared the level of mental/emotional pain pre-surgery to the physical
pain post-surgery, they felt that it was worthwhile to bear the physical pain because it was
only for a short time, and even risking their life, as long as they achieved their dream of
beauty .
4. Conclusion
Respondents of this research were Iranian women who have undergone cosmetic nose
surgery. Most women downplayed the pain post-surgery, since they believed it was a pain to
heal a greater pain; their psychological pain. They mostly focused on the benefits of their
cosmetic nose surgery such as, it is worth it, changed mood, feeling ashamed no more.
Even those who were not satisfied with their nose after surgery, consider cosmetic nose
surgery as a solution to their problems, and declared their overall satisfaction.
Finally, for most of the respondents, cosmetic nose surgery was their first step for
self-improvement and putting an end to the psychological pain and they acknowledged their
plans for other cosmetic surgeries in the future in order to look more beautiful.
5. References:
Balali, E. & Afshar, K. J. 2010. Beauty and Wealth: Cosmetics and Surgery. Women's
Strategic Studies (Ketabe Zanan), 12, 99-140.
Berg, B. L.(2007): Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. California State
University: Allyn and Bacon.
Bhutta, Z. A. 2004. Beyond informed consent. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82,
771-777.
Bordo, S. 2009. Twenty Years in the Twilight Zone. In: HEYES, C. J. & JONES, M. R. (eds.)
Cosmetic surgery: A feminist primer. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Davis, K. 1995. Reshaping the female body: the dilemma of cosmetic surgery.
Davis, K. 2003. Dubious equalities and embodied differences: Cultural studies on cosmetic
surgery, Rowman & Littlefield.
Davis, K. 2009. Revisiting Feminist Debates on Cosmetic Surgery: Some Reflections on
Suffering, Agency, and Embodied Difference. In: HEYES, C. J. & JONES, M. R.
(eds.) Cosmetic surgery: A feminist primer
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Gimlin, D. 2007. Accounting for cosmetic surgery in the USA and Great Britain: A
cross-cultural analysis of women's narratives. Body & Society, 13, 41-60.
Hadjistavropoulos, T., Mcmurtry, B. & Craig, K. D. 1996. Beautiful faces in pain: Biases and
accuracy in the perception of pain. Psychology and Health, 11, 411-420.
371
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Morgan, K. P. 2009. Women and the Knife: Cosmetic Surgery and the Colonization of
Womens Bodies. In: HEYES, C. J. & JONES, M. R. (eds.) Cosmetic surgery: A
feminist primer. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Northrop, J. M. 2012. Reflecting on Cosmetic Surgery: Body image, Shame and Narcissism,
New york, Routledge.
Parker, R. 2010. Women, Doctors and Cosmetic Surgery: Negotiating the'normal'Body,
Palgrave Macmillan.
Synnott, A. 2002. The body social, Routledge.
Zokaei, M. S. 2012. An Introduction to Cultural History of the Body in Iran Tehran.
372
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran. Kajian di Negeri Perlis
Abdul Jalil Ramlia, Noor Salwani Hussinb, Shuhairimi Abdullahc, Jamsari Jamaluddind,
Mohd Kasturi Nor Abd Azize & Norhudiin Danuf
Pusat Pengajian Pembangunan Insan dan Teknokomunikasi (iKOM), Universiti Malaysia
Perlis, Blok B, Kompleks Pusat Pengajian, 02600, Jejawi Arau, Perlis, Malaysia.
Email:ajalil@unimap.edu.my,b noorsalwani@unimap.edu.my, cshuhairimi@unimap.edu.my,
d
jamsari@unimap.edu.my, ekasturi@unimap.edu.my dan fnorhudin@unimap.edu.my
Abstract
Sejak kebelakangan ini, isu yang berkaitan dengan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran dilihat
semakin berleluasa. Isu ini sentiasa mendapat liputan dan menjadi topik perbincangan sensasi
sama ada di media elektronik serta menjadi perbualan dalam kalangan masyarakat. Paparan
berkaitan dengan isu ini terus menjadi perhatian, kerana masalah ini berlaku di semua negeri di
Malaysia amnya. Jika diteliti, dalam kebanyakkan kes yang difailkan di mahkamah syariah dan
juga yang didedahkan di dalam media massa, lokasi yang menjadi tumpuan bagi pasangan yang
ingin melangsungkan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran ini adalah di Selatan Thailand. Antara
faktor yang menjadikan Selatan Thailand sebagai destinasi tumpuan pasangan terbabit adalah
disebabkan kedudukannya yang bersempadan dengan beberapa buah negeri di seluruh
Malaysia seperti Kelantan, Kedah, Perlis dan juga Perak. Kertas kerja ini hanya menumpukan
perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran yang berlaku di negeri Perlis sekitar tahun 2006-2010 sahaja.
Selain itu kertas kerja ini juga turut menyentuh faktor-faktor penyebab dan kaedah yang
dilaksanakan oleh Mahkamah Syariah Perlis dalam menyelesaikan masalah ini. Kajian ini
melibatkan kajian kepustakaan, pemerhatian dan kaedah temubual dengan pihak-pihak yang
terlibat. Secara umumnya, didapati senario yang berlaku di Perlis menyaksikan perkahwinan
tanpa kebenaran bukanlah merupakan satu isu yang baharu bahkan fenomena ini telah berlaku
sekian lama dahulu. Tidak ada bukti atau fakta yang menunjukkan sejarah permulaan
berlakunya perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran di Perlis. Lazimnya, apabila pasangan tersebut
berhadapan dengan masalah di mahkamah ataupun terpaksa menunggu untuk satu tempoh yang
lama menyebabkan kecenderungan pasangan tersebut untuk melangsungkan perkahwinan di
luar negara yang dilihat lebih mudah dan tidak terikat dengan prosedur yang rigid.
Keywords: Perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran; Perlis; Mahkamah Syariah; Selatan Thailand
1. Pengenalan
Keperluan untuk mendirikan rumahtangga dalam Islam merupakan sebahagian daripada

elemen penting kepada pembentukan masyarakat. Oleh yang demikian, perkahwinan yang
tidak menghormati norma masyarakat seperti kahwin tanpa kebenaran sudah tentu akan
memberi implikasi yang negatif kepada struktur pembinaan masyarakat yang sejahtera.
Tindakan tersebut juga akan memberi konotasi yang negatif kepada falsafah perkahwinan
dalam Islam. Oleh itu, sekiranya mana-mana pasangan yang mendirikan rumahtangga tidak
memenuhi syarat-syarat yang telah ditetapkan oleh syara sama ada disebabkan oleh kejahilan
atau sengaja berbuat demikian sudah tentu ianya bercanggah dengan objektif perkahwinan
yang telah disyariatkan.
Menurut Kamus Dewan, istilah perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran merujuk kepada perkahwinan
pasangan lelaki dan wanita (biasanya suka sama suka) yang dilakukan di tempat lain tanpa
disaksikan atau direstui oleh kaum keluarga. (Kamus Dewan, 2000). Perkahwinan tanpa
373
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
kebenaran lazimnya dikenali dalam kalangan masyarakat sebagai kahwin lari. Lazimnya,
perkahwinan tersebut menggunakan wali hakim yang menggantikan wali mujbir atau wali lain
yang berkelayakan serta tidak mematuhi peraturan yang telah digariskan dalam undang-undang
kekeluargaan Islam. Pasangan yang melangsungkan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran disebabkan
tidak mendapat persetujuan wali perempuan dan tidak memperolehi kebenaran Pendaftar Nikah
Cerai dan Rujuk mukim berkenaan (Mohd. Nasran Mohammad et. al, 2008).
2. Kedudukan Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran Dari Sudut Hukum Syara` dan

Perundangan
Persoalan yang menjadi keutamaan dalam perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran ialah adakah
perkahwinan yang dijalankan ini sah ataupun tidak dari sudut pandangan hukum syarak dan
juga perundangan Islam? Persoalan ini timbul kerana perkahwinan yang dilaksanakan perlu
kepada adanya wali. Akan tetapi dalam kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran, pasangan yang ingin
berkahwin telah mengetepikan kehadiran wali serta peranannya.
Perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran boleh berlaku apabila wali enggan atau tidak bersetuju untuk
menjadi wali dalam sesebuah perkahwinan. Perkara yang sama juga boleh berlaku apabila
seorang perempuan dengan sengaja enggan untuk meminta izin daripada walinya. Kepentingan
peranan wali dalam sesuatu perkahwinan secara jelas dirakamkan dalam surah al-Baqarah ayat
232 yang bermaksud:
Maka janganlah kamu mencegah wanita yang berada dibawah perwalian kamu untuk
berkahwin
(al-Baqarah: 232)
Apabila perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran berlaku, timbul beberapa persoalan berbangkit dari
sudut hukum syara` dan perundangan Islam seperti berikut:
i. Jarak perjalanan antara tempat wali berada dengan tempat akad nikah itu dijalankan iaitu
2 marhalah. Dengan kata lain, jarak perjalanan yang diharuskan solat qasar (lebih kurang
96 kilometer). Sekiranya jarak tersebut kurang daripada 2 marhalah, maka tidak sah
perkahwinan tersebut dan ianya mesti dibubarkan. (Mohd Nasran Mohammad et. al,
2008).
ii. Sekiranya seorang perempuan itu melarikan diri untuk berkahwin dengan pasangannya di
negara jiran dan dalam masa yang sama, bapanya telah menikahkan anak perempuan
tersebut dengan lelaki lain semasa ketiadaannya. Perkahwinan tersebut telah dilakukan
dengan menggunakan kuasa wali mujbir. Dalam kes ini, syara` berpendapat perkahwinan
yang dijalankan oleh bapanya itu adalah sah dengan syarat pasangan lelaki yang
dinikahkan itu sekufu dan mampu membayar mahar yang ditetapkan. (Mohd Nasran
Mohammad et. al, 2008)
iii. Persoalan yang berbangkit dalam isu ini ialah perempuan tersebut dengan sengaja
mencari helah untuk menghalalkan tindakannya melarikan diri meninggalkan wali bagi
kes perkahwinan yang tidak direstui keluarga. Dalam pada itu, bagi seseorang perempuan
yang walinya ghaib ataupun berjauhan dalam jarak dua marhalah dan wali tidak
mewakilkan kepada sesiapapun untuk mengahwinkan anak perempuannya, maka sultan
atau wakilnya berbidang kuasa untuk mengahwinkan perempuan tersebut. Sultan itu pula
mestilah sultan di negerinya sendiri dan bukannya sultan dari negeri lain. Oleh itu, dalam
masalah ini, perbuatan sengaja melarikan diri daripada wali perlu diberi perhatian dan
dikaji dengan lebih teliti. Dari sudut perundangan keluarga Islam di Malaysia,
374
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
perkahwinan tersebut dianggap sah kerana ianya melebihi jarak dua marhalah. (Mohd.
Nasran Mohammad et. al, 2008)
iv. Menurut pendapat Mazhab Syafie menyatakan bahawa persetujuan wali dalam sesuatu
perkahwinan adalah merupakan perkara merupakan perkara asas. Malah dalam Enakmen
Undang-undang Keluarga Islam telah memperuntukkan perkara yang sama. Walaupun
Mazhab Syafie menganggap hak itu akan gugur apabila wali enggan (adal) untuk
mengahwinkan anaknya, akan tetapi peruntukan tersebut tidak popular dalam kalangan
masyarakat Islam di Malaysia. Seringkali yang menimbulkan masalah apabila wali
mujbir menggunakan kuasa mereka tanpa mengambilkira pertimbangan kehendak anak
perempuannya. Situasi ini berlaku apabila calon pengantin lelaki berbeza antara pilihan
wali dengan pilihan pengantin perempuan itu sendiri. Justeru itu, apabila berlakunya
keadaan seperti itu, maka pilihan yang terbaik bukanlah dengan melarikan diri daripada
undang-undang, akan tetapi pasangan perempuan wajar untuk memohon perkahwinan itu
dilangsungkan dengan menggunakan wali hakim.(Md. Akhir, Siti Zalikha, 1989)
Selaras dengan persoalan yang berlaku, perkara yang sama telah diputuskan oleh Jawatankuasa
Fatwa Negeri Kelantan dan Johor telah memutuskan bahawa perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran itu
sah berdasarkan kepada syarat-syarat berikut:
i. Hukum perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran dianggap sah sekiranya jarak antara tempat
tinggal wali nasab pengantin perempuan dengan tempat berlangsungnya akad nikah
tersebut melebihi dua marhalah, iaitu melebihi 60 batu atau 96 kilometer mengikut
ukuran jumhur ulama sekarang. Oleh itu, majlis fatwa dan mufti-mufti negeri tersebut
berpendapat bahawa mana-mana perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran atau kahwin lari adalah
tidak sah, sekiranya jarak tersebut tidak mencukupi dan perkahwinan antara mereka
mestilah dinikahkan oleh wali nasab sekiranya wali nasab itu masih ada.
ii. Pasangan pengantin itu mestilah sekufu antara satu sama lain menurut konteks agama
Islam.
iii. Pasangan tersebut khususnya pengantin lelaki mestilah seorang yang berpegang teguh
serta menghayati ajaran Islam.
iv. Pengantin lelaki mampu untuk membelanjakan harta sendiri.
v. Pengantin kedua belah pihak mestilah cukup umur dan mukallaf.
vi. Waras.
vii. Pengantin lelaki dan perempuan mestilah cerdik.
Secara keseluruhannya, dapat difahami bahawa perkahwinan yang melanggar hukum syara`,
walaupun pada zahirnya telah menepati peruntukkan undang-undang adalah tetap tidak sah dan
dianggap sebagai perkahwinan yang bathil. Jika perkahwinan bathil itu dilaksanakan secara
sengaja, maka pasangan itu dikira berdosa dan perkahwinan mereka wajiblah difaraqkan
(dipisahkan) dengan perintah mahkamah.
3. Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran di Perlis
Perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran yang berlaku di negeri Perlis hanya memfokuskan

kepada statistik jumlah kes yang berlaku berdasarkan bilangan kes yang didaftarkan
di Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis sahaja. Berdasarkan kepada kajian yang telah
dilakukan, didapati ramai dalam kalangan pasangan yang berkahwin tanpa
kebenaran di luar negara menangguhkan tempoh masa yang panjang untuk
mendaftar semula perkahwinan. Sebagai contoh, didapati ada bukti yang
menunjukkan pendaftaran dibuat selepas tempoh sepuluh tahun untuk membuat
375
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
pendaftaran pengesahan perkahwinan. Akibatnya, pasangan terbabit akan

dijatuhkan hukuman dan denda tidak melebihi RM1000 atau penjara ataupun
kedua-duanya sekali. (Temubual bersama Ketua Pendaftar Mahkamah Syariah
Kangar Perlis.)
Dalam hal ini, pihak berkuasa Mahkamah Syariah hanya akan mengambil tindakan
apabila menerima aduan daripada pihak tertentu dan juga daripada wali serta
daripada pasangan yang datang untuk mendaftar perkahwinan mereka di
mahkamah. Berdasarkan kajian yang dibuat, antara hasil yang diperolehi daripada
kajian ini boleh dikelaskan sepertimana jadual di bawah iaitu:
Jadual 1: Statistik Kes Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran Dari Tahun

2006-2010
TAHUN JUMLAH KES YANG

DIDAFTARKAN
2006 119
2007 146
2008 132
2009 105
2010 72
Sumber: (Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis)
Jadual 2: Kes Permohonan Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran di Luar Negara

yang diluluskan Dari Tahun 2006-2010.
TAHUN JUMLAH PERMOHONAN YANG

DILULUSKAN
2006 58
2007 95
2008 107
2009 67
2010 65
Sumber: (Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis)
Kedua-dua jadual di atas menunjukkan jumlah kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran

yang dilangsungkan di luar negara dari tahun 2006 sehingga 2010. Jumlah kes yang
tertera dalam jadual tersebut adalah kes yang telah didaftarkan di Mahkamah
Syariah Kangar Perlis untuk tujuan pengesahan semula perkahwinan bagi
mendapatkan sijil nikah yang sah daripada Jabatan Agama Islam Negeri Perlis.
Merujuk kepada jadual di atas, bilangan kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran di luar
negara pada tahun 2006 adalah sebanyak 119 kes, di mana sebanyak 58 kes telah
diluluskan permohonan untuk mendaftar semula pernikahan pasangan terbabit.
Manakala lebihan kes masih lagi berjalan di peringkat dan terdapat juga kes
dibatalkan serta ditarik balik di sebabkan oleh masalah-masalah teknikal. Secara
keseluruhannya kebanyakkan kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran di Perlis telah
dilangsungkan di Thailand, iaitu di Wilayah Songkla, Setul dan juga Yala. (fail kes
Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis tahun 2006).
376
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Sepanjang tahun 2007, jumlah kes yang didaftarkan telah meningkat kepada 146
kes. Manakala permohonan yang telah diluluskan adalah sebanyak 95 kes, dan yang
lainnya masih lagi dalam peringkat prosiding. Didapati berlaku juga kes yang
ditolak disebabkan pihak pemohon gagal mengemukakan bukti yang kukuh dan
dokumen yang disertakan tidak lengkap. Berdasarkan kepada penelitian, selain di
Thailand, terdapat beberapa kes pernikahan yang dilangsungkan di Myanmar.
Situasi ini berlaku disebabkan faktor pasangan berasal dari negara tersebut. (fail kes
mahkamah Syariah Kangar tahun 2007).
Pada tahun 2008, kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran yang telah di daftarkan didapati
menurun dari tahun sebelumnya iaitu sebanyak 132 kes. Jumalah kes yang
diluluskan permohonannya adalah sebanyak 107 kes. Manakala kes yang dibatalkan
adalah berjumlah 14 kes disebabkan pemohon tidak hadir mengikuti perbicaraan
sebanyak tiga kali. Ketidakhadiran pemohon ke mahkamah sebanyak 3 kali
mengakibatkan mahkamah mempunayi kuasa untuk membatalkan permohonan kes
tersebut. (fail kes Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis tahun 2008)
Bagi kes tahun 2009 pula, bilangan permohonan pengesahan semula perkahwinan
tanpa kebenaran di luar negara mencatat penurunan iaitu sebanyak 105 kes yang
didaftarkan di mahkamah pada tahun tersebut. Daripada julah tersebut hanya 67 kes
telah diluluskan permohonannya. Berbeza pula dengan kes yang dilaporkan pada
tahun 2010, jumlah kes yang didaftarkan terus mencatat penurunan kepada 72 kes
sahaja.
Berdasarkan kepada statistik yang telah dikeluarkan oleh pihak mahkamah, jelas
menunjukkan bahawa kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran merupakan antara isu
utama yang perlu diberi perhatian oleh semua pihak. Realitinya, masih ramai lagi
pasangan yang terlibat tidak tampil untuk mendaftar kes perkahwinan mereka. Apa
yang nyata, pasangan yang terlibat bersikap berdiam diri dan tidak berani untuk
mendaftarkan perkahwinan mereka dengan segera dibimbangi tindakan mereka di
ketahui oleh masyarakat umum. Apabila berlaku timbul masalah dalam
perkahwinan mereka seperti perceraian, pertikaian berkaitan status hak dalam
perkahwinan, kematian dan isu-isu berbangkit yang lain timbullah kesedaran dalam
kalangan pasangan untuk melaporkan kepada pihak bertanggungjawab. Barangkali
tindakan pasangan tersebut sudah terlewat, namun sekurang-kurangnya kekusutan
yang berlaku dapat dirungkai dengan cara yang baik.
Umur Pasangan Terlibat Dalam Kes Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran Dari

Tahun 2006 Hingga 2010
Jadual 3: Statistik Umur Pasangan Terlibat Dari Tahun 2006 Hingga 2010
UMUR JUMLAH KES
LELAKI PEREMPUAN
15 - 19 Tahun - kes 1 Kes
20 30 Tahun 6 Kes 17 Kes
31 40 Tahun 13 kes 18 Kes
61 70 Tahun 2 Kes - Kes
377
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
JUMLAH 50 Kes 50 Kes

Sumber: (Mahkamah Syariah Kangar dari tahun 2006-2010)
Kajian hanya mengambil pendekatan menganalisis 10 kes yang didaftarkan setiap

tahun, untuk tempoh lima tahun iaitu dari tahun 2006 hingga tahun 2010.
Berdasarkan hasil kajian yang diperolehi, didapati umur pasangan yang terlibat
dengan kes perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran di luar negara ini adalah berusia dari 20
tahun ke atas sehingga berusia 76 tahun bagi lelaki. Bagi pasangan wanita pula,
kebanyakkan yang terlibat adalah berusia dari 19 tahun sehingga berusia 78 tahun.
Pasangan lelaki yang berkahwin tanpa kebenaran kebanyakkannya berumur antara

41 hingga 50 tahun iaitu berjumlah 21 kes daripada keseluruhan kes yang
didaftarkan. Manakala pasangan yang berumur 31 tahun hingga 40 tahun adalah
sebanyak 13 kes. Sementara itu, bagi umur pasangan lelaki antara 51 tahun hingga
60 tahun sebanyak 7 kes berdasarkan kepada pasangan yang datang mendaftar.
Sebahagian besarnya melibatkan kes poligami. Bagi kes-kes yang melibatkan
pasangan berumur antara 20 hingga 30 tahun adalah berjumlah 6 kes. Bagi pasangan
yang berumur antara 61 tahun hingga 70 tahun sebanyak 2 kes dan pasangan 71
hingga 80 tahun sebanyak satu kes sahaja yang dilaporkan. Perkahwinan tersebut
melibatkan warga asing iaitu warga Indonesia yang telah dilangsungkan di Medan
Indonesia. Daripada statistik tersebut, didapati kebanyakkan pasangan yang berumur
antara 30 tahun hingga 60 tahun melangsungkan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran
disebabkan oleh faktor berpoligami. Manakala pasangan yang berumur antra 15
tahun hingga 20 tahun dan ke atas berkahwin tanpa kebenaran untuk kali yang
pertama. (fail kes Mahkamah Syariah Kangar dari tahun 2006 hingga 2010)
Statistik bagi pasangan wanita pula, yang berumur antara 31 tahun hingga 40 tahun
turut mencatatkan bilangan yang paling yang tertinggi terlibat dengan kes
perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran iaitu sebanyak 18 kes. Pasangan yang berumur antara
21 tahun hingga 30 tahun adalah merupakan golongan yang kedua terbesar terbabit
dalam kes ini iaitu sebanyak 17 kes. Manakala bagi pasangan yang berumur 41 tahun
hingga 50 tahun adalah sebanyak 12 kes. Daripada jumlah ini terdapat hanya satu
kes sahaja yang melibatkan pasangan wanita yang berumur 19 tahun, yang
berkahwin dengan pasangannya tanpa mendapat restu daripada walinya. Data juga
menunjukkan pasangan wanita yang berusia antara 51 tahun hingga 60 tahun dan 71
hingga 80 tahun masing-masing hanyalah satu kes sahaja. Kebanyakkan golongan
ini adalah terdiri daripada janda yang bercerai dan juga kematian suami.(Fail kes
Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis tahun 2006 hingga 2010)
4. Hukuman Mahkamah Bagi Kesalahan Perkahwinan Tanpa Kebenaran
Dalam perundangan kekeluargaan Islam di Malaysia, pasangan yang ingin melangsungkan

perkahwinan perlu memenuhi kehendak hukum syara` sebagai syarat sah perkahwinan
tersebut. Di samping itu, setiap pasangan perlu memenuhi keperluan prosedur perkahwinan
yang telah digariskan dalam undang-undang kekeluargaan Islam sebagaimana yang telah
diperuntukkan di bawah akta dan enakmen undang-undang kekeluargaan Islam di setiap
negeri di Malaysia.(Noraini Md. Hashim, 2009).
Perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran yang didaftarkan di Mahkamah Syariah akan berhadapan
dengan hukuman atau penalti yang dikenakan oleh pihak mahkamah kerana telah melakukan
378
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
kesalahan berkahwin tanpa kebenaran di luar negara. Jadual dibawah menunjukkan kesalahan
atau penalti yang berkaitan dengan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran seperti yang diperuntukkan
di dalam Akta dan Enakmen Undang-undang Keluarga Islam Perlis.
Jadual 7: Penalti dalam Enakmen 7 Undang-Undang Keluarga Islam Perlis 2006
SEKSYEN KESALAHAN PERUNTUKAN

12 (1), (2) Perkahwinan yang tidak (1)Sesuatu perkahwinan yang bersalahan dengan
boleh di daftarkan enakmen ini tidak boleh didaftarkan di bawah enakmen
ini.
(2)Walau apa pun subseksyen (1) dan tanpa menjejaskan
subseksyen 40(2), sesuatu perkahwinan yang telah
diupacarakan berlawanan dengan mana-mana
peruntukan bahagian ini tetapi sebaliknya sah mengikut
hukum syarak boleh didaftarkan di bawah enakmen ini
dengan perintah daripada mahkamah.
35 Tidak hadir di hadapan Jika seseorang yang dikehendaki oleh seksyen 31 hadir
Pendaftar dalam masa di hadapan seorang pendaftar, tidak berbuat demikian
yang ditetapkan dalam masa yang ditetapkan, maka dia adalah
melakukan suatu kesalahan dan hendaklah dihukum
denda tidak melebihi satu ribu ringgit atau penjara tidak
melebihi enam bulan atau kedua-duanya denda dan
penjara itu.
40(2) Kesalahan-kesalahan Seseorang yang berkahwin atau berbuat sesuatu yang
berhubungan dengan akad berupa sebagai akad nikah atau yang menjalani sesuatu
nikah perkahwinan cara akad nikah dengan sesiapa jua berlawanan dengan
mana-mana peruntukan Bahagian II adalah melakukan
suatu kesalahan dan hendaklah dihukum denda tidak
melebihi satu ribu ringgit atau penjara tidak melebihi
enam bulan atau kedua-duanya denda dan penjara itu.
124 Poligami tanpa kebenaran Jika seseorang lelaki berkahwin lagi di mana-mana jua
pun dalam masa perkahwinannya yang sedia ada masih
berterusan tanpa mendapat kebenaran secara bertulis
terlebih dahulu daripada mahkamah maka dia adalah
melakukan suatu kesalahan dan hendaklah dihukum
denda tidak melebihi satu ribu ringgit atau penjara tidak
melebihi enam bulan atau kedua-duanya denda dan
penjara itu.
134 Percubaan dan subahat Barangsiapa cuba melakukan, atau bersubahat
melakukan, sesuatu kesalahan di bawah Enakmen ini
adalah melakukan suatu kesalahan yang boleh
dikenakan hukuman sama seperti yang diperuntukkan
bagi kesalahan itu.
Sumber: Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis
Berdasarkan jadual di atas, didapati terdapat dua bentuk hukuman ataupun penalti yang
dikenakan oleh pihak mahkamah apabila pasangan mendaftarkan perkahwinan mereka iaitu
hukuman denda yang tidak melebihi RM1000 ringgit atau enam bulan penjara ataupun
kedua-duanya sekali. (fail kes Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis, tahun 2006 hingga 2010)
Selain daripada hukuman yang telah dibincangkan di atas, terdapat juga hukuman altenatif
yang perlu diambil kira oleh pihak mahkamah dalam menangani serta membendung fenomena
379
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ini daripada terus berlaku. Antara pendekatan yang boleh diambil seperti sesi kaunseling,
kerja khidmat masyarakat, kelas fardhu ain dan kerjasama dengan pihak jawatankuasa masjid
untuk menganjurkan program-program yang berkaitan. Hukuman alternatif ini bertujuan
untuk menggantikan segala bentuk hukuman yang sedia ada, kerana penalti dan juga hukuman
tersebut secara tidak langsung akan mendidik individu terbabit supaya tidak melakukan
kesalahan yang sama pada masa hadapan.
5. Kesimpulan
Islam adalah agama yang sentiasa meraikan keperluan manusia. Dalam kes yang berkaitan wali
enggan mengahwinkan anak perempuannya, syara` telah memberi ruang kepada pasangan
terbabit untuk menggunakan peruntukan wali àdal (enggan). Dalam hal ini, pasangan lelaki
terbabit boleh mengemukakan tuntutan kepada mahkamah untuk menyiasat pertikaian yang
berlaku. Namun, apa yang berlaku peruntukan tersebut dilihat jarang digunakan disebabkan
pasangan terbabit perlu berhadapan dengan prosedur yang dilihat sebagai membebankan. Atas
alasan tersebut, pasangan terbabit mengambil jalan singkat dengan memilih perkahwinan di
luar negara yang dianggap dapat menyelesaikan masalah tersebut dalam jangka pendek. Apa
yang dibimbangkan ialah sekiranya berlaku perceraian dan perkahwinan tersebut tidak
didaftarkan ataupun perkahwinan tersebut diragui oleh syara` secara tidak langsung akan
memberi implikasi negatif kepada pasangan perempuan dan yang lebih malang lagi terhadap
anak hasil yang diperolehi hasil daripada perkahwinan tersebut.
Tegasnya, hukuman bagi kesalahan perkahwinan tanpa kebenaran, pasanga terbabit boleh
didakwa mengikut seksyen 40(2) Enakmen Undang-undang Keluarga Islam di setiap negeri.
Pasangan yang disabitkan kesalahan boleh dikenakan denda tidak melebihi satu ribu ringgit
atau 6 bulan penjara atau kombinasi kedua-duanya sekali. Pada prinsipnya, prosedur
perkahwinan yang termaktub dalam Enakmen Undang-Undang Kekeluargaan Islam bukanlah
suatu perkara yang menyusahkan seperti yang dianggap oleh segelintir masyarakat. Enakmen
ini digubal bertujuan untuk melicinkan urusan pentadbiran hal ehwal orang-orang Islam di
Malaysia. Selain itu, peraturan tersebut juga dapat mengawal individu-individu
menyalahgunakan kemudahan di bawah hukum syara`.
6. Rujukan
Kamus Dewan. 2000. Edisi Ketiga. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Md. Akhir Hj Yaakob & Siti Zalikha Md. Noor. 1989. Beberapa Aspek Mengenai Enakmen
Keluarga Islam di Malaysia. Petaling Jaya: Penerbitan Ar-Rahmaniah.
Mohd. Nasran Mohammad. 2008. Perkahwinan Luar Negara Tanpa Kebenaran di Selatan
Thailand. Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Noraini Mohd Hashim. 2007. Prosedur dan Pendaftaran Perkahwinan. Dalam Najibah Mohd
Zin. Undang-Undang Keluarga (Islam) Jilid 14. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Temubual bersama Ketua Pendaftar Mahkamah Syariah Kangar, Perlis, Puan Shazlina binti
Ali. 24 Januari 2013. Jam 2.30 petang, di Mahkamah Syariah Kangar Perlis.
380
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION
381
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Linking Fairness to Performance A View from Budget Setting Perspective
Mohd Nor Yahaya*, Jegak Uli

National Defence University, Malaysia
E-mail: mohdnor@upnm.edu.my; jegakuli@gmail.com
Abstract
Fairness is an essential dimension in determining managers performance in budget setting.

As budget represent the important tool in translating the planned strategies into action, it is
therefore critical for the managers to adapt the correct behavior that could significantly shape
and lead them into high performance. This paper investigates the link between budgetary
fairness, organizational commitment and managerial performance in budget setting. We
proposed that budgetary fairness influences managerial performance via organizational
commitment. A study on budget managers in mechanistic public organization via survey
questionnaire found to be positive and significant. Managers performance is highly improved
by influential factor of fairness and commitment. We suggest that fairness and commitment
are important factor to performance and strongly advised for the management to consistently
emphasis fairness in budget process in their organization.
Keywords: budgetary fairness; organizational commitment; managerial performance
1. Introduction
Extensive research examining the effect of budgetary fairness on managerial performance
produced inconclusive finding, suggest the relationship is more complex than what scholars
theoretically thought and proposed (Wentzel, 2002; Maiga, 2006; Magner,2008;
Rachman,2014). Prior empirical evidences found the relationship between the two were not
only direct, but also influenced by indirect effect via multiple intervening and moderating
variables (Lau and Lim, 2002, Maiga, 2006). In the quest to ascertain the complex role of
fairness in budget setting, recent studies expansively extended the role of budgetary fairness
dimension from predictor to mediator (Rachman, 2012, 2014; Kohemeyer et al, 2014).The
inconclusive findings is in contrary to what Cropanzano (2007) viewed that fairness builds
trust and commitment which in turn will lead to higher performance. Recent research on
fairness, organizational commitment and managerial performance in budget setting were
mostly conducted in manufacturing and service oriented environment (Rachman, 2012;
Ogiedu and Odia, 2014, Kohemeyer, et al 2014). This paper investigates the link between
procedural fairness, organizational commitment and performance in budget setting in public
sector organization. We proposed the effect of fairness on performance is mediated by
organizational commitment, a variable that influence manager work outcomes and mostly
researched in recent behavioural accounting study (Mohd Noor & Othman, 2012;Kohemeyer
et al, 2014;Rachman, 2014). In this paper we suggest organizational justice theory works
interdependently within contingency setting.
2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development
Current budgetary literature highlights three important dimensions of fairness comprising

procedural, distributive and interactional fairness, which are critical variables in determining
organizational success. Prior studies linking fairness to performance involved mainly the
effect of procedural fairness on managerial performance with positive and favourable result
(Rachman 2012, 2014; Ogiedu et al, 2014). Study by Wentzel (2002) found perceptions of
382
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
fairness were seen to have improved performance by increasing the managers commitment
on budgetary goals. In contrast, study by Lindquist (1995) and Libby (1999) found no
evidence to support that procedural fairness is directly related to performance. The
relationship between these variables, lead to the development of conceptual framework as
shown in Figure 1 below.
Organizational
Commitment
b Procedural
u Fairness
d
g
Distributive
e Fairness
t
a Managerial
r Interactional Performance
y Fairness
Figure 1: The conceptual framework of the relationship between procedural, distributive and
interactional fairness, organizational commitment and managerial performance
2.1 Procedural Fairness, Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance
Lau and Lim (2002) noted that procedural fairness affect performance because people care
about the fairness procedure and they feel the organizational judgments is an important issue
to them. Perceived procedural fairness may influence the subordinate to attach to the
organization, increase trust to the leaders and willing to involve in budget setting process.
When the employee feels they have been receiving fair treatment by the superior during the
budget setting process, it will increase their commitment for the benefit of the organization
thus will lead to higher performance. Lau and Lim (2002) stated that procedural fairness has
affected in improved performance while the direct association between commitment and
performance was found in the public sector with positive and significant results (Yahya et al,
2008, Rachman, 2014). Therefore, the following hypothesis is developed:
H1: The effect of procedural fairness on managerial performance is mediated by
organizational commitment.
2.2 Distributive Fairness, Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance

This study suggest that perceived distributive fairness may influence the subordinate to attach
to the organization, increase trust to the leaders and willing to involve in budget setting
process. When the employee feels they have been receiving fair treatment by the superior
during the budget setting process, it will increase their commitment for the benefit of the
organization thus will lead to higher performance. Therefore, the following hypothesis is put
forward:
H2: The effect of distributive fairness on managerial performance is mediated by
2.3 Interactional Fairness, Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance

Staley and Magner (2008) viewed that the fairness for budget implementation procedure
should encompasses interpersonal sensitivity by showing kindness, respect and concern for
383
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
managers right; providing sincere consideration when debating the budget allocation;
providing managers with clear, timely and adequate explanations when budget decision are
met and avoiding bias on procedures during implementation. Organizational fairness will
trigger positive managerial outcomes and behaviour. Maiga (2006) noted that interactional
fairness exist when supervisor is honest, show respect and concern for the subordinate right
and need. When subordinate feel their right is fulfilled, this may help improve their
willingness to put a great deal of effort to help the organization. This study suggest that
perceived interactional fairness may influence the subordinate to attach to the organization,
increase trust to the leaders and willing to involve in budget setting process with higher
commitment. When the employee feels they have been receiving fair treatment by the
superior during the budget setting process, it will increase their commitment for the benefit of
the organization thus will lead to higher performance. Organizational justice is related to work
performance indirectly via organizational commitment, in which interactional fairness
appeared to be the best predictors to performance (Wang et al, 2010). Therefore, the following
hypothesis is tested:
H3: The effect of interactional fairness on managerial performance is mediated by
3. Methodology
This study adopts empirical science method which looking at quantitative analysis of cause
and effect to generalize the conclusion and finding. A total of 200 questionnaires were sent to
budget managers in mechanistic public sector organization purposively selected and
nominated based on their involvement in budget related tasks and have years of relevant
budget experience and budget authorisation. These budget managers are performing important
budgetary roles and activities, therefore, the findings of a study may provide a meaningful and
interesting comparison with prior studies which have largely focused on the private sector.
The experience in budget is meaningful as this will add the credibility of the data.
Mechanistic public organization is selected as sampling organization to view the extent of
fairness in mechanistic environment.
The instruments used to measure procedural, distributive and interactional fairness were
adapted from earlier research as cited in Maiga (2006) works. Organizational commitment
and managerial performance were adapted and modified from earlier studies as cited in Yahya
et al (2008), Zainuddin & Isa (2011). For this paper, all the items in research instruments use
five points Likert - scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree) to (5) strongly agree.
All the instruments has established very high validity and internal consistency reliability.
Cronbach Alpha were observed above 0.8, passed recommended range of 0.7 ( Pallant, 2013).
Composite reliability for all the items were above 0.6 as recommended by Hair et al (2014).
Average Variance Extracted (AVE) to evaluate convergent validity shows the AVE of 0.5 and
above (Hair et al. 2014). These validity and reliability results indicate that items used in the
study fit for measurement model for SEM analysis using Smart PLS. However, two items
from procedural fairness and distributive fairness respectively have been excluded as it
failed the discriminant validity test as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion.
Hypotheses and subsequent results are tested analysed using structural equation modelling
(SEM) using 128 final and usable respondents. SEM is employed because it able to deal with
small sample size for data analysis and normal data distribution is not necessary, easy to be
illustrated using path analysis diagram (Hair et al, 2014). A mediating effect exists when a
third variable intervenes between two other related constructs (Hair et. al.2014). The mediator
384
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
reflects in the relationship when it causes the continuous significant effect to the criterion
variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986). The degree of mediation effect of organizational
commitment is measured using Variance Accounted For (VAF) as suggested by Hair et al
(2014) approach.
4. Result and Discussion
4.1 Procedural Fairness, Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance
Hypothesis being tested is:
H2: The effect of procedural fairness on managerial performance is mediated by

Refer to Figure 2. The direct test of procedural fairness and managerial performance show a
positive and significant effect ( = 0.618, t>11.058, p<0.000). R square indicates procedural
fairness explain 38 % of managerial performance. Interestingly, the inclusion of
organizational commitment, however, has resulted both procedural fairness and
organizational commitment explained 53% variance in managerial performance. Procedural
fairness and managerial performance show positive and significant effect ((=0.312, t>3.404,
p<0.001) while procedural fairness has positive and significant effect on organizational
commitment with R2 at 0.37. (=0.604, t>9.067, p<0.000). The effect of organizational
commitment on managerial performance is significant (=0.498, t>6.192, p<0.000).
Following Hair et al 2014 method of assessing VAF value to determine the strength of
mediator effect, the Model shows VAF of 49.7. Consequently, this value indicates that 49.7%
of procedural fairness effect on managerial performance is explained via organizational
commitment mediator. Since the value of VAF is larger than 20% but smaller than 80%, it is
concluded that partial mediator exist. The result conform to Hair et al (2014) which suggest
that the mediating effect only exist when indirect effect between third variable and criterion
variable is significant. The result provides evidence that organizational commitment does
partially mediates the relationship between procedural fairness and managerial performance.
Therefore, the hypothesis is supported.
=0.604*** OC
=0.498***
R2 = 0.37
MP
PF
R2 = 0.533
=0.312**
Note: Statistically significant at *t>1.96 (p<0.05); **t>2.58 (p<0.01); ***t>3.29 (p<0.001)
Figure 2: Path model between procedural fairness, organizational commitment and managerial
performance
4.2 Distributive Fairness , Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance
H2: The effect of distributive fairness on managerial performance is mediated by

Refer to Figure 3. The preceding direct test of distributive fairness and managerial
performance show a positive and significant effect ( = 0.572, t>9.218, p<0.000) with R
square indicates distributive fairness explains 33 % of managerial performance. The inclusion
385
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
of organizational commitment has resulted the variation in managerial performance increase

to 52%. Distributive fairness and managerial performance show positive and significant effect
((=0.254, t>3.038, p<0.003) while distributive fairness has positive and significant effect on
organizational commitment with R2 at 0.33. (=0.573, t>8.395, p<0.000). The effect of
organizational commitment on managerial performance is significant (=0.541, t>7.031,
p<0.000). Following Hair et al 2014 method of assessing VAF value to determine the strength
of mediator effect, the Model shows VAF of 54.9. Consequently, this value indicates that
54.9% of distributive fairness effect on managerial performance is explained via
organizational commitment mediator. Since the value of VAF is larger than 20% but smaller
than 80%, it is concluded that partial mediator exist. The result conform to Hair et al (2014)
which suggest that the mediating effect only exist when indirect effect between third variable
and criterion variable is significant. The result provides evidence that organizational
commitment does partially mediates the relationship between distributive fairness and
managerial performance. Therefore, the hypothesis is supported.
=0.573*** OC =0.541***
R2 = 0.33
MP
DF R2 = 0.52
=0.254**

Figure 3: Path model between distributive fairness, organizational commitment and
managerial performance
4.3 Interactional Fairness, Organizational Commitment and Managerial Performance
H3: The effect of interactional fairness on managerial performance is mediated by

Refer to Figure 4. The preceding direct test of interactional fairness and managerial
performance is positive and significant ( = 0.591, t>11.543, p<0.000) with R square
indicates interactional fairness explain 35 % of managerial performance. Subsequent test with
the inclusion of organizational commitment has resulted in R square increased to 56%,
indicating that interactional fairness and organizational commitment has influenced the
managerial performance. Interactional fairness and managerial performance show positive but
insignificant effect ((=0.170, t>1.573, p>0.116) while interactional fairness has positive and
significant effect on organizational commitment with R2 at 0.49. (=0.742, t>14.241,
p<0.000). The effect of organizational commitment on managerial performance is significant
(=0.559, t>5.189, p<0.000). Following Hair et al 2014 method of assessing VAF value to
determine the strength of mediator effect, the model shows VAF of 0.71. Consequently, this
value indicates that 71% of interactional fairness effect on managerial performance is
explained via organizational commitment mediator. Since the value of VAF is larger than
20% but smaller than 80%, it is concluded that partial mediator exist. The result conform to
Hair et al (2014) which suggest that the mediating effect only exist when indirect effect
between third variable and criterion variable is significant. The result provides evidence that
organizational commitment does partially mediates the relationship between interactional
fairness and managerial performance. Therefore, the hypothesis is supported.
386
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
=0.742*** OC
R2 = 0.49 =0.559***
MP
IF
R2 = 0.56
=0.170

Figure 4: Path model between interactional fairness, organizational commitment and
managerial performance
5. Conclusion, Limitation and Future Research
This paper examines the role of fairness, organizational commitment and managerial
performance in budget setting using a sample 128 budget managers from mechanistic public
sector organization. It was hypothesized that procedural fairness, distributive fairness and
interactional fairness, respectively, affect organizational commitment and finally lead to affect
managerial performance. All three hypotheses supported the mediating roles of organizational
commitment in the relationship between fairness and performance. Thus the study provide a
new evidence indicating that fairness dimension, organizational commitment and managerial
performance able to play important roles in contingency setting model. The findings suggest
that fairness is an important variables that affect organizational commitment and finally lead
to improve in managerial performance as suggested by Magner (2006), Cropanzano (2007).
Organizational commitment appears to play important mediator roles to affect performance,
consistent with Yahya et al (2008), Ogiedu & Odia (2014) and Rachman (2014). The paper
highlights the new evidence on theory development pertaining to the application of justice
theory within contingency setting. It is important to express that justice model in workplace is
not an isolation factor that affect managerial attitude and behaviour, but it should be seen
broadly in other context such as contingency environment. It is also viewed that justice is seen
to be worked in mechanistic environment budget setting without any interference from
mechanistic rules thus suggest that mechanistic condition appear not to have influenced
justice in workplace, consequently reflects the role of justice is communal in any
organizational setting.
The paper implies that the design of budgetary framework within the organization should be
inclusively take into account managers behaviour and outcomes. In particular, it is important
for the management to emphasis fairness and organizational commitment in their budget
setting to ensure managers willingness to perform significantly at higher productivity.
Ultimately, it contributes to high organizational success. The result of this study only related
to a single mechanistic public organization. Therefore it cannot be generalizable to other
context. Furthermore, this study only views a single causation effect of fairness on
performance. Future studies on fairness may incorporate other variables that may influence
manager performance such as budget satisfaction and leadership styles.
7. References
Cropanzano, R, Bowen, D & Gilliland, M 2007, The management of organizational justice,

Academy of Management Perspectives, November,pp 34-48.
Fornell, C. & Larcker, S 1981,Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable

variables and measurement error, Journal of Marketing Research, vol.18, pp39-50.
387
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Hair, F, Hult, T, Ringle, C & Sarstedt, SL 2014, A primer on partial least squares structural
equation modelling (PLS-SEM), Sage Publication, Los Angeles.
Kohemeyer, M, Mahenthiran, S, Parker, R & Sinch, M 2014, Leadership, budget participation,

budgetary fairness and organizational commitment, Advances in Accounting Beheavioral
Research. vol.17, pp.95-118.
Lau, C, M & Lim, S 2002, The intervening effect of participation on the relationship between
procedural justice and managerial performance, British Accounting Review, vol. 34, pp.
55-78.
Magner, N, Johnson, G, Little, H, Staley, B & Walker, M 2006, The case for fair budgetary
procedures, Managerial Auditing Journal, vol. 21, no. 4, pp.408-419.
Magner, R.N & Staley, S 2006, Budgetary fairness and governmental program heads
turnover intention, Managerial Auditing Journal, vol. 23, pp.405-417.
Magner, R.N & Kinnersley, S 2008, Fair governmental budgetary procedures: Insight from
past research and implications for the future, Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting &
Financial Management, vol. 20, no.3, pp.355-374.
Maiga, S 2006, Fairness, budget satisfaction and budget performance: A path analytic model
of their relationships, Advance in Accounting Behavioral Research, vol.9, pp. 87-111.
Mohd Noor, I, H & Othman, S 2012, Budgetary participation: How it affects performance
and commitment, Accountancy Business and Public Interest, pp. 53-73.
Ogeidu, K, & Odia, S 2014, Relationship between budget participation, budget procedural
fairness, organizational commitment and managerial performance, Review of Public
Administration and Management (open access).
Pallant, B 2013, SPSS Survival Manual 5th Ed, Mc Graw Hill, London.
Rachman, S 2012, The influence of budgetary participation on budgetary slack: The role of
organizational fairness, managerial trust and budget goal commitment, IPEDR, vol.50, no.16,
pp. 73-78.
Rachman, S 2014, The effect of organization commitment and procedural fairness on

participative budgeting and its implication to performance moderating b management
accounting information, Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research, vol.3, no.1,
pp. 201-218.
Wang, X, Liao, J, Xia, D & Chang, M 2010, The impact of organizational justice on work
performance: mediating effects of organizational commitment and leader-member exchange,
International Journal of Manpower, vol.31, no.6,pp. 660-677.
Wentzel, S 2002, The influence of fairness perceptions and goal commitment on managers
performance in a budget setting, Behavioral Research in Accounting, vol.14, pp. 247-271.
388
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Yahya, M, Ahmad, N & Fatima, S 2008, Budgetary participation and performance: Some
Malaysian evidence, International Journal of Public Sector Management, vol. 21, no.6,
pp.651-673.
Zainuddin, S & Isa, S 2011, The role of organizational fairness and motivation in the
relationship between budget participation and managerial performance: A conceptual paper,
Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol.5, no 12, pp.641-648.
389
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pampasan Gantirugi Dalam Kes-kes Kemalangan Jalan Raya Di Malaysia

Dalam Perundangan Sivil Dan Islam: Suatu Kajian Kes
Siti Khadijah Mohd Khaira,*, Prof. Madya Dr. Nuarrual Hilal Md Dahlanb
a Ph.D Candidate, School Of Law,
College Of Law, Government And International Studies

Kedah
Emel: ctkhadijah@uum.edu.my
bSenior
Lecturer, School Of Law,
College Of Law, Government And International Studies
Kedah
Emel: hilal@uum.edu.my
Abstrak
Kuantum pampasan gantirugi dalam kes-kes kemalangan jalan raya di Malaysia dalam
perundangan Sivil dilihat masih mempunyai kekurangan dan kelemahan yang perlu diperbaiki
terutamanya bagi ikhtisar kecederaan diri dan kematian bagi pihak mangsa yang terlibat. Di
antara objektif utama penulisan ini adalah untuk mengkaji dengan terperinci berkenaan
kuantum dan jumlah bagi ikhtisar kecederaan diri melibatkan pihak mangsa yang mengalami
kecederaan diri akibat kemalangan jalan raya dengan mengharmonikan pemakaian prinsip
diyat dan dhaman menurut perundangan Islam seiring dengan peredaran zaman dan kemajuan
negara. Secara praktikal, kuantum pampasan gantirugi bagi ikhtisar kecederaan diri masih
menggunapakai prinsip continental skill di bawah common law sebagai rujukan dalam
perundangan Sivil bagi kes-kes kemalangan jalan raya di Malaysia. Oleh yang demikian, kajian
ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan satu rumusan yang sesuai dan sewajarnya mengenai
kemungkinan pelaksanaan diyat dan dhaman secara komprehensif khususnya berhubung
kes-kes kemalangan jalan raya di Malaysia bagi menjamin keadilan kesemua pihak yang
terlibat. Sehubungan itu, satu kajian kes telah digunapakai sebagai metodologi di dalam kajian
ini agar setiap permasalahan dapat dikaji dengan lebih terperinci berhubung kuantum pampasan
gantirugi. Oleh yang demikian, suatu pendekatan yang boleh dibuat adalah bagi
mengharmonikan pemakaian prinsip diyat dan dhaman di dalam pemberian pampasan
gantirugi bagi ikhtisar kecederaan diri dan kematian melibatkan kes-kes kemalangan jalan raya
di Malaysia.
Kata kunci: kuantum pampasan gantirugi; ikhtisar kecederaan diri; diyat; dhaman.
1. Pengenalan
Suatu kemalangan jalan raya boleh memberi kesan yang buruk terhadap kesihatan mangsa,
kewangan dan kehidupan mangsa dan ahli keluarga mangsa itu sendiri. Selain itu, ia turut
menyebabkan kehilangan nyawa, kerosakan pada kenderaan, kecederaan anggota badan,
penderitaan dan kesedihan kepada mangsa serta ahli keluarga mangsa yang terlibat. Salah satu
cara bagi meringankan beban yang ditanggung akibat kemalangan jalan raya ini adalah dengan
membuat tuntutan sivil di bawah Undang-undang Sivil yang sedia ada. Jika dilihat, nilai dan
kuantum pampasan ganti rugi yang diterima oleh mangsa atau ahli keluarga mangsa masih
tidak memadai sepertimana di dalam kes Azmizan bin Ahmad lwn Ghani bin Mamat (Saman
390
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Nombor 53-192, 2001), pampasan gantirugi bagi kehilangan deria bau diberikan sebanyak RM
22,000. Manakala menurut diyat, pampasan kerugian bagi kehilangan deria bau boleh
mencecah sebanyak RM 570,000.00 iaitu 100% bagi kadar 1 diyat penuh.
Oleh yang demikian, beberapa peruntukan Undang-undang Sivil tersebut perlu dikaji semula
dan dibuat pindaan agar ianya memberi keadilan yang saksama dan telus terutamanya kepada
semua mangsa serta ahli keluarga mereka yang mengalami penderitaan dan kepayahan dalam
menjalani kehidupan kesan dan akibat daripada tindakan kecuaian dan sikap tidak berhati-hati
pihak pesalah yang mengakibatkan berlakunya kemalangan jalan raya.
1.1 Kajian Kes Berhubung Kecederaan Diri Dalam Kes Kemalangan Jalan Raya
1.1.1 Kes 1
Fakta kes
Kajian kes ini melibatkan kecederaan diri akibat kemalangan jalan raya yang dialami oleh
plaintif pada waktu itu berumur 14 tahun. Kemalangan itu berlaku pada 22 Disember 2012 jam
lebih kurang 5.30 ptg, iaitu plaintif yang menunggang motorsikal milik ibunya dengan
nombor pendaftaran KDF 7858 jenis LC135 dari Merbok, Kedah untuk pulang ke rumah di
No. 57, Kampung Gelam 2, Mukim Sala Besar, Kota Sarang Semut, Alor Setar, Kedah.
Apabila sampai di Jalan Dulang Besar Sungai Limau, tiba-tiba motoroller yang berada di tepi
jalan dengan tiba-tiba masuk ke kanan jalan dan kereta terlalu dekat, plaintif tidak sempat
mengelak lalu melanggar motoroller tersebut. Plaintif telah dibawa untuk mendapatkan
rawatan di Hospital Sultan Abdul Halim, Sungai Petani, Kedah akibat kecederaan yang beliau
alami. Selepas menjalani pemeriksaan, pihak hospital mengesahkan plaintif mengalami
kecederaan seperti berikut:
(a) Kecederaan luka pada dahi (laceration wound 10x5cm over frontal region);
(b) Kecederaan luka pada dua buah kepala lutut (laceration wound over bilateral knee;
(c) Kecederaan melecet pada tulang belakang lumbar dan pinggul (abrasion wound
over right lumbar and suprapubic);
(d) Kecacatan di hujung tulang radius pada tangan kiri (deformity over left distal end
radius)
Plaintif juga telah dimasukkan ke wad di Hospital Sultan Abdul Halim, Sungai Petani selama
3 hari 2 malam. Kemalangan tersebut telah disebabkan pada keseluruhannya disumbangkan
secara besar oleh kecuaian defendan pertama yang memandu motoroller No.PFN 30.
Defendan pertama telah gagal memandu dengan cara yang selamat dan sewajarnya; memandu
jalan kanak-kanak dan melanggar hak-hak jalan kanak-kanak; gagal memberi keutamaan
laluan kepada kanak-kanak; memintas hak-hak jalan kanak-kanak; gagal mempraktikkan
sebarang kebijaksanaan dan pengendalian kenderaan; gagal untuk memberikan perhatian yang
sepenuhnya semasa memandu di jalan raya dan gagal untuk mengikut peraturan jalan raya
yang diperuntukkan. Sehubungan itu, plaintif yang merupakan kanak-kanak bergantung
kepada doktrin res ipsa loquitor dan fakta kes sebagai keterangan kecuaian defendan
pertama. Defendan kedua bertanggungan secara tanggungan bersama (vicarious liability)
terhadap kecuaian defendan pertama di mana defendan kedua merupakan pemilik berdaftar
motoroller No.PFN 30 dan juga majikan kepada defendan pertama. Dengan demikian atas
sebab-sebab tersebut di atas plaintif mengalami kesakitan dan kecederaan serta kehilangan
dan kerugian.
391
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Berikut adalah butir-butir kehilangan dan kerugian bagi tuntutan gantirugi khas yang dibuat
oleh plaintif.
Jadual 1. Butir-Butir Kehilangan Dan Kerugian Bagi Gantirugi Khas
BUTIR-BUTIR JUMLAH (RM)
(a) Keluarga melawat plaintif di Hospital Sultan Abdul Halim 180
selama 3 hari (RM60.00 x 3 hari)
(b) Makanan untuk ibu plaintif yang menjaga plaintif di Hospital 90.00
Sultan Abdul Halim selama 3 hari (RM30.00 x 1 hari)
(c) Makanan berkhasiat untuk kanak-kanak 500.00
(d) Membuat rawatan lanjutan di Hospital Sultan Abdul Halim 3 180.00
kali dengan teksi sebanyak (RM60.00 x 3 kali)
(e) Bil kemasukan ke Hospital Yan selama 3 hari (RM20.00 x 3 60.00
hari)
(f) Bil Hospital Sultan Abdul Halim 100.00
(g) Resit rasmi laporan polis, rajah kasar dan gambar-gambar 34.00
kemalangan
(h) Rawatan gigi di klinik 130.00
(i) Kerosakan pakaian 150.00
(j) Bil membaiki motosikal 2,531.00
(k) Kerosakan telefon bimbit 150.00
(l) Perubatan tradisional 100.00
(m) Kehilangan pendapatan sebagai pembantu jentera mesin padi 1,500.00
selama satu musim
5,705.00
JUMLAH
Defendan pertama dan defendan kedua tidak memasukkan sebarang pembelaan di dalam kes
ini. Mahkamah ini pada 25 November 2014 telah merekodkan penghakiman ingkar kehadiran
terhadap defendan kedua. Mahkamah juga merekodkan penghakiman ingkar pembelaan
terhadap defendan pertama pada 22 Disember 2014 lalu. Di dalam kes ini plaintif yang
berumur 17 tahun telah dipanggil memberi keterangan secara bersumpah sesuai dengan
peruntukan seksyen 118 Akta Keterangan 1950. Keterangan plaintif disokong oleh ibu
kandung beliau yang juga diberi secara bersumpah. Memandangkan kedua-dua defendan tidak
memfailkan sebarang kertas kausa, tidak hadir ke mahkamah dan juga tidak memasukkan
sebarang pembelaan di mahkamah ini, maka liabiliti 100% hendaklah dikenakan terhadap
defendan-defendan sebagai penyebab kepada kemalangan.
1.1.2 Tuntutan Gantirugi Am
Prinsip utama dalam pemberian pampasan gantirugi ialah untuk meletakkan mangsa kepada
keadaan asal sebelum berlakunya kemalangan dengan sebaiknya, pampasan mestilah adil,
memadai dan tidak keterlaluan dengan merujuk kes Shanmugam a/l Gopal lwn Zinal Abidin bin
Nazim [2003] 3 MLJ 76.
Plaintif di dalam kajian kes ini menuntut gantirugi am bagi kecederaan-kecederaan yang beliau
alami iaitu laceration wound 10 x 5cm over frontal region, laceration wound over bilateral
knee, abrasion wound over right lumbar and suprapubic and deformity over left distal end
radius. Plaintif juga kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi di bahagian atas akibat kemalangan tersebut.
392
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1.2 Analisa Kes Menurut Perundangan Sivil
1.2.1 Kecederaan di bahagian muka (laceration and abrasion)
Plaintif di dalam kes ini mengalami beberapa kecederaan laceration dan juga abrasion.
Merujuk kuantum di dalam ikhtisar kecederaan diri (Compendium of Personal Injury Awards
Revised as at 26 October 2010) mencadangkan pemberian pampasan gantirugi sebanyak
RM1,500.00 sehingga RM8,000.00 untuk laceration (single to multiple). Di dalam kes
Azlam Liew Bin Abdullah (menuntut bagi pihak dirinya sendiri dan tanggungan-tanggungan
Sham Shuhailie Bt Mohamad- Si Mati) lwn Osman Bin Baba & Ahmad Tarmizi Bin Mohd Taib,
[Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes: 53-575-2010-S3), Mahkamah memberikan
pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM7000.00 bagi kecederaan multiple laceration wounds. Di
dalam kes Ahmad Fadrizal Bin Abuan & Ngah Bin Awang lwn Anua Bin Idris, [Mahkamah
Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes: 53-9-2011-S3), Mahkamah memberikan pampasan gaanti
rugi sebanyak RM15,000.00 bagi kecederaan multiple laceration wounds dan juga multiple
abrasions. Di dalam Mohd Zuhairi Bin Dahalan & 2 lagi lwn Razali Bin Abd Rashid,
[Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes: 53-817-2010 Tahun 2011-S3), Mahkamah
memberikan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM18,0000.00 bagi kecederaan multiple
laceration wounds dan juga multiple abrasions. Di dalam kes Mahamad Asri lwn Southern
Sawmill Sdn Bhd & 1 lagi & Pihak Ketiga, [Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes:
53-817-2010 Tahun 2011-S3), Mahkamah memberikan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak
RM10,000.00 bagi kecederaan multiple abrasions and laceration wounds. Kecederaan
laceration yang dialami paling serius ialah di bahagian muka Plaintif, iaitu menurut laporan
perubatan ialah 10x5cm di atas kening, telah meninggalkan parut yang kekal di muka Plaintif.
Plaintif di dalam kes ini berumur 17 tahun pada tahun 2015. Parut di muka Plaintif sedikit
sebanyak akan memberi kesan kepada Plaintif yang masih belum berkahwin dan juga masih
muda. Parut di muka Plaintif memberi kesan kepada prospek untuk Plaintif berkahwin dan juga
sedikit sebanyak memberi kesan kepada keyakinan diri Plaintif dalam mencari pekerjaan yang
bersesuaian. Plaintif masih belum bekerja sehingga ke hari ini sejak terbabit di dalam
kemalangan tersebut. Plaintif telah memohon kepada Mahkamah mempertimbangkan gantirugi
sebanyak RM18,000.00 bagi kecederaan plaintif ini.
1.2.2 Kesan parut di muka (facial scarring)
Plaintif di dalam kes ini mengalamifacial scarring. Menurut kuantum bagi ikhtisar
kecederaan diri (Compendium Of Personal Injury Awards Revised as a 26 October 2010) yang
mencadangkan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM5,000.00 sehingga RM30,000.00 untuk
facial scarring. Di dalam kes Ahmad Fadrizal Bin Abuan & Ngah Bin Awang lwn Anua Bin
Idris, [Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes: 53-9-2011-S3), Mahkamah memberikan
pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM8,000.00 bagi kecederaan facial scarring. Parut di muka
Plaintiff sedikit sebanyak memberi kesan kepada Plaintif yang masih belum berkahwin dan
juga masih muda. Parut di muka Plaintif memberi kesan kepada prospek untuk Plaintif
berkahwin dan juga sedikit sebanyak memberi kesan kepada keyakinan diri Plaintif dalam
mencari pekerjaan yang bersesuaian. Plaintif masih belum bekerja sehingga ke hari ini sejak
terbabit di dalam kemalangan tersebut. Plaintif telah memohon Mahkamah mempertimbangkan
pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM10,000.00 bagi kecederaan Plaintif ini.
1.2.3 Kecederaan pada tangan kiri (deformity over left distal end radius)
Bagi kecederaan ini, ikhtisar kecederaan diri (Compendium Of Personal Injury Awards Revised
393
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
as at 26 October 2010) mencadangkan pmpasan gantirugi sebanyak RM10,000.00 sehingga

RM25,000.00. Di dalam kes Azlam Liew Bin Abdullah (menuntut bagi pihak dirinya sendiri
dan tanggungan-tanggungan Sham Shuhailie Bt Mohamad- Si Mati) lwn Osman Bin Baba &
Ahmad Tarmizi Bin Mohd Taib, [Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes:
53-575-2010-S3), Mahkamah memberikan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM20,000.00.
Menurut kes Tan Chiew Ming lwn Mohd Zufrizal Bin Mohd Mydin & 3 orang yang lain,
[Mahkamah Majistret Georgetown, Pulau Pinang] (No.Kes: 73-284-2006), Mahkamah
memberikan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM15,000.00 bagi kecederaan closed fracture
distal end radius. Musalma Jhaffar & 1 Lagi lwn Sulaiman Ismail & 1 Lagi [2014] 1 SMC
317, Mahkamah memberi award sebanyak RM25,000.00 bagi kecederaan closed comminuted
fracture of distal 3rd left radius with distal radioulnar joint. Akibat kecederaan ini, tangan kiri
Plaintif telah disimen dan menyebabkan Plaintif tidak dapat bekerja sebagai pemandu mesin
penuai padi. Sejak tarikh kemalangan sehingga ke hari ini plaintif tidak bekerja. Plaintif
memerlukan kedua-dua tangan yang normal bagi mengendalikan mesin penuai padi. Beliau
telah hilang punca pendapatan sebagai pemandu mesin penuai padi akibat tangan disimen.
Plaintif telah memohon Mahkamah mempertimbangkan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak
RM25,000.00 bagi kecederaan ini.
1.2.4 Hilang 3 kuntum gigi (loss of tooth)
Bagi kecederaan ini, ikhtisar kecederaan diri (Compendium of Personal Injury Awards Revised
as at 26 October 2010) mencadangkan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM2,000.00 sehingga
RM2,500.00. Plaintif di dalam kes ini telah kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi di bahagian atas akibat
kemalangan tersebut. Plaintif di dalam kes ini terpaksa menggunakan gigi palsu akibat
kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi beliau. Kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi yang kekal akan memberi kesan
kepada prospek plaintif untuk mencari johoh malah ia memberi kesan kepada keyakinan diri
plaintif untuk memohon kerja dan berhadapan dengan orang ramai setelah kehilangan gigi di
usia yang masih muda. Plaintif telah memohon Mahkamah mempertimbangkan gantirugi
sebanyak RM2,500.00 bagi kecederaan Plaintif ini.
1.2.5 Pengsan atau hilang ingatan sementara (loss of consciousness)
Plaintif dalam keterangannya menyatakan beliau telah pengsan semasa kejadian kemalangan
dan ini juga telah dinyatakan oleh doktor di dalam laporan perubatan bahawa plaintif telah
loss of consciousness. Mohd Zuhairi Bin Dahalan & 2 Lagi lwn Razali Bin Abd Rashid,
[Mahkamah Sesyen Kuantan, Pahang] (No. Kes: 53-817-2010 Tahun 2011-S3). Di dalam kes
ini Mahkamah memberikan pampasan gantirugi sebanyak RM5,000.00 bagi kecederaan loss
of consciousness. Plaintif telah memohon Mahkamah mempertimbangkan gantirugi sebanyak
RM5,000.00 bagi kecederaan plaintif ini.
Memandangkan kedua-dua defendan tidak memfailkan sebarang kertas kuasa, tidak hadir ke
mahkamah dan juga tidak memasukkan sebarang pembelaan di mahkamah ini, maka liabiliti
100% dikenakan terhadap defendan-defendan sebagai penyebab kepada kemalangan.
1.3 Penghakiman Mahkamah
Dengan demikian, mahkamah telah memerintahkan supaya Defendan membayar kepada

Plaintif:
(a) Gantirugi Am : -
394
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
i) kecederaan di bahagian muka (laceration and abrasion) - RM 8,000.00

ii) kesan parut kekal di muka (facial scarring) - RM 8,000.00
iii) kecederaan di lengan kiri (deformity over left distal end radius) - RM 15,000.00
iv) kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi (loss of tooth) - RM 2,500.00
v) pengsan atau hilang ingatan (loss of consciousness) - RM 5,000.00
(b) Gantirugi Khas sebanyak RM 5,700.00;
2. Analisa Perbandingan Dengan Prinsip Diyat Dan Dhaman Menurut Perundangan

Islam
2.1 Pengenalan
Hukuman ke atas kesalahan merupakan salah satu aspek yang penting dalam syariat Islam.
Sistem hukuman jenayah Islam mempunyai pelbagai peruntukan dan hukuman bagi menjamin
kesejahteraan hidup manusia sejagat dan memberikan hak kepada yang berhak secara adil dan
saksama. Diyat adalah denda dengan jumlah yang telah ditetapkan oleh syariat Islam ke atas
kesalahan yang mengakibatkan kehilangan jiwa atau kecederaan anggota. Denda yang
dikenakan tersebut dijadikan sebagai pampasan kepada mangsa atau keluarga mangsa yang
mengalami kerugian tersebut.
2.2 Aplikasi Diyat Dan Dhaman Di Bawah Perundangn Islam

Diyat pada asasnya dibayar dalam bentuk unta ataupun nilai unta tersebut kerana ia dipengaruhi
adat bangsa Arab yang bersandarkan kepada bilangan unta. Walau bagaimanapun, ia tidak
terbatas kepada bilangan unta semata-mata. Selain itu, diyat juga boleh dibayar dalam bentuk
emas, perak, binatang ternakan, kambing biri-biri ataupun persalinan (Abdul Qadir Awdah,
1998). Kadar diyat juga boleh dinilai mengikut kadar mata wang semasa. Misalnya bagi
kehilangan nyawa adalah bersamaan 1000 keping dinar. Sekeping dinar adalah seberat 4.25g x
RM134 (emas 916) x 1000 keping dinar bersamaan RM570,000 berdasarkan harga emas
semasa Malaysia. Para ulama juga bersetuju bahawa diyat boleh dibayar dalam bentuk emas
atau perak.
Merujuk kepada kajian kes ini, jenis jenayah kecederaan ini adalah termasuk di dalam kategori
kecederaan tidak sengaja bagi kes kemalangan jalan raya iaitu ia berlaku di luar kehendak pihak
pelaku di mana pelaku tidak mempunyai sebarang niat menyakiti mangsa atau sebarang
jangkaan akibat perlakuannya terhadap mangsa. Maksud kecederaan ialah kesan daripada
perbuatan jenayah terhadap mangsa (Kamus Undang-Undang Bahasa Inggeris-Bahasa Melayu
Penerbit Fajar Bakti, 2011). Seterusnya dengan melihat kepada kadar kecederaan yang dialami
mangsa tanpa mengambil kira niat pelaku antara jenis kecederaannya adalah termasuk di bawah
kategori syijjah iaitu luka atau kecederaan yang berlaku di muka atau kepala seseorang. Jenis
luka syijjah ini adalah seperti A'l-Mudhihah (Wahbah al-Zuhaili, 1997) iaitu luka yang sampai
ke tulang dan jelas kelihatan tulangnya itu walaupun sedikit pada tempat yang luka. Plaintif di
dalam kajian kes ini telah mengalami kecederaan laceration yang dialami paling serius di
bahagian muka Plaintif, iaitu 10x5cm di atas kening, telah meninggalkan kesan parut yang
kekal di muka Plaintif. Menurut perundangan Islam, kategori luka syijjah jenis luka mudhihah
wajib dibayar arsy iaitu kadar yang telah ditetapkan oleh syarak iaitu berjumlah 5 ekor unta.
Sebagaimana sabda Rasulullah SAW di dalam sebuah hadis yang bermaksud:
pada luka mudhihah wajib dibayar sebanyak 5 ekor unta
(Al-Baihaqi, No. hadis 4/89)
Bersandarkan kepada hadis tersebut, kadar yang boleh dinilai bagi seekor unta mengikut nilai
395
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
semasa adalah anggaran RM5,000.00 dan didarab dengan jumlah 5 ekor unta bersamaan
RM25,000.00. Manakala jumlah gantirugi yang telah diputuskan oleh mahkamah kepada
plaintif adalah sebanyak RM8,000.00 bagi jenis kecederaan ini.
Berikutnya adalah jenis kecederaan pada tangan kiri plaintif (deformity over left distal end
radius) atau al-jurh di bawah perundangan Islam kadar ketetapannya ialah arsy muqaddar iaitu
diyat/ 50%. Ia wajib dibayar dalam kes kecederaan al-jurh (Mohd Shukri Hanafi & Mohd
Tajul Sabki Abdul Latif, 2003) yang merosakkan sebahagian anggota dari bilangannya yang
sempurna seperti dicederakan sebelah tangan. Maka kadar diyatnya adalah bersamaan
RM28,500.00. Berdasarkan sebuah hadis menyebut:
pada sebelah tangan yang dicederakan, maka wajib dibayar dengan separuh diyat
(50 ekor unta)
(Ibnu Hanbal, No.hadis: 12/43)
Akan tetapi jika dilihat kepada keputusan mahkamah, pemberian gantirugi kepada plaintif
hanya pada kadar RM15,000.00 untuk jenis kecederaan ini.
Seterusnya berhubung dengan kecederaan yang melibatkan kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi plaintif
sepertimana menurut perundangan Islam, ia boleh dikenakan diyat iaitu bagi 1 kuntum gigi
adalah 5% diyat. Maka jumlah diyat untuk kehilangan 3 kuntum gigi adalah bersamaan 15%
diyat iaitu sebanyak RM85,000.00. berbanding dengan jumlah gantirugi yang telah diputuskan
oleh mahkamah iaitu RM2,500.00. Berdasarkan sebuah hadis:
dan diyat dalam menghilangkan gigi adalah 5 ekor unta
(Ibnu Kathir, No.hadis:
8213)
Selain itu, bagi tuntutan ganti rugi kesan parut pada muka (facial scarring) dan mengalami
pengsan atau hilang ingatan sementara (loss of consciousness) adalah suatu kadar yang tidak
ditetapkan oleh syarak. Oleh yang demikian, ia terserah kepada budi bicara hakim (hukumah)
untuk menentukan jumlah gantirugi tersebut berdasarkan kepada penilaian pakar.
Sementara itu bagi kos perbelanjaan perubatan dan rawatan terhadap mangsa yang dikeluarkan
adalah dibuat bermula dari kejadian kemalangan jalan raya sehingga keputusan mahkamah
dibuat dan juga dari akhir keputusan mahkamah dibuat sehingga mangsa pulih sepenuhnya
seharusnya dinilai secara munasabah dan adil sepertimana yang telah digariskan di bawah
prinsip dhaman (Husein Abdul Hamid, 2009) melainkan mangsa tidak hilang keupayaan kekal
iaitu lumpuh sepanjang hayatnya yang mana mangsa ini diberikan pampasan menurut diyat dan
bukannya di bawah dhaman.
3. Kesimpulan
Maka, dapat disimpulkan bahawa hukuman diyat dan dhaman di dalam perundangan Islam
membuktikan betapa Islam mengutamakan hubungan kemanusiaan sesama anggota
masyarakat dalam pemberian pampasan gantirugi terhadap kecederaan diri atau kehilangan
nyawa seperti mana yang telah digariskan di dalam undang-undang Islam dan selain itu dalam
masa yang sama terdapat limitasi dalam pemberian pampasan ganti rugi ini iaitu pihak mangsa
tidak seharusnya berharap bagi mendapatkan jumlah pampasan gantirugi yang tidak
munasabah dan tidak wajar. Ini bermakna pihak mangsa hanya berhak memperoleh dan
396
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
menuntut pampasan gantirugi hanya pada jumlah bagi kehilangan sebenar dan jelas serta yang
telah dihadkan di dalam hukuman diyat dan dhaman. Maka, dengan ini dicadangkan agar diyat
dan dhaman di dalam perundangan Islam dapat diharmonikan dengan peruntukan di dalam
perundangan Sivil selari dengan peredaran dan kemajuan negara. Sehubungan itu, diharapkan
juga agar pihak pemerintah dan penggubal dapat mempertimbangkan agar kuantum bagi
ikhtisar kecederaan diri di bawah perundangan Sivil dan pampasan gantirugi di dalam kes-kes
kemalangan jalan raya khususnya di Malaysia dapat diselaraskan menurut diyat dan dhaman
supaya dapat memberikan keadilan yang saksama kepada mangsa atau keluarga mangsa yang
mengalami kerugian tersebut.
4. Rujukan
1. Tafsir Pimpinan Ar-Rahman kepada Pengertian Al-Quran, 2010. Cetakan Keempat

Belas. Kuala Lumpur. Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam Jabatan Perdana Menteri.
2. Akta Undang-undang Sivil 1956 (Akta 67)
3. Al-Zuhaili, Wahbah, 1997. Fiqh Islami Wa Adillatuhu. Damsyik: Dar Al-Fikr.
4. Awdah, Abdul Qadir, 1998. Al-Tasyrik Al-Jinaiyy Al-Islamiyy. Beirut: Maktabah
Al-Risalah.
5. Compendium of Personal Injury Awards Revised as at 26 October 2010 [online]
Available at :<http: www.malaysianbar.org.my> Accessed 10 July 2015.
6. Husein Abdul Hamid, 2009. Mukhtasar Kitab Al-Umm Imam Al-Syafii. Jahabersa:
Johor.
7. Ibnu Hanbal, Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal, 1998. Musnad Imam Ahmad. Beirut:
Alam Al-Kutub.
8. Ibnu Kathir, Ismail bin Umar, 1994. Jami al-Masanid wa al-Sunan. Beirut: Dar
Al-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah.
9. Mohd. Masum Billah, 2003. Shariah Standard of Quantum of Damages in Insurance
(Third Party Claim) A Handbook for Actuaries and Accountants. Selangor: Ilmiah
Publishers.
10. Mohd. Shukri Hanafi & Mohd. Tajul Sabki Abdul Latif, 2003. Kamus Istilah
Undang-undang Jenayah Syariah (Hudud, Qisas dan Tazir). Kuala Lumpur: Zebra
Editions Sdn. Bhd.
397
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Getting the Right Candidates: A Case Study of Five Public Sector

Organizations Selection Criteria
Noreha Haji Hashim

School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Email: noreha@usm.my
Abstract
Getting the right candidates is of utmost importance to public sector organizations that strive
to attain organizational and public interests goals and objectives. As public sector
organizations differ in their objectives, missions and visions, their employees must be able to
fit with, as well as meet, the internal and external demands placed on the organizations
concerned. Face-to-face interviews conducted with fifteen officers from five public sector
organizations reveal that using the most appropriate selection criteria as well as varying the
weighting of the different elements involved, facilitate the identification and selection of the
right candidates needed for the different vacancies that require filling. However too much
emphasis on the interview process as a means of selection, insufficient knowledge of the
specifications, contexts and demands of the jobs, personal and ideological biasness, inadequate
experience and training as interviewers, time constraints, as well as inadequate measures taken
after the selection process, have resulted in the subsequent and gradual mismatch between
some of the candidates selected and the respective organizations, over time. Such incidences
can be minimized from occurring through the adoption of continuous and rigorous measures
that will enable the candidates selected to adapt to the changes in tasks specifications and
demands as well as organizational evolvements and public demands.
Keywords: Right Candidates, Selection Criteria, Public Services
1. Introduction
It is of paramount importance that civil servants be competent, conscientious, efficient,
effective, trustworthy and dependable so that the aspirations, needs and objectives of the
public services as well as that of the citizens and the nation, can be achieved in line with
economic, political and social continuous evolutions. However the diverse nature of the public
services as well as the multitude of functions that civil servants perform make the task of
selecting the right candidates a challenging one; as not only do they need to have the required
credentials but they must also have the right aptitude, disposition and commitment to public
service beliefs and values that are manifested by public service practices resulting in the
upholding of public interests (Rayner, et. al, 2010). Moreover, the integrity and validity of the
different selection methods, the appropriateness of different methods to the different
organizational requirements and how they are utilized by the selection panels, are important
influencing factors at predicting the candidates future job performances (Schmidt and Hunter,
1998).
1.1 The public services in Malaysia
398
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The diverse nature and functions of the public services are illustrated by Article 132 (1) of the
Constitution of Malaysia that defines the public services as comprising the armed forces, the
judicial and legal service, the general public service of the Federation and that of each State,
the joint public services as stated by Article 133, the police force and the education service.
Based on the definition of public services used, at the end of 2014, the number of civil
servants in Malaysia stands at 1,606,463 people (Parliamentary Answer, 9 April 2015). As
Malaysia strives to attain the status of a developed, high income country by the year 2020, the
success of fundamental transformations that entail renewing, reforming and rebuilding the
structures and administrative procedures of the public services as outlined by the Public Sector
Transformation Plan (2010) relies, more than ever, on civil servants possessing the required
levels competency. Indeed in the efforts to increase the quality of services provided by the
public services, competency-based human resource practices have been introduced as early as
at the end of 2002 (PSDM, 2004). Yet, from 2000 to 2012, the number of complaints received
by the Public Complaints Bureau shows a predominantly upward trend; with absence or delay
in taking actions, unsatisfactory quality of service provided, the perceived partiality and
unfairness of actions taken, civil servants misconducts, misappropriations and power abuses,
ignoring set procedures and enforcement failures, being the major causes of public grouses
(PCB 2000 to 2012 statistics; Noreha Haji Hashim, 2013). However it cannot be deduced from
the statistics whether the civil servants involved are those selected before or after the
introduction of the competency-based recruitment and selection procedures.
2. Appointing authorities and the personal attributes and skills of prospective civil
servants
The civil servants who work at the Federal, State or Local Government levels are appointed by
different appointing authorities responsible for each of the services e.g., the Armed Forces
Council, the Police Service Commission, the Federal Public Service Commission, the Public
Service Commission of each State, the Education Service Commission as well the Judiciary
and Legal Service Commission. These Commissions perform the very important function of
inspecting incoming human resources into the public services by ensuring that only those of
quality are admitted (Ahmad Sarji, 1993). Although Federal and State statutory bodies and
local governments are not parts of the general Federation, State or joint public services if
Article 132 is strictly interpreted, the extent to which circulars, directives and instructions
issued by the Public Services Department Malaysia (PSDM) have been adopted by their
management boards on matters pertaining to appointments, career developments, pensions,
remunerations, promotions, terms of service and training, have led to most of them being
perceived and treated as parts of the public services; the exception being those public entities
with separated remuneration schemes and are released from the need to seek the approval of
the PSDM and other Federal Agencies on such matters (PSDM official website, 2015). The
jurisdictions of these appointing bodies include not only job appointments but also matters
pertaining to confirmations, pensions, promotions, transfers and disciplinary actions of civil
servants.
The Federal Public Services Commission, whose jurisdictions encompass the general federal
public services, the general joint public services and that of the state public services of
Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Perlis and Penang, specifically states that the qualities prospective
civil servants must have are the ability to perform administrative and management tasks
relating to the public services in an effective and efficient manner so as to meet the needs of
the nation (PSC official website, 2015). The process of recruitment begins when the PSC
receives formal application letters from the Ministries/Departments concerned regarding the
types, job descriptions and number of vacancies needed filling. Candidates applying through
399
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the PSC online system have equal chances of being selected for the positions applied for
irrespective of their races, religions, birth states, sex or educational institutions attended.
Those with excellent academic qualifications, able to meet all the requirements of the service
schemes and selection criteria as well able to perform satisfactorily during the interviews
and/or tests, have higher chances of being appointed. The PSC would give priority to those
qualified in the reserve category of its databank (PSC official website, 2015). Those applying
for jobs at statutory bodies or local authorities submit their applications directly to the entities
concerned, and selections are based on the suitability of candidates to facilitate the attainment
of the objectives, missions and visions of the statutory bodies or local authorities concerned.
3. Objectives and Methodology

The objectives of this study are threefold, namely: (a) to identify the selection criteria used by
these public sector organizations in their quest to get the right candidates for their
organizations; (b) to analyze the constraints that they face in their quest for such candidates;
and (c) to determine the actions that can be taken to maintain and enhance the suitability
between the candidates and the organizations. Library and internet resources have been used to
gather background information, in addition to fifteen face-to-face semi-structured interview
sessions conducted with senior officers from three federal and state public services entities,
one federal statutory body and one local authority, for primary data.
4. Findings and Discussions

As expected, the three federal and state public services entities rely on the PSC to handle
matters pertaining to the registration, screening, listing of appointed and reserved candidates,
the scheduling of interviews and the issuance of job offers in line with the requests that have
been made. Requests are based on the number and type of vacancies, the number and duration
of existing staff willing to shoulder the responsibilities of the vacant posts, and the urgency
with which these vacancies have to be filled. They mention their complete faith in the PSC to
choose candidates who meet the job specifications as well as possessing the traits, abilities and
dispositions for public service as the methods used by the PSC to screen candidates can also
include areas of expertise, Cumulative Grade Point Averages (CGPAs), successfully passing
special tests or examinations, as well as physical endurance tests if needed. They would then
provide guidance and orientation to the candidates chosen so as to familiarize them with their
work environments, organizations expectations, missions, visions, goals and objectives, as
well as the tasks at hand. However they concur that the true colors and the suitability of the
candidates selected with the needs of their organizations, are only known after the successful
candidates have spent some time working for the organizations. Indeed most selected
candidates tend to work hard during their probation periods but unfortunately there are some
who gradually become complacent, disregarding rules and regulations and withholding their
best efforts when they have been confirmed in their posts. A respondent says that the effective
supervision of, and control over, numerous civil servants in various sections, divisions and
units of a huge organization is problematic especially if the work culture and ethos lack
professionalism and integrity. Moreover the heads of units, divisions and sections might be
reluctant to take disciplinary actions against the transgressors, unless the transgressions are so
severe or criminal in nature.
The respondents from the statutory body and local authority say that their HR divisions
conduct their own recruitment and selection processes. Consultations with the relevant heads
ensure that their specific HR needs and requirements are better met. Moreover the delegation
400
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
of some of the selection functions to heads of divisions ensures that only those who have
passed the initial screenings there would be called for interviews at the organizational level.
The initial screenings at the lower levels enable candidates to be assessed within the specific
working environments that they are expected to operate in; thus effectively addressing
instances of selected candidates turning down job offers because of unfavorable designated
locations of postings or successful candidates applying for alternative locations soon after
being appointed; as exemplified by some candidates that have been selected by the PSC for
the three federal and state public services entities. As they are more restricted by their
financial circumstances (as influenced by their income generating capabilities), they have to
be mindful of the costs and efforts of recruitment and selection; unlike the three federal and
state public services entities that are substantially relieved of such burdens. Hence they are
more cautious when entertaining demands for new staff and tend to favor the use of contract
staff or re-hiring those who have retired on a contract basis; as these are considered as
effective means to avoid long term financial commitments and reducing the costs associated
with training and career developments. The transferring and retooling of existing staff from
similar or different parts of the organizations as a means of coping with staff shortages are also
favored options. The reasons being the costs and efforts of retooling can be incorporated with
slight adjustments to the existing costs of training and career developments of existing staff,
whilst internal transfers can be swiftly implemented. While they are mindful of PSDMs
circulars, directives and instructions, the fact that they are in charge of their own recruitment
and selection processes have provided them with the opportunity to acquire skills and
knowledge in this important aspect of human resource management (HRM); something that
the three federal and state public services entities are denied of given PSCs centralized
control over intake into the public services under its jurisdictions as well the need to prevent
duplication of efforts and resources. Indeed it would be beyond the statutory body and local
authoritys capacities to match PSCs capacity of allowing each candidate to apply for up to
15 different job options according to his or her respective interests and qualifications.
Although this can adversely affect their pools of potential applicants, they believe that they do
not require such huge pools. They also agree with their three federal and state public services
counterparts that only time can reveal the true nature and the suitability of the candidates
selected with the needs of their organizations. Successful candidates, like organizations, can
change for the better or for the worse, and they do use a variety of psychological, physical and
personality tests befitting the job specifications, in order to get the right candidates.
The respondents from the five organizations also agree that although the candidates
qualifications are important, they also look for enthusiastic candidates who can function well
individually and as a team, possessing ethics, integrity and good communication skills, able to
offer innovative ideas, cautious and prudent within reasons while performing their tasks,
disciplined, neat and tidy in appearance, dedicated and hard working, with good personality,
confident but not arrogant, flexible and adaptable to organizational changes and needs, willing
to be trained and actively seek new knowledge and skills. In some circumstances, previous job
experience can be used to augment the shortfall in formal qualification possessed. The
different job specifications determine the weighting of the different elements of the selection
criteria used. As such the interview process provides an invaluable avenue for face-to-face
evaluation of the candidates to be conducted based on the selection criteria adopted. In the
case of the three federal and state public services organizations, interviewing panels can be
exhausted because of the need to interview so many candidates over a limited period of time;
so much so that a respondent confided that after some time he could only see a sea of blurry
faces and hear incessant murmurings. Moreover although job specifications provide useful
guidelines as to the suitability of the candidates, the dynamism of the contexts and demands of
401
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the jobs also influence the subsequent fit between the candidates and the organizations; an
aspect that cannot be adequately addressed during an interview although occurring at a lesser
degree at the statutory body and local authority. They believe that interviewers are not
completely free of personal and ideological biasness that can cloud their perceptions on who
they think should be appointed to serve their organizations, the country and the people. A
respondent says that in cases where candidates have performed equally well, he tends to rely
on his intuition, developed as a result of years of being an interviewer, to select the successful
candidate. However despite his personal convictions, the accuracy of his intuition has not been
empirically proven. They also agree that the subjectivity of the selection criteria can lead to
different interpretations by different people, e.g., a disciplined person can be viewed as being
rigid or overly strict, while those who are flexible can compromise rules, procedures and
standards when getting the job done. Most agree that despite the various tests employed, all of
them are limited in their capacities to accurately predict the future behaviors of the candidates
selected. Hence more proactive and consistent measures must be taken after the selection
process to prevent the subsequent and gradual mismatch between some of the candidates
selected and the respective organizations, from occurring over time. In addition to induction
courses, Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), training and re-skilling programs, current and
updated personality profiles and interest inventory of candidates must be kept so as to identify
areas of weaknesses and potential deviants. Moreover absenteeism, deviant behaviors, or low
morale can also be attributed to the perceived breach of psychological contracts between the
successful candidates and the organizations because of distributive or procedural
inconsistencies and injustices in terms of opportunities and rewards for personal and career
development (Palazzo, 2007). As such public organizations must show that they care about the
welfare and wellbeing of their employees by ensuring equal treatment, being more transparent
and accountable for decisions made, as well as providing an ethical and conducive
environment for civil servants to grow professionally (ibid).
5. Conclusion
It is evident that all of the above organizations strive hard to get the best possible candidates
within the budgetary and procedural frameworks that they have to observe. However despite
numerous tests employed that facilitate the screening processes abilities to identify the right
candidates, human weaknesses and fallible selection criteria cast doubts on whether those
candidates actually possess the qualities needed by the public services. Indeed persistent
efforts must be made by the organizations not only to retain the candidates chosen but also to
ensure that the fit between them remain well into the future. This can be done by
continuously evaluating organizational and public services needs with the abilities of civil
servants to meet them whilst providing updated and/or new programs to address potential
weaknesses as well as meet new demands and expectations.
6. References
Ahmad Sarji bin Abdul Hamid.,1993. Speech delivered at Majlis Penutup Persidangan Ketiga
Suruhanjaya-Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Awam Malaysia dan Negeri-Negeri. 9 December
1993, Kangar, Perlis.
Constitution of Malaysia. [online] Available at:<
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/research/malaysia-constitution.pdf.> [Accessed 7 June 2015)].
402
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Noreha Haji Hashim., 2013. Public Complaints and the Integrity of the Malaysian Public
Sector: Issues, Trends and Challenges 2000 2012, In Agus Suwandono, Sukron Kamil,
Pheni Chalid, Irwansyah, Jamin Ginting, Ries Wulandari. (eds). The Role of Educators and
Students in Building Integrity, Jakarta: Tiri Integrity Action. pp. 534 547, ISBN
987-602-18666-4-1.
Palazzo, G., 2007. Organizational Integrity Understanding the Dimensions of Ethical and
Unethical Behavior in Corporations. In W.C. Zimmerli, K. Richter, and M. Holzinger. (Eds).
Corporate Ethics and Corporate Governance. Heidelberg: Springer.
Parliamentary Answer, 9 April 2015.
PSDM. 2004. The Human Resource Managers Guide on Competency-based Human Resource
Management.
Public Complaints Bureau official website. [online] Available at:< www.pcb.gov.my>
[Accessed 12 June 2015].
Public Sector Transformation Plan 2010. [online] Available at:
<www.neac.gov.my/files/Chapter 4 Public Sector Transformation.pdf> [Accessed 6 June
2015].
Public Services Commission official website. [online] Available at: <www.spa.gov.my>
[Accessed 6 June 2015].
Rayner, J., Williams, H., Lawton, A., & Allinson, C., 2010. Public Service Ethos: Developing
a Generic Measure. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21, pp.27-51.
Schmidt, F. and Hunter, J., 1998. The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel
Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 years of Research Findings.
Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), pp.262-274.
403
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
An Identification of the Likely Policy Consequences of the Sarawak Corridor

of Renewable Energy (SCORE) on the Affected Agricultural Areas in
Central Sarawak
Noreha Haji Hashima, *Daniel Ugih Echohb

a
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Email: noreha@usm.my
b
Ph.D candidate, School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Email: danielusm@hotmail.my
Abstract
The consequences of public policies can be intended or unintended, and are beneficial or
detrimental in nature. As a means of promoting development and economic growth, Malaysia
has introduced successive industrial policies since Independence until the present day, that
seek to redistribute wealth, promote export, substitute imports as well as strengthening and
consolidating the sectors that would be exposed to foreign competition. However the
consequences of these policies on the agricultural sector have generally been the reduction in
the size of agricultural lands, a decrease in the number and income levels of farmers,
migration from rural to urban areas as well the perceived unattractiveness of this sector to the
youths, have resulted in a contraction of the agricultural sectors human capital. Within this
contextual background, this paper examines SCOREs consequences on paddy farmers and
paddy cultivation activities in Baram, Mukah, Samalaju, Tanjung Manis and Tunoh as
impacted by the intense drive to develop the aquaculture, aluminium, fishing, forestry, glass,
livestock, metals, oil, ship building, tourism and palm oil industries. First hand observations
and data from state and federal agencies to date indicate that SCORE will bring about the
same policy consequences on the paddy farmers and paddy cultivation activities in central
Sarawak as experienced by the agricultural sectors in Peninsular Malaysia; thus threatening
the sustainability of traditional and cultural practices associated with these activities.
Key words: SCORE, development, paddy cultivation, policy consequences, central Sarawak.
1. Introduction
The global economic recession and the fall of commodity prices in the 1970s and 1980 have
led Malaysia to change its economic development focus from that based on agriculture to that
based on industry (Chamhuri Siwar & Surtahman Kastin, 2002). This stance has been
reinforced by the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) that seeks to address and
eliminate the identification of economic functions with specific ethnic groups by enhancing
economic growth through the introduction of development policies and programs that promote
investments in the mining, industrial and agricultural sectors (Mohd Yaakub and Kiong,
1990). According to Morshidi (1993) the strategies for growth adopted by Malaysia at the end
of the1970s are in line with those championed by the capitalist system; resulting in new
agricultural methods and schemes being introduced, and new regional agricultural
development areas being established in Kedah and Kelantan. As a consequence of these
404
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
measures, the share of the agricultural sector in the countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
has been reducing whilst those of industry, financial institutions, utilities, government
administration and construction have been increasing (Shamzaeffa Samsuddin and Asan Ali,
2004).
According to Chamhuri Siwar, Norshamliza and Chamhuri (2005) in 1970, being the
beginning of the economic transformation process, the agricultural sectors contribution to the
countrys GDP stood at 30.8 %, and in 2005 its contribution had been reduced to 7.0 %. The
manufacturing and services sectors contributions however had increased to 35.8 % and 59.5
% respectively. It must be noted that paddy cultivation activities have been negatively affected
by this strategy, and hence have contributed to the reduction of the agricultural sectors
contribution to the countrys GDP. Examples of the marginalization of the agricultural sector
as a consequence of the rapid growth of the industrial and manufacturing sectors are illustrated
by the experiences of modern industrialized Western countries as well as developing countries
that strive towards industrialization (Stern, 1989; Choo and Ali, 1991). In the context of this
research paper, the assumptions are the likely policy consequences on paddy farmers and
paddy cultivation activities in central Sarawak will be similar to that already experienced by
similar groups in Peninsular Malaysia because Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energys
(SCORE) emphasis on palm oil plantations and the associated activities in the agricultural
component of its strategy. It is argued that the focus on paddy farmers and paddy cultivation
activities is justified as this agricultural sector is responsible for the production of rice, the
staple food of the people in this country.
2.0 Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE)

As the countrys previous development policies have still to adequately address the problems
of uneven development in Malaysia, the idea of regional development through the
establishment of development corridors has been officially launched under the Ninth Malaysia
Plan (2006 to 2010). As such SCORE is the initiative introduced to develop central Sarawak
in the quest to attain a developed status for the state as whole by 2020 through the promotion
of development and economic growth, as well as enhancing the quality of lives of the people
of Sarawak. SCORE encompasses an area of more than 70,000 square kilometres with a
population of about 600,000 people; its establishment in line with the likes of the Northern
Corridor Economic Region (NCER), Iskandar Regional Development (IRD), and the East
Coast Economic Region (ECER) in Peninsular Malaysia, that have been established during
this period to attract global and domestic investments to these areas.
Diagram 1: SCOREs areas and economic activities
405
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
(Source: RECODA, 2015)
Diagram 1 shows the areas covered by SCORE encompassing more than 1,000 km of
coastline, about 8 million hectares of fertile forest land suitable for agriculture, 1.2 million
cubic tonnes of oil reserves, 80 million tonnes of silica sand, and more than 22 million tonnes
of Kaolin China clay needed for manufacturing cosmetics and ceramics (RECODA, 2015).
SCORE also has sources of clean and renewable energy such as hydro electric that is available
at commercially competitive rates. From 2008 until 2030, SCOREs emphasis is on
developing the energy sector and 10 high impact industries that will also benefit small and
medium industries, in line with the objectives of the Ninth Malaysia Plan. As such the
abundance of cheap labour resources can be better utilised and local people could attend
training centres as well as technical colleges that would provide them with the skills needed to
enhance their economic wellbeing through the opportunities provided by SCORE (RECODA,
2015). Hence the socioeconomic gaps between the rural and urban areas will be reduced. To
sustain the early development momentum and success, the Federal and State Governments
have pledged RM66 billion for the construction of hard and soft infrastructures such as ports,
roads, airports, hospitals, educational institutions and other facilities (RECODA, 2015).
Table 1: SCOREs areas and their main industries
Samalaju
The industrial heart of SCORE focuses on heavy and energy intensive
industries. The deep sea Samalaju Port was constructed in 2012 and is
currently operating at a capacity of 9 million tonnes. More than
RM11 billion have been invested by Press Metal, Tokuyama, Asia
Minerals Ltd (AML) and OM Holdings Ltd. A new township catering
for 30,000 residents will be constructed soon equipped with schools,
police station, fire and rescue services, shopping complex, a golf
course and medical facilities.
Mukah
A Biotech Economic Zone for private sector R&D requirements will
be built in Mukah; including those for selected industries such as food
406
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
processing. 26 priority projects have also been identified with public

investments worth about RM4 billion.
Baram and Tunoh

Tourism and resource based industries will be established in both
areas.
Tanjung Manis
Tanjung Manis will be turned into an Industrial Port City and Halal
Hub (with accreditation from HALMAS).
In line with regional development theories, the economic and spatial development in these five
SCORE areas will also result in the development of adjacent areas such as Semop, Balingian,
Selangau, Samarakan, Bakun and Nanga Merit. Hence the communities living in these areas
will also be transformed from living in a rural setting to living in a modern industrialised
setting.
3.0 The effects of SCORE on paddy farmers and paddy cultivation activities in central
Sarawak
According to Chamhuri Siwar and Norshamliza Chamhuri, (2009) the agricultural sector is
subjected to a process whereby agricultural outputs and supplies are provided at low prices to
non-agricultural sectors. Moreover the agricultural sector also pays high rates of taxation used
to finance the activities of non-agricultural sectors whilst simultaneously being forced to buy
agricultural inputs such as pesticides, fertilizers, machineries and others at high prices. Hence
these have negative impacts on the incomes of farmers; resulting in an increase in poverty
amongst them, and subsequently some will migrate to urban areas to search for employment in
non-agricultural sectors.
As the issue of poverty is commonly associated with paddy farmers and paddy cultivation
activities, it is observed that this agricultural sector does not attract todays youths. In Bintulu
for example, the implementation of SCOREs core industries such as in aluminium, silicon, oil
and gas have attracted the youths away from the paddy fields by offering higher wages and the
promise of better lives. Women and those who have been working in the paddy cultivation
activities have also joined the emigration drive; with some switching from tilling the paddy
fields on a full time to a part time basis. In Kuala Tatau, families have also been broken up
with the men working in Bintulu, leaving their wives to work in the paddy fields by
themselves. This situation clearly illustrates how rapid industrialisation has affected not only
the lives of those involved in paddy cultivation but also paddy cultivation as an economic
activity itself (Daniel Ugih, 2014).
The decline in the number of paddy farmers and the reduction of the areas for paddy
cultivation have also led to the abandonment of the traditional berdandang system as
illustrated in Kuala Serupai. This system entails paddy farmers pooling their resources to
prepare their lands for paddy cultivation through the sharing of manual efforts and the
associated agricultural inputs; thus effectively reducing the costs borne by the paddy farmers.
Now they have to hire labourers in addition to buying pesticides and fertilizers; all of which
have led to higher costs. This phenomenon if left unattended would eventually result in
uncultivated and unproductive farmlands (Fauza Ghaffar and Khairulmaini Osman,1995); a
situation known as the de-agriculturalisation of the rural economy (Voon, 1995). It is also
argued that local knowledge on paddy cultivation will eventually be lost if the number of
paddy farmers continue to decline as the knowledge passed down from the generations before
407
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
would no longer be practiced; as currently illustrated by the Ibans in Kuala Tatau (Daniel
Ugih, 2014). Hence effective zoning of paddy cultivation areas is needed to ensure that local
knowledge on the planting of various paddy varieties and methods of paddy cultivation are
sustained well into the future. Indeed SCOREs emphasis on developing the palm oil and
aquaculture industries have led to some paddy cultivation lands to be converted into palm oil
plantations; as evident by the state government-private sector cooperative efforts in Kuala
Tatau (refer to Diagram 1). The rapid development process in Bintulu that has been spurred by
the Samalaju industrial park has resulted in the construction of infrastructure and public
utilities on lands previously used for paddy cultivation; thus changing the original pattern of
land use in the area. As such the implementation of SCOREs core projects in central Sarawak
will permanently change the pattern of land use there. It is envisaged that more lands will
allocated for other sectors instead of for paddy cultivation. This is in line with Chamhuri Siwar
and Norshamliza Chamhuris (2009) observation on the countrys agricultural sector as a
whole whereby the emphasis on in-situ development will not lead to new lands being allocated
for agricultural purposes.
Diagram 2: The conversion of Kuala Tataus paddy cultivation lands into palm oil plantations
4.0 Policy Suggestions
It is important that the positive elements of the traditional way of life of the local people be
maintained as much as possible, whilst ensuring that local knowledge on paddy cultivation be
preserved in the quest for industrialization and urbanization. The social and economic ills
associated with the process of industrialization and urbanization can be reduced if Ellis
(1998) suggestions on household strategies and rural livelihood diversification are adopted.
Through the diversification of activities that can sustain and enhance their social capabilities,
their cultural practices that are associated with paddy cultivation, e.g. the berdandang system,
can be continued; thus enabling them to withstand market pressures. Thus the inclusion of
local paddy farming communities policy inputs in major development programmes as
introduced by SCORE is of utmost importance; more so because of the increased demand for
rice in those areas.
5.0 Conclusion
The experiences of modern industrialised Western countries as well as those in Peninsular

Malaysia have shown that industrialisation and urbanization do have intended and unintended
policy consequences that are beneficial and detrimental in nature. It is ironic that the paddy
cultivation sector that should have been developed to accommodate the increased demand for
rice because of SCOREs implementation is marginalized in various ways. Moreover the
mass emigration of people from this sector to seek employment in the non-agricultural sectors
408
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
will lead to densely populated urban areas, social problems and greater demands for better
infrastructure and public utilities. This begs the question of whether industrialization and
urbanization are indeed the appropriate panacea for problems of uneven development.
6.0 References
Basri Abdul Talib., 2009. Kepentingan dan Masa Depan Sektor Pertanian. Dlm. Nor Aini Hj.
Idris & Ishak Yussof (eds.) Ekonomi Malaysia ke Arah Pembangunan Seimbang. Penerbit
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, p.259-281.
Chamhuri Siwar & Norshamliza Chamhuri., 2005. Transformasi Sektor Pertanian: Isu,
Cabaran dan Prospek ke arah Pertanian Mapan dan Pembasmian Kemiskinan Desa. In Abdul
Hamid Jaafar, Basri Abdul Talib, Kamalrudin Mohd Salleh, et. al (eds.) Kepelbagaian
Peranan Pertanian dan Sumber Alam: Perspektif dan Cabaran. Pusat Pengajian Ekonomi,
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Perniagaan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, pp.1-18.
Chamhuri Siwar & Norshamliza Chamhuri., 2009. Strategi dan Prospek Mencergaskan
Semula Sektor Pertanian Negara. In Nor Aini Hj. Idris & Ishak Yussof (eds.). Ekonomi
Malaysia ke Arah Pembangunan Seimbang. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi,
pp. 282-315.
Chamhuri Siwar, Surtaham Kartin Hassan, & Norshamliza Chamhuri., 2005. Ekonomi
Malaysia (edisi keenam). Petaling Jaya: Pearson Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
Choo, H. and Ali, T., 1991. The Newly lndustralising Economies and Asian Development:
Issues and Options, Asian Development Review, pp.1-25.
Daniel Ugih., 2014. Kelestarian Pertanian Melalui Pengetahuan dan Sistem Budaya: Kajian
Kes Terhadap Pesawah Iban di Kuala Tatau, Bintulu, Sarawak. Tesis Sarjana Sains
Kemasyarakatan. Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang.
Ellis, F., 1998. Household Strategies and Rural Livelihood Diversification. The Journal of
Development Studies, 35(1), pp.1-38.
Fauza A.G. and Khairulmaini O.S.,1995. Values and Development in Malaysian Planning - A
Macro and Micro Perspective. Proceedings of the Fifth Malaysia Singapore Forum, Singapore.
Morshidi Sirat.,1993. Pusat Pertumbuhan Sebagai Strategi Pembangunan Kawasan Luar

Bandar di Sarawak. Jurnal AZAM. IX (1), pp.134-153.
Samsuddin, Shamzaeffa and Asan Ali., 2004. Pertumbuhan, pembangunan dan perubahan
struktur. In Prognosis Pembangunan & Transformasi Struktur. Penerbit Universiti Utara
Malaysia, Sintok, pp. 11-25.
Stern, N., 1989. The Economics of Development. A Survey The Economic Journal, 99
(September), pp. 597-685
RECODA., 2015. What is SCORE? [online] Available

at:<www.recoda.com.my/invest-in-score/what-is-score/> [Accessed 16 June 2015].
409
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
RECODA., 2015. SCORE Areas. [online] Available at

:<www.recoda.com.my/invest-in-score/score-areas/> [Accessed 17 June 2015].
RECODA., 2015. Why SCORE? [online] Available at:<

www.recoda.com.my/invest-in-score/why-score/> [Accessed 18 June 2015].
RECODA., 2015. Progress and Achievements. [online] Available at:

<www.recoda.com.my/invest-in-score/progress-achievements> [Accessed 19 June 2015].
410
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Ambiguous Political System: The Case of Malaysias Hybrid Regime

Siti Zuliha Razali
Pulau Pinang
siti_razali@usm.my
Abstract
Countries that come out of the gray zone during the third wave democratization, as
ambiguous as they may seem politically, may not be a manifestation of a failed
democratization attempt. Rather, their hybrid characteristics, portraying neither a full
democracy nor outright authoritarian practices entrenched in the system, may possibly serve
as a panacea to governing especially in a troubled state. This paper presents an ambiguous
political system that is neither fully democratic nor outright authoritarian. In the discourse of
democratization studies, countries with this type of political system are described as countries
derived from the third wave democratization and are typically viewed as being in the process
of regime change toward democracy. The unconventional political system practiced in
Malaysia defies the claim that the country will undergo a linear and teleological journey under
the democratization process until it reaches the consolidation phase. Proponents of democratic
transition describe a country of this kind as an unstable halfway house. Praised for its high
economic growth and political and social stability, the country has proven to be the anomaly
in democratization studies. Instead of falling apart, Malaysia manages to remain persistent
and resilient in the face of challenges and political turbulence. This paper displays features
that constitute the hybrid configuration of Malaysias political system. These features
serve as forces that sustain the regime. In conclusion, this paper claims that political
configuration of a country defies the conventional theories of how a government should work.
Keywords: third wave democratization, gray zone, hybrid regime, hybrid political
configuration, halfway house, Malaysia
1. Introduction
The last two decades marked a profound trend in the studies of democratization. A
well-known scholar of democratization, Samuel Huntington (1991), came up with a Wave
Theory predicting how democracy is spread throughout the world. The most discussed
wave started in 1974 had swept the shores of many developed and developing countries. In
general, third wave democratization is a theory that assumes a significant number of
non-democratic regimes transitioning to become democratic in a specified period of time. i
Ever since then, this theory has become the benchmark for academics and policymakers
especially in the United States to promote and spread the idea of liberal democracy to the
world.
2. The paradox of democratization paradigm
Third wave democratization ii is teleological in nature. Its premise is based on the
modernization theory that assumes democracy is inevitable once a country has gone through
certain stages of progress. The process assumes a lineal and untroubled relationship between
capitalism and democracy, and tends to alienate other factors such as history, ethnocentricity
and the sensitivity of countries outside the western hemisphere.iii Critics argue that this
conventional assumption based solely on the experience of the Western world ignores the
particular developmental processes of the Third World. More unfortunate, is that proponents
of modernization theories set this platform for others to follow.iv
411
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
As with democratization theories, they used the same tendency to make democracy as the
only political system that is acceptable internationally to serve as a panacea to solve the
problems of governing in any regime.v This is where the problems are realized regarding
Huntingtons Third Wave theory in particular and the democratization paradigm in general.
By overemphasizing the global aspects of democratization, Huntington has ignored actual
causes for democracy that seminally involve the configuration of domestic politics of nation
states outside the western hemisphere.vi
3. The Gray Zone regimes

Thomas Carothers (2002) in his seminal article clearly argued that the transition paradigm has
lost its purpose and should be replaced with a better paradigm that can explain the actual
phenomenon in the new era. The teleological assumption of the transition paradigm has
flopped from its argument when regimes emerged around the world and have stalled in the
process of becoming fully democratic. Instead of finishing the journey of consolidating
democracy, these regimes are stuck in the area that is called the Gray Zone. vii
These countries emerging from the gray zone have varieties of political pattern. One is
commonly known as hybrid regimes.viii The obvious characteristics of these regimes are,
they are partially democratic such as having regular elections and democratic institutions and
at the same time they are constraining the freedom to dissent. One unique attribute of these
regimes is that they are not dysfunctional, rather a functional political system that is
commonly employed by countries in the developing world.ix
Contrary to popular belief of the democratic paradigm championed by Huntington and other
proponents of democracy, this kind of regime with an ambiguous political system is unstable
and will not last, rather, Huntingtons predictions of the halfway housex that can easily
crumble could actually stand and be stable at the same time. To the dismay of democratic
proponents, an ambiguous regime such as Malaysia, with all the democratic preconditions
such as persistent economic growth that produces a broad middle class, high educational and
income levels, and a large industrial working class along with its institutional control system,
has worked in contradiction to the ideas of liberal democracy.
The case of Malaysia, as with many other countries in the developing world, has made
analysts and proponents of democratic transition theories question their paradigm. This paper
argues that the hybrid political system as ambiguous as it seems and claimed by the transition
paradigm as a halfway house that will not stand actually serves as a mechanism that balances,
supports and sustains the regime.
4. Political Hybridity: Analytical Challenges
Does hybrid regime matter? Yes, because it presents the paradox of the democratization
paradigm. It indicates the messiness of democratization linear ideas against the political
realities. These so called ambiguous regimes have been variously described by analysts and
experts of democratization studies as defective, flawed, illiberal, diminished
sub-types of democracy, or more generally, hybrid regime. The democratic obsession
within democratization studies about regime change can be blamed for the lack of rigor in the
study of hybrid regimes and their uniqueness. In addition, the transition paradigm limits
further understanding and reality of regimes in the grey area. These limitations in
understanding how hybrid regimes work should be given some reflection.
412
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
According to Hobson (2003), the assumption that the current status of regimes in the gray
area is only temporary and the idea that they will eventually become either a democracy or
revert back to authoritarianism is problematic. He does not agree that regimes at this stage
should be called democracies, because these regimes do not meet all the definitional criteria
of what a democracy is. For those who assume that these regimes will end up reverting to
authoritarianism, serving the teleological pitfalls and normative judgments, Hobson further
argued that viewing these regimes from the dichotomy of a democracy + elections mindset
obscures the real nature of these entities. Only by removing this mindset can analysts progress
toward a fuller understanding of what these regimes truly are.xi
Merkel (2004), in his analysis, showed that defective democracies are by no means regimes in
transition. They tend to form stable connections to their economic and social structures and
are often seen as considerable parts of the elite population and as an adequate institutional
solution to the specific problems of governing effectively. These regimes will remain for a
long time, he says, as long as there is equilibrium in the system.xii
Brownlee (2007) commented on regimes that are partially democratic and partially autocratic,
instead of being unstable as depicted by Huntingtons halfway house, in fact, become a
fortress not a way station but a way of life. Brownlee also asserted that in order to
explain regime change, regime continuity should be taken into consideration as well. xiii
Bogaards (2009), in his study of hybrid regimes, claimed that the prospect of democratic
consolidation for these kinds of regimes are farfetched; thus, that these regimes must be
considered a type of their own rather than categorized as regimes that are undergoing the
process of transition.xiv
5. Hybrid regime: the Malaysian case
Malaysia is a paradigmatic case of a country with hybrid political setup of a partly democratic
system with authoritarian practices. However, for many years, Malaysia has managed to
endure. Praised for its high economic growth, political and social stability, the country has
proven to be an anomaly in democratization studies. Experts and analysts of
democratization studies have labelled the regime in Malaysia as a semi-democracy or
quasi-democracy or flawed and partly-free.xv The most general term given is hybrid
regime, which portrays the common and neutral description of regime studies on Malaysia.
These categorizations are unconventional to what is accepted as a normal political system.
Malaysias hybrid regime stands for the political system which is labelled as neither
democratic nor authoritarian, despite embodying both democratic and authoritarian
characteristics. Crouch (1996) on his analysis about regime in Malaysia, argued that the
democratic elements and authoritarian support system of a hybrid political system do not
necessarily contradict each other rather, this odd political setup can be mutually supportive.
According to Crouch, Juan Linzed claimed that these ambiguous political systems cannot
be adequately understood as a kind of regime that is situated at the midpoint along a
continuum between democracy and an authoritarian system. Rather, these regimes should be
understood as their own kind, with peculiar characteristics that distinguish them from either a
democracy or an authoritarian system.xvi
Dan Slater (2009) argued that in order to study a regime, one must directly observe how stable
and resilient to challenges and crises those regimes have proven to be over time. Slater
413
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
described Malaysia as a regime with endurance capacity; not because it has lasted more than
five decades, but that it is durable because it has shown a remarkable capacity to manage
conflicts.xvii
6. Hybrid Political Configuration in Malaysia: the tools

The author argues in this paper that different political setups with hybrid elements of
democracy and authoritarian attributes work differently in regimes around the globe. In
Malaysias hybrid political system, the political configuration shows how the positive
components of democratic principles such as electoral institution, the internet and social
media, peaceful social mobilization and elite strategies work along with authoritarian
elements such as, electoral gerrymandering, institutionalized control system, strong state and
dominant party, and patron-clientele. These democratic and authoritarian attributes function
as forces that uphold the regime and sustain it.
Figure 1: Hybrid Political Configuration in Malaysia
6.1 Electoral Institution

The electoral system in Malaysia is Janus faced. Analysts and critics argue that the
electoral system in Malaysia may appear to be a faade, but it is important for the regimes
incumbency. The Malay-dominated ruling elite constructed the electoral system to virtually
ensure that they could not be removed from power. On the other hand, a manipulated election
can open opportunities for opposition parties to contest the incumbent and to give a strong
competition. Recent developments in Malaysias general elections in 2008 and 2013 show
that even in unfair environment elections in Malaysia are competitive enough to allow for a
change of government and possibility of regime change too. However, the transfer of power
in Malaysia depends very much on the existence and persistence of the hybrid mechanism
entrenched in the political system.
6.2 Institutions of Control in Malaysia
414
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The control apparatus in a hybrid political system is deeply institutionalized. Milton Esman
(1973) termed this kind of control system as being institutionalized dominant and suggested
that this method is basically a coercive network of controls with the purpose of maintaining
hegemony and that it is often highly sophisticated and deeply institutionalized.xviii
It is not just the electoral system that favors the incumbent government, who has a wide range
of political controls to restrict opposition parties and dissidents. The mechanism of control
serves as a state apparatus to protect the ruling government from the opposition parties
interference on governments business. Thus, these control mechanisms such as Internal
Security Act (ISA) and Sedition Act and many others are institutionalized, and are often
justified as necessary for maintaining order and stability in the plural society in Malaysia.
These control mechanisms that were a winning situation for the incumbent regime,
nevertheless, were a setback to the democratization process. However, despite the states
acquisition of authoritarian powers, the system was far from fully authoritarian. The positive
aspects of hybrid political configuration such as peaceful social mobilization have worked to
successfully demand the repeal of ISA and other draconian acts. In September 2011,
Malaysias 6th premier, Najib Tun Razak, had pledged to repeal ISA and three other
emergency declarations.xix This indicates that the government has responded to the demand
of the people that is to fulfill and protect their basic rights.
6.3 Strong State and Dominant One Party System
Jesudason (1995) claimed that the position of the state in Malaysia as a statist democracy that
represents the situation where power holders have much of the leverage in determining the
rules of political competition. This situation allows the incumbents to entrench their
dominance in the society without employing a high degree of coercion. xx This point is
interesting because the concept of a state in Malaysia overtook Webers definition of a
legitimate use of physical force; hence, it marks the characteristics of Malaysias political
system of semi-authoritarian.xxi
Malaysia is a highly institutionalized hybrid regime. According to Mauzy (2006), one of the
reasons for the resilience of the dominating party in Malaysia, the United Malay National
Organization (i.e., UMNO), is that it is a well-institutionalized party that reaches down
through an extensive system of branch chapters and leads up to district, state, and national
organizations.xxii Pempel in his work (1990), claimed that dominant parties are dynamic
organizations that do not necessarily decline over time. They function as an institution that
shapes the social structure as much as they are constrained by it. They are capable of creating
new social bases of support, or abandoning old ones in order to stay in power.xxiii
One characteristic of the hybrid regime in Malaysia is that there is a blurring of the line
between the party and the state; when Malaysians talk about the party, we usually mean the
state and the government.
6.4 Patron Clientele

In Malaysias hybrid political scenario, Gomez and Jomo (1999) claimed that the UMNO-led
Barisan Nasional (BN) dominant party has made significant achievements to sustain its
central power. This is due to its effectiveness in responding to the grievances of its key
constituents -- the voters. Their key advantage is help with the masses from their
415
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
patron-clientele relationships. UMNO can be assured by its political culture of support,

especially the ethnic Malays who help the dominant party sustain its political power. The
mechanism that works in the Malaysian hybrid system is that the dominant party, UMNO,
provides a patron-clientele relationship to the Malays. This is considered a legitimate practice
in the political system. In response, the Malays vote for them in general elections.xxiv
To provide patronage obligations, UMNO and some of the other Barisan Nasional parties are
deeply engaged in business and have cultivated close and overlapping ties with the leaders of
business and commerce. Political patronage and clientelism play a prominent role in
Malaysias hybrid system. The patron-clientele networks are carefully weaved by the state
through its apparatus in the name of fixing the imbalances in the socio-economic structure.
The paradox is that, on one hand, state intervention reasonably promotes economic growth
and political competition (mistakenly assumed as democracy); and on the other hand, state
intervention is a sign of deeper authoritarianism.xxv
6.5 Internet and New Social Media
Controlling laws that limit civil rights and freedom of the people are not totally hopeless
when, at the same time, the Internet media is free from regulation. In Malaysia, the term
netizens is given to those in the society who rely on social media for news and
communication because the conventional print and broadcast media is tightly controlled by
the ruling government. This condition enables the people to get alternative media sources for
information and freedom of expression. Grievances among the Malaysian communities were
inflamed through an unprecedented intensity of Internet usage and new social media (e.g.,
bloggers, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and others). The Internet media has become the most
important source of independent political information in Malaysia.
The advantage to netizens in Malaysia is that the Internet is not controlled by the
government. Thanks to the promise made during Mahathirs era not to impose any control on
Internet communications media. This was done for the sake of attracting foreign direct
investments into Malaysia. This loophole has worked to the advantage of Malaysians,
especially those in the opposition parties who seek alternative media to disseminate their
information. The Internet and new social media so far are a positive means of social
movements in Malaysia.
6.6 Peaceful Social Movement

Protest movements are relatively new in Malaysias political scenario. Recent protest
movements such as BERSIHxxvi and Hindu Rights Action Force (HINDRAF)xxvii that took
place not long ago, were the upshot of the Reformasi movement in the late 1990s. Starting
with Reformasi, social movements in Malaysia were held in a peaceful manner. The aim is to
carry a message to the government about the peoples frustration on the governments
wrongdoing and ineffective governing. Political analysts xxviii have called this development in
social mobilization as the new politics in Malaysia. The issues are no longer centered on
communal politics but more on social justice and good governance.
Hybrid political system has laid out ground for peoples participation in the form of peaceful
protest. Even though democracy is partially practiced it signifies positive hope for further
development that facilitates mobilization in the near future.
6.7 Elite Strategies
416
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
According to transition theories, strategies of the elites involve negotiated agreements

between ruling elites and opposition elites, which move common perceptions of self-interest
toward accepting democracy as the best possible regime form under given conditions.
However, elite strategies for democratization do not apply to Malaysia, whose ruling elites are
well-known for their strength and cohesiveness. Analysts claim that the patronage-system
practice in Malaysia contributes to the elites cohesiveness and their support of the dominant
party, whose crucial task is to maintain the loyalties of in-groups by guaranteeing their
long-term interests.xxix
However, one should not underestimate the role of agency, specifically the political elite, in
determining how the regime works in Malaysia. The elites bargained during the
consociational era in Malaysias political collapse during the May 13, 1969 ethnic riots,
which was one of the most crucial reasons the Malay ruling elite sought an alternative mode
of regime maintenance. The strategies have shifted toward a more hegemonic control which
led to the unambiguous UMNO-led Malay dominance.xxx
7. Conclusion
This article has highlighted the mechanisms of a hybrid regime that surpass the unstable
conditions theorized by the proponents of democratic transition theorists. The problems with
democratization and regime transition theories are when they focus too much on issues of
regimes transitioning to democracy and consolidation, rather than putting attention on how the
regimes actually work even without being fully democratic.
This paper reminds us that even partially practiced democratic attributes such as elections,
internet and social media, social mobilization and elite strategies, can possibly provide an
institutional framework that is capable of making us optimist on the prospect for democratic
openings and possible regime change. On the other hand, it also remind us that
semi-authoritarian traits such as control system, electoral gerrymandering, strong state and
dominant one party, and its patron clientele strategy, can hinder democratic openings and thus
sustain the regime.
8. References
*
Huntington, Samuel P., 1991. The Third Wave Democratization in the Late Twentieth
Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
*
Democracy Third wave spread following development of regime transition in South Europe
and Latin America, then spread around the globe in Asia starting in the late 1980s and into the
1990s.
*
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 1959. Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic
Development and Political Legitimacy, American Political Science Review, 53; Almond,
Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba, 1963. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in
Five Nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ; Moore, Barrington, 1966. Social
Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World.
Boston: Beacon Press.
*
Grugel, Jean, 2002. Democratization: An Introduction. New York: Palgrave, p.49.
*
I used the term regime and system interchangeably in the discussion, because the concept
of regimes in my study presents the method or a system of government. It also means a state
system or a political system.
*
Opcit, pp. 35-36
*
Carothers, Thomas, 2002. The End of the Transition Paradigm. Journal of Democracy, 13,
no. 1, pp. 5-21.
417
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
*
See Diamond, Larry, 2002. Thinking about Hybrid Regimes, Journal of Democracy,
13, no. 2, pp. 21-35 and Linde, Jonas, 2009. Into the Gray Zone: the Recent Trend of
Hybridization of Political Regimes, The Quality of Government Institute Department of
Political Science (Working paper Series, University of Gothenburg, Sweden).
*
Ibid.
*
In his book (1991) Samuel Huntington and others argued that liberalized authoritarianism
was a halfway house [that] cannot stand, indication of a fragile regime that will not last.
*
Hobson, Christopher, 2003. Rethinking Democracy: the End of Democratic Transition?
Melbourne Journal of Politics, 29, pp. 56-67.
*
Merkel, Wolfgang, 2004. Embedded and Defective Democracies. Democratization, 11,
no. 5, pp. 33-58.
*
Brownlee, Jason, 2007. Authoritarian in an Age of Democratization. New York:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 16-17.
*
Bogaards, Matthijs, 2009. How to Classify Hybrid Regimes? Defective Democracy and
Electoral Authoritarianism. Democratization, 16, pp. 399-423.
*
See William Case, 1993. Semi-Democracy in Malaysia: Withstanding the Pressures for
Regime Change. Pacific Affairs, 66, no. 2, pp. 183-205; Zakaria Hj. Ahmad, 1989.
Malaysia: quasi-Democracy in a divided Society, in Democracy in Developing Countries:
Asia, ed. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset. Boulder, CO: Lynne
Rienner Publishers, pp. 347-81; The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) has categorized
Malaysia as a flawed democracy, ranking 81 in 2007; The Freedom House, a renowned
organization, has ranked Malaysia as partly free on the rating of 4 in the countrys level
of civil liberties in 2011.
*
Crouch, Harold A., 1996. Government and Society in Malaysia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, p. 5.
*
Slater, Dan, 2009. State Power and Staying Power: Institutional Origins and Durable
Authoritarianism in Malaysia and Singapore (Paper presented at mini-conference on
Comparing Past and Present, Comparative Historical Section of the ASA, Berkeley.
*
Esman, Milton, 1973. The Management of Communal Conflict. Public Policy, xii, pp.
49-78.
*
The Star [online] 15 September 2011. Available at:
http://www.thestar.com.my/story/?sec=nation&file=%2f2011%2f9%2f15%2fnation%2f2011
0915205714
*
Jesudason, James, 1995. Statist Democracy and the Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia. The
Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 33, no. 3, pp. 335-356.
*
Marina Ottaway (2003) gives the concept semi-authoritarian to describe the ambiguous
regimes that result from a failed transition process.
*
Mauzy, Diane K., 2006. The Challenge to Democracy: Singapores and Malaysias
Resilient Hybrid Regime. Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 2, no. 2, pp. 47-68.
*
Pempel, T.J., 1990. Conclusion: One-party Dominance and the Creation of Regimes, in
Uncommon Democracies: the One-Party Dominant Regimes, ed. T. J. Pempel. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, p. 352.
*
Gomez , Edmund Terence and Jomo K. S. 1999. Malaysias Political Economy: Politics,
Patronage and Profits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 8.
*
Ibid.
*
Clean in English translation is a peoples movement that demands for Clean and Fair
Elections from the government. The movement has held four rallies since 2006, when their
demands have not been met by the Election Commission.
*
HINDRAF is a protest movement mainly involving the Indian community in Malaysia
demanding governments attention on their plight on social justice.
418
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
*
See Francis Loh Kok Wah and Johan Saravanamuttu, 2003. New Politics in Malaysia,
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies and Weiss, M. L., 2009. Edging Toward a New
Politics in Malaysia: Civil Society at the Gate? Asian Survey, 49 (5), 741-758.
*
Smith, Benjamin, 2005. Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and
Persistence under Single Party Rule. World Politics, 57, no. 3, pp. 421-451.
*
Hwang, In-won, 2003. Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State Under Mahathir.
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, p. 344.
419
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
LABOUR ECONOMICS
420
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Term Time Employment among Tertiary Students: Evidence from

Tong Sheng TAN a, Eivon LIM b, Yiing Jia LOKE c

School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: a bobo.1209tan@hotmail.com , b eivon_lim@hotmail.co.uk
c
Email: yjloke@usm.my
Abstract
It is a common phenomenon for tertiary students to take up part-time employment during

vacation break. However, part-time employment during term-time is less common as it
demands efficient time management by students; whereby students need to juggle between
fulfilling academic needs, university extra-curricular activities requirements and responsibility
towards part-time job. Hence, given the added pressure of time due to part-time employment,
the premise of the study is that financial hardship could be one of the key drivers that compel
students to work during term time. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the prevalence
of term-time employment among tertiary students and to identify the factors that determine
students decision to take up part-time employment during term time. The analysis is based
on the sample size of 400 Universiti Sains Malaysias undergraduate students. Logistic
regression is used to determine the factors that can significantly affect the likelihood of
students working during term time. It is found that only 20.5% of the students are involved
in term time employment. Gender, year of study and family income are amongst the
significant factors that affect students likelihood to work during term time. Interestingly,
financial hardship is not a significant factor but students financial needs to maintain their
desired lifestyle contribute positively to students working part time during term time. On the
other hand, it is evident that time management and academic pressures during term time keep
students away from employment during term time. Lastly, the findings of the study indicate
that majority of the tertiary students in the public university are quite comfortable with their
financial status unlike students from other countries such as U.K, Australia and U.S.A who
have to take up part-time employment to alleviate their financial hardship during their tertiary
studies.
Keywords: student employment; part-time job; time management; youth; term-time

employment
1. Introduction
According to the standard definition used in Employment (Amendment) Act 2012 in

Malaysia, part-time employee is defined as a person whose average working hours per week
is one that is agreed between him and his employer and is generally more than 30% but do not
Corresponding author
421
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
exceed 70% of the normal working hours per week compared to a full-time employee in a
similar capacity and in the same enterprise.
It is not a new phenomenon for full-time undergraduates to take up part-time employment. In

fact, there is an increasing trend of students taking up part-time employment in developed
countries such as the U.S.A., U.K, Australia and European countries (inter alia, Lucas and
Lammont, 1998; Watts and Pickering, 2000; Curtis and Lucas, 2001; Barron, 2006;
Scott-Kayton, 2012). Apart from providing some form of financial relief to students,
part-time employment create opportunities for students to link education with work
experiences and help students to be familiar with work demands and for them to reflect on
those experiences (Watts and Pickering, 2000). However, there are also arguments against
part-time employment as it is found to have negative effects on students academic
performance. For example, according to Gil (2014), Cambridge and Oxford University
discourage students from term-time employment and it should not be permitted except under
exceptional circumstances.
The decision and impetus for students to take up part-time employment is multifaceted and
complex. The rising cost of education, high unemployment among graduates and lack of
soft skills could be some of the factors that motivate students to take up part-time
employment. While part-time employment among undergraduates is a common
phenomenon in other countries, little is known about part-time employment among Malaysian
undergraduates particularly term time employment.
Term-time employment refers to part-time jobs that are undertaken during semester time
where active lectures and academic work is taking place. This study focuses on term-time
employment as it is in the interest to investigate students' time management and the
significant factors that drive students to juggle between academic demands and work
demands. As term-time employment results in added pressure on time, the premise of the
study is that financial hardship could be the key driver that compels students to work during
term time.
2. Insights from the Literature

The theoretical insights to understanding undergraduates' decision to undertake term-time
employment can be drawn from the Zero-sum Model (Coleman, 1961) and Theory of Social
Embeddedness (Granovatter, 1985). Using the zero-sum model, Coleman (1961) explained
that there is a trade-off between working hours and academic pursuits. Hence, according to
zero-sum model, part-time employment results in less time spent on school work or
involvement in school activities. On the other hand, the theory of social embeddedness
shows that part-time employment create a social network for a student beyond their academic
social network and exposes them to a different network that can have effects on an
undergraduate's social development, perceptions and characteristics.
Empirically, the past studies have shown that part-time employment among students can be
affected by four categories of factors such as personal background, personal financial status,
personal skill development and personal satisfaction.
Variables in personal background category include gender, academic major and year of study.
Recent findings show that female students are more likely to engage in part-time employment
compared to the males (Darmody and Smith, 2008; Morrison, 2009) while earlier studies
found males to be more likely to undertake part-time employment (Steinberg et al., 1982;
422
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mortimer et al., 1992). There is limited research that has taken into account the effects of
academic major on part-time employment. However, given the difference in the course
work load among different academic majors, this factor has been added into this study.
There were mixed results in terms of the influence of year of study on part-time employment.
While McCormick et al. (2010) found that first year students are more likely to work longer
hours than other year students, Metacalfe (2001) found that 46% of third year students work
part time across the four U.K universities that were surveyed in the study.
In the existing literature, personal financial status is measured by variables such as family
income, self financial hardship, the need to support family and students' debt.
Undergraduates from low family income have consistently been found to be more likely to
take up part-time employment (Hughes and Mallette, 2003; Hunt et al., 2004). In addition,
existing evidence shows that the need to meet basic necessities or living costs such as food
and accommodation also drives students to be engaged in part-time employment (Callender
and Kemp, 2000; Price et al., 2000; Oakey et al., 2003). The need to take up part-time
employment to finance their basic living costs is an indicator of self financial hardship. On the
other hand, Hunt et al., (2004) have found that students work part-time to prevent themselves
from being saddled with debt upon graduation. This is particularly pertinent in light of
rising tuition fees.
There are many benefits that students gain from working part-time such as self- development
(Curtis and Shani, 2002), better time management skill (Mathei and Gilmore, 2005),
communication skill and team work (Lucas and Lammont, 1998) and leadership and
negotiation skills (Wigmall, 2007). All these contribute positively to the students personal
and career development and students are drawn to take up part-time employment due to these
reasons.
Lastly, personal satisfaction derived from part-time employment was also found to be
significant in undergraduates decision to take up part-time employment. Part-time
employment is found to help students maintain their desired need and lifestyle consumption
(Barke et al., 2000; Hodgson and Spours, 2001; Moreau and Leathwood, 2006).
3. Model and Data
Model
The primary objective of the study is to investigate if an undergraduate is engaging in
part-time employment during term-time. Therefore, the employment status of the
undergraduate is the dependent variable and it is a binary dummy variable whereby the
respondent (undergraduate) works part-time during term-time or otherwise. Logistic
regression (Logit) model is an appropriate model to analyse the factors that influence the
respondents decision to work part-time or otherwise. In general, the logit model can be
written as follows:
P
log i X i (1)
1 P
where,
P denotes the probability of working part time during term-time. P takes the value of 1 if the
respondent works part-time and the value 0 if respondent does not work part-time. i
423
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
denotes the coefficient of the explanatory variables while Xi refers to the explanatory
variables. is the stochastic disturbance term of the regression.
Data
The dataset used in this study is obtained from a survey which was carried out between
December 2014 and February 2015. The target respondents are undergraduates from
Universiti Sains Malaysia. Random stratified sampling was used whereby the sample was
stratified according to year of study, academic major and gender to reflect a better
representation of the undergraduates in Universiti Sains Malaysia. A total of 400
undergraduates participated in the survey. A self-administered questionnaire was used and
distributed randomly to the undergraduates based on the stratified sampling.
Variables
The explanatory variables are divided into three broad categories: personal background,
personal financial status, perception and attitude towards life. In personal background
variables that were included are gender, ethnicity, academic major and year of study. On the
other hand, personal financial status are measured by the following variables such as family
income, percentage of financing obtained from parents and study loan, number of dependents
that parents have to support and if the respondent agrees that they experience financial
hardship.
Adequacy of time, amount of time spent on academic matters, respondents perception

towards working part-time, respondents preferences for other leisure activities to work and
respondents perception of part-time work to finance their desired lifestyle constitute factors
under the category of perception and attitude towards life. All these variables are considered
in the model.
Characteristics of survey respondents

Table 1 describes the variable definition and presents the summary statistics of the survey
respondents. Of the 400 respondents, only 20.5% (82) respondents are involved in
term-time employment. From cursory analysis, it is found that males (51.8%) are more
likely to take up term-time employment compared to females. Apart from gender effects, a
respondent who is in the third or final year of study (senior) are more likely to undertake
term-time employment as 65.1% of those who work are seniors while seniors only make up
48.6% of the overall sample. Respondents who agree that they experience financial hardship
and agree that part-time work help them to maintain their desired lifestyle are found to be
more likely to work part-time than those who think otherwise. Furthermore, respondents
who laments that they do not have adequate time to work and have negative perception
towards part-time work are more likely to not work during term time. Finally, on average
respondents spend 39% of time a week on academic matters and those who spend less time on
academic matters (35.3%) are more likely to work part-time while those who do not work
part-time spend on average longer hours on academic matters (40.7 %).
4. Empirical analysis
Table 2 presents the estimates of logit regression (column2) and the odds ratio of the
explanatory variables (column 4). Hosmer-Lemeshow test (2 =11.89) and likelihood ratio
statistics (-171.1564) indicate that the model is good fit. Further, it is found that the model
can correctly predict 79.5% of the outcomes in the sample.
424
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Overall, it is found that gender, year of study, family income, personal preference for leisure
activities to working, perception that part-time work helps to sustain respondent's desired
lifestyle and amount of time spent on academic matters are significant predictors to the
decision for respondents to undertake term-time employment. Ethnicity, academic major,
number of dependents, financial hardship and adequacy of time to work are found to be not
significant in determining the likelihood of respondents to undertake term-time employment.
425
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 1: Summary statistics of survey respondents (mean)
Undergraduates Undergraduates who

who work during do not work during Total sample
Variables Description
term-time term-time (n=400)
(n1=82) (n2=318)
Binary variables (1=yes; 0=no)
Male The respondent is a male 51.8 30.1 34.4
Chinese The respondent is a Chinese 53.7 12.6 46.5
Indian The respondent is an Indian 8.5 44.8 11.7
Malay* The respondent is a Malay 37.8 42.9 41.8
Science The respondent is a Science major 44.6 43.3 43.4
Senior The respondent is in the 3rd or final year 65.1 44.5 48.6
Low The respondent's parents' monthly income is below RM3000 28.9 18.5 20.5
Mid* The respondents' parents' monthly income is between RM3001 to 63.9 73.3 72.1
RM7000
High The respondents' parents' monthly income is above RM7000 7.2 8.2 7.7
Financial The respondent faces financial hardship 24.1 19.4 20.2
Time The respondent has inadequate time to work 48.2 58.3 56.1
Negative The respondent has negative perception towards part-time 16.9 25.7 23.7
employment
Leisure The respondent prefers leisure actives to work 27.7 49.2 44.6
Lifestyle The respondent agrees that working helps to sustain his desired 34.9 14.1 18.2
lifestyle
Continuous variables
Loan The percentage of financing from parents and study loan 76.2 74.9 75.1
Dependents Number of family members who depends of parents' support 3.2 3.2 3.2
Academic The percentage of time spent per week on academic matters 35.3 40.7 39.6
* denotes base(reference) variable
426
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 2: Estimates and Odds ratio of the Logistic Model

Variables Coefficients Std. Error Odds ratio (e)
estimates ()
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Male 0.716** 0.287 2.046
Chinese 0.235 0.327 1.265
Indian -0.318 0.518 0.728
Science -0.195 0.284 0.823
Senior 0.824*** 0.289 2.279
Loan 0.00004 0.004 1.000
Low 0.622* 0.334 1.862
High -0.620* 0.602 0.538
Dependents 0.099 0.077 1.104
Financial 0.091 0.374 1.095
Time -0.341 0.291 0.711
Negative -0.487 0.384 0.614
Leisure -0.883*** 0.308 0.413
Lifestyle 1.303*** 0.329 3.679
Academic -0.015* 0.009 0.985
Constant -1.677 0.645 0.187
*** denotes 1% significance level, ** denotes 5% significance level and * denotes 10% significance level
In terms of personal background, gender and year of study is found to have significant
effect on the likelihood of a respondent undertaking term-time employment. It is found
that a male respondent (2.046 times) and a senior year (2.279 times) respondent are more
likely to take up term-time employment compared to a female and junior year respondent.
On the other hand, ethnicity and academic major have no statistical significance on the
decision to undertake term-time employment.
Among the three variables that measure personal financial status, only family income is
found to play a significant role in a respondent's decision to undertake term-time
employment. A respondent from low income family is more likely to take up term-time
employment compared to a respondent from middle income family. Conversely, a
respondent from high income family is less likely to undertake term-time employment
compared to a respondent from a middle income family. It is interesting to note that
financial hardship is not a significant predictor. This is because majority of the
respondents do not experience financial hardship (79.8%) as their basic needs are taken
care of.
The percentage of time spent on academic matters is found to have significant effect on
respondents' decision to undertake term-time employment. For every 1% increase in the
time spent a week on academic matters, the odds for a respondent to engage in term-time
employment falls by 0.985 times. However, perception of inadequacy of time to work does
not have statistical significance on the decision to undertake term-time employment. In
other words, it appears that time spent on academic matters is a more significant predictor
that mere perception of adequacy of time to work.
427
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
A respondent who prefers to spend his time on leisure activities to work decreases the odds
of engaging in term-time employment by 0.413 times. On the other hand, respondents
who agree that term-time employment helps them to finance their desired lifestyle are
more likely to undertake term-time employment. Overall, the results corroborates with
existing studies.
5. Conclusions
This paper sets out to investigate the factors that will have significant effects on
undergraduates' decision to undertake term-time employment. The decision to undertake
term-time employment would require careful time management as undergraduates have to
juggle between academic demands, university activities and work demands. As such, the
initial premise of the study is that financial factor is one of the significant factors that will
compel undergraduates to undertake term-time employment. However, the findings show
that
while family income plays a role in respondents' decision to undertake term-time
employment, the majority of the undergraduates are quite comfortable with their financial
well-being and as such financial hardship does not appear to be a significant predictor to
term-time employment. As a matter of fact, this indicates that the financial student aid
provided by the government viz. PTPTN is helpful in alleviating financial woes of the
students and enabling them to concentrate on their academic studies during term-time.
On another note, the findings show that undergraduates' attitude towards life have
significant effects on their decision to undertake term-time employment. For example,
undergraduates clearly reflect the Generation-Y's characteristics whereby they prefer
leisure activities to work and perceive term-time employment as their means to sustain
their desired lifestyle and consumption. Furthermore, it is also clear academic work puts
a strain on undergraduates time and hinders them from undertaking term-time
employment.
Lastly, as little is known about the status of term-time employment among undergraduates
in Malaysia, this paper represents one of the first attempts to definitively and
econometrically determining the role of undergraduates' personal background, financial
factors and lifestyle in affecting their decision to undertake term-time employment.
References
Barke, M., Braidford, P., Houston, M., Hunt, A., Lincoln, I., Morphet, C., Stone, I. and
Walker, A., 2000. Students in the Labour Market: nature, extent and implications of
term-time employment among University of Northumbria undergraduates (Vol. 215). Great
Britain, Department for Education and Employment.
Barron, P.E., 2006, October. The reasons and benefits of working part-time whilst
studying: developing an understanding of part-time working amongst hospitality and
tourism students at an Australian university. In 2006 Silver Anniversary ISTTE Conference,
Imagining the Future of Travel and Tourism Education (pp. 12-14).
428
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Callender, C. and Kemp, M., 2000. Changing student finances: Income, expenditure and
take-up of student loans among full-and part-time higher education students in 1998/9.
Coleman, J.S., 1961. The adolescent society.
Curtis, S. and Lucas, R., 2001. A coincidence of needs? Employers and full-time students.
Employee relations, 23(1), pp.38-54.
Curtis, S. and Shani, N., 2002. The effect of taking paid employment during term-time on
students' academic studies. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 26(2), pp.129-138.
Darmody, M. and Smyth, E., 2008. Fulltime students? Termtime employment among
higher education students in Ireland. Journal of Education and Work, 21(4), pp.349-362.
Gil, N., 2014. One in seven students work full-time while they study. The Guardian, 11.
http://www.theguardian.com/education/2014/aug/11/students-work-part-time-employabilit
y
Granovetter, M., 1985. Economic action and social structure: the problem of
embeddedness. American journal of sociology, pp.481-510.
Hodgson, A. and Spours, K., 2001. Part-time work and full-time education in the UK: The
emergence of a curriculum and policy issue. Journal of education and work, 14(3),
pp.373-388.
Price, H., Rimmington, M., Readhead-Platt, T. and Williams, L., 2000. Hospitality Adding
Value for Education (HAVE).
Hughes, P. and Mallette, B.I., 2003. A survey of student term-time employment: Choosing
subpopulations for further study. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 33(3), p.3.
Hunt, A., Lincoln, I. and Walker, A., 2004. Term-time employment and academic
attainment: evidence from a large-scale survey of undergraduates at Northumbria
University. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 28(1), pp.3-18.
Lucas, R. and Lammont, N., 1998. Combining Work and Study: an empirical study of full
time students in school, college and university. Journal of education and work, 11(1),
pp.41-56.
Manthei, R.J. and Gilmore, A., 2005. The effect of paid employment on university
students' lives. Education+ Training, 47(3), pp.202-215.
McCormick, A.C., Moore III, J.V. and Kuh, G.D., 2010. Working during college.
Understanding the working college student: New research and its implications for policy
and practice, p.179.
429
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Metcalfe, H., 2001. Increasing inequality in higher education: The role of term-time
working. Discussion Paper No. 186. London: National Institute of Economic Research.
Moreau, M.P. and Leathwood, C., 2006. Balancing paid work and studies: working (class)
students in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 31(1), pp.23-42.
Morrison, K., 2009. Higher education students in part-time work in a Chinese city.
Evaluation & research in education, 22(2-4), pp.121-144.
Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M., Shanahan, M. and Ryu, S., 1992. Work experience, mental
health, and behavioral adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
2(1), pp.25-57.
Oakey, D., Oleksik, G. and Surridge, P., 2003. Working for a degree, the role of
employment in contemporary student life. In SRHE Annual Conference (pp. 10-12).
Scott-Clayton, J., 2012. What explains trends in labor supply among US undergraduates,
1970-2009? (No. w17744). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Steinberg, L.D., Greenberger, E., Garduque, L. and McAuliffe, S., 1982. High school
students in the labor force: Some costs and benefits to schooling and learning. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis, pp.363-372.
Watts, C. and Pickering, A., 2000. Pay as you learn: student employment and academic
progress. Education+ Training, 42(3), pp.129-135.
Wignall, A., 2007. Earn while you learn and reap extra benefits. The Guardian.
430
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Influence of Need for Achievement and Risk Propensity on Income

Increasing Earnings Management
Eko Widodo Lo
Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi YKPN
Jalan Seturan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 55281
Mobile Phone: 081568243245
Office Telephone: +62 274 486321; Fax: +62 274 486155
e-mail address: ewidodolo@gmail.com
Abstract
The aim of this research is to investigate the influence of need for achievement and risk
propensity on income increasing earnings management. This research uses questionnaires to
measure the variables. The validity and reliability of questionnaires are tested by factor
analysis and Cronbachs Alpha. Sample consists of students of accounting department in a
school of business in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Research hypotheses are tested by multiple
regression analysis. Job variable is used as a control variable in the regression model.
Results of factor analysis show that five questions of earnings management are valid. Four
questions of need for achievement and two questions of risk propensity are valid.
Cronbachs Alphas of these questions indicate that they are reliable. Means of question
scores are used for testing the hypotheses. Results of multiple regression analysis show that
regression coefficient of need for achievement is positive, but it is not significant.
Regression coefficient of risk propensity is positive and significant. The regression model
that is used for testing the hypotheses fulfills four classical assumptions. Therefore, there are
two conclusions of this research. First, need for achievement does not positively influence
income increasing earnings management. Second, risk propensity positively influences
income increasing earnings management. This study has three contributions. First, this
research tries to relate need for achievement and risk propensity to income increasing
earnings management. This attempts to add new theoretical explanations of earnings
management behavior. Second, this study develops some new question items for measuring
income increasing earnings management behavior. Third, conclusions of this research can
be used in determining appropriate psychological characteristics of managers or accountants
for certain accounting policies.
Keywords: Need for achievement; Risk propensity; Earnings management
1. Introduction
Research that relates individuals characteristics to earnings management is rare. Scott

(2012) stated that earnings management is the choice by a manager of accounting policies or
real actions that affect earnings to achieve some specific reported earnings objectives. Most
research of earnings management focus on financial views, but earnings management
reflects the interest of accountants rather than real operating outcome of firms. It is important
to investigate the characteristics of accountants in relation to earnings management
behavior.
431
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
This research uses psychological characteristics of accountants, that views accountants as

individuals with unique values, attitudes, and needs that drive them and differ them from
non-accountants. The premise is that an individuals needs, drives, beliefs, and values are the
main determinants of behavior. This school of thought focuses on some psychological
characteristics such as risk taking propensity and need for achievement. It is believed that
psychological characteristics of accountants will influence their accounting decision making
such as earnings management decision. Therefore, it is very interesting to investigate the
influence of risk propensity and need for achievement on income increasing earnings
management.
This research has three contributions. First is theoretical contribution. This study tries to
relate need for achievement and risk propensity to income increasing earnings management.
This research attempts to add a new theoretical explanation of earnings management
behavior. Second is methodology contribution. This research develops some question items
for measuring income increasing earnings management behavior. Third is practical
implication contribution. Results of data analysis and conclusion of this research can be used
in determining appropriate psychological characteristics of managers or accountants for
certain accounting policies.
2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development
Risk propensity is the inclination to take or to avoid risks in an uncertain decision making
environment. Risk propensity is a tendency to take risky actions. Individuals with high-risk
propensity are more likely to take a risky action. Firm accountants are assigned to manage
firm accounting system. They make decisions about accounting methods and estimates that
are used. They must consider the effect of choosing certain accounting methods and
accounting estimation policies. And, there are risks in decisions that they have made. Master
and Deines (2011) investigated the difference in risk taking propensity between
non-certificated and certificated controllers. They found that there was a significant
difference between these groups. They also found that there was a difference in risk-taking
propensity between female and male controllers.
Need for achievement is a part of McClelands theory of needs. Need for achievement is the
drive to excel, to achieve a set of standards, and to strive to succeed (Robins and Judge,
2009). Need for achievement is the personal striving of individuals to attain goals within
their social environment (Cassidy and Lynn, 1989). Islahuzzaman (2010) found that there
was a significant correlation between achievement motives and entrepreneurial orientation
among public accountants. He found that public accountants have achievement motivation
and entrepreneurial orientation at intermediate level.
Agency relationship is a relationship between a principal and an agent in which the principal
hires the agent to give some services and the principal delegates some decision making
authorities to the agents (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2004). In an employment contract,
managers and accountants are agents and shareholders are principals. Agency theory
assumes that people are self-interest (Eisenhardt, 1989). Managers and accountants tend to
do opportunistic behavior to increase their wealth. This deduction is consistent to hypotheses
432
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
in positive accounting theory that were developed by Watts and Zimmerman (1986). The
hypotheses involve bonus plan, debt covenant, and political cost hypotheses.
Earnings management is the usage of certain accounting methods, accrual estimations, and
real activities manipulation by a manager to achieve certain objectives. Scott (2012)
mentioned that there are two ways of thinking about earnings management. First, earnings
management is opportunistic behaviors. Managers want to maximize their utility by doing
earnings management, in relation with compensation contract, debt covenant, and political
costs. Second, earnings management is efficient behaviors. Managers want to protect
themselves and the company in the face of unanticipated state realizations, to the advantage
of all the contracting parties. Managers want to deliver private information about the
company prospect to outside stakeholders by doing earnings management. This way of
thinking is from efficient contracting or information perspectives.
The ways to do earnings management can be categorized into three categories. First is
accounting method change, for example, choice of average rather than FIFO for inventory
cost flow assumption. Gopalakrishnan (1994) found that unlevered firms tend to choose
income increasing accounting methods more than levered firms, by choosing certain
inventory methods. Second is accounting estimation change, for example, changing the
useful life of certain fixed assets. Kurdi (2010) found that oil and gas companies
opportunistically revise their oil and gas estimate to increase depreciation, depletion, and
amortization expense during periods of high oil prices. Third is real activity manipulation to
avoid reporting annual losses (Roychowdhury, 2006). It is done by accelerating the timing
of sales, overproduction to report lower cost of goods sold, and reducing discretionary
expenditures to improve reported margins among firms that reporting small annual profits.
Jackson and Wilcox (2000) found that firm managers grant sales price reductions in the
fourth quarter to meet annual financial reporting targets.
2.1 Hypothesis Development: Need for Achievement, Agency Theory, and Earnings
Management
Need for achievement is the strong desire to be successful. Need for achievement may play
an important role in affecting earnings management behavior. Agency theory assumes that
people are self-interest (Eisenhardt, 1989). Therefore, it is believed that accountants with a
high need for achievement have a strong desire to succeed and consequently more likely to
do income increasing earnings management. The hypothesis is developed as follows:
H1: Need for achievement positively influences income increasing earnings management.
2.2 Hypothesis Development: Risk Propensity, Agency Theory, and Earnings

Management
An individuals risk preference can be defined as an individuals orientation toward taking

chances in uncertain decision making context (Koh, 1996). Certified management
accountants or controllers tend to be moderate risk takers. However, non-certified
management accountants or controllers have a greater propensity to take risk than certified
management accountants or controllers (Master and Deines, 2011). It is believed that
433
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
accountants prefer to take risks in environment where they have some degree of control or
skill to manage earnings. If it is related to agency theory assumption that people are
self-interest, it can be deducted that accountants with a high risk-taking propensity will tend
to do income increasing earnings management. The hypothesis is formulated as follows:
H2: Risk propensity positively influences income increasing earnings management.
3. Research Method
2.1 Sample
This study uses a sample that consists of accounting students in YKPN business school in
Yogyakarta. Liyanarachchi (2007) found that accounting students may be adequate
surrogates for practitioners in many decision making experiment. They are accounting
students of undergraduate degree, accounting profession education program, and graduate
degree. Questionnaires are given to accounting students that taking accounting theory
subject or have passed accounting theory subject, so that students can understand well about
earnings management. The questionnaires are administered to 60 students in second
semester of 2014. There are 56 usable responses and 4 unusable responses.
2.2 Measurement of Variables
Research variables are measured by using questionnaire as follow:

1. Need for achievement variable is measured by using 5 items of questions.
Each question has a 1 to 7 scale with 1 as strongly disagree and 7 as strongly
agree. These question items are adapted from Yosuf et al. (2007).
2. Risk propensity variable is measured by 5 question items. The items have
seven-point scale. The scale ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). The questions are adapted from Paunescu and Cantaragiu (2012).
3. Six question items are developed to measure income increasing earnings
management. These consist of 2 questions of accounting method change, 2
questions of accounting estimation manipulation, and 2 questions about real
activity manipulation. The questions have scales of 1 to 7 with 1 as strongly
disagree and 7 as strongly agree.
2.3 Data Analysis Method
Data analysis involves validity and reliability testing of instrument and multiple regression
analysis is used to test hypothesis 1 and 2. The dependent variable is earnings management
and the main independent variables are need for achievement and risk propensity. These
variables are measured as metric scales. Job is used as control variable. It is a non-metric
variable. The multiple regression equation that is used to test the hypotheses is as follow:
EM= 0 + 1.NA + 2.RP + 3.JOB + (1)
Where: EM= Earnings management; NA= Need for achievement; RP= Risk propensity;
JOB= Job (1= students, 2= lecturers, and 3= professionals or managers)
434
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. Data Analysis
The validity of research instrument is tested by factor analysis. Factor analysis is applied on
56 usable questionnaires. Questions that have factor loading less than 0.50 are disposed.
There are five questions are disposed. They consist of one question (question 5) of need for
achievement, three questions (question1, 2 and 3) of risk propensity, and 1 question
(question 6) of earnings management. Table 1 shows the factor loading of usable questions
(11 questions) in this research. The usable questions consist of five questions of earnings
management, four questions of need for achievement, and two questions of risk propensity.
The results show that Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy is 0.673. It is
greater than 0.60. Bartlett test of sphericity is significant with probability value= 0.000.
Table 1: Rotated Component Matrix

Question Items Factor Factor Factor
1 2 3
EM1: When inventory costs tend to increase, I tend to change 0.864
the inventory cost flow assumption from average to FIFO to
increase the current period accounting earnings
EM2: I tend to capitalize research and development 0.825
expenditures to increase current period accounting earnings
EM3: I will decrease bad debt estimation to increase current 0.787
period accounting earnings
EM4: I will decrease estimated inventory obsolescence loss to 0.897
increase current period accounting earnings
EM5: I tend to give a loose credit term sales by lengthening the 0.613
credit term period and increase the percentage of sales discount
to increase current period accounting earnings
NA1: I have the desire to have high earnings 0.652
NA2: I like to achieve a higher position for myself in society 0.794
NA3: I will become successful if I work hard 0.689
NA4: I need to develop my personal ability continuously 0.748
RP4: In general, I am of the opinion that, given the 0.886
characteristics of the business environment, courage and grand
actions are needed in order to achieve my objectives
RP5: Under uncertain market conditions, in the decision making 0.878
process, I usually choose to adopt a brave attitude in the idea to
utilize the potential opportunities
Where: EM= Earnings management; NA= Need for achievement; RP= Risk propensity
Reliability of research instrument is tested by Cronbachs alpha (Sekaran, 2000). The three
factors that are resulted by factor analysis are tested by Crobachs alpha. If Cronbachs alpha
coefficient is more than 0.70, the factor is reliable. The Cronbachs alpha coefficients of the
three factors are more than 0.70 (earnings management= 0.857, need for achievement=
0.701, and risk propensity= 0.766). They are reliable. This research uses the means of
questions scores that fulfill validity and reliability tests for the next analysis.
435
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Multiple regression analysis is used to test the hypotheses. It needs the fulfillment of
classical assumptions. They involve normality, no multicollinearity, homoscedasticity, and
no autocorrelation assumptions. Normality test is done by Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and
Shapiro-Wilk test. This research has found 19 outliers that must be disposed. Therefore,
there are 37 questionnaires that are used for testing the other assumptions and hypotheses.
The results indicate that the data are normally distributed because the probability values are
more than 0.05 (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test= 0.200 and Shapiro-Wilk test= 0.370).
Multicollinearity is detected by using Variance Inflation factor (VIF). Results of

multicollinearity test indicate that the variance inflation factors of all independent variables
are less than 10 (need for achievement= 1.002, risk propensity= 1.004, and job=1.002).
Based on these results, it can be concluded that there is no multicollinearity problem.
Heteroscedasticity is detected by Glejser test. This test uses residuals as the dependent
variable and it is applied on the independent variables. The results indicate that there is no
heteroscedasticity problem because there is no any significant regression coefficient.
Durbin-Watson test is held to test the autocorrelation. This test determines the range that has
dU and 4-dU as lower and upper limits by using Durbin-Watson d statistic table (Gujarati and
Porter, 2009). If Durbin-Watson value is located in this range, it means that there is no
autocorrelation. By using significance level of 5% and three independent variables, it is
found that dU is 1.655 and 4-dU= 2.345. The result of empirical analysis indicates that
Durbin-Watson value is 1.961. This value is located in the range. Therefore, it is concluded
that there is no autocorrelation problem in the multiple regression model.
Descriptive statistics show mean values of need for achievement (6.642), and risk propensity
(5.432) are high. These indicate that respondents have high need for achievement and tend to
be risk takers. Earnings management mean value (4.519) shows that respondents have
tendencies to do income increasing earnings management at high enough level. Risk
propensity is the most disperse among the variables.
Hypotheses tests are done by multiple regression analysis. Table 2 indicates the results of
hypotheses testing. The dependent variable is earnings management. It is predicted that need
for achievement (hypothesis 1) positively influences income increasing earnings
management. The results do not support hypothesis 1. The coefficient of need for
achievement is positive (0.252) but the probability value is not significant (0.165). It is
concluded that need for achievement does not positively influence earnings management.
Hypothesis 2 states that risk propensity positively influences income increasing earnings
management. Empirical results support this hypothesis. Regression coefficient of risk
propensity is positive (0.235) and its probability value is significant (0.015). Therefore, this
research concludes that risk propensity positively influences income increasing earnings
management. This study uses job variable as a control variable. Job regression coefficient is
negative (-0.361) and the probability value is insignificant (0.072). It is concluded that job
does not influence income increasing earnings management.
436
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 2: Results of Multiple Regression Analysis

Independent Regression T-Val Probability R2 Adj. R2
Variables Coefficient ue Value
Constant 1.979 1.503 0.142
Need for achievement 0.252 1.419 0.165
Risk propensity 0.235 2.560 0.015
Job -0.361 -1.861 0.072
Regression model 0.020 0.254 0.187
5. Conclusion, Limitation, and Implication
The objective of this research is to investigate whether need for achievement and risk
propensity positively influence income increasing earnings management. Results of data
analysis indicate that respondents have high need for achievement and risk propensity. They
have also a tendency to do income increasing earnings management at a high enough level.
This research finds that need for achievement does not positively influence income
increasing earnings management. However, it finds that risk propensity positively
influences income increasing earnings management.
There are some limitations in this research. First, results of data analysis do not support
hypothesis 1. It is found that need for achievement does not influence income increasing
earnings management. The explanation of this is that this research has not considered the
existence of a moderator variable. A moderator variable is a variable that influences the
strength of relationship between a predictor variable and a dependent variable. There are
some potential variables that moderate the influence of need for achievement on earnings
management, such as education level and work experience. Further research is needed to
investigate the existence of these moderator variables. Second, respondents are not selected
at random. Therefore, generalization of results of this research is still needed to be improved
by doing further research to strengthen the conclusion of this research.
Results of data analysis support that risk propensity positively influences earnings
management. These results suggest the owners or shareholders of companies to consider risk
propensity in recruiting or choosing accounting or financial managers or accountants. When
earnings management is deemed as a necessary accounting policy, they will choose an
accounting and financial manager or accountant with high risk propensity. However, when
the owners consider that earnings management is an unethical action, they will choose a
manager or accountant with low risk propensity.
6. References
Anthony, R. N. and Govindarajan, V., 2004. Management Control System. 11th ed.
Singapore: Mc-Graw-Hill /Irwin Inc.
Cassidy, T. and Lynn, R., 1989. A Multifactorial Approach to Achievement Motivation: The
Development of a Comprehensive Measure. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62,
pp. 301-312.
437
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Eisenhardt, K. M., 1989. Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review. The Academy of
Management Review, 14 (1), pp. 57-74.
Gopalakrishnan,V., 1994. Accounting Choice Decisions an Unlevered Firms: Further
Evidence on Debt/Equity Hypothesis. Journal of Financial and Strategic Decisions, 7
(3), pp. 33-47.
Gujarati, D. N. and Porter, D. C., 2009. Basic Econometrics. 5th ed. Boston: Mc
Graw-Hill/Irwin.
Islahuzzaman, 2010. Achievement Motive and Entrepreneurial of Public Accountants: A
Survey on Accounting Firms in Bandung. International Conference of Business and
Industrial Research Thai-Nichi Institute of Technology, Bangkok, March 17-18.
Jackson, S. B. and Wilcox, W. E., 2000. Do Managers Grant Sales Price Reductions to
Avoid Losses and Declines in Earnings and Sales? Quarterly Journal of Business and
Economics, 39 (4), pp. 3-10.
Koh, H. C., 1996. Testing Hypotheses of Entrepreneurial Characteristics: A Study of
Hongkong MBA Students. Journal of Managerial and Psychology, II (3), pp. 12-15.
Kurdi, A., 2010. Regulation and Political Costs in the Oil and Gas Industry: An Investigation
of Discretion in Reporting Earnings and Oil and Gas Reserves Estimates. Dissertation.
University of North Texas.
Liyanarachchi. G. A., 2007. Feasibility of using students subjects in accounting
Experiments: A Review. Pacific Accounting Review, 19 (1), pp. 47-67.
Master, R. and Deines, D., 2011. Risk-Taking Propensity of Management Accountants:
Certified vs. Noncertified. The Journal of Applied Business research, 4(3), pp. 9-14.
Paunescu, C. and Cantaragiu, R., 2012. How Does the Risk Preference Impact the Need for
Achievement in Business Contexts. Management & Marketing Challenges for
Knowledge Society, 7 (1), pp. 89-106.
Robins, S. P. and Judge, T. A., 2009. Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. New Jersey: Pearson
Education Inc.
Roychowdhury, S., 2006. Earnings Management through Real Activities Manipulation.
Journal of Accounting & Economics, 42, pp. 335-270.
Sekaran, U., 2000. Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach. New York:
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Scott, W. R., 2012. Financial Accounting Theory. 6th ed. Ontario: Prentice Hall Canada Inc.
Watts, R. L. and Zimmerman, J.L., 1986. Positive Accounting Theory. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall Inc..
Yosuf, M., Sandhu, M. S., and Jain, K. M., 2007. Relationship between Psychological
Characteristics and Entrepreneurial Inclination: A case Study of Students at University
Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR). Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship and Sustainability, III
(2), pp.1-19.
438
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Challenges of Private Retirement Scheme (PRS) in Malaysia
Azlin Namili Mohd Ali*a, Asmah Laili Yeonb, Mohammad Azam Hussainc
a
Senior Lecturer, School of Law, College of Law, Government & International Studies
Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
Email: azlin@uum.edu.my
b
Professor, School of Law, College of Law, Government & International Studies
Email: asmah@uum.edu.my
c
Senior Lecturer, School of Law, College of Law, Government & International Studies
Email: hmazam@uum.edu.my
Abstract
This paper intend to compare and analyse the private retirement scheme (PRS) and other
retirement schemes that exists in Malaysia. PRS is a complementary scheme to the existing
Malaysian pension schemes that are Government Pension Scheme (GPS) and Employees
Provident Fund (EPF). There are many differences between the three retirement schemes such as
the dividend in EPF is guaranteed, the government servant will received their pension after
retirement but PRS depend solely on the investment made by contributor; EPF and GPS give death
and incapacitation benefits to their members but not PRS; income tax relief are given to PRS
contributor and EPF members. These differences lead to challenges in providing PRS to
contributors especially during the economic downturn faced by our country today.
Keywords: Private retirement scheme; Employee provident fund; Government scheme
1. Introduction
The Government of Malaysia (The Government) encourages youth to undertake long-term

investment through the Private Retirement Scheme (PRS). The PRS was introduced after
suggestions made by Securities Commission Malaysia (SC) to the Government in order to
accelerate development of the private pension industry in Malaysia. PRS works as a
complementary scheme to the existing Malaysian pension schemes i.e Employee Provident Funds
(EPF) scheme and Government Pension Scheme (GPS). It seeks to enhance choices available for
all Malaysians, whether employed or self-employed, to supplement their retirement savings under
a well-structured and regulated environment (Securities Commission, 2011).
Generally, PRS can be defined as a contribution pension scheme which allows people (or their
employees) to voluntarily contribute into an investment vehicle for the purposes of building up
439
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
their retirement income (Liew, 2012). According to Federation of Managers Malaysia (FIMM)
(2012), PRS funds are purposely built for long term (10-15 years basis) investing to prepare the
investors for a comfortable retirement years. The contributors of PRS may choose from the eight
PRS providers and invest according to their expected returns and risk profile.
PRS is administered by Private Pension Administrator (PPA). It functions as a record keeping and
resource centre for data on all transactions performed by contributors. The assets of each PRS will
be segregated from the PRS provider and held by an independent Scheme Trustee under a trust to
safeguard contributors money. The PRS providers, the PPA, the Scheme Trustee
and distributors of PRS are being regulated by SC in order to ensure the proper functioning of PRS
industry and protect members through prudential and investor protection requirement (Yeoh,
2012).
Currently, there are eight providers approved by the Securities Commission under section 139B of
CMSA that are Affin Hwang Asset Management Berhad, AIA Pension and Asset Management
Sdn. Bhd., AmInvestment Services Berhad, CIMB-Principal Asset Management Berhad,
Kenanga Investors Berhad, Manulife Asset Management Services Berhad, Public Mutual Berhad,
and RHB Asset Management Sdn. Bhd. They offered PRS scheme and fund on conventional and
Shariah based. The basic scheme consists of growth, moderate and conservative funds.
3.0 Comparison between PRS, GPS and EPF
3.1 Definitions of GPS, EPF and PRS
Pensions Act 1980 stated that GPS is intended to provide financial security for retired
government employees. It is a defined benefit plan that is financed and managed by the
Government for employees in the Government service. It shall be charged on the Federal
Consolidated Fund. Officers on full-time employment in the public service or an employee of
any statutory or local authority who prior to retirement or death, was service in Malaysia or in
any of the territories which presently constitute Malaysia under given condition are entitled to
pension benefits. The public service refer to the Judicial and Legal Service; the Parliamentary
service; the General Public Service of the Federal Government; the Joint Public Services common
to the Federal Government and of one or more of the states; the Education Service; the Police
Force; the Public service of each state; the Railway Service and such other service as the Yang
di-Pertuan Agong may determine to be public service. However GPS is not an absolute right as
the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may reduce or withhold a pension if an employee has been guilty
of negligence, irregularity or misconduct. The government employees must serve for at least 10
years to be eligible for a pension. They also have an option whether to take up GPS or EPF. The
retirement age is 60 years old and pensions are paid for life.
The employee benefit scheme called EPF prescribed by Employee Provident Fund Act 1991 is a
defined contribution plan that governed the private sector employees. It is managed by Employee
440
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Provident Fund. The EPF is the central pillar of retirement savings for private sector and
nonpensionable public sector employees in Malaysia. All private sector employees in Malaysia
who have attained the age of 16 and employed under a contract of service are required to
contribute to EPF with the exception of certain categories (employees or workers holding
Employment Pass or expatriates holding Visit Pass (temporary employment) ; Thai workers who
enter Malaysia with a Territorial Pass; seamen; foreign domestic maids; self-employed persons;
out-workers who do cleaning and alteration repair works; persons detained in custody, in prison,
Henry Gurney School and mental hospital and pensioners). However, foreign workers and
expatriates may opt to do so.
According to PPA 2015, PRS is a voluntary long-term investment scheme intended to help
individuals accumulate savings for retirement. PRS is available for all Malaysians, whether the
Government or private sector employed or self-employed, to increased their retirement savings
under a well-structured and regulated environment. It is a complementary scheme to the existing
Malaysian pension schemes and is governed by Capital Market and Services Act 2007 and
regulated under Guidelines on Private retirement Scheme 2012.
2.2 Contributions
The GPS is a non-contributory plan. It is a way of acknowledging and appreciating the excellent
service, loyalty, dedication and honesty rendered by government employees. Further it take care
the life maintenance for the dependents of government employee who have passed on during the
term of service with the Government or after their retirement.
In contrast, EPF is publicly managed and financed through contributions amounting to 23% of
the employees' payroll. The employee contributes 11% of their salaries and the employer is
obliged to contribute at least 12% but can voluntarily pay a higher rate.
As for PRS, the contributions depend on the type of scheme policies choose by the contributors.
PRS have a growth fund, moderate fund and conservative fund which is selected based on age
factors or preferred choice by the contributors.
2.3 Benefits
2.3.1 GPS
The government employees who retires are entitled to pension that is paid monthly; gratuity
which is paid lump sum; accumulated leave; cash award in lieu of leave; disability pension may
be granted where an officer, other than a contract officer is required to retire as a result of
sustaining an injury in the course and arising out of performing his official duty or due to a travel
441
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
accident or contracting a disease to which he is exposed by the nature of his duty; dependents
pension, medical benefits in and after service for spouse and children.
2.3.2 EPF
As a member of EPF, the private sector employee will receive retirement benefit that is their EPF
saving, dividend that is guaranteed by the Government at the minimum rate of 2.5%, however
(EPF, 2015) has declared 6.75% dividend in 2014. Other benefits are incapacitation and death
benefits and tax exemption up to maximum amount of RM6,000 which can be withdrawn the
whole amount. A member account is divided into two sub-accounts. Account I consists of seventy
percent of monthly contributions can only be withdrawn when the account holder reaches the age
of 55, becomes incapacitated or leaves the country. Until January 31, 2008, EPF members with
savings of more than MR 55,000 in their Account I were able to invest part of the excess saving in
products of approved investment institutions. The remaining 30% of monthly contributions
allocated to the Account II can be used for medical expenses, housing loans, settling the balance of
housing loan, financing education, purchasing computer, performing Hajj or it can be used for any
other purposes after the members attain age of 50
2.3.3 PRS
The main objective of PRS is to help individual saves for their retirement. The Malaysian
Government is also providing a tax relief of up to RM3,000 per annum on PRS contributions until
Year 2022. Additionally, incomes generated via PRS are also exempted from tax. Compared to the
EPF, PRS offers more flexibility in that there is no fixed amount or intervals of contribution
required. PRS contributors are free to contribute whatever they can afford within their limits
although PRS providers may set a minimum or maximum limit on their plans. PRS also allows
the contributors to switch between plans and providers once a year subject to conditions imposed
by the providers which give a certain liberty to turn to more promising plans should the need arise.
Since PRS is administered by PPA who keeps track of all PRS providers and contributors, it is able
to control the communications process more effectively and generally protect the interests of all
parties better.
3.0 Challenges
From the above comparison, it could be observed that GPS is mandatory for government employee
and EPF on the private sectors employees. As PRS is a complementary scheme and on voluntary
basis, the government employee and private sector employee may not be interested in applying
PRS as they already have a pension scheme when they retired. Further they might not have enough
money for other investment as the cost of living is high now days especially during the economic
downturn.
442
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Unlike EPF which is mandated by EPF Act 1991 to declared dividend of at least 2.5%, PRS does
not give such a guarantee. This is another factor that makes people shun from PRS. Perhaps they
might lose their investment if their PRS fund does not perform well. Further, since PRS is an
investment scheme, the PRS contributors need to be aware of the quality of the fund assets, the
management experience and quality of service offered by fund providers. They need to learn new
knowledge about investments. However, to ensure the safety of the contributors fund, SC
Malaysia has come out with specific requirements for these funds such as experience of fund
manager, the equity exposure and proof of stability based on historical performance of existing
funds. These will contribute in ensuring the consistency and stability of the fund performance and
thus suitable for retirement saving.
Apart from the tax exemption of RM3000, there are not many other benefits that can be derived
from PRS. The amount of RM3000 exemption is too little compared to the exemption granted to
savings in the EPF. The duration of tax relief is also only for ten years. The Government should
reconsider regarding the amount and duration of tax exemption for PRS providers.
Further, the fees imposed by SC on the scheme and funds of PRS offered by the providers are very
high. They need to pay RM5000 for establishment of any scheme whether Shariah or
conventional. RM3000 must be paid for each of growth, moderate and conservative funds
offered under the scheme. This is a problem to the PRS providers especially during the economic
downturn. SC ought to review the fees charged to the PRS providers.
Asher and Bali, (2012, p. 65) suggest Malaysia to reform the current pension system in order to
improve fairness and sustainability. The differences in the designs of the pension schemes for the
government employees and private sector workers have significant implications for fairness.
Malaysia needs an integrated pension system that includes publicly financed social pensions and
better management of inflation, longevity, and survivors' benefits. It would be good if the
Government can convince the Malaysian people that even though each pension scheme is
different, however they work together and not against one another. All of them create
opportunities for Malaysian people to save for their retirement.
4.0 Conclusion
It is a good effort by Malaysian government to introduce PRS which is available to all

Malaysians to supplement their retirement savings under a well structured and regulated
environment. However, there are several issues that need to be addressed in order to strenghten
the existence of PRS. Since PRS is still new compared to other retirement scheme and it is only on
voluntary basis, the Government should take proactive measures to help the development of PRS.
Many incentives such as prolong the duration period of tax exemption, increased the amount of tax
exemption and reduced the fees charge to PRS providers can be given to contributors and
443
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
providers of PRS. This is important to enhance the quality of PRS and to promote confidence
amongst contributors and future investors.
5. 0 References
Asher, M.G. and Bali, A.S., 2012. Malaysia. In Park, D., ed. 2012. Pension Systems in East
and Southeast Asia: Promoting Fairness and Sustainability. Phillipines: Asia Development
Bank Publications. pp. 53-65.
Capital Market and Services Act 2007. Kuala Lumpur: ILBS.
Employee Provident Fund Act 1991. Kuala Lumpur: ILBS.
EPF Website, 2015. (Online) Available at

<http://www.kwsp.gov.my/portal/en/web/kwsp/about-epf/investment-highlights/dividend-rates>
(Accessed 8 July 2015).
FIMM (Federation of Managers Malaysia, What You Need to Know about PRS (online) Available
at: <http://www.fimm.com.my/newsletter/utoday_FA_2012%20(2).pdf> (Accessed 18
February 2014).
Liew, H. (2012). Private Retirement Scheme (PRS) A Guide to Malaysias Voluntary Private
Retirement Scheme, (online) Available at
<http://savemoney.my/private-retirement-scheme-prs-a-guide-to-malaysias-voluntary-private-ret
irement-scheme/>, (accessed 19 February 2014).
Private Pension Administrator (PPA), 2005. PRS Overview.(online) Available at:

http://www.ppa.my/prs/about-prs/overview/ (Accessed 28 June 2015).
Securities Commission, 2011. Capital Markets Master Plan 2. (online) Available at:
<sc.com.my>, (Accessed March 9, 2014).
Yeoh, A., 2012. Do You Understand the PRS Framework and its Lingo? (online) Available at
<http://financemalaysia.blogspot.com/2012/09/do-you-understand-prs-framework-and-its.html>
(accessed 28 February 2014).
444
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Unemployment among Graduates of Public and Private Universities: A Case
Study in The Klang Valley

Cheong Jia Qi
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
E-mail address: jiaqi1121@hotmail.my
Abstract
Malaysia has made progress in providing access to higher education for various groups of
Malaysians seeking tertiary education. Nevertheless, there is a problem of graduate
unemployment in the country. This problem is of concern to graduates who are seeking
employment as well as policy makers and employers. This paper explains the extent of graduate
unemployment in the country and discusses the findings of a research that was done in 2009. The
study specifically explores the relationship between the characteristics of graduates from public
and private tertiary institutions in the Klang Valley and their employment status. Based on the
results, several recommendations are made to address the issue of unemployment among fresh
graduates.
Keywords: Fresh graduates, Unemployment, Universities, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Traditionally, the concept of human capital is essential in economics investigation of the labour
market and employment policy. The unemployment of graduates is a matter of concern in many
countries. Some examples of studies on this issue are a study in Kenya by Barkan (1994) and in
Ghana by Owusu, et al. (2014). This paper concentrates on the unemployment issue among
university graduates in Malaysia. It is noted that unemployment is an important statistic used by
the government to measure the health of the economy. A high unemployment rate is an indicator
of an unhealthy economy, and particularly when it occurs in the highly educated group. Higher
education in Malaysia is provided by both public and private institutions; in Malaysia there are
20 public universities, 53 private universities, 6 foreign university branch campuses, 403 private
colleges, 73 public community colleges, 30 polytechnics (Ministry of Higher Education, 2011).
Female students outnumber male students in public higher education institutions; i.e. the total
number of female and male students are 341,934 and 218,425, respectively (Ministry of
Education Malaysia, 2014). According to a study conducted by Ismail (2011), the higher number
of women pursuing tertiary education has resulted in women encountering greater competition in
finding employment. Thus, graduate unemployment among females is higher than among men.
445
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
During the 1987-1988 economic recessions the graduate unemployment rate in Malaysia
increased to 5%. However, the unemployment rate among graduates in Malaysia in recent times
have been slightly lower, i.e. 3.8% in 2005 and 3.1% in 2010 (Razak, et al., 2014). Although the
unemployment rate of graduates does not seem to be very high, HRM Asia (2012) pointed out
that an increasing number of Malaysian graduates have failed to find a job; e.g. the number
increased from 41,000 in 2009 to 44,000 in 2011.
HRM Asia (2012) found that graduate unemployment was high due to a mismatch between the
talents and skills that graduates acquire from higher learning institutions and the expectations of
employers. Raj (2014) argued that the factors that contribute to the unemployment problem of
Malaysian graduates is the focus on rote learning as well as their shortcomings, e.g. being easily
intimated, afraid to voice their own opinions, lack of critical thinking skills and the courage to
speak up. The former Minister of Higher Education, Datuk Seri Mohamed Khaled Nordin
expressed a similar view in his statement that there are four crucial soft skills namely
communication skills, values and etiquette, leadership skills and critical thinking, that Malaysian
graduates have to hone (Berita Harian, 2010).
Darmi and Albion (2013) found that fluency in the English language and communication skills
are factors that provide graduates with a competitive edge in labour market. One of the reasons
Malaysian graduates face difficulty in finding a job upon graduation is the lack of language
proficiency, mainly in English as well as having insufficient knowledge and competency to
secure employment. Ismails (2011) study also shows that English proficiency as the main and
significant factor affecting employment status. Graduates with higher English proficiency have
greater employment opportunities compared to those who do not have a good command of the
language. Omar, et al. (2012) notes that Malaysian graduates do not have a good command of
English. They were unable to communicate with a satisfactory level of confidence and this
affects their chance of graduate recruitment.
The objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the characteristics of
Malaysian graduates in the Klang Valley and their employment status. The analysis gives an
indication of which factors are significantly related to the employment status (i.e. employed
versus unemployed) of graduates after graduation. The methodology is discussed in the next
section, followed by the results of the study and some policy implications. The last section notes
the limitations of the study and suggestions for future research.
2. Methodology
Descriptive analysis is used to provide a profile of the respondents in terms of as gender,

ethnicity, type of university from which respondent graduated, academic achievement and
working experience. These characteristics are likely to be related to the employment status of
graduates.
446
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
This study was carried out in 2009 among undergraduates from both public and private
universities. Due to the availability of funds and time, it is unlikely to collect data from all the
undergraduates among public and private universities in Malaysia. Therefore, convenience
sampling and snowball sampling was used in this study. The survey was targeted at 400 fresh
graduates from public and private universities in the Klang Valley. The sample consist of 199
males (49.75%) and 201 females (50.25%). In this study, questionnaires were distributed to
university respondents who studied in Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti
KebangsaanMalaysia (UKM), Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) and Universiti Tunku
Abdul Razak (UNITAR) in the Klang Valley. The first two universities, i.e. UPM and UKM are
public universities while the remaining two institutions are private universities. The Malaysian
population comprises three major ethnic groups i.e., the Bumiputera constitute 68.07% of the
total population, ethnic Chinese represent 23.84% of the population, Indians form 7.14% of the
population and other ethnic groups account for only 0.95% of the population (Department of
Statistics, 2014). The sample of graduates in this study represents the ethnic composition in
Malaysia. Therefore, the highest percentage of respondents in this survey was the Malays.
3. Results and Analysis
Relationship between the characteristics of Malaysia graduates and their employment status is
performed and displayed in Tables below.
Table 1 shows 45.78% of the unemployed graduates are male while 54.22% are female. This
indicates that the majority of unemployed graduates are females. This may be due to the fact that
employers prefer to hire males instead of females as indicated by some studies e.g. Stewart and
Perlow (2001); Taap Manshor, et al. (2003) and Ismail (2011). However, the results here show
that there is no statistically significant relationship between gender and employment status.
Table 1: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by gender

Variable Unemployed Employed
Gender Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
Male 76 45.78 123 52.6 199
49.75
Female 90 54.22 111 47.4 201
50.25
Total Observations 166 234 400
Pearson chi2(4) =3.7111 Pr=0.447
The data in Table 2 shows that unemployed graduates are notably Malays. This was followed by
the Chinese and Indians. This finding is supported by Lopez (2011) who showed that among the
30,000 graduates who were jobless for more than 6 months, 90% of them were Bumiputera.
447
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
According to Ismail (2011), graduate unemployment was also prevalent among the Indians given
that Indian graduates have less chance of finding employment compared to Malay and Chinese
graduates. The results in Table 2 show that there is a statistically significant relationship between
ethnicity and the employment status of Malaysia graduates.
Table 2: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by ethnicity

Ethnicity Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
Malay 86 51.81 113 48.3 199
49.75
Chinese 62 37.35 60 25.6 122
30.5
Indian 18 10.84 61 26.1 79
19.75
Pearson chi2(8) =19.6798 Pr= 0.012**
Notes: **significant at the 5 percent level
Table 3 shows that private university graduates comprise of 56.02% of the total number of
unemployed graduates in the sample drawn from the Klang Valley. The chi-square test indicates
that there is a significant relationship between type of university and employment status of
graduates. Kashuerin (2015) also found that graduate unemployment was more prevalent among
graduates from private universities that is 27% of graduates from private universities in Malaysia
were jobless for six months after graduation compared to 24% in public universities based on
data from the Ministry of Education (MOE) data for 2013. This may because the quality of
education provided by private universities lags behind that of public universities given that the
majority of lecturers in private universities have lower academic qualifications (Bachelors or
Master degree) as compared to their counterparts in public universities who have mostly
obtained their doctorates. In addition, public universities surpass private universities in terms of
research as well as resources and this has a positive impact of the quality of their graduates.
Table 3: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by type of university

Type of University Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
Public 73 43.98 127 54.27 200
50
Private 93 56.02 107 45.73 200
50
448
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pearson chi2(8) = 11.5487 Pr=0.021**

Notes : **significant at the 5 percent level
Table 4 shows the relationship between employment status and academic achievement. The
smallest group of unemployed graduates in the Klang Valley was amongst individuals with a
first class honours while the biggest group was graduates with an upper second class honours.
The data shows that there is no significant relationship between academic achievement and
employment status of graduates. Ismail (2011) revealed that graduates with good academic
achievement may not necessarily find jobs more quickly than graduates with lower achievement.
This argument is supported by Omar, et al (2012) who stated that academic excellence based on
CGPA is no longer a guarantee for graduate employability.
Table 4: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by academic achievement

Academic Achievement Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
First class honours 33 19.88 48 20.51 81
20.25
Upper Second class honours 89 53.61 108 46.15 197
49.25
Lower Second class 44 26.51 78 33.34 122
honours and below 30.5
Pearson chi2(8) =10.6174 Pr = 0.224
Table 5 shows the relationship between work experience and employment status. The data shows
that the majority of unemployed graduates have no working experience and the relationship
between work experience and employment status is not statistically significant. However, Omar,
et al. (2012) found that work experience is a compulsory factor to be employed in the
construction, finance and engineering industries. According to Olufemi, et al. (2012), 95
respondents indicate that work experience is the determinant that guarantees competencies and
skills required in graduate employment.
Table 5: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by working experience

Working Experience Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
No working experience 91 54.82 115 49.15 206
28.75
Has working experience 75 45.18 119 50.85 194
51.5
Pearson chi2(4) = 4.4029 Pr = 0.354
449
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 6 shows that among graduates with work experience, the majority of the unemployed are
individuals with only 1 year work experience whilst there is a smaller number of unemployed
amongst those with greater work experience (i.e. 2 years or more). However, the relationship
between employment status and work experience is not statistically significant. According to
Olufemi, et al. (2012), 76% of the respondents reveal that years of the working experiences
required in a particular occupation was a strong factor for recruitment and placement of
university graduates in Nigeria. Omar, et al. (2012) stated that at least 1-2 years of relevant
experience is a requirement for finding placement in the field of architecture in Malaysia.
Table 6: Distribution of unemployed and employed fresh graduates by years of working

experience
Experience Years Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total
0 86 52.76 113 49.56 199
50.9
1 57 34.97 82 37.28 139
35.55
2 and above 20 12.27 33 14.47 53
13.55
Pearson chi2(20)= 15.4374 Pr = 0.751
4. Policy implications
Out of the six variables discussed in the previous section, only two variables have a significant
relationship with the employment status of Malaysian graduates in the Klang Valley. Ethnicity is
a factor that is related to the employment status of graduates. The chance of Malay being
unemployed graduates was greater than in the case of Chinese and Indian graduates. Graduates
from public universities seem to have an advantage in the job market which may be an indication
that the quality of graduates from public universities is better than graduates from private
universities. Variables that are not significantly related to the employment status of graduates
include gender, academic achievement and the two working experience variables.
A lot needs to be done in terms of the kind of policies undertaken by the government to address
the problem of graduate unemployment in Malaysia. Keys players e.g. universities, employers
and the government in Malaysia need to work together to find a solution.
The Higher Education Ministry should persistently evaluate programs or courses offered in
universities to guarantee the universities education system is applicable to the current scenario.
Learning and teaching environment in the universities can influence the development of a
student and can influence the employment of a graduate. Government affirmation action policies
450
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
should strengthen public and private universities by providing a comprehensive learning

environment towards generating quality graduates who meet the requirements of the labour
market. Universities should upgrade the facilities, environment in universities to attract and
retain students. These steps will have an impact on reducing graduate unemployment. Public and
private higher learning institutions should offer sufficiently rigorous education to produce
graduates that meet the demands of industries. Public funds should be fully utilized by the
universities to produce competent and highly marketable graduates in todays competitive
environment. The government should provide more study loans instead of reducing the level of
student loans in order to attract more students enrolled in private universities. In order to improve
the standard of tertiary education, universities need to re-strategies by providing courses jointly
with more established universities and or outsourcing courses as a way of controlling costs and
improving the quality of education provided by newer institutions.
The measure outlined above will help to enhance the value of Malaysian degrees and ensure that
Malaysia remains a global leader in international education. In order to make university
education meaningful, the universities should not only focus on teaching and learning but also
stress on research and development. The Governments emphasis on higher education by
providing more funds to universities to do research and encourage continued growth in the
international sector is one way of improving the standard of tertiary education in Malaysia. This
can help to produce highly-valued graduates who are smart and productive in an increasingly
competitive labor market. This in turn is expected to reduce the unemployment rate among the
graduates after graduation.
There are differences in employment status by ethnicity. To reduce the gaps in employment
status of graduates across the different ethnic groups, steps must be taken to reduce ethnic-based
discrimination in the public sector. One possible interim measure would be the use of a quota
system. Government should put in place an anti-racial discrimination rule in the recruitment
policy to decrease graduates unemployment. The public and private sectors should employ
graduates irrespective of their ethnicity. The long run solution lies in the change of employers
perception against discriminated groups. The Government should take steps to become a model
employer that treats all groups equally and provide federally-funded occupation training and job
market development programs to improve the employability of graduates.
5. Limitations
A limitation of the study is that the sample used in this study was just based on the Universities
located in Klang Valley area. Therefore, the sample does not represent Malaysian graduates as a
whole. A convenience sample is another limitation in this study. Hence, this convenience
samples are not representative enough of all the definable target population. No econometric
analysis is also one of the limitations in this study. Future studies should include graduates from
various parts of the country and also investigate graduate unemployment among individuals with
post-graduate qualifications.
451
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6. References
Barkan, J. D 1994, Beyond capitalism vs. socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, Lynne Rienner
Publishers.
Berita Harian. 2010, 4 punca utama graduan sukar dapat pekerjaan, Berita Harian Online 6
March. Available from: <
http://penpasksgb.blogspot.my/2010/03/4-punca-utama-graduan-sukar-dapat.html>.
Darmi, R., & Albion, P 2013, Malaysian graduates: what and why, in Proceedings of the 3rd
Malaysian Postgraduate Conference (MPC 2013), Education Malaysia.
HRM ASIA 2012, Malaysia helping graduates to get job. Available from :< www.hrmasia.com>.
[3 June 2015].
Ismail, N. A 2011, Graduates' characteristics and unemployment: A study among Malaysian

graduates, International journal of business and social science, vol. 2, no. 16. pp. 94-102.
Lopez, G 2011, Bumiputera graduate unemployment and Malaysias world class education
system- a recipe for disaster. Available from:
<http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2011/02/06/bumiputera-graduate-unemployment-and
-malaysias-world-class education/>. [21 June 2015].
Malaysia. Department of Statistics 2014, Labour Force Survey Report 2013, Putrajaya:
Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Available from:
<https://www.statistics.gov.my/dosm/index.php>. [6 June 2015].
Ministry of Higher Education 2011, Perangkaan Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia. Available from :<
http://www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/Buku_Perangkaan_2011.pdf> [6 June 2015].
Ministry of Education Malaysia 2014, Quick Facts 2014: Malaysia educational statistics,
Putrajaya. Available from :< http://emisportal.moe.gov.my.> [6 June 2015].
Olufemi, A. J., Sola, A. I. N. A., & Kolapo, I. G. E. A 2012, An Analysis of Factors Influencing
Hiring/Placement of University Graduates in Nigeria, Pakistan Journal of Business and
Economic Review, vol. 3, no.1.
Omar, N. H., Manaf, A. A., Mohd, R. H., Kassim, A. C., & Aziz, K. A 2012, Graduates
employability skills based on current job demand through electronic advertisement, Asian Social
Science, vol. 8, no. 9, pp.103-110.
Owusu, A., Marfo-Yiadom, E., & Owusu, G 2014, Undergraduate Competences as Labour
Market Mechanism for Curriculum Alignment in Ghana: Case of University of Cape Coast School
of Business, International Journal of Business and Social Research. Vol. 4, no.9, pp. 27-42.
452
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kashuerin, S 2015, More jobless among private varsity graduates. Available from :<
http://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2015/04/07/more-jobless-among-private-var
sity-graduates/>. [ 6 June 2015].
Ramakrishnan, K., & Yasin, N. M 2012, Employment issues among Malaysian information and
communication technology (ICT) graduates: A case study, African Journal of Business
Management, vol. 6, no.16, pp. 5615-5621.
Razak, M. I. M., Yusof, A. M., Syazana, W. N., Jaafar, W. E., & Talib, A. H 2014, Factors
Influencing Unemployment among Graduates in MalaysiaAn Overview, Journal of Economics
and Sustainable Development, vol. 5, no. 11, pp.168-173.
Raj, S 2014, Malaysia graduates: relevant yet irrelevant? Available from :<
http://english.astroawani.com/budget2015-news/malaysian-graduates-relevant-yet-irrelevant-454
33>. [13 June 2015].
Singh, G. K. G., & Singh, S. K. G 2008, Malaysian graduates employability skills, UNITAR
e-Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 15-45.
Stewart, L. D., & Perlow, R 2001, Applicant race, job status, and racial attitude as predictors of
employment discrimination, Journal of Business and Psychology, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 269-275.
Taap Manshor, A., Jusoh, M., & Simun, M 2003, Diversity factors and preferential treatments in
selecting employees, Journal of Management Development, vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 643-656.
453
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
EMOTION AND AGGRESSION
454
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Recovery Experience of Young Depressed Females in Malaysia:
A Microsystemic Perspective
Jin Kuan Koka,*, Pei Yii Woonb, Kai Shuen Phehc

a,b&c
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
Email: kokjk@utar.edu.my, bpei-yii92@hotmail.com, cphehks@utar.edu.my
a
Abstract
Depression is a mental health problem that most commonly found among young people in
Malaysia. Young people constitute a high risk group for depressive disorders as this is the time
when they are in transition into adulthood in an increasingly challenging environment. Thus, the
present study sought to understand this recovery process. A qualitative research was designed
for this study. An inductive study based on the semi-grounded theory approach was used for the
data collection and data analysis processes. This paper presents the findings from in-depth
interviews with six young females about their experiences of recovery from depression. The
findings revealed two major themes: Self-initiated efforts and Social Support were found to be
consequentially interrelated. Positive interactions between their self-initiated efforts and family
and friends around them were found to be most beneficial. Research participants initiated some
hope of recovery and made efforts to overcome their depression, however, the recovery process
could not succeed without support from those in their microsystem.
Keywords: Depression; recovery; young female; social factors; Malaysia.
1. Introduction
Depression is characterized by lowered mood, increased sense of worthlessness, loss of

capability to experience pleasure (anhedonia), weariness, and repeated thoughts of death and
suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Young adulthood can be a confusing period
for some people as in this transition period, the young people may face tremendous challenges
and stress in adapting and adjusting either in their academics or working life, to establish their
own identity (Khoo, 2014). This is particularly true for female depressed individuals as relational
aspect and emotional connectedness are important for them.
As the developmental tasks of individuals are affected by their youth's experiences, it is

important for us to look into what contributes to the recovery from depression to ensure a healthy
development in the subsequent stage of life. To contribute and to fill in some of the knowledge
gaps, the present study explored the recovery process of depression from a microsystemic
455
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
perspective by looking at the direct environment people have in their lives such as family, friends,
and school, which have direct interaction with the individuals. By doing so, this study aimed to
examine the roles of this system that help to improve, or at least decrease the depressive
symptoms among depressed young people in Malaysia.
Research has shown that the family is a crucial unit for meeting psychological needs and
preserving mental health of its members (Almeida, Subramanian, Kawachi, & Molnar, 2011).
Thus, by understanding the importance of family support, it would help the family members of
the depressed patients to gain a better awareness about the significance of their support in the
patients recovery process. Similarly, understanding the significance of social support in
reducing the depressive symptoms, we assume people would be more considerate and willing to
offer assistance to their depressed friends. When equipped with the necessary knowledge and
information about depression, the social eco-systemic environment surround the depressed
young people are more likely to work collaboratively to enable recovery for depressed young
people.
Recovery from depression is a journey that involves various components and takes time to
accomplish. Thus, it is important to understand the nature of this process not only from
biomedical aspect but also from psychosocial perspective, in order to develop more holistic
interventions to meet the needs of people with depression.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) introduced an ecological approach to human development. It

acknowledges the importance of the interpersonal dimension such as family members, extended
family, peer groups, school, religion, community. In Bronfenbrenners ecological system theory,
microsystem consists of institutions and groups that directly and most immediately impact an
individual, which usually includes family members, peers, teachers and religious affiliation. The
interactions between these different systems in the social context are known as mesosystem. On
the other hand, the macrosystem built up on the culture, overall educational system and the
community environment in which an individual is embedded. They serve as social influences as
they exist in a fluid state and are interconnected. The interaction between individual and
microsystem component is an essential part of this eco-systemic framework which is the focus of
this research paper.
A network of supportive interactions between the individuals and their immediate institutions
and groups in the microsystem play a critical role in psychological well-being, such as creating a
sense of belonging, increased sense of self-worth as well as feeling of security. Ones perception
of deficiency in social support may raise the depression risk. Roger (1951) proposed that
unconditional positive regards from others was able to generate an individual awareness of self
and thus, reinstate the individuals positive self-regard. The unconditional positive regard by the
significant others in the social environment also helps to promote self-acceptance and bring
456
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
changes to the depressed individuals. Thus, the recovery from depression is made possible if the
social environment context of the depressed youth is positive and supportive.
Besides, higher school connectedness (the extent to which students feel personally accepted and
supported by others in the school setting) and teacher support (the extent to which teachers are
committed and responsive to students' well-being) were significantly associated with lower
depressive symptoms among the young people (Joyce & Early, 2014). School environment is a
crucial aspect in maintaining and/or enhancing young peoples psychological health as it is a
source of community support created by teachers and other students. Declining emotional
support from classmate and teacher was associated with worsening self-esteem and depression
(Wit, Karioja, Rye, & Shain, 2011).
It was also found that negative family interactions may cause females to experience higher
internalizing symptoms compared to males (Telzer & Fuligni, 2013). In other words, negative
interactions in family affect females to larger extent than males. This may be due to that females
strive for closer emotional connection and thus, positive family interactions may facilitate
females to develop more effective emotional regulation skills. This finding implies that as family
interactions have higher impact on females mental health than males, family support may be
particularly essential for depressed females in their recovery process.
Besides, a cross-cultural study that involved elderly suggested that the relationship between
family support and depression was stronger for the Chinese participants than the US participants.
However, the relationship between friend support and depression was stronger for US
participants than Chinese participants (Poulin, Deng, Ingersoll, Witt, & Swain, 2012). This
finding indicated the difference of cultural value between Asians and Westerners Asians
whereby the Chinese participants place higher emphasis on family bonding whereas US
participants place higher emphasis on friendship. Nevertheless, nurturing microsystem and social
support had been perceived as essential for both nations participants in maintaining
psychological health.
2. Method
Qualitative study was adopted in this research study as it allows researchers to study about a
phenomenon that has little research done by investigating the experience of people (Creswell,
2014). The aim of this qualitative study was to: (1) understand the recovery process of depressed
young people; (2) identify the microsystemic factors that assist depressed young females to
recover.
Sampling
The sample comprised six young female adults (aged 20 to 28). The participants were selected
based on their depression history and who had achieved full remission at the time of interview.
457
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Among the four research participants: 4 participants were Malaysian Chinese, 1 was Malay and
another 1 was Indian. The onset of depression for all of the research participants was about 18 -
20 years old. The depressive symptoms of participants range from moderate to severe. Four
were diagnosed by psychiatrists and received pharmacological therapy. Two of the participants
were not seeing a psychiatrist but received counseling services by their universitys counsellors.
Academic distress and failure in intimate relationship were the precipitating factors of our
participants depressive disorders.
Procedure
Principal investigator obtained ethical approval from UTAR Scientific and Ethical Review
Committee (U/SERC/15/2015) to conduct this study. Research participants were recruited from
Perak and Kuala Lumpur using purposeful sampling method. Researchers either emailed
(interview via e-mail) or given research information sheet (face-to-face interview) and informed
consent after pre-screening of potential participants. Purpose of the study was also explained to
participants. All of the research participants participated voluntarily and they were informed of
their right to withdraw from the study at any point of them if they felt uncomfortable with or had
reservations about the topic. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data after the
research participants signed an informed consent.
Data Collection and Data Analysis

Besides filling up a demographic questionnaire that comprises of items such as age, gender, and
current condition that provide some useful information in understanding some personal
background of the participants, there were some guided semi-structure questions. However,
during the actual interview session, participants were encouraged to share their experience in a
free flow manner. The interviews were audio-recorded. For the two participants who shared their
experiences using email, several email correspondences were used for clarification.
Transcriptions of interviews were prepared and verbatim were used for data analysis. Constant
comparisons were conducted in the data analysis. The coding of thematic analysis was discussed
by the researchers together.
3. Findings
Two major themes were found from the data analysis. Social support from microsystem and
self-initiated effort were found to be the key factors in the recovery process of the research
participants. Social support from family, friends and teachers were crucial as these people were
the ones who were in close contacts with the participants and thus, exerted much influence on
their recovery process. Efforts from the participant themselves such as making decision to
recover and persistency in achieving goals which seem to be resulted from social factors also
acted as the protective factor in maintaining the progression towards recovery.
Below is a summary of emergent themes of this study:

458
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Social Support from microsystem - the sources of social support received includes
family/relatives, friends as well as teachers/lecturers.
Supports from family members and relatives played an important role in providing informational
and emotional supports in the recovery process of Participant A and B.
So because of that process I find that Ive heard the people that I love. I find that Ive heard
my parents, I find that actually dying is not the solution (Participant A)
And then what motivates me the most is my third aunty. She is actually having the blood cancer
shes still struggling with that. talked to me as well, that time she was so weak but she still
told me that, is ok to fail for a few times but as long as you just try again and again until
succeed. (Participant B)
Acceptance from friends seemed to be significant especially for the participants who were still
pursuing their studies. This may be due to that depressed people were usually stigmatized and
that the acceptance from others (especially peers) seemed to reduce their concern of being
deviant.
and then that time what I want is actually acceptance from everyone, someone who really
accept me even after they know what happened...I wanted to be the same as everyoneeven
when the friends simply sit beside I also feel good (Participant B)
Its not easy to accept a same person with different personality. So they can accept me with
different kind of personality, theyre very very very helpful actually. (Participant C)
Accompanied and supported by important friends to help me to recover (Participant D)
Also, support from teachers/lecturers was crucial for participants who were still studying as these
were the people who were having frequent direct-contact and influential to them.
She really put in a lot of effort to help me. So somehow I think that shes the angel sent by God
to help me (Participant A)
Actually she (the lecturer) encouraged me a lot so I felt so much better, at least I can feel the
acceptance. Then followed by Mr P (another lecturer), actually he encouraged as well as he
knows what happened to me (Participant B)
He (a lecturer) was like what happened to you? Just share your problem, maybe I cannot help
you but I can be a very good listener then we talk talk talk until I found out that I have no way
to give up. (Participant C)
459
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Decision between to live or to die - Social support provided by significant others seemed to
serve as a protective factors for participants in making decision to recover from depression
instead of maintain in the depressed mood or commit suicide. It was also the participants
self-effort in initiating and maintaining their progression that made their recovery possible.
In the recovery process, the participants reported that they made their own decision in initiating
change in their lives.
Ya, lets say if I didnt want to go for counseling then I wont be able to help myself. I think
whether Im determined to get recovered or not. I think its me myself who need to make the
decision whether I want to get help or not. If the person whos depressed and dont want
to get help nobody can help him/her (Participant A)
Oh, like my case (the cause of my problem), is my parents right? I cannot solve it. So you have
to change mindset and its ok to let it go. (Participant C)
Setting goals and having persistency in achieving them also showed the determination of the
participants to recover.
I have a simple concept that when you try, although its very discouraging but you have a
chance to go back (to function the ways before she became depressed) (Participant A)
After the incident and within the first month I actually cried a lot, try to walk, try to sit still,
everything I tried up to a few monthsbut if I give up today, is it really worth it? (Participant
B)
My friends will also give me advice but Im the one who made the decision So you have to
find a way to solve this problem. And the only way I can think of is I have to recover
(Participant C)
Participant E is an Indian young female. She was diagnosed with depression during the year
she took SPM when she did not do well in her Trial Examination. She scored only Bs and Cs for
all subjects. She felt hopeless and she would rather die. She reported that her mother constantly
compared her result with her sisters who obtained a government overseas scholarship. She felt
that she did not live up to her mothers expectation. Participant E recovered gradually after
leaving home and receiving counselling services from her counsellor lecturer.
Participant F experienced similar circumstances. She is a Malay lady diagnosed with MDD
(Major Depressive Disorder) while she was a trainee medical doctor in one of the most
well-known universities in Malaysia. While she had recovered from depression years ago, she also
experienced a few relapses and a few major episodes. She attributed her relapses to unidentified
460
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
multiple causes. She transferred to another course but was still not able to cope and eventually she
had to withdraw all together and went overseas. During the interview, she mentioned feelings of
guilt of not being able to meet the expectations of her parents, which could be the main
precipitating for her depression. Both of her parents are medical doctors and they expected her to
follow their footsteps. However, she felt that she was not strong enough, as she described herself
as always absorbed the pain of patients while she was doing clinical placement training.
Nevertheless, her present completely new social environment aboard had facilitated her recovery.
The above two cases exemplify how negative microsystem context would directly relate to the
precipitation of depression. Both Participant E and F had experienced overly high expectations
from their parents, and has become a toll of their mental health. This again highlights the possible
consequences of adverse family interaction that may contribute to internalizing symptoms such
as depression and anxiety especially among the females as females usually strive for closer
emotional tie.
In summary, the influences of microsystem, whether positively or negatively on the course of the
depressive illness had been clearly evident. Noteworthy, our participants also demonstrated that
they were not the mere passive recipients of their ecological context, but rather they are also
active contributors of their microsystem. Specifically, these survivals of depression had have
determined self-initiated efforts to fight over the black dog, and taken their initiatives to reach
out to the helpful social resources (family members, friends and lecturers).
4. Discussion
The recovery journey of the participants from depression involves different resources and factors.
Social supports from the microsystem of the participants were particularly important in helping
them to recover. Higher levels of positive social interaction, and a stronger sense of community
belongingness predicted less severity and shorter duration (Fowler, Wareham-Fowler, & Barnes,
2013). This may be particularly applicable in Asian contexts such as Malaysia as Asians are
more collectivistic and thus, they tend to need more support from the people around them to
define who they are (Sue & Sue, 2008). On the other side of the coin, people in the more
collectivistic cultures, may be more cautious about bringing personal problems to others
attention for the purpose of seeking their help as Asians usually assume that they should not
burden their social networks (Kim, Sherman, & Taylor, 2008). This idea is parallel to the
findings as one of the participants claimed that she does not bring up her problem to others when
she encounters some difficulty as she feels that others may have their own problem too. This also
explains why self-initiated efforts play an important role as participants sometimes want to
overcome the challenges by themselves first.
Besides that, positive change in family functioning, total youth strengths, and positive change in
school functioning are found to be the predictors of reduction of depression (Stoner, Leon, &
461
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Fuller, 2015). In other words, clinically decreases in depressive symptoms are connected with
simultaneous improvement in variables across the individuals social ecologies such as the
individual themselves, family, and school systems. The depression experienced by young people
sometimes may be the result of negative self-evaluation due to impaired academic functioning.
On the other hand, depressive symptoms may also drive their impaired academic functioning.
The present study is unsure whether poor academic functioning results in negative
self-evaluation or the other way round.
Self-evaluation is how individuals view themselves, and also influences how they perceive and
react to situations. People who have high core self-evaluation tend to think positively of
themselves and thus, be confident in their own abilities (Bono & Judge, 2003). The mediating
effect of social support provides an explanation of why certain situational influences are
accounted for a relationship between self-evaluation and depression. People with negative
self-evaluation tend to decrease ones ability to attend to inhibitory cues to depression, such as
social support. In fact, survivals of depression were not simply being fortunate of having
supportive and nurturing microsystem; instead their own positive self-evaluation had contributed
significantly to the helpful interaction between themselves and their microsystem.
In the findings of this study, most of the participants were motivated by hope in their recovery
process. Hope played a role in activating recovery will and maintaining the recovery process.
Hope can be either coming from within the person or as being prompted by a significant other.
For example, one of the participants claimed that I will listen to sermon morning and night
before I sleep because thats the time that I would think a lot to forget what Ive gone through
and let me know that tomorrow still got hope. According to Jacobson and Greenly (2001), The
hope that leads to recovery is, at its most basic level, the individuals belief that recovery is
possible (p. 482).
5. Conclusion
The importance of microsystem in the recovery of depression cannot be undermined. In fact, it

is a determinant and essential element as described by our research participants. Therefore,
collaborative approach in intervening youths depression is strongly recommended.
Collaborative joint efforts of those interact directly with depressed people, including but not
limited to mental health professionals, parents, educators, peers, and clergy, are most likely to
enhance the outcomes of people with depression. Therefore, the society as a whole need to be
informed of the psychosocial needs of people living with this common mental disorder, and be
willingly to become a protective factor for those living with it. Ultimately, a caring, supportive,
nurturing and healthy ecological system of human development will not only benefits those
suffering from mental health issues, but will also improve the quality of life of entire community.
462
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6. References
Almeida, J, Subramanian, SV, Kawachi, I, & Molnar, BE 2011, Is blood thicker than water?
Social support, depression and the modifying role of ethnicity/nativity status, Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health, 65, 1, pp.5156. Available from: MEDLINE
Complete, EBSCOhost. [2 June 2015].
American Psychiatric Association 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders, 5th Ed., Washington.
Bono, J, & Judge, T 2003, 'Core Self-Evaluations: A Review of the Trait and its Role in Job
Satisfaction and Job Performance', European Journal Of Personality, 17, 1, pp. S5-S18.
[22 April 2015].
Bronfenbrenner, U 1979. The ecology of human development, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
Creswell, JW 2014. Research design (4th ed.), Sage, Thousand Oaks.
Fowler, K, Wareham-Fowler, S, & Barnes, C 2013, 'Social context and depression severity
and duration in Canadian men and women: exploring the influence of social support and
sense of community belongingness', Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 43, pp.
E85-E96. [9 May 2015].
Jacobson, N, & Greenley, D 2001, 'What is recovery? A conceptual model and
explication', Psychiatric Services, 52, 4, pp. 482-485. [12 April 2015].
Joyce, H, & Early, T 2014, 'The impact of school connectedness and teacher support on
depressive symptoms in adolescents: A multilevel analysis', Children And Youth Services
Review, 39, pp. 101-107. Available from: ScienceDirect, EBSCOhost. [17 May 2015].
Khoo, YH 2014, Academic stress and teen suicide, The Malaysian Insider. Available from
<http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/opinion/khoo-ying-hooi/article/academic-stress-an
d-teen-suicide>. [2 May 2015].
Kim, HS, Sherman, DK, & Taylor, SE 2008, Culture and social support, American
Psychologist, 63, 6, pp. 518-526. [20 May 2015].
Poulin, J, Deng, R, Ingersoll, T, Witt, H, & Swain, M 2012, 'Perceived Family and Friend
Support and the Psychological Well-Being of American and Chinese Elderly Persons',
Journal Of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 27, 4, pp. 305-317. Available from: SocINDEX,
EBSCOhost. [2 June 2015].
Rogers, C 1951. Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory,
Constable, London.
Rossello, J, & Bernal, G 1999, 'The Efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral and Interpersonal
Treatments for Depression in Puerto Rican Adolescents', Journal Of Consulting And
Clinical Psychology, 5, pp. 734. Available from: Academic OneFile, EBSCOhost. [2
June 2015].
Stoner, AA 2015, 'Predictors of Reduction in Symptoms of Depression for Children and
463
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Adolescents in Foster Care', Journal Of Child & Family Studies, 24, 3, pp. 784-797.
Available from: Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, EBSCOhost. [5 June
2015].
Strawbridge, WJ, Deleger, S, Roberts, RE, & Kaplan, GA 2002, Physical activity reduces
the risk of subsequent depression for older adults, American Journal of Epidemiology,
156, pp. 328334. [19 May 2015].
Sue, DW, & Sue, D 2008. Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice, Wiley,
Hoboken.
Telzer, E, & Fuligni, A 2013, 'Positive Daily Family Interactions Eliminate Gender
Differences in Internalizing Symptoms Among Adolescents', Journal Of Youth &
Adolescence, 42, 10, pp. 1498-1511. Available from: SocINDEX, EBSCOhost. [28 May
2015].
Wit, DM 2011, 'Perceptions of declining classmate and teacher support following the
transition to high school: Potential correlates of increasing student mental health
difficulties', Psychology In The Schools, 48, 6, pp. 556-572. Available from: Psychology
and Behavioral Sciences Collection, EBSCOhost. [16 May 2015].
464
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mediators Involved in the Relation between Vulnerability and Depression in
Married Women of Malaysia
Nor Bayah Abdul Kadir

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
aknbayah@ukm.edu.my
Abstract
Although depression may be a risk factor for depression, the mechanisms involved in this
relationship are still unclear. This study explored the insecurity and proximity-seeking involved
in the relationship between married womens vulnerability and depression. A community-based
study was conducted on 1,200 married women residing in the urban areas of Kuala Lumpur. Of
the 1,200 married mothers approached, 996 of them completed a set of standardized
questionnaires on the negative evaluation of self, negative interaction with spouse, negative
interaction with children, insecurity, and proximity-seeking. The results indicated that insecurity
and proximity-seeking may be a pathway to depression among married women, suggesting that
reducing insecurity and improving proximity-seeking in married women with depression may
help prevent depression. An examination of other risk factors explaining the relationship
between vulnerability factors and depression is warranted.
Keywords: Vulnerability; mental health problems; married women; Malaysia.
1. Introduction
Previous studies showed that the prevalence of depression among women is double that of men
(Forlani, et al., 2014; Girgue and Yang, 2015). One study reported that the prevalence of
depression was 27.0% (95% CI 24.729.2%) among Chinese (Yunming, et al., 2011). Forlani
and colleagues (2014) reported that the prevalence of depression was high (25.1%) with no
evidence of gender difference. Melo, et al. (2012) found that the prevalence of depression was
24.3% among women in the absence of a partner.
A number of studies showed that several risk factors are associated with depression. Reports
suggested that depressed individuals, particularly women in Malaysia, have greater difficulties in
interpersonal relationships, lack social support, have poor income, are less educated, have
experienced stressful life events, and have an insecure attachment style (Abdul Kadir and
Bifulco, 2013; 2011). In addition, reports showed that anxious attachment is significantly
associated with depression (Rholes, et al., 2011). People with insecurity are more prone to
465
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
depression than those with proximity-seeking (Bifulco, et al., 2003). Reports also show that
vulnerability is strongly associated with depression (Moran, et al., 2001). This vulnerability is
negative evaluation of self, negative interaction with children, and negative interaction with
partners. Adding to this vulnerability is the lack of social support in times of need. Similarly,
Gav, et al. (2012) revealed that the risk of depression was lower among those who received
social support with a partner than those without. However, studies on the mediating effect of
insecurity attachment styles and proximity-seeking are scarce.
The link between vulnerability and depression might arise from other psychological factors as
well as social factors. Vulnerability responses to stressful life events and lack of social support
influence the onset of depression (Ingram, et al., 1998; Moran, et al., 2001). Murphy and Bates
(1997) also demonstrated that vulnerability is associated with various forms of mental disorder,
particularly depression. After controlling for the socio-demographic factors, it was established
that vulnerability acted as a risk factor of depression (Broadhead, et al., 2001); however, methods
for examining mediation were not used. Therefore, the current study aims to examine the
mediating effects of the link between vulnerability and depression.
2. Method
No particular criteria other than being Malaysian and being aged 16 years of age or older were
employed in this study to establish a sample of household residents, representative of the adult
population of Public Housing Programmes in the Klang Valley and Kuala Lumpur. Overall, the
sample consisted primarily of Malays (94.1%, n=937) and the remaining participants identified
themselves as Chinese (0.4%, n=4), Indian (0.1%, n=1), and others (5.2%, n=52). Approximately
0.2% (n=2) did not state their ethnicity. In terms of religion, 95.8% (n=954) claimed to be a
Muslim, 0.2% (n=2) Buddhist, 0.2% (n=2) Christian, 1.5% (n=15) Hindu and others 2.2%
(n=22). Approximately 0.2% (n=2) did not state their religion. Slightly more than half of the
married mothers were employed (54.5%, n=543) and 45.5% were unemployed (n=453). The
mean income was 797.06 (s.d. 961.81). Of 996 married mothers, 50 (5%) had disabled children,
19.8% (n=197) had chronic illness, such as diabetes and hypertension, and only 13.6% (n=135)
were actively involved in social activities organised by the community.
The study was conducted from April 2011 to December 2014 in public housing programmes of
the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley. A total of 11 public housing areas
under the City Hall of Kuala Lumpur were identified. Invitation letters were sent to 1,200. Only
996 married women completed a set of questions. We used the door-to-door technique to
approach the participants. For each family, only wives with children were chosen to complete
the questionnaire. This structured interviewing was carried out by social work students. Informed
consent was sought from the participants.
We used the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30; Goldberg, 1978) to measure depression
symptoms. The GHQ-30 can be used to detect caseness for depression. The Vulnerability to
466
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Depression Questionnaire (VDQ) was used to measure the presence of negative interaction with
children, negative interaction with partner and negative evaluation with self (Moran et al., 2001).
The Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire (VASQ; Bifulco et al., 2003) was used to
measure adult attachments of insecurity and attachment proximity-seeking. All measures
achieved satisfactory internal consistency (GHQ-30 Cronbachs alpha 0.90, VDQ Cronbachs
alpha 0.75, VASQ Cronbachs alpha 0.71).
In this current paper, we used the Hayes and Preacher procedure to test the mediating effects of
the relationship between vulnerability and depression. We summed the scores of negative
evaluation of self (NES), negative interaction with children (NEC), and negative interaction with
partner (NEP) to create vulnerability indices.
3. Results
Table 1 shows the intercorrelation of the variables studied. The findings show that the
vulnerability factors and insecurity significantly correlate with depression, indicating that those
with higher vulnerability and insecurity tend to have high depression. However, this finding
reveals that proximity-seeking does not correlate with depression.
Table 1: Inter-correlations and descriptive statistics for all the variables studied
1 2 3 4
1. Depression -
2. Vulnerability (NES, NEC, NEP) .15** -
3. Insecurity .14** .27** -
4. Proximity-seeking -.03 .04 .04 -
Mean 24.18 71.26 35.99 32.58
SD 10.38 13.45 5.93 4.33
Note: All correlations are significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
Further analysis was carried out to test the multiple meditation hypotheses. This study used the
bootstrapping approach recommended by Preacher and Hayes (2008), and Shrout and Bolger
(2002). The bootstrapping strategy is suitable for testing multiple mediators simultaneously. The
procedure uses the original sample data as a population and takes random samples of size n
with replacement techniques and estimates the total and specific indirect effects. Testing the total
indirect effect is similar to testing the overall effect of multiple independent predictors in a
regression analysis (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). The significant total indirect effect suggests that
as a set, the mediators transmit the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. A
467
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
specific indirect effect refers to the extent to which a mediator transmits the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable, above and beyond the other mediators. Table 2
shows the mediation analyses incorporating depression and vulnerability scores together. The
results indicate that nearly 9% of the association between vulnerability and depression was
mediated by higher insecurity and lower proximity-seeking. The total effect and indirect effects
are significant.
Table 2: Model path estimates for depression

Coeff SE t P
VDQ-Insecurity 0.12 0.01 8.77 0.000
VDQ-Proximity-seeking 0.01 0.01 0.93 0.353
Insecurity-Depression 0.19 0.05 3.58 0.000
Proximity-Depression -0.14 0.07 -1.92 0.055
VDQ-Depression 0.11 0.02 4.76 0.000
Depression-VDQ 0.09 0.02 3.73 0.000
To test these hypotheses, the SPSS macros for mediations (Preacher and Hayes, 2008) was used.
The current analyses utilized 1000 bootstrap samples to create a pseudo population of indirect
effects. Ninety-five per cent confidence intervals (95% CIs) were used to evaluate the
significance and the magnitude of the indirect effects estimated through the bootstrapping
technique. An effect is significant if the confidence interval does not include zero (Table 3). We
describe the extent of mediation by calculating the proportion mediated (i.e. ratio of indirect
effect to total effect; Shrout and Bolger, 2002).
Table 3: Total and specific mediated effects and their corresponding bootstrap confidence
intervals for depression
Indirect effect Vulnerability
Estimate SE 95% CIs
Insecurity .03 .01 (.01, .04)
Proximity-seeking .02 .01 (-.01, .00)
Total effect .03 .01 (.01, .04)
Examination of the total and specific indirect effects of insecurity and proximity-seeking on
depression reveals interesting findings. The total indirect effect is significant with the 95%
bootstrap confidence interval (table 3). The analysis of the ratio of the total indirect effects of the
proposed mediators shows that higher insecurity and lower proximity-seeking significantly
mediate the association between vulnerability and depression. This indicates that higher
insecurity and lower proximity-seeking were responsible for about 3% of the mediation. In this
respect, the current findings contribute to a growing evidence base that indicate that higher
468
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
insecurity and lower proximity-seeking also contribute to depression among married women in
Malaysia.
4. Discussion
Despite controlling for relevant socio-demographic factors, our findings provide justification for
the role of insecurity and proximity-seeking in mediating the link between vulnerability and
depression, and suggest that depression may be of more significance in this context of higher
security and lower proximity-seeking. The findings suggest that higher insecurity might affect
depression as an obstacle to achieve emotional stability whilst lower proximity-seeking stops
individuals asking for professional help, and thus maintaining their depression. Therefore, the
relationship between vulnerability and depression would be highly influenced by an individual
insecurity and proximity-seeking. This study acknowledges several limitations, such as the small
sample size restricts generalization to the general population of Malaysia. In addition, a
cross-sectional design does not permit the establishing of a causal relationship. Recently, no
evidence has been found for the mediating effect of insecurity and proximity-seeking in the
relationship between vulnerability and depression. This finding suggests that the professional
mental health practitioners and mental health counsellors need to apply emotional-focused
therapy when dealing with married women who are higher insecurity and proximity-seeking in
their close relationship with partners. This approach will help these women to increase
proximity-seeking and decrease insecurity, and, thus, depression can be prevented.
5. Acknowledgements
This research work does not have any conflict of interest. This research work was supported by
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (research grant code: GGPM-2011-059).
6. References
Abdul Kadir, N.B. and Bifulco, A., 2011. Vulnerability, life events and depression amongst
Muslim Malaysian women: comparing those married and those divorced or separated.
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46, 853862.
Abdul Kadir, N. B. and Bifulco, A., 2013. Insecure attachment style as a vulnerability factor for
depression: Recent findings in a community-based study of Malay single and married
mothers. Psychiatry Research, 210(3), 919-924.
Bifulco, A., Mahon, J., Kwon, J.H., Moran, P.M. and Jacobs, C., 2003. The Vulnerable
Attachment Style Questionnaire (VASQ): An interview-based measure of attachment
styles that predict depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 33, 10991110.
469
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Broadhead, J., Abas, M., Sakutukwa, G. K., Chigwanda, M. and Garura, E., 2001. Social
support and life events as risk factors for depression amongst women in an urban setting
in Zimbabwe. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(3), 115-122.
Forlani, C., Morri, M., Ferrari, B., Dalmonte, E., Menchetti, M., De Ronchi, D. and Atti, A. R.,
2014. Prevalence and gender differences in late-life depression: a population-based
study. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(4), 370-380.
Grav, S., Hellzn, O., Romild, U. and Stordal, E., 2012. Association between social support and
depression in the general population: the HUNT study, a crosssectional survey. Journal
of Clinical Nursing, 21(12), 111-120.
Girgus, J. S. and Yang, K., 2015. Gender and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 4,
53-60.
Goldberg, D.P., 1978. Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. National Foundation for
Educational Research, Slough.
Ingram, R.E., Miranda, J. and Segal, Z.V., 1998. Cognitive vulnerability to depression. NY:
Guilford.
Melo, E. F., Cecatti, J. G., Pacagnella, R. C., Leite, D. F., Vulcani, D. E. and Makuch, M. Y.,
2012. The prevalence of perinatal depression and its associated factors in two different
settings in Brazil. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 1204-1208.
Moran, P.M., Bifulco, A., Ball, C. and Campbell, C., 2001. Predicting onset of depression: The
Vulnerability to Depression Questionnaire. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40,
411427.
Murphy, B. and Bates, G. W., 1997. Adult attachment style and vulnerability to
depression. Personality and Individual differences, 22(6), 835-844.
Rholes, W. S., Simpson, J. A., Kohn, J. L., Wilson, C. L., Martin III, A. M., Tran, S. and Kashy,
D. A., 2011. Attachment orientations and depression: a longitudinal study of new
parents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 567.
Yunming, L., Changsheng, C., Haibo, T., Wenjun, C., Shanhong, F., Yan, M., ... and Qianzhen,
H., 2012. Prevalence and risk factors for depression in older people in Xi an China: a
communitybased study. International journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(1), 31-39.
470
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Muslimah Women and Moneylenders
( Legal Cultural Study About the Loan Agreement Between Muslimah
Women and Moneylenders in Indonesia)
Dr. Triana Sofiani, SH.MH

Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri Pekalongan ( Indonesia)
Email: sofianitriana@gmail.com
Abstract
This study aims to analyze the factor of cause of muslimah woman chosen the loan agreement
with Moneylenders; the pattern of the loan agreement and; the legal culture which build as the
figure of muslimah women in this loan agreement. Data collecting use the observation,
interview, and Literary study. Technique of analysis use the interactive model. The result of the
research shows that, the loan agreement with Moneylenders become a habit in the environment
of muslimah women. The consumptive behavior of muslimah women, supported by flexibility of
the process, the term and debt installment and more stressed on credibility than legality, it causes
them to prefer Moneylenders compared to formal credit institutions. The pattern of loan
agreement conducted with, the pattern of fetch the ball and the pattern of mouth to mouth.
Muslimah women understand that the practice of Riba (borrowing at the Moneylenders) in the
religion norm is forbidden and prohibited by the state law. However, the identity as muslimah
women with high religiosity, defeated by the capital culture which build by the image of
Moneylenders, so it gives rise to a strong desire to keep picking the Moneylenders when they
need money or goods. The legal culture is built on the basis of the pragmatism value, ignoring
the religious norms and state law that should be used as a basis in this loan agreement. The
conclusion is, the loan agreement with Moneylenders has evolved into an entity that can not be
eliminated, and it becomes legal culture which ignores the awareness of the importance of
religious norms and state law.
Keywords: Legal Culture; Muslimah Women; Moneylenders
1. Introduction
Moneylenders, by the local Indonesian society known by the term as Bank Plecit, Bank Titil,
Bank Tongol, ijon, mendreng (Central Java and East Java); Bank gelap, Bank Klakson, bank
berjalan, karedet, (West Java), manganahi (batak tribe) and lintah darat (Indonesian Society in
general), in the reality still become the relevant and interesting issue to be studied.
Sociologically, this practice still exists and enthused by the people in Indonesia, both rural and
471
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
urban areas, especially among women. Based on the results of surveys that have been done by
the Offices of Cooperative in Bandung, in 2014, the money borrowers through Moneylenders as
much 65% are women, which is actually a Housewife ( Berita Ekonomi, Edisi Juni 2014: 3).
Various programs implemented by the government and public institutions at local and also
National, like: Saving and Loan program for Womens Groups by PNPM Mandiri, Womens
Saving and Loan program by Posdaya, Wise Program of Woman Fund by GE Money Indonesia,
low-interest program of the Finance institutions (Bank and non-Bank), including Baitul Maal
Wat Tamwil (BMT) to reduce the practice of Moneylenders, have not brought significant results
yet. Poverty and the growing need, becoming a reason to do the loan agreement with the
Moneylenders.
The fact is, the more interesting and relevant, when examined in the context of the local Islamic
society with the strong religious culture, especially in the reality of Muslimah women who
understand the the practice of Riba is forbidden. Treaty of debt with the Moneylenders in the
Muslimah women environment become habitus, thus ignoring the norms of religion and the state
law prohibiting the practice of Moneylenders. Based on the result of interview with 20 Muslimah
women in the local area Pekalongan, Central Java (Indonesia), 18 people have borrowed money
at Moneylenders with a various number, from Rp. 100.000 till Rp. 5.000.000. From 18 people, 7
people are housewives and 11 batik workers. The purpose of borrowing the money, only for the
consumptive requirements, for example: fulfilling the daily needs and for celebration
(circumcision of children, married children, traditional party and others). The credit agreement
with the Moneylenders increasingly crowded during Ramadhan to Idul Fitri, because in
Ramadhan and Idul Fitri, the need is bigger than the daily need (interview, 23th February, 2015).
The religiosity of the Moneylenders and customers, which both of them are Muslimah women in
fact no doubt. They are individuals who are religious, diligently execute religious rituals,
diligently follow the teachings ( pengajian) and have high religious intellectuals, and even the
Moneylenders have already pilgrimage ( naik haji). The interesting is, there is a Moneylenders
who is a hereditary, continuing the profession of parents, who are also as Moneylenders. The
capital culture built by the Moneylenders through self imaging process to attract the customers,
defeating the understanding of religious norms which they believe, and establish a law culture
that deviate from the values of the local Indonesian society.
Based from the facts above, so this study aims to analyze the causes of Muslimah women choose
a loan agreement with Moneylenders; the patterns of loan agreement and; legal culture that is
built into the loan agreement in the environment Muslimah women.
2. Research Method
This study is based on the qualitative research tradition. The collecting data method used
observation, interview, and literature study. The analysis technique used the interactive model
472
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
from Miles and Huberman (Milles and Huberman, 1992: 20). The process of analysis includes: 1)
the researchers collected data from both the primary and secondary data sources; 2) all the data
which have been collected was presented in the form of transcript; 3) data reduction was conducted
in accordance with the need. Data reduction was conducted in order that the data which would be
the subject of analysis was the relevant data with the themes and research conducted and; 4)
drawing conclusions. This cycle was carried out with in a continuous cycle. For details, see the
chart below.
Diagram I
The Operational Process of Interactive Model Of Analisis
Data Collecting Data presenting
Data Reduction Drawing Conclusions
3. Research Result and Discussion
3.1.Tracing The Causes of Muslimah Women Choose The Loan Agreement with
Moneylenders.
Moneylenders is someone who lends money or goods to get profits by drawing high interest rate.
According to Adam (1989), moneylenders is an individual who provides short-term loans with
high interest rates, do not use the guarantee and seeks to perpetuate the credit relationship with
cutomers (Dimyati, 1997: 16). According to Nugroho (2001), moneylenders or Bank Thithil are
people or illegal institution who have a money lending activity (or in the form of goods) to others
who need it with high interest. The relationship between the creditor of Bank Thithil and debtor
(customer) majority quite close, because the process of loan installment collected by the
moneylenders itself and conducted every time continuously (Nugroho, 2001:23).
Sociologically, the background of appearance of Moneylenders start from the culture of

receivable debt that exists in reality of society and closely connected with the local traditions.
This habit, by the owner of capital is developed into a profession as an effort to develop their
capital, in order to benefit from the high interest charged to customers. Debt is usually given in
the form of money and/ or goods, and apply to members of the surrounding community, either
with relatives or neighbors. Interest expense charged to borrowers is very high, but for reasons of
venture capital or for consumption, the interest expense that charged do not feel heavily by
customers. Loan agreement with Moneylenders conducted through oral agreement (informal or
473
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
unwritten) based on trust and have characteristics that are flexibile, without complicated
procedures, know each other, do not use guarantees and installments are not strictly (Kartono,
2004:4). Based on the above facts, resulting in various regions in Indonesia, the practice of
Moneylenders increasingly exist and needed by the society, especially women who in this
context is the Muslimah women.
The existence of Moneylenders in the environment of Muslimah women, occurs due to

pragmatic considerations and not on theological. Their understanding of the prohibition of Riba
is not a consideration because there are certain factors that require or be the reason for Muslimah
women to borrow money and/ or goods on Moneylenders. Factors that cause Muslimah women
choose to borrow money on Moneylenders, such as: first, Moneylenders have administratives
characteristics and requirements are simple, flexible and free administrative costs; second, faster
lending procedures (direct liquid), based on an oral agreement (informal, unwritten) is simple
and based on trust rather than the legality and sometimes without bail; third, between Muslimah
women and Moneylenders already know each other, so there is a personal relationship and the
importance of mutual trust; fourth, if not able to pay the debt or pay it off, it may change or
discuss amicably. That is, there are no sanctions for Muslimah women as a client when do
defaults, and just say no money for pay and make a promise to pay later; fifth, the installment
billing is done by the Moneylenders in clients homes, on a daily, weekly or monthly, so that
customers feel light and do not bother to come to the Moneylenders home. That factors, are also
taken into consideration for Muslimah women prefer to borrow from Moneylenders compared to
formal financial institutions, such as Banking Institutions, Cooperatives and other financial
institutions.
3.2. The Patterns and Mechanisms of Loan Agreement between Muslimah Women with
Moneylenders.
The loan agreement is another term for lending and borrowing agreements and/ or in banking
economic terms called credit agreement. The receivable debt agreement between Muslimah
women with Moneylenders is informal credit agreement conducted orally based on trust. The
model of this loan agreement is, the ability to borrow money or goods with the agreement will
pay in the period that has been determined accordance with the agreed orally based on trust.
Based on the research findings, the lending agreement between Muslimah women and
Moneylenders, are categorized into several patters, such as:
1) The pattern of pick up the ball.
This pattern is done by Moneylenders by visiting the customer to their houses, to offer loans in
the form of cash and/ or goods are required, for example : electronic goods, household utensils
474
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and all household needs required by the customers. In this pattern, the Moneylenders do not just
go to the customer at the time of bidding, but also at the time of execution of the agreement and
billing. It means that customers do not have to bother to go to Moneylenders, because the
services conducted at the clients homes.
The mechanism in this pattern include: first,the Moneylenders (bank thitil), comes to the
cutomers home to offer the services of a loan of money and/ or goods that customers need. At
this stage, the Moneylenders also provide an explanation about the amount and the term of loan
installments and the interest that have to paid, which in local term is called anakan. For the
record, for customers who have a subscription, it is not given an explanation about that matters;
second, if the customer interested and want to borrow money and/ or goods offered, then on this
stage is conducted orally agreement about the amount of money/ the loan goods, the loan term
and the number of installments to be paid; third, the installment stage. Accordance with the
agreement, installments can be done on a daily, weekly or monthly with a repayment term of a
minimum of 12 days until a year (12 months), which in local term called with: rolasan credit
package (12 days), patlikuran credit package (24 days), telungpuluhan credit package (1 month),
sewidakan credit package (2 months), sangangpuluhan credit package (3 months), and
setahunan credit package (1 year). Taking the credit package and paying process depend on
large and small of the loan amount.
The finding research shows that, as a Muslimah woman customer, preffered the daily
installments and kemisan installment (weekly installments that held every Thursday) with 3
months period (sangangpuluhan). The reason is, with the daily anstallments and kemisan
perceived not to burden them, because daily installments can be done by setting Muslimah
women by setting aside the household money, and for kemisan installment models, can be done
because every Thursday they get the household money from their husbands, who mostly work as
laborers and get the sallary every Thursday.
2) The Pattern of Mouth to Mouth.
This pattern is made through intermediaries that connect the desire of customers to borrow
money and/ or goods to the Moneylenders (bank thitil). There are two models in this pattern,
namely: first, between the customer (Muslimah women) and Moneylenders do not meet directly
at all because all Muslimah womens interest as a client represented by intermediaries, including
installment loans; second, between the customers and the Moneylenders meet directly as the
pick up the balls pattern, and the intermediaries only provide information on Moneylenders if
the customer A which in this context is the Muslimah women, want to borrow money and
intermediaries also provide initial explanation of the process, requirements, and procedures for
borrowing on the customer. So, the meeting between the customer and the Moneylenders is
conducted just to give the money and/ or the loan goods to customers. In this case, the
intermediaries get a reward money from Moneylenders. This pattern is usually performed by
475
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
customers with reason: not too know the Moneylenders and more know with the intermediaries;
a new customer or have never borrowed to the Moneylenders; ashamed to the neighbors if is
known to have a loan to Moneylenders and, wants to borrow money in a large amount, between
p. 2.500.000 till 5.000.000 even greater.
The mechanism of this pattern, include: first, the customers meet the intermediaries and
expressed his desire, then the intermediaries give the information to customer about
moneylenders A, lender B, or C, including losses and advantages on borrowing to the
moneylenders A, B or C; second, if the customer has chosen the lender A, B or C, so the
intermediaries come the moneylenders and express the purpose of customer Y, X or Z; third, if
the moneylenders agree so giving the money/ goods or loans installment be implemented.
Giving the money and/ or goods carried by intermediaries or by Moneylenders themselves,
according to the initial agreement between the customer and intermediary; fourth, the loans
installment can also be through an intermediary, and/ or Moneylenders themselves who come to
clients homes.
Furthermore, how the counting of interest loan system in this reality? The system of counting the
interest in local term is called anakan are very different between the Moneylenders one
another, depending on each Moneylenders. The range of lending interest average 20% to 50%
per month and/ or per 3 months. System of calculating the interest or anakan contain of
rolasan system (12), by counting using numbers 12 of the principal loan and there is a 3-months
package system. The example of counting rolasan system (12), is: if Muslimah women borrow
some money or goods worth Rp. 100,000,- (one hundred thousand rupiahs), then that should be
returned is Rp. 120.000 (one hundred twenty thousand rupaihs) or 20% in the first month. Then,
in the second month the loan interest will be doubled to 2-fold is 40% of the loan principal, the
calculation of principal plus 2 times the loan interest, so to Rp. 140.000,- (one hundred and forty
thousand rupiahs), so on the 3rd month multiplied to 3-fold, the 4th month to 4-fold, 5th month to
5-fold and so on, until the debt is paid off. So, if Muslimah women owe Rp. 100.000,- and the
daily installments with maturities of 3 months, then the amount to be paid over three months to
Rp.120.000 + 40.000 + 60.000 = Rp. 220.000,- or every day must repay as much as Rp. 2.500,-
(two thousand five hundred rupiahs). While the 3-month package system, most of the
Moneylenders using interest range of 40% to 50%. For example, if Muslimah women borrow
Rp. 100.000,- then for 3 months should return as much as Rp. 150.000,- for a 50% interest. So, if
the daily installment for 3 months then every day have to pay Rp. 1.750,- and if for three months
can not pay it off then on the 4th month will be doubled to 2 times of the loan interest, the 5th
month to 3 times of the interest and so on until it fully paid. Based on the research findings, the
customers prefer Moneylenders who use the package system 3 monthly calculation, because
according to Muslimah women is lower installments and interest when compared with rolasan
system.
476
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.3. The Legal Culture Built between Muslimah Women and Moneylenders on Loan
Agreement
According to Friedman (1975) the law culture is thinking, beliefs, values and attitudes related to
the law and the law system or social forces that determine how the law is used, avoided, or
misused (Wangania, 2012:3). The legal culture on this context, is the belief, values, mindset and
attitude that was built by Muslimah women, as customer and also as Moneylenders, to the legal
norms, including religious norms that become of reference in the legal system in Indonesia
Legally, legal norms which prohibit the practice of Moneylenders, among others: first, Chapter 1
of Moneylenders Act or Geldscheiter Ordanantie (Stb.1938 : 523), which is in force today, in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter II Transitional Provisions of the Constitution of the
Republic of Indonesia Year 1945, which reads: It is prohibited to attempt moneyMoneylenders
without permission of the government; second, Chapter 1320 Code Of Civil Law or Burgerlijk
Wetboek, which governs the validity of the terms of the agreement, such as: 1) agreed they were
committed themselves; 2) the ability to make an agreement; 3) a certain goods; 4) a cause that of
halal. Chapter 1335 Code of Civil Law, states that: An agreement without cause, or are based
on a cause that spurious or prohibited, does not have the power and Section 1337 reads: One
reason is prohibited, if it is prohibited by law, or if contrary to morals or public order. Based
on the sound of the third chapter, the loan agreement between Muslimah women and
Moneylenders canceled and void, because it is based on reason and not prohibited in accordance
with the legislation in force; third, Chapter 15 paragraph 1 (c) of Law No. 2 of 2002 on the
Indonesian National Police reads: Indonesian National Police is generally authorized to prevent
and control the growth of societys ills. According to the Chapter 15 paragraph 1 (c) the Police
Constitution, which is meant by social ills, among others, begging and vagrancy, prostitution,
gambling, drug abuse and narcotics, drunkenness, trafficking, exploitation/ practice of
loan-sharking (Moneylenders), and levies wild. Based on the chapter, then the duty of the police
to prevent and tackle practice Moneylenders , because it is one of societys ills.
In addition to legal norms, religious norms also clearly and expressly prohibit the practice of
Riba (rents). Allah SWT says which means, do not taking Riba with double and fear of
Allah, so that you earn a fortune . [Q.S Al-Imran, 3 : 130]. Further, Allah says, which means:
and Allah SWT justifies the purchase and forbidden usury ( Riba). [ Surah Al-Baqarah (2) :
275]. Legal norms as a living religion in Indonesian society, also became part of the legal system
in Indonesia which is recognized by the state. Therefore, as the law of life, should be a
conviction and a reference value for the Muslim community, especially Muslimah women, in
various areas of life, including in the economic activity, which in this case is the loan agreement.
However, beliefs, values, mindsets which was built by Muslimah women, as well as
Moneylenders and also customer who both of them have an identity as a Muslimah, in the reality
it is contrary to the norms of religion and state law that clearly and expressly prohibit the practice
477
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
of Moneylenders. High religiosity of Muslimah women both as customers and as Moneylenders,

in terms of religious beliefs, religious intellectual, religious rituals, not linear when they carry out
economic activities. Muslimah women, both as customers and as Moneylenders, deeply
understand that the practice of Moneylenders is prohibit, but they seemed to close their eyes
when doing this agreement. Religious values that they believe to be a Muslimah is not
internalized in themselves, when lending and borrowing agreements, because that became a
consideration is the value of pragmatism. Value of pragmatism certainly more concerned with
the final result than the values that embraced by the community. Pragmatism directs human
activity only for believe something that are rill, sensory, and the benefits can be enjoyed
practically and pragmatically in daily life. Accordance with the secular pattern, pragmatism
is not easy to believe in the trust established. Pragmatism does not recognize anything
metaphsical and absolute truth (single truth), but only recognize the truth if it is proven
scientifically, and believe that the world is able to created by the human himself. It means that,
pragmatism indirectly already denying some thing transcendental (Bakhtiar, 2002:118).
The loan agreement between Moneylenders and customers who both of them are Muslimah
women, occurs because of the interests of both sides. Moneylenders as creditors, concerned with
the advantages from money which is lent while the customers concerned on the money borrowed
to fulfill their needs. The legal relationship established between Moneylenders as creditors and
customers, it is not the same as the legal relationship in the modern banking system, with the
formalization of complicated bureaucracy. Trusting relationships, kinship, get to know each
other, with a verbal agreement and there are no strict rules as modern banking system, become a
base of mutualism symbiotic relationship between both of them. Attitudes and behavior of the
Moneylenders, who always build self-image through the strengthening of cultural capital on the
pretext of helping the people in troubled and in need when making loans; serve customers well
and according to the wishes of customers; and provide bonuses and prizes at Idul Fitri to
customers who have become his customers, it caused the customers more choose Moneylenders
than formal financial institutions. The relationships that built by Moneylenders on its customers,
who are not only shown through economic transactions, but involves other socio-cultural aspects
as marketing strategy, in fact gave rise to the social power of its own, thus building a law culture
that came out of the corridor religious norms and state law. That facts appropriate with the theory
is that the law culture is the social forces that determine how the law is used, avoided, or misused
(Wangania, 2012: 3). Rahardjo (1986) also confirms that social forces built by society always
negate the distance that causes a lack of balance between law and society (Rahardjo, 1986:
33-34). Imbalance between legal systems (religious norms and state law) with the society
(Muslimah women and Moneylenders), due to the social forces the are built based on the value
of pragmatism, which is certainly contrary to the values of local religious arbitrate should be the
basis for Indonesian society.
478
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Conclusion
Muslimah women choose to have loan agreement with Moneylenders, because of the
experience, perception and understanding them when making the agreement with the
Moneylenders who have administration characteristics, requirements and lending procedures are
simple and flexible, based on oral agrements and more concerned with the trust rather than the
legality, compared to formal financial institutions, such as Banking Institutions, Cooperatives
and other financial institutions. The social power that built on the basis of the value of
pragmatism, bring out to the legal culture that ignores the consciousness of the importance of
religious norms and the state laws.
5. References
Bakhtiar, Amsal, 2002. Filsafat Ilmu, Teori Pragmatisme tentang Kebenaran, Bandung: Citra
Aditya
Dimyati, Khuzaifah, 2007. Profil Pelepas Uang Dalam Masyarakat Transisi, ( Studi kasus di
Kartosuro Sukoharjo), Semarang: Post-Graduate Program Diponegoro University.
Friedman, Lawrence M. 1969. Legal Culture and Social Development, on Law and Social
Review, 4 edition, No 1
Nugroho, Heru 2001. Uang, Rentenir, dan Hutang Piutang di Jawa, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
Kartono, D, 2004. Pasar Modal Tradisional (Analisis sosiologi ekonomi terhadap rentenir)
Journal of Sociology Dilemma, 17 (1), 4.
Wangania, Hei, 2012. Perbandingan Budaya Hukum Hakim dalam Menangani Perkara Korupsi
di Pengadilan Tipikor dan Pengadilan Umum, Makalah, Jakarta
Rahardjo, Stjipto, 1986. Hukum dan Masyarakat, Bandung: angkasa
479
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Does Perceived Racial Discrimination Increase Aggression?
Bao-Zhong Chnga, Chee-Seng Tanb

a&b
Department of Psychology and Counselling, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (Perak campus)
Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900 Kampar, Perak D. R.
Email: chngbaozhong@1utar.mya, tcseng@utar.edu.myb*
Abstract
Racial discrimination has received greater attention than ever before. This phenomenon of racial
inequality in treatment (e.g., schooling, employment) has negatively influenced both racial
minority (Bobo and Fox, 2003) and majority (Borrell, et al., 2013). Previous studies, for instance,
have found that racial discrimination is associated with depressive symptoms, stress, and trauma
(Carter, 2007; Liang and Border, 2012). This study aimed to explore the extent to which racial
discrimination experiences in daily life influence individuals aggression. A total of 136
Malaysian adults (half were female) were recruited through convenience and snowball sampling.
Participants responded to an online survey consisted of the Brief Perceived Ethnic
Discrimination Questionnaire-Community Version (Brief PEDQ-CV) and Aggression
Questionnaire 12 (AQ-12). Correlation analysis found positive relationships between all
subscales of the perceived racial discrimination (Workplace Discrimination, Threat and
Harassment, Exclusion, Stigmatization, & Police) and aggression (Physical Aggression, Verbal
Aggression, Anger, & Hostility). The Police subscale, however, only associated with Physical
Aggression. Gender differences, however, were not found in aggression with the exception of
Physical Aggression whereby male scored higher than female. Multiple regression analyses were
conducted to further explore the impact of perceived racial discrimination on aggression. Results
showed that Exclusion significantly predicted both Anger and Hostility. The findings of this
study contribute to the literature by showing that people become angry and hostile when being
racially excluded. The results also reveal the importance of racial equality in individual
well-being and to create awareness of racial discrimination in Malaysia.
Keyword: racial discrimination, aggression, exclusion, gender differences, Malaysia
People tend to treat others differently, and these differences are based on distinctive features such
as cultures, physical appearances, and genetic composition. One of the typical examples is racial
discrimination in which people link irrational and negative emotions, beliefs, treatments, and
actions with certain races (Belgrave and Allison, 2014). Racial discrimination includes
dismissing the contributions of minority groups, false accusations of inferiority, and limiting the
access and quantity of resources (Sanson, et al., 1998).
480
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Studies have focused on the negative impact of perceived racial discrimination on physical
health (e.g., Borrell, et al., 2013) and mental health (Carter, 2007; Coker, et al., 2009; Lowe,
Okubo and Reilly, 2012). The relationship between perceived racial discrimination and
aggression has received relatively little attention (Beal, et al., 2000). This is surprising as racial
discrimination manifests itself in physically aggressive manner (e.g., taunt) and verbally
aggressive manner (e.g., racial slurs) (Sangalang, et al., 2015).
This study investigated the effect of perceived racial discrimination on aggression in Malaysia
context. Unlike past studies, we examined the impact of each facet of perceived racial
discrimination (e.g., exclusion, wworkplace discrimination) on different dimensions of
aggression (e.g., physical aggression, hostility).
1. Perceived Racial Discrimination and Aggression
A number of studies have found a positive relationship between perceived racial discrimination
and aggression (Borrell, et al., 2013; Flores, et al., 2010; Nyborg and Curry, 2003). Brody and
colleagues (2006) conducted a longitudinal study to examine the relationship between perceived
racial discrimination and mental well-being among adolescents. The researchers found a positive
linkage between perceived racial discrimination, conduct problems (e.g., physical assault, cruelty
to animals), and depressive symptoms. Nyborg and Curry (2003) also found that perceived racial
discrimination is positively associated with self-report externalizing symptoms such as fighting.
In addition, Flores, et al. (2010) examined the impact of perceived racial discrimination on health
risk behaviors among adolescents and found that perceived racial discrimination positively
predicted engagement in fights, alcohol abuse, and post-traumatic stress.
The negative impact of perceived racial discrimination has also been observed on psychological
and emotional aggression. Mills (1990) examined the reactions of African Americans and White
Americans after exposing to video-depicted racist incidents. Regardless of their race, participants
felt angry and internalized their anger after watching the video-depicted racist incidents.
Specifically, participants reported heightened anger when they observed people of similar race
experienced perceived racial discrimination. Swim, et al, (2003) asked African American
undergraduates in a predominant European American university to document their emotions
during their interaction with European counterparts. African American students reported that they
felt angry when they were racially discriminated. In the same line, Pittman (2011) found that
African Americans who reported higher perceived racial discrimination tended to use anger as a
coping mechanism, and have poor general well-being and psychological distress.
Gibbons, et al. (2010) also found that perceived racial discrimination is positively associated
with hostility, the cognitive component of aggression. Moreover, hostility was found to mediate
the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and substance abuse. In other words,
perceived racial discrimination increases feeling of hostile, which in turn leads to the increase of
481
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
substance use. In a follow up study, Gibbons, et al. (2014) examined the effects of perceived
racial discrimination on physical health status and behaviors among African American. They
found that perceived racial discrimination influences drinking behaviors through hostility.
The positive relationship between perceived racial discrimination and aggression suggests that
individuals may cope with the negative impact of perceived discrimination via aggression. In
other words, aggression (e.g., anger, hostility) may be the channel for individuals to relieve the
discomfort of the racial discrimination experiences (Chao, Mallinckrodt and Wei, 2012).
2. Gender Differences in Aggression
Literature has suggested that there could be gender differences in aggression. For instance, Brody
and colleagues (2006) found that male adolescents were more likely to engage in conduct
problems (e.g., physical assault) compared to female. Similarly, Chao and colleagues (2012)
found that male undergraduates are more likely to experience anger or irritability than female
students. Therefore, it is essential to examine the role of gender in the relationship between
perceived racial discrimination and aggression.
3. The Present Study
Although the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and aggression has been
documented, it is interesting to know if the association will emerge in Malaysia context. More
importantly, we extended previous studies to examining the effects of each facets of perceived
racial discrimination (e.g., exclusion, workplace discrimination, stigmatization, threat and
harassment, and police) on different dimensions of aggression (e.g., pphysical aggression, verbal
aggression, anger, and hostility). In addition, gender differences in aggression were also
examined in the present study. It is hypothesized that racial discriminatory experiences may lead
one to be more likely to engage in aggressive behaviors.
4. Methodology
Participants
The sample consisted of 136 Malaysian adults and undergraduate students. Half of them
identified themselves as female and majority of the participants are Chinese. Individuals below
21 years old were required to submit parental consent form to participate in our study.
Participants aged from 19 to 59 years old (M = 24.39, SD = 7.77).
An online survey was created and the link of the survey was distributed by the authors via
snowball sampling method. Adults who voluntarily participated in the study responded to the
survey at their convenience. On the other hand, undergraduate students recruited from a private
university in Malaysia answered the survey in computer lab. These undergraduates received one
(1) coursework mark as a token of appreciation for their time.
482
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Measures
Brief perceived ethnic discrimination questionnaire-Community version (Brief
PEDQ-CV; Brondolo et al., 2005). The Brief PEDQ-CV is a self-report inventory that consists
of 17 items and is the shorter version of the PEDQ-CV (Brondolo, et al., 2005). It has five
subscales: Exclusion (4 items), Workplace discrimination (4 items), Stigmatization (4 items),
Threat and harassment (4 items), and Police (1 item). Participants respond to the items on a
5-point scale, ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Very Often). Higher score indicates that participants
have more experiences of perceived racial discrimination. The Brief PEDQ-CV showed good
internal consistency (Cronbach alpha ranged from .72 to .84 for the subscales and was .92 for the
overall scale). Moreover, the Brief PEDQ-CV was found to have construct validity (Brondolo et
al., 2005)
Aggression Questionnaire-12 (AQ-12; Bryant and Smith, 2001) is a shorter version of

the 29-item Aggression Questionnaire developed by Buss and Perry (1992) and is used to
measure the general aggression level. There are four subscales in this inventory: Physical
Aggression (3 items), Verbal Aggression (3 items), Anger (3 items), and Hostility (3 items).
Participants rate their response on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 (Not at all like me)
to 5 (Completely like me). Higher score indicates more involvement in aggressive behaviors.
The four subscales reflect the a) behavioral (physical aggression and verbal aggression), b)
emotional (anger), and c) cognitive (hostility) aspects of aggression (Buss and Perry, 1992). The
AQ-12 has found to be reliable ( = .88 for overall and ranged from .73 to .84 for subscales).
Past studies showed that the AQ-12 has good construct and discriminant validity (Bryant and
Smith, 2005).
Procedure
Upon giving inform consent, participants were directed to answer a battery of questionnaire that
consisted of the Brief PEDQ-CV, AQ12, and demographic background (e.g., age, gender,
occupational status, and race). Participants recruited via snowball sampling method were given
the flexibility to respond to the survey at their convenience, while undergraduates responded to
the survey in a computer lab.
5. Results
Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between perceived ethnic
discrimination and aggression. Table 1 shows the inter-correlation among the factors and the
descriptive statistics. All the facets of the Brief PEDQ-CV and AQ-12 were positively correlated
with the exception of the relationship between Police and Verbal Aggression, Police and Anger,
and Police and Hostility.
Subsequently, several multiple hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to investigate if

perceived discrimination significantly predicts the facets of aggression. We examined gender
483
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
difference in aggression in the first step and the facets of perceived discrimination were entered
into step 2. The Police factor was not included in the analyses of verbal aggression, anger, and
hostility because no significant relationship was found between these factors.
For physical aggression, the model significantly predicted 25 % of the total variance, adj R2 = .22,
F(6,129) = 7.16, p < .001. It was also found that gender, but not perceived discrimination,
significantly predicted physical aggression, = .25, t(135) = 2.96, p = .04. Specifically, male (M
= 6.94, SD = 3.01) reported more aggressive behaviors than female (M = 5.52, SD = 2.50). For
verbal aggression, the result showed that the model explained 19.1 % of the total variance, adj R2
= .16, F(6,129) = 5.09, p < .001. Further analysis found that both gender and perceived ethnic
discrimination did not significantly predict verbal aggression.
Analysis on anger showed that the model predicted 22.8 % of the total variance, adj R2 = .20,
F(6,129) = 6.36, p < .001. Exclusion was found significantly predicted Anger, = .49, t(135) =
4.04, p < .001. No other effect was found. For hostility, the model predicted 26.1 % of the total
variance, adj R2 = .23, F(6,129) = 7.58, p < .001. Similarly, only Exclusion significantly
predicted Anger (= .53, t(135) = 4.43, p < .001). Table 2 summarizes the results of the
regression analyses.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Brief PEDQ-CV and AQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
1. Exclusion - . 9.87 3.11 0.39 -0.34
**
2. WD .71 - 8.49 2.63 0.42 0.18
** **
3. Stigma .68 .64 - 7.44 2.75 0.72 -0.70
** ** **
4. T & H .60 .67 .63 - 6.16 2.58 1.40 1.66
** ** ** **
5. Police .38 .51 .33 .45 - 1.73 0.91 1.11 0.64
6. PA .34** .41** .43** .43** .26** - 6.24 2.85 0.70 -0.41
7. VA .40** .39** .35** .34** .13 .55** - 7.83 2.45 0.10 -0.44
** ** ** * ** **
8. Anger .39 .23 .23 .19 -.11 .33 .48 - 8.80 3.14 -0.40 -0.75
** ** ** ** ** ** **
9. Hostility .48 .36 .25 .29 .10 .40 .50 .59 8.90 2.90 -0.33 -0.61
Note: Brief PEDQ-CV= Brief perceived ethnic discrimination questionnaire-Community version,
AQ = Aggression Questionnaire, WD = Workplace Discrimination, Stigma =
stigmatization ,T&H= Threat and harassment, PA = Physical Aggression, VA = Verbal
Aggression
* p < .05; ** p < .01.
484
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 2
Summary for Multiple Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables predicting Aggression
PA VA Anger Hostility
Variables B SE B SE B SE B SE
Model 1
Sex 1.42 0.48 0.25** 0.55 0.42 0.12 0.52 0.54 0.09 -0.05 0.50 -0.01
Model 2
Sex 0.72 0.46 0.13 0.10 0.41 0.02 0.35 0.51 0.06 -0.41 0.46 -0.70
***
Exclusion -0.46 0.11 -0.05 0.17 0.10 0.21 0.50 0.13 0.49 0.49 0.11 0.53***
WD 0.16 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.13 0.19 0.07 0.16 0.06 0.14 0.14 0.13
Stigma 0.22 0.13 0.21 0.05 0.11 0.10 -0.09 0.14 -0.08 -0.17 0.13 -0.17
T&H 0.22 0.13 0.20 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.04 0.14 0.04 0.07 0.13 0.06
Police 0.08 0.29 0.03 - - - - - - - - -
Note: WD = Workplace Discrimination, Stigma = Stigmatization, T&H = Threat and Harassment,
PA = Physical Aggression, VA = Verbal Aggression
**p < .05; *** p < .001.
6. Discussion
The present study examined the impact of perceived discrimination on aggression. In line with
literature, our findings show that the facets of perceived discrimination (Exclusion, Workplace
Discrimination, Stigmatization, and Threat and Harrassment) are positively correlated with
aggression (Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility). The Police facet of
Brief PEDQ-CV, however, is only correlated with Physical Aggression. The result implies that
individuals tend to act aggressively towards police officers when being discriminated by the
officers.
Gender difference was observed in physical aggression with male participants engaged in more
physical aggressive behaviors than female. The difference could be due to the beliefs that
physical aggressive behaviors are acceptable when performed by male (Brody, et al., 2006). In
line with this notion, our findings show no gender difference in other dimensions of aggression.
None of the facets of perceived racial discrimination has impact on physical aggression and
verbal aggression. This finding contradicts with previous findings (e.g., Brody, et al., 2006;
Flores, et al., 2010) that perceived discrimination is predictive of violent behaviors. One of the
possible reasons for this contradiction is that our participants might express or relieve their
distress of being discriminated via different ways (e.g., social media) instead of physical or
verbal behaviors. Future studies are encouraged to examine the role of social media usage in the
relationship between perceived discrimination and aggression.
Consistent with previous studies (e.g., Chao, Mallinckrodt and Wei, 2012; Flores et al., 2010),
485
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Exclusion facet of PEDQ-CV significantly predicts both anger and hostility, the emotional and
cognitive component of aggression. The results suggest that exclusion tends to influence
aggression via emotion and cognitive factors than other facets. More studies are needed to
further examine this relationship.
The findings of the present study should be interpreted with care because the results were based
on self-report. Self-report was used in this study because we examined the frequency and
intensity of perceived racial discrimination and how they influence participants general
aggression. Behavioral or physiological measurements are crucial for future studies to validate
and further explain the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and aggression.
In addition, the data of the present study were collected via two different methods. Some
participants answered the online survey in controlled laboratory condition; while others were free
to choose the time and place they want to answer the questionnaire. It was found that participants
placed in laboratory condition finished the questionnaire faster than their counterparts. Although
there is no evidence showing that difference in response time will affect the results, future
studies are encouraged to standardize the data collection method.
The findings of this study replicate the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and
aggression in Malaysia context. Our study also highlights the role of cognitive and emotional
component of aggression when one experienced racial discrimination. Specifically, Exclusion is
the sole facet of perceived discrimination that has negative impact on anger and hostility. Future
studies should pay more attention to understand the negative effect of exclusion and the
underlying mechanism.
7. References
Beal, D.J., O'Neal, E.C., Ong, J. and Ruscher, J. B., 2000. The ways and means of interracial
aggression: Modern racists use of covert retaliation. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, [e-journal] 26(10), pp. 12251238. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul
Rahman Library website <http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Belgrave, F. and Allison, K.W., 2014. African American psychology: From Africa to America.
[e-book] SAGE Publication. Available at: SAGE Publications < https://us.sagepub.com>
[Accessed 12 July 2015].
Bobo, L.D. and Fox, C., 2003. Race, racism, and discrimination: Bridging problems, methods,
and theory in psychological research. Social Psychology Quarterly, [e-journal] 66(4), pp.
319332. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library website
<http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Borrell, L.N., Kiefe, C.I., Diez-Roux, A.V., Williams, D.R. and Gordon-Larsen, P., 2013. Racial
discrimination, racial/ethnic segregation, and health behaviors in the CARDIA study.
Ethnicity & Health, [online] 18(3), pp. 227243. Available at: <
486
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
http://scholar.harvard.edu/davidrwilliams/publications/racial-discrimination-racialethnic-seg
regation-and-health-behaviors> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Brody, G.H., Chen, Y.F., Murry, V.M., Ge, X., Simons, R.L., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M. and
Cutrona, C.E., 2006. Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American
youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child
Development, [online] 77(5), pp. 11701189. Available at:
<http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/dmessinger/c_c/rsrcs/rdgs/emot/Brodyetal2006.pdf>
[Accessed 12 July 2015].
Brondolo, E., Kelly, K.P., Coakley, V., Gordon, T., Thompson, S., Levy, E., Cassells, A., Tobin,
J.N., Sweeney, M. and Contrada, R.J., 2005. The perceived ethnic discrimination
questionnaire: Development and preliminary validation of a community version. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, [e-journal] 35, pp.335365. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku
Abdul Rahman Library website <http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Bryant, F.B. and Smith, B.D., 2001. Refining the architecture of aggression: A measurement
model for the Buss-Perry aggression questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality,
[e-journal] 35(2), pp.138167. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library
website <http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Buss, A.H. and Perry, M., 1992. The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality,
[e-journal] 63(3), pp.452459. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library
Carter, R.T., 2007. Clarification and purpose of the race-based traumatic stress injury model. The
Counseling Psychologist, [e-journal] 35(1), pp.144154. Avaiable through: Universiti
Tunku Abdul Rahman Library website <http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July
2015].
Chao, R.C.L., Mallinckrodt, B. and Wei, M., 2012. Co-occurring presenting problems in African
American college clients reporting racial discrimination distress. Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, [e-journal] 43(3), pp.199207. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku
Coker, T.R., Elliott, M.N., Kanouse, D.E., Grunbaum, J.A., Schwebel, D.C., Gilliland, M.J.,
Tortolero, S.R., Peskin, M.F. and Schuster, M.A., 2009. Perceived racial/ethnic
discrimination among fifth-grade students and its association with mental health. American
Journal of Public Health, [online] 99(5), pp.878884. Available at:
<http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2008.144329> [Accessed 12 July
2015].
Flores, E., Tschann, J.M., Dimas, J.M., Pasch, L.A. and de Groat, C.L., 2010. Perceived
racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors
among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of counseling psychology, [e-journal] 57(3),
pp.264273. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library website
Gibbons, F.X., Etcheverry, P.E., Stock, M.L., Gerrard, M., Weng, C.Y., Kiviniemi, M. and
O'Hara, R., 2010. Exploring the link between racial discrimination and substance use: What
487
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
mediates? What buffers? Journal of personality and social psychology, [e-journal] 99(5),
Gibbons, F.X., Kingsbury, J.H., Gerrard, M., Cutrona, C., Wills, T.A. and Stock. M., 2014.
Effects of perceived racial discrimination on health status and health behavior: A
differential mediation hypothesis. Health psychology, [online] 33(1), pp.119. Available at:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3893709&tool=pmcentrez&ren
dertype=abstract. [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Liang, C.T.H. and Borders, A., 2012. Beliefs in an unjust world mediate the associations
between perceived ethnic discrimination and psychological functioning. Personality and
Individual Differences, [e-journal] 53(4), pp.528533. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku
Lowe, S.M., Okubo, Y. and Reilly, M.F., 2012. A qualitative inquiry into racism, trauma, and
coping: Implications for supporting victims of racism. Professional Psychology: Research
and Practice, [e-journal] 43(3), pp.190198. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul
Rahman Library website <http://library.utar.edu.my> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Mills, B.D., 1990. Emotional reactions of African-Americans to viewing racist incidents. Ph. D.
University of Maryland College Park. Available at <
http://search.proquest.com.libezp.utar.edu.my/pqdtglobal/docview/303851732/abstract/720
ECBCE013A44CAPQ/1?accountid=50207> [Accessed 12 July 2015].
Nyborg, V.M. and Curry, J.F., 2003. The impact of perceived racism: Psychological smptoms
among African American boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,
[e-journal] 32(2), pp. 258-266. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library
Pittman, C.T., 2011. Getting mad but ending up sad: The mental health consequences for African
Americans using anger to cope with racism. Journal of Black Studies, [e-journal] 42(7),
Sangalang, C.C., Chen, A.C.C., Kulis, S.S. and Yabiku, S.T., 2015. Development and validation
of a racial discrimination measure for Cambodian American adolescents, Asian American
Journal of Psychology, [e-journal] 6(1), pp.5665. Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku
Sanson, A., Augoustinos, M., Gridley, H., Kyrios, M., Reser, J. and Turner, C. (1998). Racism and
prejudice: An Australian psychological society position paper. Australian Psychological
Society Position Paper, [online] 33(3), pp.161-182. Available at:
<https://www.psychology.org.au/publications/statements/racism/> [Accessed 30 Jun. 2015].
Swim, J.K., Hyers, L.L., Cohen, L.L., Fitzgerald, D.C. and Bylsma, W.H., 2003. African
American college students experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and
responses to these incidents. Journal Of Black Psychology, [e-journal] 29(1), pp.3867.
Avaiable through: Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Library website
488
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Menerokai Budaya Hedonisme dalam Kalangan Remaja: Penyelesaian
dari Sudut Agama
Abdul Jalil Ramlia, Shuhairimi Abdullahb, Jamsari Jamaluddinc, Mohd Kasturi Nor Abd
Azizd & Noor Salwani Hussine
aPusat Pengajian Pembangunan Insan dan Teknokomunikasi (iKOM), Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Blok B, Kompleks Pusat Pengajian, 02600, Jejawi Arau, Perlis, Malaysia.

Email: ajalil@unimap.edu.my,bshuhairimi@unimap.edu.my,
c
jamsari@unimap.edu.my,dkasturi@unimap.edu.my dan enoorsalwani@unimap.edu.my
Abstrak
Perkembangan dunia semasa kini secara tidak langsung mempengaruhi gaya hidup remaja dalam
aspek pembentukan hati budi. Realiti yang berlaku kini menunjukkan sebahagian daripada remaja
sedang mengalami keadaan kehilangan adab. Antaranya berpunca daripada terdedah dengan
tingkah laku yang kasar, bahan-bahan permainan yang menjadikannya ganas dan objek-objek
seksual yang merosakkan. Situasi bertambah parah lagi apabila faham isme yang bersifat negatif
seperti hedosnisme telah lama menyerap masuk dalam negara ini. Kealpaan golongan remaja yang
tertipu dengan keindahan budaya hedonisme yang berkiblatkan keseronokan mengakibatkan
berlakunya kemuflisan hati budi. Objektif penulisan ini adalah untuk mengenalpasti faktor-faktor
penularan budaya tersebut, impak yang berlaku terhadap personaliti remaja dan mengenalpasti
kaedah-kaedah yang boleh diaplikasikan melalui kaedah rohaniah melalui pendekatan Islam.
Apabila jiwa manusia dipengaruhi dengan unsur-unsur keburukan secara tidak langsung ia akan
mempengaruhi personaliti manusia cenderung kepada perkara-perkara yang berorientasikan
keburukan. Sehingga kini belum ada suatu kaedah yang mampu mengatasi kemelut tersebut
melainkan kembali kepada keinsafan yang mendalam. Jalan keluar daripada salah laku sosial juga
tidak terbuka melainkan kembali kepada kepatuhan terhadap agama. Oleh yang demikian, sebagai
alternatifnya kaedah-kaedah yang telah dikenalpasti oleh ajaran agama dapat merawat
penyakit-penyakit yang berunsurkan kejiwaan dan memandu golongan remaja khususnya untuk
mengenali diri dan PenciptaNya. Dapatan daripada kajian ini didapati unsur-unsur keagamaan
dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan remaja kepada gaya hidup yang lebih positif.
Kata kunci: Hedonisme; Remaja; Kerohanian
1. Pengenalan
Penularan budaya hedonisme di kalangan remaja pada hari ini bukanlah merupakan satu fenomena
yang baru. Ini kerana, aliran tersebut telah lama berkembang di Eropah Barat sekitar kurun 14 - 15
489
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
dan kemudiannya budaya tersebut menjalar keseluruh dunia (Ira O. Wade, 1967). Sama ada secara
sedar atau tidak, budaya hedonistik tersebut telahpun menyerap dalam kehidupan manusia yang
jelas bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai agama dan norma-norma masyarakat. Dengan kata lain,
budaya hedonisme yang bermatlamatkan kebendaan berpotensi menjadikan manusia terpesona
dengan kehidupan yang menyeronokkan yang penuh dengan dengan ilusi dan cenderung kepada
gaya hidup bebas seperti yang dipraktikkan di Barat. Kemuncaknya, manifestasi daripada amalan
sonsang tersebut mengakibatkan matlamat hidup individu terbabit hanya memfokuskan kepada
natijah keseronokan dan kemewahan yang berlebihan.
Realiti yang berlaku pada masa kini telah menyaksikan golongan remaja amnya mudah
dipengaruhi oleh budaya hedonisme melalui proses globalisasi sosio budaya. Melalui pelbagai
medium, golongan remaja akan menjadi sasaran utama proses globalisasi yang didalangi oleh
pihak Barat. Oleh yang demikian, tidak menghairankan apabila nilai-nilai tradisi sosio budaya
masyarakat Melayu yang terkenal dengan nilai-nilai timur sedang mengalami proses penghakisan
dan digantikan dengan nilai-nilai hedonisme yang dilihat lebih mesra dengan golongan remaja.
Aliran ini seolah-olah membentuk ritualnya yang tersendiri, dan mempunyai pengikutnya sama
ada secara langsung atau sebaliknya. Tegasnya, budaya hedonisme bersifat songsang dengan
amalan tradisi yang diamalkan oleh masyarakat Melayu. Ini kerana, aliran ini menegakkan
perkara-perkara lencongan yang negatif counterfeits dan bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai tradisi
yang diktiraf dalam norma-norma hidup masyarakat.
Dalam keghairahan remaja terpengaruh dengan gaya hidup bebas mereka sanggup melakukan
pelbagai perkara yang boleh memberi kepuasan dan keseronokan kepada tuntutan hawa nafsu
meskipun bertentangan dengan perintah agama dan adat. Gaya hidup sedemikian seolah-olah
dilabelkan sebagai keunggulan dalam sistem stratafikasi sosial bagi aliran hedonisme.
Penonjolan budaya tersebut dalam kalangan remaja dapat dilihat melalui gaya hidup yang
mementingkan hiburan yang melampau, penyalahgunaan dadah, seks bebas dan kehidupan mewah
melebihi daripada kemampuan. Kecenderungan untuk hidup bermewah dan mendapatkan hiburan
yang melampau boleh mendedahkan golongan tersebut kepada kemelut gejala sosial dan akhirnya
terlibat dengan kegiatan jenayah.
2. Konsep Umum Hedonisme
Hedonisme berasal dari perkataan Greek iaitu hedone pleasure + ism

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism, capaian pada 6.6.2015). Ia boleh dijelaskan sebagai cara
pemikiran yang memberi keseronokan yang diterima oleh masyarakat umum. Dengan kata lain, ia
bermaksud mencapai kemuncak keseronokan pleasure is the highest good. Dari satu sudut lain,
hedonisme merupakan satu bentuk pemikiran yang merangsang seseorang untuk bertindak
mencapai keseronokan atau kebahagiaan dan mengelakkan unsur-unsur yang boleh mendatangkan
kesedihan.
490
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Umumnya, hedonisme memfokuskan kepada perkara yang boleh meningkatkan keseronokan dan
mengurangkan perkara-perkara yang boleh memberikan kesedihan increasing pleasure and
reduce pain. Berasaskan premis tersebut, aliran hedonisme berpendapat unsur-unsur yang boleh
mendatangkan kesusahan atau kesedihan merupakan tempok penghalang kepada manusia
untuk mengecapi kebahagian dan keseronokan. Akibatnya, manusia tidak memiliki kebebasan
dalam hidup disebabkan adanya sempadan yang telah digariskan sama ada yang telah ditentukan
oleh agama dan adat masyarakat. Hedonisme dianggap sebagai penyelamat yang boleh merungkai
segala permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh manusia. Sekiranya agama telah menentukan garis
panduan yang perlu dipatuhi oleh penganutnya, maka aliran hedonisme memberi kebebasan yang
sepenuhnya kepada pengikutnya asalkan ia boleh memberi kesenangan dan keseronokan.
Lazimya, falsafah hedonistime ini lebih cenderung kepada perkara-perkara yang berkaitan dengan
seks.
Pada prinsipnya, idea disebalik pemikiran hedonistik memberi gambaran bahawa setiap aktiviti
perlakuan manusia boleh diukur dengan menggunakan mekanisme penilaian untuk mengetahui
berapa banyak nilai keseronokan diperolehi dan berapa kecil nilai kesedihan atau kesusahan
dihasilkan. Secara ringkasnya, prinsip yang menjadi pegangan aliran hedonisme ialah
memaksimumkan keseronokan pada tahap skala yang tinggi dan meminimumkan unsur-unsur
kesedihan. Para sarjana Barat seperti John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) dan Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism) telah menterjemahkan idea pemikiran
dalam karya mereka yang bertajuk Utilatarianism and Other Essays menjelaskan bahawa asas
pegangan golongan hedonisme mempunyai perkaitan dengan teori utilatarianisme. Meskipun
begitu, pendokong aliran humanisme pula menegaskan bahawa teori tersebut hanya mendorong
mereka mengejar perkara-perkara yang mendatangkan keseronokan dan kegembiraan
semata-mata dan perkara tersebut diiktiraf oleh masyarakat umum. Berasaskan pandangan yang
diutarakan tersebut, John Stuart Mill dan Jeremy Bentham membuat kesimpulan bahawa
humanisme yang dipraktikkan dalam masyarakat berlaku sedikit lencongan dengan prinsip asas
yang dipegang oleh aliran utilatarianisme.
Menyentuh tentang budaya hedonisme, terdapat dua aliran pemikiran yang membincangkan teori
tersebut. Aliran yang pertama dipelopori oleh Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), berpendapat teori
tersebut perlu berasaskan kepada pendekatan yang bersifat kuantitatif. Beliau percaya bahawa
nilai keseronokan atau kegembiraan yang dikecapi oleh manusia sepatutnya difahami secara
kuantitatif. Apa yang penting, unsur keseronokan tersebut boleh dinilai dengan cara kemuncak
keseronokan didarab dengan tempoh masa. Oleh yang demikian, tidak kira berapa nilai jumlah
yang diperolehi namun perkara yang penting ialah berapa lama tempoh masa keseronokan tersebut
dapat dikekalkan dan nilai tersebut perlu diambilkira.
Berbeza pula dengan aliran yang dipelopori oleh John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Beliau
mengemukakan pandangan bahawa teori hedonisme perlu menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif.
Pada pandangan beliau, terdapat perbezaan pada aras keseronokan bagi sesuatu perkara yang
dilakukan oleh manusia. Sudah tentulah kualiti keseronokan yang tinggi lebih baik dari yang
491
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
sebaliknya. Selanjutnya beliau membuat hujahan bahawa pada asasnya keperluan semua makhluk
adalah ringkas. Tamsilan yang lazim dijadikan contoh dengan merujuk kepada khinzir. Tegasnya,
sifat binatang tersebut begitu ringkas kerana tidak memikirkan perkara yang kompleks dalam
kehidupannya. Walau bagaimanapun contoh yang diutarakan tidak boleh dianalogikan kepada
manusia. Realitinya, keperluan manusia sering berbeza di antara satu sama lain kerana ia
cenderung dipengaruhi oleh pelbagai perkara yang merupakan halangan dan kekangan untuk
menilai darjah keseronokan bagi tingkah laku yang sama.
Gaya hidup bebas dan menyeronokkan seperti yang diamalkan oleh pendokong hedonis boleh
memberi implikasi yang negatif kepada pembangunan sakhsiah remaja. Gambaran ini boleh
dilihat melalui kritikan yang dibuat oleh seorang sarjana Perancis iaitu (Jean Baudrillard, 1987)
menegaskan bahawa realiti masyarakat kini sudah melampaui batas kemanusiaan. Kritikan keras
yang ditujukan kepada manusia yang bersifat sedemikian seperti yang dinukilkan:
More social than social; fatter than fat; more violent than the violent; more sexual than sex
(porn); more real than real (simulation), more beautiful than the beautiful (fashion).
Oleh yang demikian, sudah terang lagi bersuluh bawa penyerapan budaya hedonisme dalam
kalangan remaja amat merugikan masyarakat dan negara amnya. Ini kerana, budaya kuning bukan
sahaja merosakkan personaliti remaja bahkan boleh merencatkan perancangan untuk melahirkan
generasi yang cemerlang untuk menerajui dan memimpin negara pada masa hadapan.
3. Tanggapan Islam Terhadap Budaya Hedonisme
Jika disingkap sejarah silam pada setiap zaman tidak pernah sunyi para Nabi dan Rasul memberi
nasihat kepada umat mereka masing-masing tentang kepentingan adab dan nilai-nilai murni dalam
kehidupan manusia (Mustafa Kamal Alias, 2001). Lantaran itu, pada zaman Nabi Muhammad
S.A.W persoalan adab terpuji masih lagi relevan dijadikan sebahagian daripada tema utama dalam
ajaran Islam. Sebagai contoh, pada saat kelahiran agama Islam di muka bumi Arab, masyarakat
Arab Jahiliah pada masa tersebut berada dalam kesesatan dan rendah adab hati budi. Oleh yang
demikian, Nabi Muhammad S.A.W diutuskan untuk memperbaiki tingkah laku manusia supaya
menjadi landasan dan panduan kepada umat manusia seluruhnya menjadi insan yang terpuji
bersesuaian dengan fungsi kekhalifahan.
Pada zaman moden, dunia Islam telah menyaksikan pelbagai cabaran yang boleh menghancurkan
nilai-nilai tradisi yang terdapat dalam ajarannya. Tanpa benteng aqidah yang konkrit dan akhlak
sebagai pendinding nescaya umat Islam tidak mampu menghadapi serangan musuh dari pelbagai
sudut. Pelbagai manifestasi serangan musuh Islam boleh dilihat dengan lahirnya ideologi-ideologi
dan aliran falsafah yang berselindung di bawah paying modernisme termasuklah budaya
hedonisme (Wan Muhammad Ali, 2000).
492
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Islam tidak menghalang umatnya untuk mencapai kebahagian dalam hidup. Namun,
kecenderungan yang berlebihan kepada kesenangan dan hiburan menjadikan menjadikan manusia
alpa dan lalai dengan tipu daya dunia. Budaya sedemikian diibaratkan sebagai menggemukakan
jasad tetapi mematikan ruh. Keseronokan yang dikecapi tersebut hanyalah bersifat memuaskan
hawa nafsu yang tiada sempadannya. Sesungguhnya, budaya hedonisme jauh menyimpang dengan
ajaran agama Islam. Contohnya, di Barat masyarakat bebas melakukan penyimpangan seksual
seperti homoseksual,lesbian dan perkahwinan sejenis. Apa yang jelas budaya tersebut
bertentangan dengan akidah Islam kerana aliran tersebut jelas bertentangan dengan naluri fitrah
manusia (K.H Tarmizi Taher, 2003).
Sejarah telah membuktikan antara faktor kejatuhan kerajaan Abbasiah adalah berpunca daripada
sikap pemimpin dan rakyat yang mengutamakan kesenangan, kemewahan dan dibuai dengan
pelbagai bentuk hiburan. Mereka gagal menumpukan perhatian kepada soal pembangunan insan
dan negara dan akhirnya kelemahan tersebut dapat dikesan oleh musuh menyebabkan empayar
yang terbilang tersebut tewas kepada pihak lawan. Contoh yang dikemukakan tersebut
membuktikan budaya hedonisme dipengaruhi oleh lintasan-lintasan nafsu yang mendorong
kepada perlakuan yang negatif. Gagasan Islam bukanlah kompromi antara barat dan timur dan
bukanlah penyatuan pelbagai ideologi dan falsafah dunia (Abdullah Yusuf Azam, 1996)
sebaliknya Islam merupakan cerminan kepada peradaban manusia yang hakiki.
4. Penyelesaian Menurut Perspektif Islam
Menurut Imam al-Ghazali (dalam Mohd.Rosli Hussain, 2003) beliau telah menggariskan diantara
satu daripada sepuluh cara syaitan memasuki pintu hati manusia untuk merosakkan diri sebagai
hamba Allah ialah menerusi pintu marah dan syahwat. Ini bermakna hati manusia perlu
dibersihkan untuk menghindar gejala berkenaan menular dalam setiap individu. Beliau telah
mengaitkan bahawa akal yang dilengkapkan tuhan kepada manusia merupakan khadam kepada
hati. Oleh itu, hati manusia cukup mudah untuk menerima dan melihat kecantikan yang boleh
membentuk sifat ubudiah (hamba) yang sejati. Imam al-Ghazali juga berpandangan bahawa
kemuncak kebahagiaan yang dicapai oleh hati manusia ialah apabila seseorang itu dapat
mengimbangi ketiga-tiga kekuatan yang dikurniakan oleh Allah swt. Apabila salah satu
daripadanya pincang ianya boleh menjerumuskan manusia ke arah kehancuran. Kekuatan tersebut
ialah kekuatan marah, kekuatan syahwat dan kekuatan ilmu.
Begitu juga apabila manusia berlebihan syahwatnya, maka dorongan nafsu tidak akan terkawal.
Justeru manusia kan melakukan perbuatan keji dan tidak bermoral. Ketika itu manusia akan jadi
seperti khinzir yang suka kekotoran dan najis, tetapi apabila keadaannya sederhana menjadikan
manusia seimbang dengan sifat iffah (bersih dari perbuatan keji) dan sifat Qanaah (sifat reda
dengan ketetapan Allah swt.) Oleh yang demikian beliau telah membahagikan keadaan hati
kepada beberapa situasi yang melambangkan sifat hati manusia sebenar. Situasi inilah yang akan
membentuk perlakuan manusia.
493
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Justeru Imam Al-Ghazali (dalam Mohd. Rosli Hussain, 2003) telah mencadangkan cara-cara
untuk memulihkan hati manusia yang mengalami kerosakan akibat pengaruh dalaman dan
persekitaran. Di antara cadangan beliau ialah :
a. Bermujahadah melawan nafsu : Beliau telah mengaitkan perlakuan luaran manusia

mempunyai hubungan rapat dengan hati sebagai raja kepada badan. Rosaknya akhlak, tingkah
laku, tuturkata dan tindakan seseorang adalah mempunyai kaitan rapat dengan kerosakan fungsi
hati. Justeru, untuk menghasilkan hati yang baik maka seseorang manusia mesti melemahkan
runtunan nafsu yang sentiasa mendorong mereka melakukan kejahatan dan maksiat kepada Allah
swt.
b. Memasukkan sifat-sifat mahmudah (yang terpuji) ke dalam hati : Untuk membentuk hati
seseorang manusia supaya menjadi solleh dan terpuji serta boleh mengenal petunjuk Allah swt
maka seseorang itu mesti berusaha dengan bersungguh-sungguh untuk mengeluarkan sifat
mazmumah (tercela) yang bertapak di dalam hatinya. Seseorang manusia sanggup berpantang
daripada memakan makanan tertentu dan menelan ubat pahit semata-mata untuk mengubati
penyakit lahiriah yang menimpa diri mereka. Untuk mengubati penyakit batiniah, mereka juga
perlu melakukan perkara yang sama iaitu semangat pengorbanan dan kesabaran yang tinggi dalam
menyelesaikan permasalahan yang mereka hadapi ini, penyakit-penyakit hati seperti sombong
takbur, riak, ujub (bangga diri), hasad dengki, tamak, bakhil, pemarah dan sebagainya lagi jika
tidak diubati dengan segera akan membawa kepada kerosakan yang parah dalam sistem hidup
manusia.
c. Menjaga makan minum dan lari dari persekitaran yang merosakkan diri : Beliau memberi
penekanan kepada soal makan minum yang halal. Selain itu, jika kita berada dalam persekitaran
manusia yang berakhlak binatang kita perlu lari untuk mengelakkan diri dari terjebak dengan
persekitaran berkenaan.
Dalam pada itu, sarjana Islam seperti Miskawayh (1977) memberikan pandangan bagi
mendapatkan ketenangan dan kebahagiaan jiwa. Beliau berpendapat oleh kerana manusia tidak
memahami matlamat hidup dalam mencari kebahagian berkemungkinan individu terbabit akan
tersalah arah. Kebahagiaan dan ketenangan yang dicapai melalui pertimbangan hawa nafsu akan
mendedahkan manusia kepada pintu kerosakan. Akibatnya kebahagiaan dan keseronokan yang
dinikmati tersebut hanyalah bersifat sementara. Sebagai contoh, untuk memuaskan nafsunya,
manusia melakukan seks bebas, dadah, minum arak, memiliki gaya hidup mewah dan hiburan
yang melampau. Keseronokan melakukan perkara tersebut akan diperolehi namun ia hanya
bersifat sementara bahkan boleh merosakkan jiwa individu terbabit. Jiwa mereka akan sentiasa
resah dan yang lebih parah lagi mudah terdedah kepada penyakit rohani seperti hasad dengki,
buruk sangka, suka memfitnah, menipu, tidak beradab dan pelbagai lagi sifat mazmumah.
Miskawayh (1977) turut menjelaskan manusia yang sempurna memiliki kebahagian dan
kejernihan dalam jiwanya. Tingkah lakunya sentiasa terarah kepada adab-adab terpuji dan sentiasa
menjauhi perkara-perkara keji. Beliau turut menjelaskan sifat-sifat yang perlu dimiliki oleh
494
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
individu untuk mencapai kebahagian berdasarkan kepada petunjuk agama. Pertama, memiliki sifat
kebijaksanaan. Sifat ini akan membantu manusia untuk membezakan sesuatu perkara yang boleh
diterima akal atau sebaliknya. Kedua, memiliki sifat kemuliaan. Sifat ini merujuk kepada kekuatan
nafsu syahwat mengikut pertimbangan akal sama ada perkara itu benar atau salah. Melaluinya,
jiwa seseorang itu akan merdeka dan bukannya menjadi hamba kepada hawa nafsu. Dengan kata
lain, seseorang itu dapat mengekang sifat liar hawa nafsu daripada menguasai dirinya untuk
bertindak melakukan perkara-perkara yang keji dan boleh merosakkan jiwanya. Ketiga, sifat
keberanian. Sifat ini mendorong individu memiliki jiwa yang kuat dan dapat digunakan pada
tempat yang sepatutnya. Keempat, sifat keadilan. Sifat ini merupakan kombinasi kepada
ketiga-tiga sifat secara seimbang iaitu kekuatan jiwa, emosi dan hawa nafsu akan menatijahkan
sifat keadilan. Sifat ini secara tidak langsung akan mendorong seseorang melakukan pertimbangan
yang wajar dengan mengambilkira kebaikan dan manfaat bersama dan bukannya untuk
kepentingan diri serta tidak membelakangkan tuntutan agama. Tegasnya, apabila semua sifat yang
dinyatakan ini berjaya dipraktikkan dalam kehidupan ia akan membantu manusia untuk berfikir
dan bertindak sebagai seorang muslim yang mukmin dan tidak terpengaruh dengan unsur-unsur
negatif yang boleh merosakkan keperibadiannya.
5. Kesimpulan
Secara keseluruhannya, penularan budaya hedonism dalam kalangan remaja pada hari ini begitu
membimbangkan. Sekiranya, penularan budaya ini tidak dikekang lambat laun ia akan memberi
impak negatif terhadap pembangunan masa depan remaja. Peningkatan masalah sosial dan jenayah
akan sentiasa meningkat disebabkan golongan remaja terpengaruh dengan cara hidup bebas untuk
memuaskan permintaan hawa nafsu. Keseronokan dan kebahagiaan yang dikecapi hanyalah
bersifat sementara dan akan bertukar menjadi penderitaan dan penyakit sosial yang boleh
menghakis nilai-nilai keagamaan dan norma hidup masyarakat yang murni. Islam sebagai satu
cara hidup memberi panduan kepada manusia untuk hidup selamat dan sejahtera di dunia dan
akhirat. Islam secara tegas menolak budaya hedonisme yang jelas boleh mendatangkan
kemudaratan kepada agama, masyarakat dan individu. Islam menyeru umatnya agar tidak
terpengaruh dengan aliran-aliran pemikiran yang boleh merosakkan jiwa dan kembali kepada cara
hidup beragama. Kepada golongan remaja khususnya, jiwa yang kosong dengan pentunjuk agama
mudah terdedah kepada anasir-anasir dan pemikiran yang salah. Akibatnya, golongan remaja
tersebut hanyut dan hanya mementingkan keseronokan sebagai matlamat hidup. Mereka sanggup
melakukan apa sahaja meskipun ia bercanggah dengan perintah agama mahupun adat masyarakat.
Melalui pendekatan agama, Islam memberi penekanan kepada aspek spiritual bagi merawat jiwa
yang bermasalah supaya kembali kepada cara hidup yang fitrah, mengenali dengan lebih
PenciptaNya dan memahami objektif hidup supaya kehidupannya selamat dunia dan akhirat. Jiwa
manusia yang berpenyakit ditamsilkan sebagai cermin yang kotor dan berhabuk sukar untuk
melihat objek yang terpantul didalamnya. Kembalilah kepada cara hidup beragama.
495
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6. Biobliografi
Amir Awang. 1987. Teori dan Amalan Psikoterapi. Universiti Sains Malaysia: Pulau Pinang.
Abdullah Al Hadi & Iran Herman. 1997. Penagihan Dadah Mengikut Kaum, Diri, Keluarga dan
Persekitaran. Kuala Lumpur: ADK
Abdullah Yusuf Azam. 1996. Aqidah Asas Wawasan Ummah. Terj: Ahmad Nuryadi Asmawi.
Selangor: Pustaka Ilmi.
Baudrillard, J. 1988. The Ecstacy of Communication. New York: Semiotext.
Hairunnaja Najmudin. 2003. Memahami dan Membimbing Remaja Nakal. Kuala Lumpur: PTS
Publications.
Kamarudin Hussin, Abd. Majid Mohd. Isa, Abdull Halim Abdull, Huzili Hussin & Mohd. Amran
Hassan. 2005. Kajian Pengaruh Dadah Di Kalangan Pelajar Institusi Pengajian Tinggi. Laporan
Penyelidikan yang tidak diterbitkan. Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, Petrajaya, Wilayah
Persekutuan.
K.H Tarmizi Taher. 2003. Menyegarkan akida Tauhid Insan Mati di Era Klenik. Kuala Lumpur:
Darulfikir.
Mohd. Rosli Hussain. 2003. Pembangunan Insan: Kajian Perbandingan Antara Al-Ghazali dan Ibn
Khaldun. Dissertasi Sarjana Usuluddin, Jabatan Sejarah dan Tamadun Islam, Universiti Malaya.
Tidak diterbitkan.
Rozmi Ismail. 2001. Pengaruh Laman Web Lucah di Kalangan Mahasiswa. Kertas kerja yang
dibentangkan pada Seminar Persatuan Psikologi Malaysia (PSIMA) pada 13-14 Julai 2001 di
UIA, Kuala Lumpur.
Sidek Baba. 2005. Fahaman Hedonistik: Remaja Tahu Batasan dan Tujuan. Utusan Malaysia, 11
Ogos 2005.
Miskawayh, Ahmad. 1977. Tahdhib al- Akhlak wa Tathir al-Àraq. Ibn Khatib (penyt). Cetakan
pertama. Beirut: Dar Saadir.
Mustafa Kamal Alias. 2001. Islam dan Relativisme Moral dalam Pemikiran Pasca Modernisme.
Jurnal Yadim, bil. 2. Kuala Lumpur: Yayasan Dakwah Islamiah Malaysia.
Wade, Ira Owen. 1967. The Clandestine Organisation and Diffusion of Philosophic Ideas in
France From 1700 to 1750. New York: Pricenton.
Wan Muhammad Ali. 2000. Islam dan Fitnah. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Syuhada.
496
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
RIGHTS AND HEALTH
497
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7

Rohizan Halima* & Yuhanif Yusofb
a&b
Ph.D, Senior Lecturer, School of Law, UUM College of Law, Government and International
Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah.
Email:arohizan@uum.edu.my, b yuhanif@uum.edu.my
Abstrak
Kebebasan beragama adalah antara hak kebebasan asasi yang diberikan oleh sesebuah negara
kepada warganegara mereka dalam Perlembagaan. Kebebasan beragama biasanya terdiri
daripada kebebasan untuk menganut, mengamalkan dan menyebarkan agama. Sebelum hak ini
wujud sebagai hak undang-undang, agama telah lama diiktiraf sebagai hak moral. Hak ini telah
diberikan oleh Pencipta kepada manusia. Apa yang wujud pada mulanya sebagai hak moral sukar
dilaksanakan kerana peningkatan dalam bilangan manusia serta kemajuan dalam teknologi
komunikasi global. Keupayaan manusia untuk bergerak bebas dan proses asimilasi etnik dan
agama telah menyumbang kepada agama menjadi sebahagian daripada kehidupan seharian
manusia. Ada peperangan yang berkaitan dengan agama dan juga campurtangan kerajaan dalam
isu agama dengan kaedah-kaedah dan peraturan-peraturan. Terdapat negara-negara yang
mendakwa mereka tidak menganggu hak warganegara mereka apabila melibatkan isu-isu agama.
Sejauh mana agama boleh dikekalkan sebagai hak peribadi? Kertas kerja ini akan
membincangkan realiti samada hak kebebasan beragama boleh terus wujud sebagai hak moral
dan menjadi hak peribadi individu dengan menggunakan kaedah kualitatif dan doktrinal.
Kesimpulan akan dibuat berdasarkan data yang diperolehi samada hak kebebasan beragama
adalah hak peribadi atau hak negara.
Katakunci: Kebebasan beragama; hak moral; hak peribadi; hak negara; sifat negara.
1. Pengenalan
Hak kebebasan beragama adalah hak moral kurniaan Pencipta kepada manusia dari awal
kejadian manusia. Pada masa lampau di mana manusia belum hidup secara bermasyarakat, tiada
undang-undang yang terpakai. Pada masa itu, unsur-unsur moral yang terkandung dalam
prinsip-prinsip agama merupakan peraturan yang diterima pakai oleh kelompok individu.
Prinsip-prinsip moral adalah merupakan undang-undang Pencipta dan didapati oleh manusia
dengan menggunakan akal (Lon. L. Fuller, 1969). Oleh itu, pada awalnya agama merupakan hak
peribadi atau hak moral manusia yang meliputi hak untuk menganuti, mengamalkan serta
menyebarkan agama.
498
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Menurut John Locke (2000, pp.107-143), manusia mempunyai hak moral yang tidak boleh
dicabul antaranya hak untuk kebebasan termasuklah kebebasan beragama. Hak moral boleh
dikuatkuasakan melalui undang-undang positif, namun wujud ketidak pastian sama ada hak
kebebasan beragama yang merupakan hak moral telah mendapat kuatkuasa undang-undang di
seluruh dunia secara mutlak tanpa ada apa-apa pengecualian atau sekatan. Mashood A. Baderin
(2006, pp.365) menyatakan bahawa perbuatan menganuti mana-mana agama adalah persoalan
dalaman yang tidak boleh dikawal oleh undang-undang manakala manifestasi ajaran agama
sahaja boleh dikawal oleh undang-undang bagi menjamin ketenteraman awam. Ronald Dworkin
(1977, pp.184-205) mengiktiraf kewujudan hak moral dan apabila diberi kuatkuasa
undang-undang maka hak moral ini akan bertukar menjadi hak dalam erti kata yang kukuh.
Walaupun kebebasan beragama merupakan hak yang diiktiraf dalam amalan kebanyakan negara
misalnya dalam First Amendment, (cornell.edu 1992) tindakan yang boleh menggugat
ketenteraman awam akibat dari pelaksanaan kebebasan beragama masih boleh disekat oleh
pemerintah.
Hak moral berkaitan kebebasan beragama telah diberikan kuatkuasa undang-undang pada era
undang-undang positif. Perlindungan undang-undang diberikan kerana wujudnya paksaan dan
penindasan akibat perbezaan agama. Menurut sejarah, berlaku penindasan terhadap Nabi dan
Rasul yang melaksanakan perintah Pencipta dalam menyebarkan agama sehinggalah berlakunya
peperangan dan penindasan agama menyebabkan hak kebebasan beragama dikuatkuasakan
melalui perundangan. Penguatkuasaan melalui undang-undang ini perlu supaya tidak ada pihak
yang boleh dengan sewenang-wenangnya menyebarkan agama dan memaksa individu lain
menganuti ajaran sesuatu agama (Abu Mazaya Al-Hafiz, 2011). Penguatkuasaan hak kebebasan
beragama melalui undang-undang bermula dengan Piagam Madinah yang mengandungi 47 Fasal
digubal oleh Rasulullah s.a.w pada 622M. Peruntukan ini merupakan perlindungan
undang-undang pertama yang diberikan terhadap kebebasan beragama (Mat Saat Abd. Rahman,
1995). Pada era moden, perlindungan undang-undang bagi hak kebebasan beragama telah
diwujudkan oleh instrumen antarabangsa iaitu Deklarasi Sejagat Hak Asasi Manusia (UDHR)
1948 oleh Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu melalui Artikel 18 Everyone has the right to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion
or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Oleh itu, kebebasan beragama adalah salah satu daripada hak yang diiktiraf sebagai hak
kebebasan asasi manusia selain dari hak terhadap pendidikan, prinsip kesamarataan, hak
terhadap harta dan lain-lain. Kebebasan beragama juga diiktiraf dalam beberapa Perlembagaan
negara di dunia walaupun peruntukan di antara satu negara dengan negara lain adalah berbeza.
Contohnya Perlembagaan India melalui Perkara 25 memperuntukkan The Constitution declares
that all persons in India are equally entitled to (i) freedom of conscience; and (ii) the right
freely to (a) profess, (b) practice and (c) propagate religion. In pursuance of this fundamental
right everybody in this country is free to:
499
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
(i) Profess or not profess any of the established religions;

(ii) Believe or disbelieve in the existence of God;
(iii) Profess and practice a particular religion;
(iv) Profess but not practice, or only partly practice, a particular religion, in
accordance with his conscience; and
(v) Propagate religion.
Manakala Perlembagaan Bangladesh melalui Perkara 41(1) memperuntukkan Subject to law,
public health and morality, every citizen has the right to profess, practice and propagate any
religion.
Adakah sifat negara boleh memberi kesan kepada amalan sesebuah negara dalam memberikan
hak kebebasan beragama? Bolehkah negara sekular mendakwa bahawa mereka telah
memberikan hak mutlak kepada warganegara mereka dalam konteks kebebasan beragama?
Kaedah kualitatif dan doktrinal akan digunakan di mana data akan diperolehi melalui statut serta
artikel jurnal dan kes-kes Mahkamah.
2. Takrifan
Perkataan religion secara literalnya diterjemah sebagai agama berasal dari perkataan Latin
religare bermaksud to bind(M.N. Rao, 2003). Oleh itu secara umumnya agama adalah
perkara yang mengikat dan menjadi asas dalam setiap tindak tanduk manusia dengan kuasa yang
diiktiraf sebagai tertinggi, umumnya dikenali sebagai Tuhan (God). Dalam bahasa Arab
disebut sebagai al-Din iaitu suatu ajaran yang meliputi seluruh kehidupan manusia meliputi
urusan duniawi serta ukhrawi (Mohd. Rosmizi Abd Rahman, 2011).
Menurut Emile Durkheim (1965, p.47) agama tidak wujud jika tidak dapat melahirkan sebuah
masyarakat. Ini kerana agama bukan entiti individu, sebaliknya agama adalah gambaran simbolik
sesebuah masyarakat. Setiap puak mempunyai totem tersendiri yang dianggap sebagai Tuhan
dan disembah. Agama adalah satu gabungan tersusun kepercayaan dan amalan berkaitan dengan
sesuatu yang suci, yang menyatukan semua pengikut dalam satu unit yang dikenali sebagai
gereja. Agama adalah lambang atau gambaran simbolik kehidupan bermasyarakat. Apabila
sesuatu kepercayaan dapat melahirkan sebuah masyarakat, ia dianggap sebagai agama (Mohd.
Rosmizi Abd Rahman, 2005).
Menurut William Salmond (1913, pp. 180-181) Hak adalah merupakan kepentingan yang
diterima dan dilindungi di bawah undang-undang. Perkataan bebas ditakrifkan oleh Kamus
Dewan (2007, p.143) sebagai tidak terhalang, tidak terkongkong atau terkurung manakala
Oxford Fajar (2001) mentakrifkan kebebasan sebagai keadaan bebas, tidak menjadi banduan atau
hamba abdi, menikmati kebebasan bertindak sesuka hati atau keadaan tidak mempunyai atau
tidak dipengaruhi oleh sesuatu yang ditentukan. Menurut Mohammad Hashim Kamali (1998,
p.7) tiada tafsiran yang komprehensif terhadap perkataan kebebasan. Perkataan kebebasan dalam
500
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
konteks mana-mana sistem perundangan di dunia ini merujuk kepada keupayaan individu untuk
bercakap atau melakukan apa-apa tindakan yang diingini atau mengelakkan dari melakukan
sesuatu tanpa melanggar hak orang lain atau sekatan yang dikenakan oleh undang-undang.
Menurut Lee Min Choon (1999, p.23) terdapat tiga jenis model Perlembagaan. Model pertama
adalah model sekular iaitu yang memperuntukkan negara sekular contohnya seperti India. Model
sekular ini juga merujuk kepada Perlembagaan yang tidak memperuntukkan mengenai agama
langsung seperti Singapura. Perlembagaan yang tidak memperuntukkan ketuhanan atau
memperuntukkan mengenai Tuhan tetapi tidak menyebut mengenai agama rasmi juga tergolong
di bawah kategori ini seperti Kanada, Nigeria, Malawi, Afrika Selatan dan Australia. Model
kedua adalah bagi negara theocratic (Shad Saleem Faruqi, 2008). Negara-negara ini seperti
Iran dan Saudi Arabia memperuntukkan sistem perundangan berdasarkan jurisprudens dan
undang-undang Islam. Kesannya, perlembagaan sebegini memberi keistimewaan kepada agama
Islam dan sistem pemerintahan serta perundangan adalah tertakluk kepada ajaran agama Islam.
Model ketiga adalah hibrid iaitu berada di antara negara sekular dan theocratic. Perlembagaan
sebegini adalah Perlembagaan yang memperuntukkan agama rasmi dan keistimewaan diberikan
kepada agama rasmi tetapi tidak mencapai tahap negara theocratic. Perlembagaan sebegini juga
mengiktiraf agama lain dan memperuntukkan kebebasan beragama. Kerajaan diberi
tanggungjawab untuk memelihara agama rasmi seperti di Malaysia.
3. Peruntukan Kebebasan Beragama Di Malaysia
Perkara 11(1) Perlembagaan Persekutuan yang memperuntukkan; Tiap-tiap orang adalah berhak
menganuti dan mengamalkan ugamanya dan, tertakluk kepada Fasal (4), mengembangkan
ugamanya. Dari peruntukan Perkara 11(1), anutan dan amalan seolah-olah mendapat kebebasan
mutlak manakala sebaran agama adalah hak yang disekat melalui Fasal (4).
Malaysia adalah sebuah negara yang mempunyai Perlembagaan berbentuk hibrid (Lee Min
Choon, 1999). Ini kerana Islam dijadikan sebagai agama rasmi Persekutuan di bawah Perkara
3(1) namun peruntukan ini tidak menjadikan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara Islam. Peruntukan
ini juga menafikan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara sekular. Sifat negara ini memberikan
wajaran terhadap tindakan dan peraturan yang dikenakan oleh pemerintah ke atas orang-orang
Islam melaui Enakmen Syariah Negeri dari segi anutan iaitu menukar agama dari Islam kepada
agama lain juga terhadap orang bukan Islam dalam konteks manifestasi dan sebaran
agama-agama lain yang boleh menganggu sensitiviti masyarakat Malaysia yang majoritinya
beragama Islam melalui undang-undang Sivil.
Dari sudut anutan, hak golongan bukan Islam adalah bebas untuk menganut mana-mana agama.
Sekiranya mereka memilih untuk memeluk Islam, maka hak dan kewajipan mereka akan
bertukar selepas itu kerana undang-undang peribadi yang mengawal mereka adalah Enakmen
Syariah di peringkat negeri-negeri. Sekiranya timbul isu mengenai keabsahan pemelukan Islam,
501
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
maka ia perlu diselesaikan oleh Mahkamah Syariah. Keadaan ini dapat dilihat dalam kes:
Saravanan a/l Balakrishnan v Ketua Pengarah Pendaftaran Negara [2012] 1 MLJ 707 dan juga Majlis
Agama Islam Pulau Pinang lwn Siti Fatimah Tan [2009] 1 CLJ (Sya) 162.
Dari sudut manifestasi pula wujud sekatan kerana tugas negara adalah untuk mengimbangi
berbagai-bagai kepentingan dalam masyarakat. Adalah tidak mungkin untuk menegakkan hak
untuk menifestasi agama sekiranya hak itu menggugat ketenteraman negara atau kelompok
masyarakat yang lain. Undang-undang sesebuah negara mengiktiraf hak individu untuk bebas
namun kebebasan individu bukanlah mutlak sebaliknya boleh disekat demi menjamin kebebasan
orang lain dan masyarakat (Ronald Dworkin, 1977). Contohnya undang-undang jenayah yang
memenjarakan penjenayah bertindak menghadkan kebebasan diri individu (penjenayah) bagi
tujuan menjamin keselamatan masyarakat. Tidak ada negara yang tidak mempunyai
undang-undang bagi menyekat atau menghadkan kebebasan individu. Perbezaan yang wujud
hanya dari segi sejauh mana sekatan atau had yang dikenakan terhadap hak individu oleh sistem
perundangan sesebuah negara.
Undang-undang melindungi pelbagai kepentingan yang wujud dalam masyarakat. Pemerintah

sebagai pelindung kepada kepentingan masyarakat dalam keadaan tertentu menghadkan
kepentingan individu demi menjaga keharmonian masyarakat. Apabila timbul pertembungan
mengenai hak individu dan masyarakat, badan kehakiman perlu mengimbangi setiap hak dan
menentukan sejauh manakah hak perlu diberikan kepada individu bagi memastikan masyarakat
hidup secara aman dan selamat (Lord Denning, 1949).
4. Perbandingan dengan Amalan Kebebasan Beragama Negara Sekular dan Islam
Perlembagaan negara sekular seperti India dan Amerika Syarikat pada asasnya dilihat sebagai
memperuntukkan kebebasan beragama yang mutlak. Negara dilihat mengasingkan unsur agama
dari pemerintahan. Namun begitu, sejauh mana hak kebebasan beragama diberikan kepada
warganegara mereka perlu diteliti kerana kebebasan beragama meliputi anutan, amalan dan
sebaran.
Di Amerika Syarikat, dari segi kebebasan menganut agama statistik menunjukkan lebih ramai
yang membuat penukaran agama namun tidak diberi penekanan kerana Amerika Syarikat adalah
negara mengamalkan sistem sekular yang memisahkan agama daripada pentadbiran (Pew
Research Center, 2009). Anutan agama bukan suatu isu yang diperdebatkan. Pemerintah tidak
akan campurtangan dalam anutan agama individu dalam masyarakat. Bolehlah dikatakan bahawa
setiap warganegara Amerika Syarikat adalah bebas untuk membuat pemilihan agama. Namun
begitu dari segi manifestasi agama serta sebaran agama masih wujud sekatan. Kebebasan
individu adalah juga tertakluk kepada kebebasan golongan majoriti.
502
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Di India, Perkara 25 Perlembagaan memperuntukkan kebebasan dari semua aspek iaitu

menganuti, mengamalkan dan menyebarkan agama. Tidak ada keistimewaan bagi agama tertentu
dalam Perlembagaan India (A. Rashied Omar, 2006). Hak kepada warganegara India termasuk
orang Islam untuk memilih atau menukar agama pada bila-bila masa sahaja. Namun begitu, atas
dasar bahawa kebebasan yang diberikan ini telah mewujudkan penukaran agama yang disifatkan
berlaku kerana paksaan dan juga pengaruh pihak-pihak beragama selain Hindu terhadap orang
beragama Hindu menyebabkan kebanyakan negeri di India menggubal perundangan menghalang
penukaran agama yang berlaku secara tidak sukarela. Perundangan ini melibatkan halangan ke
atas semua agama, bukan hanya Islam sahaja (Laura Dudley Jenkins, 2011).
Ada undang-undang negara yang tidak membenarkan perubahan anutan agama dilakukan oleh
orang Islam contohnya Arab Saudi dan Pakistan yang kedua-duanya merupakan negara Islam.
Warganegara Arab Saudi tidak mempunyai kebebasan untuk menukar agama. Keluar dari Islam
akan dianggap murtad dan hukumannya adalah mati. Perlembagaan Pakistan memperuntukkan
penubuhan sebuah negara Islam. Di samping itu Perlembagaan juga memperuntukkan
orang-orang Islam berhak menjalani kehidupan secara peribadi dan bermasyarakat berpandukan
kepada ajaran Islam dan peruntukan sepatutnya perlu dibuat bagi golongan minoriti bukan Islam
untuk bebas menganut dan mengamalkan agama dan budaya masing-masing. Walau
bagaimanapun, undang-undang jenayah di Pakistan memperuntukkan bahawa mereka yang
murtad akan menerima hukuman penjara atau mati. Di Iran, Islam adalah agama rasmi.
Kebebasan beragama bagi golongan bukan Islam dikawal secara ketat. Dalam masa yang sama
Iran tidak mengiktiraf hak warganegaranya untuk menukar agama(ECLJ, 2007).
Di negara yang meletakkan Islam sebagai agama rasmi seperti Bangladesh dan Malaysia,
undang-undang Islam yang berkuatkuasa selari dengan undang-undang Sivil mengenakan aturan
bagi orang Islam melakukan perubahan dalam anutan agama (Nicholas Garc, 2010). Bagi amalan
dan sebaran agama, hak ini masih tidak mutlak dan wujud sekatan.
5. Ulasan dan Pandangan
Kebebasan beragama adalah merupakan hak perundangan kini dan tidak lagi wujud sebagai hak
moral. Dalam konteks amalan kebebasan beragama dapat dilihat bahawa di Malaysia, wujud
sekatan bagi anutan, manifestasi atau amalan dan juga sebaran agama bersesuaian dengan
kedudukan Islam sebagai agama rasmi bagi Persekutuan di bawah Perkara 3(1). Bagi negara
Islam pula, tiada hak untuk orang Islam menukar agama ke agama lain dan halangan juga wujud
dari segi manifestasi serta sebaran agama-agama lain ke atas orang Islam.
Bagi negara sekular dapat dilihat wujud kebebasan memilih agama anutan di Amerika Syarikat
namun di India wujud kecenderungan untuk menghalang masyarakat Hindu dari memilih agama
selain Hindu dengan menghadkan sebaran agama lain kepada penganut Hindu. Agama Hindu
sudah dianggap istimewa walaupun dalam Perlembagaan tidak dinyatakan sedemikian. Dari segi
manifestasi dan sebaran masih lagi wujud sekatan bagi negara-negara sekular. Negara-negara
503
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
sekular tidak boleh mendakwa bahawa mereka memberikan hak mutlak kebebasan beragama
kepada warganegara kerana sememangnya wujud sekatan dalam konteks manifestasi dan
sebaran.
6. Penutup
Perlembagaan sesebuah negara secara umumnya mengiktiraf dan mempunyai peruntukan

kebebasan beragama. Namun begitu dari segi amalan sejauh mana kebebasan diberikan, ia
bergantung kepada sifat sesebuah negara. Tidak ada negara di dunia yang memberikan
kebebasan mutlak dalam beragama. Negara-negara sekular hanya memberikan kebebasan dari
segi anutan agama namun masih menyekat hak untuk mengamalkan serta menyebarkan agama.
Oleh kerana hak kebebasan beragama telah dijadikan hak perundangan dan adanya
campurtangan negara maka ia bukan satu hak peribadi lagi sebagaimana asal kewujudannya.
7. Rujukan
Abu Mazaya Al-Hafiz, 2011, Sejarah Lengkap Nabi dan Rasul Dalam Al Quran, Al Hidayah Publications,
Selangor.
A. Rashied Omar, 2006, The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostacy and
Proselytization, dari: http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/indiachr/. [5 Jun 2011].
Durkheim, E., 1965, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Free Press, New York.
ECLJ, 2007, International Legal Protection of the Right to Choose Ones Religion and Change
Ones Religious Affiliation, dari: http://www.eclj.org/PDF/070911_ECLJ_Report.pdf. [7 Jun
2010]. <https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/overview>.
John Locke, 2000, Two Treatises of Government, dari:

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/uum/Doc?id=2001977.
Laura Dudley Jenkins, Legal Limits on Religious Conversion in India, dari:

http://www.law.duke.edu.journals/lcp. [5 Mei 2011].
Lee Min Choon, 1999, Freedom of Religion In Malaysia, Kairos Research Centre Sdn. Bhd.,
Kuala Lumpur.
Lon L. Fuller, 1969, The Morality of Law, Yale University Press, New Haven &London.
Lord Denning, 1949, Freedom Under The Law, Stevens & Sons Limited, London, 1949.
504
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Mashood A. Baderin, 2006 Religious Freedom in the Liberal State E.H.R.L.R. 3.
Mat Saad Abd. Rahman, 1995, Kedudukan Masyarakat Bukan Islam Dalam Sejarah
Pemerintahan Islam (622M-1924M) dalam Abdul Monir Yaacob dan Sarina Othman,
Pemerintahan Islam Dalam Masyarakat Majmuk, IKIM, Kuala Lumpur.
M.N. Rao, 2003, Freedom of Religion and Right to Conversion, dari:

<http://www.ebc-india.com/lawyer/articles/706.htm>. [7 Jun 2011]
Mohammad Hashim Kamali, 1998, Freedom of Expression in Islam, Ilmiah Publishers Sdn.
Bhd., Kuala Lumpur.
Mohd Rosmizi Abd Rahman, 2005, Panduan Memilih Agama, PTS Millennia Sdn. Bhd., Pahang.
Nicholas Garc, Islam, Till Death Do You Part? Rethinking Apostacy Laws Under Islamic Law
and International Legal Obligations, 16 Sw. J. Intl L. 229.
Pew Research Center, 2009 Faith in Flux; Changes in Religious Affiliation in the U.S dari:
<http://pewforum.org/faith-in-Flux.aspx>. [20 Ogos 2010].
Ronald Dworkin, 1977, Taking Rights Seriously, Harvard University Press, USA.
Shad Saleem Faruqi, 2008. Document of Destiny; The Constitution of the Federation of
Malaysia. Selangor: Star Publications (Malaysia) Bhd.
UDHR dari: <http://www.udhr.org/UDHR/default.htm>. [3 Ogos 2009].
John William Salmond, 1913, Jurisprudence, dari:

<http://www.ebooksread.com/authors_eng/john-william-salmond/jurisprudence-mla.shtml>. [26
Mac 2012].
505
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
A Conceptual Study of Breastfeeding and Postpartum Mothers: A Malaysian
Perspective
Maria Aloysiusa,, Shariffah Suraya bt Syed Jamaludinb

Anthropology & Sociology Section, School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Malaysia
a Postgraduate candidate, Email: aloysiusmaria0@gmail.com
bSenior Lecturer, Email: shariffah@usm.my
Abstract
Breastfeeding is an essential practice that bonds a mother and her infant. Throughout the
postpartum period, mothers are highly encouraged to breastfeed their children for various
benefits to both a mothers and babys well being. In Malaysia, the initiative for the increase of
Baby Friendly hospitals have been a talked about debate to promote the awareness of
breastfeeding among hospital staff and mother with infants. Exercising an anthropological
approach, this paper focuses on the attitudes, beliefs and practices of Malaysian mothers
regarding breastfeeding and its connection to their postpartum wellness. Face to face
interviewing has been conducted to collect data from mothers in the maternity ward in a
government hospital in Malaysia. This paper functions as a conceptual study as well as act as
platform for early stages for collection of data for the researchers postgraduate research on
breastfeeding to further understand breastfeeding practices among mothers and its relation to
postpartum food and wellness. This research definitely gives the opportunity to mothers to talk
about their beliefs and breastfeeding practices from the womans standpoint and to encourage
other women to openly discuss the issue of breastfeeding.
Keywords : breastfeeding, practices, attitudes, Malaysian mothers, Malay, postpartum
1. Introduction
Breastfeeding is an universal practice worldwide that mothers partake in after childbirth to

nourish their infants sufficiently. A mothers breast milk is deemed as the most best and accepted
way of feeding a child in the the early stages of his or her life (Ku & Chow, 2010). In 1999,
UNICEF estimated that breastfeeding a child from birth up to 6 months can save a total of 1.5
million lives. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that new born
infants need to be breast fed or exclusively breastfed at least till the sixth month, then followed
by complementary food or bottle feeding for the ages of two and beyond. The benefits of
breastfeeding is considerably positive and promotes the health of mothers and infants.
506
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
In Malaysia for over the past decade, breastfeeding awareness have been recognized and given
the highest priority in government as well as private hospitals. In accordance to the Malaysian
Third National Health and Morbidity Survey (2006), the statistics of exclusive breastfeeding
below the age of 6 months is about 14.5 (95%). It can be said that Malaysian mothers do pay
attention to exclusive breastfeeding of their infants from an early age. A number of 29% of
infants in Malaysia are exclusively breastfed for the first six months after childbirth but only a 12%
remain to breastfeeding until the age of 2 (UNICEF, 2006). Subsequently, this percentage is
lower compared to other countries such as Norway, Sweden and Indonesia (Mohamad, 2011).
Malaysia has been a supporter of breastfeeding and strives to promote breastfeeding among
Malaysian mothers. Malaysian hospitals strive to practice the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative
(BFHI) that was developed by the United Nations Childrens Funds (UNICEF). The Malaysian
Breastfeeding Association have endorsed that back in 1998, Malaysia was the third leading
country after Norway and Oman to have the most baby friendly hospitals. Baby friendly
hospitals focuses on the Ten Successful Steps of Breastfeeding that requires hospitals to
implement principles among the hospital staff such as nurses and doctors to properly initiate the
first efforts of breastfeeding among mothers within the first 24 hours of childbirth, instructions
and procedures of breastfeeding, in rooming practices, educating mothers through written
policies on breastfeeding, breastfeeding on demand and existence of breastfeeding support
groups in the hospital.
Most of the cultures around the world supports breastfeeding and each culture has a postpartum
period, a period where mothers engage in different types of practices to grow in health and to
take care of the well being of the baby. During this postpartum period, many communities
engage in various special rituals and customs that focuses on the do and donts that mothers
practice to ensure themselves of better health (Lundberg, 2011). Predominantly, a mothers
behavior during the postpartum period is heavily influenced by the cultural and demographic
background that are implemented in a way where mothers are encouraged to follow the advice of
their parents or families on pregnancy and health care (Sunanda & Shynee, 2013). In Malaysia,
postpartum periods usually take about 30 to 44 days which is also seen as the confinement period
where mothers can spend time to recuperate (Shariffah Suraya, 2014). Similarly in most Asian
countries such as India, postpartum care and the diet varies from region to region, according to
religious practices, cultures and traditions (Sunanda & Shynee, 2013). This scenario is very
much prevalent in Malaysia as each culture, Malay, Chinese and Indian have their own food
taboos and restrictions during the postpartum period. Laderman (1984) found that Malay women
practice the confinement period of 44 days called dalam pantang. During this 44 days, Malay
women have to practice postpartum care and diets that are related to the hot and cold foods in the
culture. Foods such as hot foods are recommended to be eaten during this period of confinement
but cold foods are avoided and are feared to cause complications to both mothers and babies.
There is a close relationship between the practice of breastfeeding and postpartum care of
mothers in societies. Mara Mabilia (2005) states that in Tanzania, breastfeeding behaviors are
influenced by postpartum care taboos in a society where sexual activity must be avoided because
507
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
it may cause the breast milk to be contaminated. Evidently, there is a close relationship between
postpartum food eaten by mothers and breastfeeding practices that can increase or decrease the
production of breast milk for the mother.
2. Literature Review on Breastfeeding Practices and Postpartum Mothers
Butz (1984) has claimed that breastfeeding has been an important practice that ensures and
increases infant mortality in Malaysia. Exclusive breastfeeding from early ages ensures the
survival of babies and decreases the number of baby deaths in the country. Since Malaysia has
always supported the efforts of WHO and UNICEF to promote breastfeeding through the BFHI,
Malaysian mothers have also been encouraged to breastfed through the efforts of the
International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes where the government educates
mothers on how to breastfeed using formula milk and bottle feeding. Even with the
implementation of BFHI, the response of mothers exclusively breastfeeding their infants are still
low and this code enables mothers to be taught the correct substitution of breast milk since
Malaysian infants are not guaranteed the full 6 months of breastfeeding.
Most researchers have identified that mothers struggle with breastfeeding exclusively after
initiation difficulties due to factors such as breast problems such as sore nipples and mothers
perception on insufficiency of breast milk (Whalen & Crampton, 2010). These factors are
considered the main factors that motivates or demotivates mothers to breastfeed as a whole as
they are constantly challenged by whether they are producing sufficient breast milk to feed their
infants. Literature have also evidently shown that mothers struggle with the breastfeeding due to
the lack of support from family and health care professionals (Thurman & Allen, 2008). In most
scenarios, health care professionals such as doctors and nurses are the first initiators of
breastfeeding and their failure to educate and motivate mothers may result in the hesitancy of
mothers to properly breastfeed their infants. Therefore, it is obvious that the role of health care
professionals is to educate mothers on the importance of breastfeeding. Moreover, other barriers
such as the lack of breastfeeding knowledge can cause mothers not to breastfeed their infants
(Cerop, Keverenge-Ettyang & Mbagaya, 2009). Heinig (2001) states that breastfeeding reduces
threats and nourishes infants as well as protects them from ordinary infectious diseases that make
up the mortality rate in most developing countries. The lack of breastfeeding knowledge such as
this and breastfeeding techniques or the educational or nutritional value of breastfeeding may it
be from health care professionals or personal experience may form the mothers perception on
breastfeeding that may influence their decision of the duration of breastfeeding. These barriers of
breastfeeding directly play a pivotal role in forming a mothers perception of breastfeeding and
hence they encourage the substitution of breast milk with other alternatives such as baby formula
and bottle feeding.
The practice of breastfeeding always goes hand in hand with the cultural practices of a society. It
can be said that breastfeeding practices vary according to cultures and countries based on urban
508
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
or rural demographics, age, health care systems, knowledge of breastfeeding,community beliefs

and practices, barriers and challenges that are faced by mothers and mode of delivery (Nkala &
Msuya, 2011). This study directly touches on the breastfeeding practices that Malaysian mothers
have, their attitudes and perceptions on cultural or food taboos during the postpartum period that
influences breastfeeding as well the hospitals policy in promoting the importance of
breastfeeding. Since culture is seen as learned knowledge of an issue or event in a community,
the practice of breastfeeding can be further understood through culture. Alma Gottlieb (2004)
explains that learning the value of sociability begins..at the breast. Hence, breastfeeding is the
early forms of interaction and socialization that an infant receives through culture. During the
postpartum period, mothers are generally subjected to weaning practices that are heavily
influenced by cultural beliefs surrounding the issues of motherhood, maternal conditions,
pregnancy, early child development and importantly breastfeeding. The postpartum period is
associated with the emotional well being of the mother in which case can influence their
behavior and decisions on breastfeeding. Gail Harrison (1993) studied how mothers in Cairo,
focusing on the urban areas suffer with grief and sadness when they have insufficient breast milk
to breastfeed. Due to this researches, breastfeeding is now seen as being a cultural practice based
on the postpartum period. This conceptual as well as preliminary dives into the understanding of
Malaysian mothers particularly, Malay mothers on the concepts of hot and cold foods during
the postpartum period as well as breastfeeding dos and donts that are practiced in the Malay
culture.
Another one of the attitudes that are discussed in this study is the perception of mothers on
public breastfeeding. Literature based on this breastfeeding issues focuses on how Malaysian
mothers are cultivated to breastfed publicly by the media. Based on Emma Mohamads (2011)
research paper, she states a few attitudes and perceptions on breastfeeding in public. Her
discoveries on the attitudes of breastfeeding in public reads :
If more people are well informed about breastfeeding, then people will start respecting
women who breastfeed and do not see breastfeeding in public as shameful. This would
help correct our culture perception about breasts as being sexual objects and private
Mothers should be told that although breastfeeding is a natural thing, some people may
still face problems with it. Therefore, it is important to keep mothers motivated and informing
them about the right techniques and emotional support that is available to them
Based on the excerpt, the efforts to support public breastfeeding and to change the societys
perception of breasts and breastfeeding publicly is highly encouraged and the need to educate
mothers as well as to motivate them regarding breastfeeding techniques as well as providing
emotional supports are taken into consideration. This study also aims to give an insight on both
public breastfeeding and support groups for breastfeeding.
2.1 Food Taboos : Hot and Cold Concept (Humoral Theory)
509
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Major cultures of the world practice food avoidance or food taboos (hot and cold foods) during
the postpartum period. Much of these food taboos are closely influence breastfeeding decisions
that mothers make when breastfeeding. Hart (1965) states that Asian countries such as India,
Philippines, Vietnam and Malaysia practice food avoidance during lactation. The women of India
are subjected to 40 to 41 days of pollution days (postpartum period) where food restrictions are
based on Ayurvedic conditions. In Malaysia, mothers have dietary practices during pregnancy as
well as lactation. Wilson (1980) describes Malay mothers has having the pantang period which
is a 40 day postpartum period where certain food restrictions are followed. Laderman (1981;
1983) focuses on the hot and cold foods centered around the humoral theory where the condition
is when a woman has a baby, her body enters into a state of coolness and therefore, she should
eat hot foods to balance her health. This humoral system is largely derived from classical
theories from Hippocrates and Galen and is rooted in different hot and cold classifications
system in Asia and Latin America (Shariffah Suraya, 2014). Skeat (1972) classifies the food
restrictions after childbirth for mothers into the hot and cold categories such as fruits and
vegetables that create a heating result on the blood circulation, gourds and cucumbers, sugar,
chilies and coconuts that can cause faintness. Mothers in Malaysia either Malay, Chinese or
Indian all follow the concept of hot and cold (Rice, 2000). However, in the Malaysian context,
fruits and vegetables are viewed as cold foods and mothers are recommended to stay away from
them but are encouraged to eat hot food and drinks such as garlic, pepper, spicy dishes, coriander
and fish (Manderson, 1981; Choudry, 1997). Vegetables are perceived as additives for improving
rice and act as a form of relish, and fruits are are viewed as treats (Laderman, 1981; 1983).
In some cases, hot foods such as fish, eggs, poultry and sugar are encouraged but cold foods such
as cold beverages and fresh fruit are avoided. Shariffah Suraya (2014) clearly states that certain
fish and vegetables are deemed as cold foods and are taken out from a mothers diet.
Observations done by Wilson (1980) reports that postpartum lactating mothers choose foods such
as rice, fish roasted over coals and black pepper and coffee which are hot foods after childbirth.
Since rice is the major staple food of Malaysia among almost every ethnic (Malay, Chinese and
Indian), therefore the postpartum diet is centered around rice and fish with the option of
vegetables being a side dish. The Malay humoral system is categorized according to the hot and
cold food categories. However, there are marked and unmarked categories in the system. They
are certain foods that are neutral or sederhana classified by Laderman (1983). This neutral
foods are unmarked where these foods are not considered to be hot or cold foods.
3. Research Objectives
This study aims to understand the attitudes, beliefs and practices and perceptions of Malaysian
mothers particularly Malay mothers regarding breastfeeding during the postpartum period as
well as to gain knowledge on postpartum food that promotes breastfeeding and to provide some
early collection of data from Malay mothers at the maternity ward at the government hospital.
510
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Method
A designed questionnaire comprising of five sections which were Section A : Classification of

Demographic Variables, Section B : Knowledge & Perception of mothers on postpartum food
served in the hospital, Section C : Breastfeeding Practices, Knowledge & Attitudes among
mothers, Section D : Perception of Social Support System towards Confinement & Breastfeeding
and Section E : Perception on Hospitals Policies & Services on Postpartum Food &
Breastfeeding. Since the Malay mothers in the maternity ward were too weak after delivery to fill
out the questionnaires themselves, the researcher switched to informal face to face conversation /
interview so that the mothers would be encouraged to give their opinions. The data was collected
in the maternity wards were the mothers had just given birth naturally about a day or two ago or
early on that morning. A total of 6 Malay mothers between the ages of 20-40 years with
different social backgrounds and work situations were interviewed. Some mothers came from
nuclear or extended families. The mothers in the ward have either experienced their first, second,
third or fourth natural childbirth and have spent an amount of 2 to 3 days at the hospital.
The gatekeeper for this study was the Chief Nurse at the maternity ward and she encouraged the
informal conversation between the researcher and the mothers. The Malay mothers were asked
about the types of food served at the hospital, the categories of hot and cold foods that were
prepared as well as their own cultural beliefs on hot and cold foods. The mothers are asked
further on food taboos as well as the dos and donts during the postpartum period. Breastfeeding
practices such as the mothers decision on the duration of breastfeeding, the alternatives and the
substitution of breast milk, cultural taboos on breastfeeding in the Malay culture, the support
system and motivation of the family to encourage the mothers to breastfeed, hot or cold foods
that encourage the lactation of milk, the factors that influencing breastfeeding, breastfeeding
benefits, challenges of breastfeeding, initial breastfeeding techniques by the hospital staff, the
relationship of breastfeeding and postnatal depression as well as the perception on public
breastfeeding. The researcher is also keen in understanding the BFHI efforts that are carried out
in the hospital in which case if the mothers are comfortable with breastfeeding procedures that
are taught by the staff. The researcher discusses the findings based on the informal interview /
conversation that she had with the mothers and has developed themes that are focused on
breastfeeding practices and postpartum food to classify the data collected.
5. Findings and Discussion
5.1 Food taboos and restrictions
Throughout this study, Malay mothers have tried to classify hot and cold foods according to their
own understanding and culture. Foods like spinach, radish and fish, prawns and food that can
cause itchiness and bisa as well as foods that can cause the decrease of lactation of breast milk
are avoided by mothers. Food that are encouraged by the Malay culture are the haruan fish,
511
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
soup, black pepper and garlic and tubers to avoid wind and red fish as well as bawal fish. Foods
such as cabbage, mangosteens and cucumbers are identified as cold foods. Hot foods such as
pepper, rice and anchovies are encouraged to be eaten. Generally, fruits are avoided because they
are deemed as cold foods. Mothers also state that their drink coffee served at the hospital as it is
considered as hot foods. Mothers admit to sticking to the food that the hospitals provide which
are rice, fish and vegetables. Almost all mothers mentioned taking their own mothers advice on
hot and cold foods to avoid infections and immediate effects to the body. Malay mothers in the
ward only eat the food served in the hospital and also depend on their husbands and families to
bring them food from home.
5.2 Breastfeeding Practices
The Malay mothers have been very vocal about their attitudes and beliefs on breastfeeding. The
following excerpts demonstrate the opinions of the mothers based on their personal experiences
and prior knowledge. Each of the mothers express their own motivation and challenges that they
face during the postpartum period.
Military Mum : I plan to breastfeed for 3 months because I work. Breastfeeding can
strengthen the bond between a mother and a child. My baby can get all the proper nutrients
and babys emotional state is balanced. My husband and his family are supportive of
breastfeeding but they understand the demand of my job in the military. I eat more
vegetables and rice to increase my breast milk but the main challenge is insufficient milk.
Theres nothing wrong in public breastfeeding as there are special baby rooms to breastfed. A
mother does not have to be embarrassed with public breastfeeding as it is normal.
Housewife Mum 1 : I will breastfeed for full 6 months as my breast milk is insufficient. I
believe in eating spinach and radish to increase my breast milk. Bottle feeding after 6 months
of breastfeeding can save money. Breastfeeding gives antibodies for the baby. My only
challenge is that the breast milk is not sufficient. I have to turn to bottle feeding as my breast
swell up after a certain period of time.I have breastfeed publicly before and I feel that there
should be more support in that.
The majority of Malay mothers have expressed that they understand the value of breastfeeding
and try to breastfeed for many months but due to challenges such as breast swelling and
insufficient breast milk produced, breastfeeding efforts are put on hold. On the basis of hot and
cold foods, the mothers quote from their own mothers or hear say of what to eat and what not to
eat during the postpartum period as well as during breastfeeding. There is a strong relationship
between hot and cold foods that either increase or decrease breast milk. Mothers opt to breastfed
as it creates a loving bond between mother and baby as well as it is economical. The data
collected on public breastfeeding is in line with the literature review where Malay mothers
nowadays are changing their perception and attitudes regarding public breastfeeding. Many of
512
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
which are supportive of public breastfeeding and see it as natural, normal and being comfortable
with their sexuality and not being shy about it.
5.3 Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI)
Almost all the Malay mothers have agreed that this government hospital is a baby friendly
hospital where breastfeeding policies are communicated by the staff through written policies.
They have also agreed that nurses promote the benefits of breastfeeding and initiate
breastfeeding about half an hour after delivery. However, the hospital does not really practice
in-rooming as they only bring the babies to the mothers when the need arises to breastfeed them
or in which case the staff uses formula milk to feed infants when they are experiencing health
issues. Mothers also agree that the hospital staff and nurses educate them on the techniques of
breastfeeding as well as discuss benefits with them. Breastfeeding on demand is encouraged by
nurses as infants are brought to their mothers during feeding time. Similarly, mothers agree that
the staff does not provide the infants with artificial pacifiers or any food or drink. Some mothers
have claimed that the breastfeeding support groups in the hospitals are needed for first time
mothers and other mothers claim they are unaware of the existence of breastfeeding support
groups in the hospital.
6. Conclusion
This conceptual paper and early preliminary study gives the understanding how Malay mothers
view breastfeeding and their knowledge on postpartum care in terms of postpartum food. The
understanding of hot and cold foods that should be eaten during the postpartum period can vary
according to each mother and is based on their prior knowledge from other family members. The
data collected supports the main the concept of the paper which is the humoral theory where
Malay mothers take into consideration the kinds of hot and cold foods that they eat during the
postpartum period of 40 days and also the foods that can promote lactation of breast milk.
Overall, the humoral theory is in accordance with the perception of Malay mothers. Based on the
breastfeeding practices, there is a sense of openness and willingness of the mothers to share
insights on the challenges and motivations that they face as postpartum mothers. The issue of
public breastfeeding is seen as being accepted but Malay mothers and there is a positive outlook
on how mothers view other mothers who breastfeed in public. Evidently, BFHI, with the efforts
of the hospitals nurses and doctors plays also an important role in encouraging mothers to fully
participate in breastfeeding practices and techniques.
513
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
7. Acknowledgment
This paper is written under the supervision and encouragement of Dr. Shariffah Suraya bt Syed
Jamaludin during the short term research grant of Universiti Sains Malaysia.
8. References
Borra, Cristina, Iacovou, Maria and Sevilla, Almudena. 2015. New Evidence on Breastfeeding
and Postpartum Depression : The Importance of Understanding Womens Intentions. Matern
Child Health Journal, 19 : 897-907
B. Whalen and R. Cramton. 2010. Overcoming barriers to breastfeeding continuation and

exclusivity. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 655663
C. E. Cherop, A. G. Keverenge-Ettyang. and G. M. Mbagaya. 2009. Barriers to exclusive

breastfeeding among infants aged 06 months in Eldoret municipality, Kenya. East African
Journal of Public Health, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 6972
C. K. Siah. 2002. Breastfeeding Practices Among Mothers in an Urban Polyclinic. Department of

Social and Preventative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
C. Ku and S. K. Y. Chow. 2010. Factors influencing the practice of exclusive breastfeeding

among Hong Kong Chinese women: A Questionnaire survey. Journal of Clinical Nursing, vol.
19, no. 17-18, pp. 24342445
Fouts, Hillary, Hewlett, Barry and Lamb, Michael. 2012. A Biocultural Approach to
Breastfeeding Interactions in Central Africa. American Anthropologist Association, Vol. 114, No.
1, pp.123-136
Gottlieb, Anna. 2004. The Afterlife Is Where We Come From : The Culture of Infancy in West
Africa, Chicago : University of Chicgo Press
Heinig, M.J. 2001. Host defense benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. Effect of breastfeeding
duration and exclusivity. PediatrClin North Am : 48 : 105-23
Jackson, Meredith. 2000. Effects of Postpartum Dietary Restrictions on Maternal Nutritional

Status.
Laderman, Carol C. 1981. Symbolic and empirical reality : A new approach to the analysis of
food avoidance. American Ethnologist 8(3) : 468-493
514
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Laderman, Carol C. 1983. Wives and Midwives : Childbirth and Nutrition in Rural Malaysia.
Berkeley : University of California Press
Lundberg, P.C. and Thu, T.T.N 2011. Vietnamese womens cultural beliefs and practices related
to the postpartum period. Midwifery, 27: 731-736
Motee, Ashmika, Ramasawmy, Deerajen, Pugo-Gunsam, Prity. and Jeewon, Rajesh. 2013.
Research Article : An Assessment of Breastfeeding Practices & Infant Feeding Pattern among
Mothers in Mauritius. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism
Mohammad, Emma. 2011. Strategies to Improve Health Communications for Breastfeeding :

Examining the Relationship between Media Producers and News Sources in Malaysia. The
Innovation Journal : The Public Sector Innovation Journal Vol. 16(3), Article 13, Malaysia
S. E.Thurman and P. J. Allen. 2008. Integrating lactation consultants into primary health care
services: are lactation consultants affecting breastfeeding success? Pediatric Nursing, vol. 34,
no.5, pp. 419425
Sunanda B. and Shynee Paul. 2013. A Study on the Cultural Practices of Postnatal Mothers in
selected hospitals at Manglore. Nitte University Journal of Health Science Vol.3, No. 3, Manglore,
India
Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin. 2014. Beliefs and Practices surrounding Postpartum Period
among Malay Women. School of Social Sciences, Proceeding of the Social Sciences Research
ICSSR 2014 (e-ISBN 978-967-11768-7-0) Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Tan. K.L. 2007. Breastfeeding Practices in Klang District. Malaysian Journal of Public Health
Medicine.
Tan, K. L. 2009. Knowledge, attitude and practice on breastfeeding in Klang, Malaysia.

Department of Community Medicine, International Medicine University, Vol. 8. No. 1 Kuala
Lumpur
The World Health Organization, Infant and Young Child Feeding, World Health Organization,
Lyon, France, 2009
515
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Digital Identity, Digital Other, Digital Community: Malaysian Youths
Experience with Social Networking Sites
Azrina Husin
11800 Penang, Malaysia
azrina@usm.my
Abstract
This paper discusses the project of digital identity construction in popular social networking sites
(SNS) such as Facebook and Instagram by a group of Penang Malaysian youths who were active
SNS users. Acknowledging the significance of these SNS in these youths social life, the author
investigate how they use these nonymous online environment to engage in the project of
digital identity construction and performance. Through a series of in-depth interviews, the
findings show that their constructed digital identity feed from their offline identities, while their
digital Others occupying their immediate digital community (i.e. Facebook friends and Instagram
followers) validate their digital identity. Visual uploading and sharing, as well as status updating
are some ways in which one construct and perform ones identity. However, unlike offline
interactions that are more fluid and context-based, online interactionsand by extension, online
identity performance and managementwith different Others take place at only one platform or
context, i.e. ones Facebook or Instagram account. Thus, this gives rise to issues pertaining to
ones digitial identity. Offline, one is a daughter to her parents, but online, one has many other
identities to manage and perform, almost simultaneously, to many of her Others on her SNS. As
digital identity feeds from offline identity, respondents struggle in keeping up with the memory
that their digital Others have of them offline at some period in time. Online identity construction
and management among this group of urban Penang youths is a reflexive activity. They
continuously monitor their digitial environment and its inhabitants, and are deeply aware of the
kind of identity they want to present digitally. This paper argues that it is precisely the struggle
over maintaning ones digital identity that explains youths ownership of more than one SNS
account.
Keywords: Digital identity; digital others; social networking sites; Facebook; Instagram
516
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
1. Introduction
Over the years, many reports have emerged on various aspects of Malaysians usage of the
internet, which have included among others the amount of time Malaysians spent online, the
types of online activities Malaysians engaged in, as well as internet penetration into Malaysian
households and schools. For example, according to a report released by United Nations
International Telecommunications, as of 2012, internet penetration across all age groups in the
country was high, at 66%. With this high penetration rate, the same study also reported that
13.4% of Malaysias 3.9 million population is categorized as digital natives (a term used in the
study referring to youths between the age of 15 to 24 with at least five years of active internet
use). This figure then put Malaysia as the county with the hightest percentage of digital natives
(cited in The Malay Mail, 12 October 2013). Another study also reported that 87.9% of
Malaysians on the internet access Facebook, and that as of July 2013, there are 13.3 million
Facebook users in the country, with those aged between 18 to 24 years old reported to be the
highest users, making up 34.5% of the total number of Facebook users in the country (cited in
Borneo Post Online, 16 June 2013). These reports cited so far are also consistent with another
study which found that Malaysians spend about one third of their online time on social
networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram (cited in comScore, 16 October 2011).
All these reports point to the fact that many Malaysians are internet-inhabitants and that social
networking sites provide them an online platform where interactions take place and reality is
extended and constructed.
Amidst this trend of Malaysians going online, there have been a surge of research interest on
social media and social networking sites among researchers. Social media has opened up a new
space for political engagement in countries that has a tight control on traditional media or curb
freedom of expression. Malaysia certainly falls under this categorization. As such, many studies
have looked at, among others, the issues of political participation brought about by social media
as well the role and impact of social media on Malaysias political landscape especially in the
13th General Election in 2013 (see for example, Weiss, 2012; Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani,
2014; Gomez, 2014). Similarly, because the Internet has been incorporated as a learning tool
with programs initiated by the government (for example, the Smart School project started out as
an initiative to connect rural and urban schools to educational institutions, while the Malaysian
Grid for Learning is a national initiative to promote e-learning), studies focussing on usages of
the Internet, especially among young Malaysians, as well as the effectiveness of e-learning
towards academic achievement (see for example, Adam Mahamat Helou et al., 2012; Norsiah
Abdul Hamid et al., 2013). In light of this development, this research departs from looking at
usages and effects as well as changes brought about by the Internet through social media and
Social Networking Sites (from here on written as SNS), but still focussing on youths for reasons
given earlier. I take the position that the youths in my study live in an environment whereby
online activities, primarily that occuring on social networking sites such as Facebook and
Instagram, are part and parcel of their everyday practice, and because of this, these activities
517
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
constitute an important aspect of their daily routines as well as their identities. The latter is the
focus of this paper.
My on-going research on the usage of various SNS among Malaysian youths in Penang has
revealed a few key findings, among which are preference for one SNS over another for reasons
that are tied to each SNS role to gratify their needs and a trend to move away from one SNS to
another. As for the latter, most of the youths in my study expressed preference for Instagram
over Facebook for reasons related to their friends on Facebook and their followers on
Instagram. In fact, Facebook has acknowledged the decrease in teens usage of Facebook,
moving away to picture or visual based Instagram or a less complicated and seemingly discreet
Whatsapp and SnapChat. One of the reasons given to this trend is the overwhelming parents
presence on Facebook, making it difficult for teens to hang out with friends and act cool
while in the presence of their moms and dads. The aim of this paper is to give a sociological
analysis on why youths migrated from one SNS to another by relating this trend to online
identity construction. Data for this paper is derived from a series of in-depth interviews with 20
youths, aged between 18 to 25 years old and are active SNS users. All of them have Facebook
and Instagram accounts and are active on Whatsapp. Some also use WeChat and Twitter. Most
of them were MySpace or Friendster users earlier on in their lives. A few of them own accounts
with Tumblr and Flickr but confided that they are no longer active users. As for their
demographic breakdown, 6 of my respondents were males and 14 females, all of them reside in
Penang either temporarily (due to attending college and university) or permanently. Although
ethnic difference is not the focus of this study, it is worth mentioning that 12 of these youths are
Malays, 6 Chinese and the remaining 2 Indian. Aside from this, this research is also informed by
my own personal experience with Facebook, and to a lesser degree, Instagram, and my
observations of my digital others in that space in ways they create, manage and perform their
identities.
Todays online activities are not limited to gaming and emailing as they were when internet was
novel to many. It is safe to say that online activities now mirror offline activities. More often
than not, the outcomes of online activities are felt or dealt with offline, and likewise. Thus,
online space is a reality that has to be understood in order for us to deal with it better.
Experiments using immersive virtual environment technology have shown results that strongly
suggest that people do interact with virtual others as social beings (Bailenson, Blascovich and
Guadagno, 2008; Bailenson, Blascovich, Beall and Loomis, 2001), further giving credit to the
claims that interaction online can be understood using established framework on face-to-face
interaction, particularly that developed by Erving Goffman (1959).
Having an account on any SNS require one to write oneself into being (boyd, 2007) onto the
profile pages, giving information about, among others, ones interests, history, likes and hopes,
518
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
as well as to put up ones (usually) best picture forward. It is through this process that one self is
enacted and digitalized into an online presence with the use of, primarily, text and images that
are shared and made visible to online others, who are similarly digitalized. Thus, ones profile
page on SNS, be it Facebook or Instagram, reveal at least a snapshot of who one isones
digital identityand what one is up toones digital activity: ones status update give a glimpse
of ones mood, thoughts and what one is doing, sharing a video of ones favorite act reveal ones
social allegiance, and ones list of friends and followers (both who they are and how many
there is) indicate ones online presence and network. Because interaction on these SNS take
place on ones profile page (i.e. giving like to a someones status and pictures, leaving a
picture of a birthday cake on a friends profile page), usually taking the cue from ones updates,
researchers have called this to be seen as performances in the impression management game.
Given the centrality of SNS in the lives of many youths, SNS are seen as a platform for
perpetual contact (Joinson, 2008) with ones friends and followers, creating a social
network and community that is digitalized, where various boundaries in social life are
increasingly blurred, including that between work and leisure, and entertainment and education
(Livingstone, 2005).
Earlier studies on the Internet have argued that it offered a platform for individual to experiment
and explore with different versions of self that might not be readily available in face-to-face
interaction (see for example Turkle, 1995). This speaks about the relative anonymity that
characterized early online interaction (that took place in online chat rooms) which freed
individuals from certain expectations, constraints and taboos of face-to-face interaction which in
turn allows them to express their true self (Bargh et al., 2002) that may be entirely different
from their offline personas. However, as the Internet matures over the years, it is becoming too
simplistic to see it as offering anonymity all around especially in the wake of many social
netwroking sites, such as Facebook, that invite users to connect with friends. As such, the
anonymity of the Internet has been relooked as studies suggest that the online or digital identity
created and presented is a (partial) representation of ones offline self that one has carefully
chosen to share and project digitally (Gatson, 2011). Zhao et al. (2008) characterized Facebook
and other popular SNS as a nonymous online environment, challenging earlier understanding
of the Internet.
In applying Goffmans impression management framework to online interaction, Barash et al.

(2010) studied how Facebook users give and give off information about themselves in their
profiles. They found that while generally Facebook users are successful in creating and
presenting a positive image of themselves, there is a fine line that they may give off cues that
may come across as self-important by their online friends. However, what this study did not note
is that online impression management and identity construction are more complicated as it
involves ones many social roles and personas to many digital others that make up ones digital
community in the nonymous SNS environment that is very much anchored to ones offline
lives.
519
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.1 Theorizing Online Performance
The discussion that follows draw from Erving Goffmans dramaturgical perspective (1956) that
was further applied and developed by many researchers to understand how individual construct
and reconstruct, and later perform and manage their online identity as part of online interaction.
As such, I view the youths in my study as possessing a high degree of individual agency and they
are engaged in what Giddens (1991) termed the reflexive project of self as their self is
routinely created and sustained via their online activities seen in their SNS accounts. As their
digital identity is written into being, these youths are the author of their digital biography. I
apply Goffmans front stage, loosely defined as the context in which interaction and performance
take place with the presence of audience, to the youths profile pages as it is here that their
digital identity is made known in the presence of their digital others. It is on the front stage that
contextor to use a symbolic interactionists term, definition of situationis made clear so that
performance can be maintained in the face of multitude of potential disruptions to this single
definition of the situation (Goffman, ibid.). However, as far as online performance via SNS is
concerned, youths have to deal with multiple definitions of situation by their digital others
memory of who they are offline.
3. Findings and Discussions
Because the respondents in this study are active SNS users, they are constantly engaged in a
hoard of actvities related to SNS, ranging from photo uploading and sharing, status updates,
information sharing, status commenting as well as giving and receiving like. I see these as
ways in which they actively construct their online identity. However, in their construction of
their online identity, from time to time, they are also faced with digital others who disrupt their
performance of their online identity. Here I discuss two ways in which these youths see
themselves and two strategies adopted by these youths to overcome disruptions.
3.1 The True Me vs. The Formal Me
One of the most recurring theme that appear from my interviews with my respondents is the
issue of how they portray themselves on the various SNS they own and how they want the digital
others in the specific SNS to see them. This is best examplified by 21 year old Arief who
explained to me that he presented himself in the most formal way I could on his Facebook
account, but quick to tell me but that is not the true me. It is in his Instagram account that he
present the true himas someone who is out and about having fun and enjoying life. All my
20 respondents are aware of the different way they present themselves on Facebook and
Instagram. In fact, they chose to do so. At the same time, none of them see this as a form of
deception or a creation of new identity, as aptly put by 20 year old Susan: both (her identities on
Facebook and Instagram) are me...but to different people.
520
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.2 Multiple Digital Identities, Multiple Digital Others, One Context
Consider the following excerpt from one of my most expressive respondents, a 21-year old
female university student who described herself as not the normal university student you
know.
I am a young woman who is trying to experience a lot of things in life. I love

to be out and about doing things. I love fashion. I love wearing short pants with a
sleeveless top. However, my parents to not like this. Out of respect for them...they
are my parents after all...I have decided not to post pictures that show me in shorts
and sleeveless as that will hurt my parents feelings and I do not want to be in bad
terms with them... There was one weekent that I had gone to Kuala Lumpur to party
with friends. My parents knew I was going [but not the real reason for going]. Since
they know I update my Facebook regularly, I had to post pictures of myself
throughout my weekend stay... Of course these are good pictures of me, the way
my parents want to see me... I had some pictures of that party on my Instagram
though...
(21 year old Nurul)
Related to the above discussions on true me vs. formal me is the issue of how the respondents
portray themselves digitally on their SNS. Especially in the case of Facebook, like Nurul, the
youths in my study came to the realization that as far as digital identity is concerned, it is not the
case of one digital identity fit all digital others. These youths faced with an onslaught of
definitions of who they are by their many digital others who, outside the context of SNS, have
very specific roles in the lives of these youths, i.e. uncles, fathers, high school friends, teachers,
and these youths to them, i.e. niece, daughter, high school friend, student. Their digital others
defintions of these youths are very much entrenched the real worldit is specific, it is
almost always singular and it is quite fixed. SNS made it difficult as there is only one context, be
it Facebook or Instagram, in whcih the many sides of these youths are portrayed to many
different people who know them differently at various parts of their lives.
3.3 Strategies to Eliminate Disruption 1: Goodbye My Friend
The youths in my study resorted to many ways when faced with disruptions at the way they want
to construct their online identity. The easiest available strategy is, to quote Cassandras words
(19 year old college student), to clean up my long list of friends every now and then. Digital
others who were dropped off their friends list are those who do not observe the etiquette of
online interaction (and in extension, disrupt their performance) and those who are just there but
did not make any impact whatsoever to the youths. This strategy is easily applied to
521
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
acquaintances who they have accumulated over time as their online friends, but proves to be
problematic if applied to their digital others with whom they have close social relations with
offline. Mei Yun (23 year old student) confided in me that her aunts were quite offended when
she removed her from her Facebook, mentioning it to her during their offline social interactions.
3.4 Strategies to Eliminate Disruption 2: Become the Observer, Not the Observed
Another strategy worth mentioning is to remain inactive, especially on Facebook. Sharing of

postings, commenting on digital others posts and statuses as well as posting pictures are kept to
the minimum. However, despite this low level of digital presence, the youths in my study
admitted that they still check on their Facebook feed to know what friends are up to. In this
sense, they take the role of the observer and refused to be observed, and at the same time
maintaining the importance SNSespecially Facebookin their daily routines. With this
strategy, the chances of their digital identity being misunderstood by their many digital others are
kept to the minimum.
4. Conclusion
This paper discusses the struggle of performance maintenance by the youths who are active SNS
users. Online ineractions are certainly not free from expectations, constraits and taboos that
marked face-to-face, offline interactions. In fact, these expectations, constraints and taboos play
out in a more complex way on SNS as one has to perform many digital identities to ones many
digital others. This paper then tries to look at online identity not only from the standpoint of
online/digital identity construction, but also to include the elements of digital others as well as
defintions of situations that are of equal importance to the issue of identity construction. Ones
profile pages on Facebook or Instagram can be viewed as the front stage where digital
performances are played out, with these youths actively writing themselves into being. Digital
identity and digital performances involve multiple definitions of situation by these youths many
digital others, whose defintion of these youths are entrenched in their offline interaction.
5. Acknowledgement
The author wishes to note her acknowledgment to Universiti Sains Malaysia for the funding of
this research project under the USM Short Term Research Grant P4360.
522
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6. References
Adam Mahamat Helou, Nor Zairah Ab. Rahim and N.D. Oye. 2012. Students perceptions on
social networking sites influence on academic performance, in International Journal of Social
Networking and Virtual Communities. Vol. 1, No.1, 7-15.
Bailenson, J. N., J. Blascovich, A. C. Beall and J. Loomis. 2001. Equilibrium revisited: mutual
gaze and personal space in virtual environment, in Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual
Environments, 10, 583-598.
Bailenson, J. N., J. Blascovich and R. E. Guadagno. 2008. Self-Representations in immersive

virtual environments, in Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 38, 11, 2673-2690.
Barash, V., N. Ducheneaut, E. Issacs and V. Bellotti. 2010. Faceplant: Impression

(Mis)management in Facebook status updates, in Proceedings of 4th International AAAI
Conference on Weblogs and Social Meida (ICWSM). 23-26 May, 2010. Washington DC.
Bargh, J. A., K. Y. A. McKenna and G. M. Fitzsimons. 2002. Can you see the real me?
Activation and expression of the true self on the internet, in Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 58,
No. 1, 33-48.
Boyd, D. 2007. Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics in
teenage social life, in D. Buckingham (ed.). MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital
LearningYouth, Identity, and Digital Volume. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gatson, S. N. 2011. Self-naming practices on the Internet: identity, authenticity, and

community, in Cultural Studies Critical Methodologies. Vol. 11(3), 224-235.
Giddens, A. 1991. Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late-Modern Age.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Goffman, E. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday, Anchor
Books.
Gomes, J. 2014. Social media impact on Malaysias 13th General Election in Asia Pacific
Media Educator, Vol. 24(1), 95-105.
Joinson, A. N. 2008. Looking up or Keeping up with people? Motives and uses of

Facebook, in Proceedings of CHI 2008, 1027-1036.
523
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Livingstone, S. 2005. Mediating the public/private boundary at home: childrens use of the
internet for privacy and participation [online]. London: LSE Research Online.
(http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000506)
Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani. 2014. The social media election in Malaysia: The 13th General
Election in 2013 in Kajian Malaysia, Vol 32, Supp.2, 123-147.
Norsiah Abdul Hamid, Mohd. Sobhi Ishak, Syamsul Anuar Ismail and Siti Syamsul Nurin
Mohmad Yazam. 2013. Social media usage among university students in Malaysia, in B.
Patrut, M. Patrut and C. Cmecia (eds.). Social Media and the New Academic Environment:
Pedagogical Challenges. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Weiss, M. L. 2012. Politics in Cyberspace: New Media in Malaysia. Berlin: fesmedia Asia.
Zhao, S., S. Grasmuck and J. Martin. 2008. Identity constuction on Facebook: digital
empowerment in anchored relationships, in Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1816-1836.
Online Articles Cited
Lang, N. A teen on why teens are abandoning Facebook, in The Daily Dot, 19 February 2015.
www.dailydot.com/opinion/why-teens-are-leaving-facebook/ (retrieved on 18 August 2015).
Joseph Sipalan. Report: Malaysian youths fourth most active Internet users, in Malay Mail
Online, 12 October 2013.
www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/report-malaysian-youths-fourth-most-active-inter
net-users-globally (retrieved 18 August 2015).
Social networking accounts for one third of all time spent online in Malaysia, in comSchore,
16 October 2011.
www.comscore.com/Insights/Press_Releases/2011/10/Social_Networking_Accounts_for_One_Third_of_
All_Time_Spent_Online_in_Malaysia (retrieved on 1 May 2014)
Norni Mahadi. 13.3 million Msians are Facebook users, in Borneo Post Online, 16 June 2013.
www.theborneopost.com/2013/06/16/13-3-million-msians-are-facebook-users (retrieved on 6
April 2014)
524
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Van Grove, J. 2013. Why teens are tiring of Facebook, in CNET.

www.cnet.com/news/why-teens-are-tiring-of-facebook/ (retrieved on 1 July 2015)
525
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Womens Public Office Positions in Islmic Jurisprudence: The Case of
Malaysia
Asar AKa,*, AP Dr Bouhedda Ghaliab, Dr Mohd Rashid Bin Ab Hamidc

a
CMLHS, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (Malaysia)
Email: asar@ump.edu.my; asarump06@yahoo.com; asarump06@gmail.com
b Department of Fiqh and Usl al-Fiqh, KIRKH, International Islamic University Malaysia
(Malaysia)
Email: bouhedda@iium.edu.my
c Faculty of Science & Industrial Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (Malaysia)

Email: rashid@ump.edu.my
Abstract
The disagreement opinions among Muslim scholars about permissibility for women to hold
public office positions seem to be a never ending episode. The issue has been raised by Muslims
all over the world, whereby the root cause is actually related to the misunderstanding of Muslim
scholars about some controversial nu which related to the issue. Therefore, the objective of
the study is to examine the reality of those arguments made by the Muslim scholars and the
subsequent effects in the issue of fatwas by the scholars pertaining to the matter. The study also
will include the finding data collected from a sample of 369 Malaysian Muslims respondents
who met certain criteria set by the study conducted by the researchers; results of the study show
several significant findings. The most important finding is the majority of respondents agreed
that women can hold some public office positions, but not all the positions. The findings
therefore will help to address the issue more appropriately and plan for better educational
programs.
Keywords: Womens public office positions in Islm, misunderstanding and fanatical opinions.
1. Introduction
There is no argument between ulams (Muslims scholars) that men and women are same in
terms of moral, spiritual duties and acts of worship9, except that women have some concessions
due to their feminine nature and task. When we talk about work, the main question is about the
right to have money and a woman also has the right to have it. The right was clearly established
in Islamic law. {Whatever men earn, they have a share of that and whatever women earn, they
9
Al-Qur'an, sra al-Nis, 4:1, sra al-Arf, 7:189, sra al-Shr, 42:11
526
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
have a share in that}10. In fact, a woman is the receiving side of gift during engagement,
marriage mahr (marital gift); she can spend it on whatever she chooses to. Even in the time of
divorce, there are certain guarantees during the idda (waiting period) and if the widow or
divorcee has children, then she is entitled to child support from the ex-husband. However, there
are still some Muslim scholars who are still disagreeing in the permissibility of women's work
outside home; but the view is absolutely weak and it does not be supported by any sahh na
(valid evidence); whether it is neither a Qurnic verse nor a Prophetic hadth. In fact, history of
the life of people during the Prophets time and his aba (the Prophets companion) objects
the weak fatwa (legal ruling). Moreover, in some situations, it may even be a dire necessity
rather than a matter of choice, such for divorced or widowed women with no source of
sustenance, or for women whose husbands do not earn enough to properly maintain the family
necessities11.
However, there are the disagreement opinions among Muslim scholars all over the world about
permissibility for women to hold public office positions, it seems to be a never ending episode.
The root cause is actually related to the misunderstanding of Muslim scholars about some
controversial nu (plural of na), especially the prophetic hadth which states that People will
not succeed when they appoint a woman to rule them12:
Therefore, the objective of the study is to examine the reality of those arguments made by the
Muslim scholars and the subsequent effects in the issue of fatwas by the scholars pertaining to
the matter. The study also will include the finding data collected from a sample of 369 Malaysian
Muslims respondents who met certain criteria set by the study conducted by the researchers
After the researchers went through those arguments made by both sides of the scholars: whether
they are supporting or contradicting the issue that women hold public positions; the researchers
found that the dispute is due to several reasons, they are:
1. The difference in the fatwa of women to go outside home to work. Those who do not
support the idea, hold that it is also not permissible to women to the public positions. Those who
do support the idea on the contrary, support the idea women hold the positions: all the positions
or some of them.
10
Al-Qurn, sra al-Nis, 4:32.
11
For more detail, please refer: Asar Abdul Karim, Bouhedda Ghalia & Marniwati Jusoh, Islmic regulations of
womans work outside home, One-day symposium on women for Malaysian development: 2020, Kuala Lumpur:
Universiti Malaya, 2014.
12
Sahh al-Bukhr, hadth no.: 4163, vol. 4, pg. 1610. Al-Mustadrak al al-ahhain, hadth no.: 4608, vol. 3, pg.
128. Sunan al-Tirmidh, hadth no.: 2262, vol. 4, pg. 527. Sunan al-Kubr li al-Nas, hadth no.: 5937, vol.3, pg. 465.
527
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. The difference in understanding the qiwma (stewardship) for the men. Those who
see that the idea contradicts to the qiwma concept, hold that it is not permissible to women to
the public positions. Those who dont see any conflict, allow women to hold the positions.
3. The difference in giving priority the evidence sadd al-dhari (blocking the means)
over the evidence malaha (interest); or vice versa. Those who give priority to the sadd
al-dhari, prevents the idea fearing of fitna (sedition) and fasd (corruption) that might appear.
Meanwhile, those who give priority to the malaha allow the idea for the benefits of Muslim
Umma in developing this world.
4. Those ulams discussed the issue of women hold public positions within their
understanding about the status of women in their respective countries. The opponents rule their
fatwa in favor of the current situation in Arab countries. Meanwhile, the proponents, especially
contemporaries, affected by the current scenario in Western countries that encourage women to
work outside home.
5. The ulams have neglected to address in detail the women's nature and ability. It is not
fair to give a fatwa on this issue without extensive discussion about the nature of women's and its
ability; there are of course some positions that are not worthy for women to be the leaders;
moreover when the women are also being busying with household chores and raising children.
3. Findings of the literature review
The researchers view that the never ending episode argument about this issue was originally
come from some factors, the most important are:
1- Lack of understanding due to the less reading and research.
2- The influence of the patriarchal culture of local communities; as well as the equality
concept promoted by the West
3- Fanatic adherents to the madzhab (section of fiqh) . This is the worst factor since those
who are fanatic with opinions of their madhhib (plural of madzhab) will defend the
opinions at any cause. This is the real problem faced by the Muslim Umma since the
period of tabin13.
The researchers found slip records in the arguments of the opponents and proponents. They
are as follows14:
13
Asar Bin Abdul Karim, Fikra al-takhtia wa al-tawb fi al-ijtihdi wa atharuh fi al-fiqhi al-islmiyy [The
concept of truth and fallacy of ijtihd and its legal effect on Islmic jurisprudence], Master thesis in Fiqh and Ul
al-Fiqh, Kuliyyah of Islmic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage, International Islmic University Malaysia,
2001), pg. 29
14
----------------------------------. Al-Wilya al-mma lil al-mara fi al-fiqhi al-islmiyy: dirsa talliyya bi
al-ila il al-wqi al-Mliziy [An analytical study of womens public office positions in Islmic jurisprudence: A
case study of Malaysia], PhD thesis in Fiqh and Ul al-Fiqh, Kuliyyah of Islmic Revealed Knowledge and
Heritage, International Islmic University Malaysia, 2015) - in process.
528
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Opponents slips (errors)

1. They focus a lot on qiwma verse15; whereby the verse indicates the qiwma of husbands to
their wives. They dont discuss much about other verses that relate to the leadership such: i. The
story lt who had been chosen by the God because his knowledge and physical strength16
and ii. The story of prophet Shuaibs girl who asked her father (Shuaib) to hire prophet Ms
who was trustworthy and strong person17.
2. They circulate rule preventing women from all types of leadership positions according to the
d adth18 which refers to Caliphate or the highest position in a country; does not be
consistent with the spirit of Islm.
3. They do not look at the reality in the Muslim community and other communities in the world.
They have forgotten the malaa concept of the nation due to their exaggeration in exercising
sad al-dhari.
Proponents slips (errors)
1. They do not discuss the nature and specific circumstances of women, as if the women are like
men in all things. This error is clear and sane imagined.
2. They argue with some weak possibilities, to the extent they compare a just female leader to an
unjust male leader. Such reason is not being acceptable since its well known to all Muslim
scholars that necessity permits prohibitions.
3. They do not understand the story of the Queen of Saba Balqis in a real way.
4. They do not discuss the verses of al-Qur'n that related to the story of lt and prophet
Shuaibs girl.
5. Most of the evidences provided by the proponents are based on reason; they are not strong
enough to cope with texts from the Qur'n and Sunna, which provided by the opponents. In fact,
there is no need to hold to the reasons by leaving the revelation evidences.
4. Findings of the sample data collection

The study uses descriptive statistics analysis by SPSS and its Cronbachs alpha coefficient values
for the pre-study (32 respondents) and the real study (369 respondents) are high, i.e. 0.932 and
0.859 respectively. Meanwhile, all variables in the real study reveal a range of coefficient value
from 0.846 to 0.873 accordingly. The collected data is from a sample of 369 Malaysian Muslims
respondents; mainly from three cities: Kuantan (100 respondents), Kota Baharu (106
respondents) and Kuala Lumpur (116 respondents).
Each of the respondents in the study met the following criteria:
1. A Muslim; the study does not accept any non-Muslim or a Shiite
2. A marriage person; the study does not accept any bachelor since the person does not bear any
responsibility for household work.
15
Al-Qur'n, sra al-Nis, 4: 34.
16
Al-Qur'n, sra al-Baqara, 2: 247.
17
Al-Qur'n, sra al-Qaa, 28: 23
18
The hadth has been mentioned in the Introduction.
529
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. The person must have a child (at least). A person who does not have even a child certainly has
less family responsibilities.
4. Work. The study does not accept any student or non-working person (never work) because he/
she does not know the reality of work. However, any housewife who had worked previously was
taken into the account.
5. The person should commit the basic Islmic law because his/ her opinion is closer to the right
one.
The results of the study show several significant findings, they are:
1- The majority of the respondents (61.3%) agreed that women have to work even though
their husbands are able to provide adequate nafqa (alimony) as shown by the table
below:
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women have to work.
Male Female Total Percent Total
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 7 6 13 3.5
Does Not
Agree
Women Does not 47 17 64 17.3
work Agree
Not Sure 33 33 66 17.9
Agree 74 113 187 50.7
Strongly 12 27 39 10.6 61.3%
Agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
Source: A sample data collection of 369 respondents
2- The majority of them does not agree that women hold these positions:
Prime Minister: 88.9% does not agree

Table 2: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be Prime Minister.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 111 79 190 51.5
Does Not 88.9%
Prime Agree
Minister Does not 51 87 138 37.4
Agree
Not Sure 6 15 21 5.7
Agree 5 11 16 4.3
530
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Strongly 0 4 4 1.1
Agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
Menteri Besar or the Chief Minister of states: 87% does not agree
Table 3: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be Menteri Besar
or the Chief Minister of states.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 112 79 191 51.8
Does Not 87%
Menteri Agree
Besar Does not 50 80 130 35.2
Agree
Not Sure 5 13 18 4.9
Agree 6 23 29 7.9
Strongly 0 1 1 .3
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
3- The majority of them also does not agree that women hold the positions that require
strength in physical body such as:
Internal Security Minister: 81% does not agree

Table 4: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be Internal Security
Minister.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 84 50 134 36.3
does not 81%
Internal agree
Security Does not 71 94 165 44.7
Minister agree
Not Sure 10 22 32 8.7
Agree 7 27 34 9.2
Strongly 1 3 4 1.1
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
531
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Defense Minister: 88.3% does not agree

Table 5: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be Defense
Minister.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 101 70 171 46.3
does not 88.3%
Defense agree
Minister Does not 56 99 155 42.0
agree
Not Sure 8 12 20 5.4
Agree 8 14 22 6.0
Strongly 0 1 1 .3
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
Navy leader: 88% does not agree

Table 6: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be navy leader.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 107 71 178 48.2
does not 88%
Navy agree
leader Does not 54 93 147 39.8
agree
Not Sure 6 17 23 6.2
Agree 6 15 21 5.7
Strongly 0 0 0 0
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
4- However, those positions which do not need much physical requirement, the majority of
the respondents seems to agree on women hold the positions. They are:
Judge: 43.4% does agree

532
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 7: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be a judge.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 26 18 44 11.9
does not 30.3
Judge agree
Does not 25 43 68 18.4
agree
Not Sure 58 39 97 26.3 26.3
Agree 63 89 152 41.2 43.4
Strongly 1 7 8 2.2
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
University vice chancellor: 62.6% does agree

Table 8: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be a university vice
chancellor.
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 9 9 18 4.9
does not 20.6
University agree
Vice Does not 33 25 58 15.7
Chancellor agree
Not Sure 31 31 62 16.8 16.8
Agree 100 122 222 60.2 62.6
Strongly 0 9 9 2.4
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
5- Finally, those positions which related to women, the majority of the respondents agreed
that women hold the positions. They are:
Women Affairs Minister: 95.6% does agree

Table 9: Descriptive statistics of the respondents who agree that women can be Women Affairs
Minister.
533
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
(Frequency) Percent
Strongly 6 2 8 2.2
does not 3.8
Women agree
Affairs Does not 2 4 6 1.6
Minister agree
Not Sure 2 0 2 .5 .5
Agree 57 77 134 36.3 95.6
Strongly 106 113 219 59.3
agree
Total 173 196 369 100.0
5. Conclusion and Future Recommendation
The findings show significant relationship and similarity between literature and field studies
about the issue. More detail investigation is recommended to seek better understanding about
other variables similar to this study. The findings provide valuable information for the Muslim
on how to deal with the disagreement opinions of the permissibility for women to hold public
office positions. Men and women are completing each other, each has his or her own strength;
there is no such competing against each other as what is being promoted by various feminist
movements, particularly in the West.
6. References
1. Al-Qur'n
2. Various prophetic hadth compilation books
3. Asar Abdul Karim, Bouhedda Ghalia & Marniwati Jusoh. 2014. Islmic regulations of
womans work outside home, One-day symposium on women for Malaysian
development: 2020, Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
4. Asar Bin Abdul Karim. 2001. Fikra al-takhtia wa al-tawb fi al-ijtihdi wa atharuh
fi al-fiqhi al-islmiyy [The concept of truth and fallacy of ijtihd and its legal effect on
Islmic jurisprudence], Master thesis in Fiqh and Ul al-Fiqh, Kuliyyah of Islmic
Revealed Knowledge and Heritage, International Islmic University Malaysia).
5. ----------------------------------.2015. Al-Wilya al-mma lil al-mara fi al-fiqhi
al-islmiyy: dirsa talliyya bi al-ila il al-wqi al-Mliziy [An analytical study
of womens public office positions in Islmic jurisprudence: A case study of Malaysia],
PhD thesis in Fiqh and Ul al-Fiqh, Kuliyyah of Islmic Revealed Knowledge and
Heritage, International Islmic University Malaysia) - in process.
534
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Empowering Local Knowledge: Perception of Postpartum Mothers on Food
Served in the Maternity Ward, Government Hospital
Shariffah Suraya bt. Syed Jamaludin

Section of Anthropology & Sociology
11800 Pulau Pinang
shariffah@usm.my
Abstract
Childbirth is one of the most important rites of passage in a womans life and the event of great
biological and social importance in many societies. People hold a common belief that women
and infants are vulnerable during the postpartum period. Therefore, women in many societies
observed a series of postpartum practiced which is aimed to protect the mothers and newborn
babies. In many societies, including Malaysian societies, postpartum care is influenced by both
traditional beliefs and contemporary health care practices. In Malaysia, home birth was the norm
until the advent of modern medicine in the 20th century. Nowadays, Malaysian women give birth
in a hospital where they have direct access to their obstetricians, pediatricians and who are
specialists in the care of newborn. The mother who has delivered in the hospital will be put in the
postnatal ward and if it is the normal delivery they will be discharged after one or two days. For
those who had a cesarean birth, they have to stay in the hospital for six or more days, consistent
with the hospital practice. As they will stay in the hospital for few days, it is interesting to find
out the food menu served for the postpartum mothers, and whether the food comply to the
traditional postpartum food that are widely practice by the confinement mothers. Cultural factors
play a fundamental role in the identification, value and use of food. In Malaysia the hot-cold
classifications are used widely by all three major ethnic groups (Malays, Chinese, Indians).
These three cultures recognize the influence of the concept of hot and cold in food and
practices during the confinement period. Taking an anthropological approach, this paper focuses
on the perception of postpartum mothers on food served in the maternity ward of government
hospital. This paper reports an exploratory data as well as act as platform for early stages for
collection of data for the research on food served in the maternity ward of government hospital.
The study was conducted in the maternity ward of the selected government hospital in Perak and
ten new mothers were interviewed for this purpose. The results showed that majority of women
in the study adhered to the cultural food restrictions based on the hot-cold theory in their
postpartum period and selective in choosing the food during their stays in the maternity ward.
They argued that food served in the maternity ward is not fully followed the traditional food
restrictions. They suggested the hospital to provide the well-balance diet food without ignoring
535
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the traditional dietary practices. The results would give inputs for policy makers, programme
managers and health service providers to provide culturally sensitive health-care interventions.
Keywords: Childbirth; postpartum; food; hospital; Malaysia
1. Introduction
Childbirth is one of the most important rites of passage in a womans life and the event of great
biological and social importance in many societies (Yeh, 2013; Naser et. al., 2012; Rice, 2000).
This is the period where women enter a new phase in her life after marriage. Reproductive health
is strongly connected by culture and the common aim is to maintain the well-being and safety of
mother and child ( Lundberg & Thu, 2011). The postpartum period is recognized as a special
time in many societies and is associated with special rituals and customs in many cultures
(Manderson, 1981; Lundberg & Thu, 2011). People held a common belief that women and
infants were vulnerable during the postpartum period (Piperata, 2008). Therefore, women in
many societies observed a series of postpartum practiced which aimed to protect the mothers and
newborn babies. A review of the literature, revealed descriptions of postpartum practices in a
wide range of human societies in Asia (Laderman, 1987; Naser, et.al, 2012; Kaewsarn, Moyle &
Creedy, 2003; Yeh, 2013; Sein, 2013, Lundberg & Thu, 2011), in Australia (Rice, 2000) and
South America (Piperata, B.A, 2008). In many societies, including Malaysian societies,
postpartum care is influenced by both traditional beliefs and contemporary healthcare practices
(Yeh, 2013). Women are encouraged by the Eastern tradition to follow a specific set of
prescriptions and proscriptions to encourage an optimal level of health for the mother (Kaewsarn,
Moyle & Creedy, 2003).
The confinement period of Malaysian societies is around 30 to 44 days which involve the
postpartum ritual including the food taboos (Shariffah Suraya, 2013). During this time, most
societies view mothers as weak and vulnerable. Laderman (1984) found that Malay women
observe a 44 days of confinement period which is called dalam pantang. The most important
in the postpartum practices is the adherence to the food restriction (Piperata, 2008). Postpartum
food restriction is broadly defined as beliefs and taboos on food that were adhered during the
postpartum period by the new mothers which are socially constructed and shaped by the
perceptions and practices of the culture (Piperata, 2008; Yeh, 2013). It was found that certain
foods are avoided and even forbidden during the postpartum period (Manderson, 1981;
Laderman, 1984; Shariffah Suraya, 2013). Postpartum mothers are advised to eat hot foods and
avoid the cold food. Postpartum practices which focuses on taboos and the rationality of food
avoidance during the confinement, when womens energy and protein needs are higher has been
researched (Naser, 2011; Sein, 2013; Piperata, 2008; Lundberg & Thu, 2011; Manderson, 1981;
Laderman, 1984 ).
According to the Chinese beliefs, postpartum women are in a state of extreme yin and yang
imbalance, which may result in weakness and vulnerability. Therefore, the Chinese women are
536
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
advised to follow a particular diet and health care practice (Chen, 2011). In an ethnographic
study of Chinese, Malay and Indian women in Singapore, Naser, et.al (2011) found that most
women followed traditional practices during the postpartum confinement period. The
international literature also shows that in many countries majority of the new mothers adhered to
traditional postpartum beliefs and practices. Study done in Central Myanmar showed that
traditional beliefs and practices surrounding postpartum were highly prevalent among young
women. The intention of these practices is for the well-being of both mothers and newborns.
These belief and practices were imparted and perpetuated by women close social network (Sein,
2013). In Thailand, the postpartum Thai women follow a number of traditional practices in the
postpartum period, including the consumption of hot foods and fluids as well as other food.
Predominantly these practices reflected the traditional Chinese beliefs of yin and yang (cold
and hot) (Kaewsarn, Moyle & Creedy, 2003). The result from the study of Taiwanese postpartum
women (Yeh, 2013) showed that doing the month practices may still be widely observed in
Taiwanese society, and thus confirm the findings of similar studies that have been conducted in
Western countries that have substantial Chinese communities such as America, Scotland and
Australia (Cheung,1997; Chen, 2011). Study of Vietnamese women in Ho Chin Minh city
showed that they adhered to traditional postpartum beliefs and practices articulacy the adherence
to food taboos aimed at restoring their health and protecting themselves and the babies from
illness (Lundberg & Thu, 2011). This is consistent with findings of studies of such beliefs and
practices in Thailand (Kaewsarn, Moyle & Creedy, 2003).
2. Problem statement
Malaysia is a multicultural Asian country, comprised of Malays, Chinese and Indian capacities.
In Malaysia, home birth was the norm until the advent of modern medicine in the 20th century.
Nowadays, Malaysian women give birth in a hospital where they have direct access to their
obstetrician, pediatricians and who are specialists in the care of newborn. The Ministry of Health
statistics on birth rate in 2013 (Ministry of Health, 2014) showed that the overwhelming majority
of women and babies in Malaysia are likely to have a safe delivery and birth in the hospitals. The
mother who has delivered in the hospital will be put in the postnatal ward and if it is the normal
delivery they will be discharged after one or two days. For those who had a cesarean birth, they
have to stay in the hospital for six or more days, consistent with the hospital practice (Ministry of
Health, 2014). As they will stay in the hospital for a few days, it is interesting to find out the
food menu served for the postpartum mothers, and whether the food comply to the traditional
postpartum food that are widely practice by the confinement mothers. Cultural factors play a
fundamental role in the identification, value and use of food (Kaewsarn, Moyle & Creedy, 2003).
The majority of women after giving birth believed they should put restrictions on what type of
food they would eat. Dietary practices are instituted to address the cold postpartum state in many
traditional cultures (Naser, et.al, 2012). They consumed hot or warm food and avoided
cold food for a month after birth to restore their balance (Lundberg & Thu, 2011).
537
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
In Malaysia the hot-cold classifications are used widely by all three major ethnic groups
(Malays, Chinese, Indians). Malays, Chinese and Indian cultures recognize the influence of the
concept of hot and cold (Rice, 2000). The hot-cold classification of food, as observed by all
ethnic communities in Malaysia relates not to the temperature of the food nor necessarily to its
spiciness or its raw or cooked state, but to its reputed effect of the food on the body. In Malay,
Chinese and Indian culture, food is traditionally thought to play a part in the cause and treatment
of disease, and knowledge of hot and cold food was passed down to family members through
experience (Shariffah Suraya, 2013). During the postpartum period, most people believe that
mothers are in the cold state as they have loss of hot blood during the delivery. Malays
believed that certain foods must be avoided or even forbidden during the postpartum period
following the humoral theory (Laderman, 1987). In common with people from the other part of
the world, Malays believe that some food is regarded as hot and cold. During the postpartum
period, the Malays believe that mother is in the cold state as they have loss of hot blood
during the delivery. Therefore, the cold food like certain varieties of fish and certain fruits and
vegetables are removed from the diet of a new mother (Manderson, 1981; Laderman, 1987).
Indian women take hot food and drinks, such as garlic, coffee and spicy dishes of chili, coriander
and fish. They also avoid cold foods including most fruits and vegetables (Manderson, 1981;
Choudhry, 1997). There were also certain remarkable similarities between the classical humoral
theory and Chinese medicine. According to the Chinese traditional medicine, the body has two
vital life forces (chii) of opposing qualities of yin and yang and is subject to the laws of the five
elements (earth, fire, water, wood, metal). Chinese womens dietary practices include the
consumption of hot foods, such as eggs, sugar, fish, poultry and avoidance of cold water and
fresh fruits (Cheung, 2002). Therefore, the cold food like certain varieties of fish and certain
fruits and vegetables are removed from the diet of a new mother.
However, there are only a few studies conducted on the traditional practices related to
postpartum including the food taken during the postpartum hospital stay among the new mothers.
Study on the experiences of postpartum hospital stay among Thai women in Melbourne,
Australia showed that majority who had a vaginal delivery opted to go home earlier because they
were several Thai confinement customs, which traditionally new mother must observe in order to
maintain good health and avoid future ill were not able to follow in hospital (Rice, Naksook &
Watson, 1999). In Taiwan, the literature showed that the postpartum mothers in one of the
postpartum nursing center in Taiwan preferred to base their diet on contemporary understanding
of well-balanced nutrition that were consistent with traditional dietary practices. They preferred
to combine the traditional requirements with contemporary nutritional concepts (Yeh, 2013).
However, little is known about the food menu served in the maternity ward of the government
hospital in Malaysia. The purpose of this study was to explore the perception of mothers on food
menu served in the maternity ward as well as to access mothers cultural compliance on the
traditional food taboos. The results would give inputs for policy makers, programme managers
and health service providers to provide culturally sensitive health-care interventions.
538
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. Research questions
This study will address three main questions:
1) What is the perception of mothers on the postpartum food served in the hospitals
maternity ward?
2) To what extend do mothers comply with the traditional postpartum food practice?
3) How the findings can give inputs for policy makers and health care providers in planning
for postpartum food menu served in the hospital's maternity ward.
4. Objectives:-
1) To explore the perception of mothers on the postpartum food served in the hospitals
maternity ward
2) To access mothers cultural compliance on the traditional postpartum food practices.
3) To give inputs for policy makers and health care providers in planning for postpartum food
menu served in the hospital's maternity ward
5. Methods
Data collection
This study uses an exploratory, descriptive and qualitative approach. Purposive convenience
sampling was used to select participants willing to involve in this study. The study was
conducted in one of the government hospital in Perak in June 2015. The gatekeeper for this study
was the Chief Nurse at the maternity ward who helped to identify the mothers who met the
selection criteria. The inclusion criteria for the respondents consisted of mothers who had just
given birth naturally and have spent an amount of 2 to 3 days at the maternity ward of the
hospital were selected. The researcher introduced herself to the mothers and invited them to
participate in the study. All participants who are willing to participate in the study were
explained on the purpose of study and were assured confidentiality. A total of 6 Malay mothers
were interviewed and their ages ranged from 20 to 40 years. Their educational level varied from
the secondary school to bachelors degree. Two of them are housewives and the rest are working
either in government or private sector. Some of them lived in nuclear family (with husband and
children) and some lived in extended families (with husband and other relatives). The mothers in
the ward have either experienced their first, second, third or fourth natural childbirth. Semi
structured interviews were used to collect the contextual data on the practice of postpartum diet.
In addition, a brief demographic profile was obtained to describe the participant background
data. Semi structured interviews conducted with the mothers in ward, provided an opportunity to
gather information on the food taboos, and eating habits. The interview guides include questions
539
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
on food taboos observed during the confinement period, why certain food were classified as
taboo, their cultural beliefs on hot and cold foods, their dietary intakes and their views on types
of food served during their stay in the hospital.
6. Data Analysis
Data regarding the postpartum food related to childbirth were analyzed using a thematic analysis
method. In this study, the interview transcripts were used to interpret how mothers perceiving
food served to them in the maternity ward, government hospital. Their responses were then
organized into coherent themes. Four themes were generated and supported with verbatim
quotations.
7. Results
Dietary precautions: Food served in the maternity ward
Food served in the maternity ward according to the Chief Nurse is different from food served in
other ward. Food was served in accordance with the contemporary nutritional principles by
taking into consideration the traditional dietary practices. Several foods traditionally eaten during
the postpartum period were provided. One mother mentioned she only consumed food offered at
the maternity wards that were consistent with the traditional practices.
I know I cannot eat something cold. I have grilled fish cooked with black pepper to help my
recovery. I also drink coffee to warm my body.
However, majority of the respondents mentioned that the hospital do not strictly follow the hot
and cold food tradition. Sometimes they dont even know the type of fish or vegetables that
served to them. So they avoid eating it.
Im not sure of the type of fish they served me. So, I dont eat it
Majority of mothers in this study maintained the traditional dietary practices. Although they
believed that they should eat large quantities of food during the postpartum food as food would
help to rebuild their strength, promote their recovery, all mothers put restrictions on what type of
food they would eat. Malay mothers in this study believed that they should consume food in
accordance with hot and cold theory. After giving birth, mothers are considered to be in a cold
state. So, they should eat a lot of hot food. Snakehead fish, anchovies cooked with black pepper,
garlic and ginger were regarded as hot and were thought to enrich the blood, help recovery,
encourage expulsion of lochia and stimulate lactation. Most of vegetables and fruits such as
cabbage, mangosteen and cucumbers were considered cold and were not allowed to consume by
the mothers.
540
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Although they cannot fully name the exact food under the hot and cold category, all mothers said
that they consumed hot or warm food and avoided cold food during the confinement period
to restore their balance. One mother said:
I know I cannot eat something cold. I have hot rice, black pepper and ginger cooked with
anchovies. I believed follow the traditional food taboos will help me to recover faster
Follow their mothers advice on food intake
Majority of mothers interviewed did not have in-depth knowledge on food categorized under
hot-cold theory. They always ask their mothers for advice on the postpartum food that they can
consume. Majority of mothers also stated that they strictly follow what their mothers ask them to
eat and avoid food that their mothers prohibited.
My mother told me that I must eat hot food so that my blood will flow properly. I must avoid
cold food because I lost blood from birth. If I eat cold food after birth, my blood would clog. I
would be unhealthy and sick all the time
Prefer home food
Majority of the mothers interviewed prefer to consume food that brought by their husband or
family members. When asked why they prefer home food, they said that they believed that food
prepared by their mothers followed the traditional postpartum food taboos and they can eat them
without hesitation.
My husband brought me the food from home. So, I dont eat the hospital food as I am not sure
of the kind of food they served.
Suggestion for hospital to provide well-balanced nutrition food that is consistent with the
traditional practice
All of the mothers interviewed believed that they needed the nutritional well-balanced food to
help them to recover and maintain their health. However, the food served must be in accordance
with the traditional dietary practice. The hospital can serve the hot food that were traditionally
eaten and have well-balanced nutrition during the confinement period. Although, most of the
cold food, such as vegetables and fruit were avoided, the mothers generally believed that
vegetables and fruit were needed to ensure a balanced diet that included a comprehensive range
of nutrients. They believed that it was acceptable to select neutral vegetables and fruit and to
avoid vegetables and fruit that were cold. For example; one mother says
541
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Vegetable and fruit are good for my health...for my balanced diet. So, I chose vegetables and
fruit that are neutral such as mustard leaves (sawi), apples and orange (Sunkist).
8. Discussion
Almost all mothers in this study followed dietary or food prohibitions during the postpartum
period. Main reason for food avoidance was for the well-being of mothers and their newborn
babies. Food classification was based on their belief system of hot-cold theory. They avoid cold
and itchy food and eat a lot of hot food such as pepper, rice and anchovies. Mothers in this study
generally did not reject the well-balanced postpartum food but it must be in accordance with
their traditional dietary practices. Although the hospital tried to serve the well-balanced food that
is consistent with the traditional dietary practices, there is still a lot to improve. Mothers should
be told on the type of fish and vegetables used and method of cooking it, so mothers will not
hesitate to consume it.
Mothers in this study also rely on their mothers and mother in laws in choosing the right food to
eat during the postpartum period. Postpartum beliefs and practices had been handed down to the
women by their mothers, mother in laws or grandmothers. This is in accordance with concept of
culture (Erickson, 2007), defined as the learned, shared and transmitted knowledge of values,
beliefs and life ways of a particular group that are generally transmitted inter-generationally and
influence thinking, decisions and actions in patterned ways.
Mothers in this study also suggested the hospital menu to include the neutral fruit and
vegetables that in accordance with the traditional dietary practices that they can consume.
9. Conclusion
Malaysia has experienced rapid economic and technological development during the last
decades. Western bio-medicine has influenced the country, the quality of life has increased,
women conditions have changed (Erickson, 2008). Although these changes may have impact on
postpartum beliefs and practices, the beliefs in traditional dietary practices could not be ignored.
It is still widely practiced by the postpartum mothers.
In providing the well-balanced nutrition diet to the mothers, the hospital should take into
consideration the traditional dietary practice. The hospital can plan for the menu that is
consistent with the traditional dietary practices without compromising the composition of
well-balanced nutrient food. Therefore, the health-care professionals, policy makers, nutritionist
need to be given appropriate information about cultural values in planning for the dietary menu
in the hospital.
542
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
10. Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Short-Term Grant USM (304/PSOSIAL/6313156).
11. References:
Chen, S.S., 2011. Zuo Yue Zi Sitting the Month in Taiwan: Implications for Intergenerational
Relations (Doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University).
Cheung, N.F., 2002. The cultural and social meanings of childbearing for Chinese and Scottish
women in Scotland. Midwifery, 18(4), pp.279-295.
Cheung, N.F., 1997. Chinese zuo yuezi (sitting in for the first month of the postnatal period) in
Scotland. Midwifery, 13(2), pp.55-65.
Choudhry, U.K., 1997. Traditional practices of women from India: pregnancy, childbirth, and
newborn care. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing, 26(5), pp.533-539.
Erickson, P.I., 2007. Ethnomedicine. Waveland Press.
Koo, L.C., 1984. The use of food to treat and prevent disease in Chinese culture. Social Science
& Medicine, 18(9), pp.757-766.
Laderman, C., 1984. Food ideology and eating behavior: contributions from Malay
studies. Social Science & Medicine, 19(5), pp.547-559.
Laderman, C., 1987. Destructive heat and cooling prayer: Malay humoralism in pregnancy,
childbirth and the postpartum period. Social Science & Medicine, 25(4), pp.357-365.
Kaewsarn, P., Moyle, W. and Creedy, D., 2003. Traditional postpartum practices among Thai
women. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 41(4), pp.358-366.
Lundberg, P.C. and Thu, T.T.N., 2011. Vietnamese womens cultural beliefs and practices
related to the postpartum period. Midwifery, 27(5), pp.731-736.
Manderson, L., 1987. Hot-cold food and medical theories: overview and introduction. Social
Science & Medicine, 25(4), pp.329-330.
Manderson, L., 1981. Traditional food classifications and humoral medical theory in Peninsular
Malaysia. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 11(2), pp.81-92.
543
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2014. Statistics on Birth Rate In Malaysia. [online] Available
at:<http://www.moh.gov.my> [Accessed 15 July 2014]
Naser, E., Mackey, S., Arthur, D., Klainin-Yobas, P., Chen, H. and Creedy, D.K., 2012. An
exploratory study of traditional birthing practices of Chinese, Malay and Indian women in
Singapore. Midwifery, 28(6), pp.e865-e871.
Piperata, B.A., 2008. Forty days and forty nights: a biocultural perspective on postpartum
practices in the Amazon. Social Science & Medicine, 67(7), pp.1094-1103.
Rice, P.L., 2000. Nyo dua hli30 days confinement: traditions and changed childbearing beliefs
and practices among Hmong women in Australia. Midwifery, 16(1), pp.22-34.
Rice, P.L., Naksook, C. and Watson, L., 1999. The experiences of postpartum hospital stay and
returning home among Thai mothers in Australia. Midwifery, 15(1), pp.47-57.
Sein, K.K., 2013. Beliefs and practices surrounding postpartum period among Myanmar
women. Midwifery, 29(11), pp.1257-1263.
Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin, 2013. Penjagaan Kesihatan Wanita: Amalan Tradisional dan
Moden. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
Whittaker, A., 1999. Birth and the postpartum in Northeast Thailand: Contesting modernity and
tradition. Medical Anthropology, 18(3), pp.215-242.
Yeh, Y.C., St John, W. and Venturato, L., 2014. Doing the month in a Taiwanese postpartum
nursing center: An ethnographic study. Nursing & health sciences, 16(3), pp.343-351.
544
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Bantuan Demokrasi Di Malaysia: Satu Sorotan Preliminari

Muhamad Takiyuddin Ismail (PhD), a* & Muhammad Febriansyah (PhD),b
a Pusat Pengajian Sejarah, Politik dan Strategi, Fakulti Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Emel: taki@ukm.edu.my
b Penyelidik
bebas
Emel: m_febrian@yahoo.com
Abstrak
Bantuan demokrasi merupakan satu strategi penting dalam agenda pempromosian demokrasi
khususnya oleh Amerika Syarikat (AS). Sesuai dengan istilahnya yang sering dipolemikkan di
Malaysia iaitu pendanaan asing (foreign funding), ia juga disalurkan oleh institusi multilateral,
institusi kewangan antarabangsa dan juga yayasan bebas. Kontroversi berkaitan bantuan asing
terhadap NGO dan parti politik tempatan semakin diperdebatkan dalam skala yang meluas dalam
tempoh 2011 hinggalah selepas PRU-13. Namun kajian akademik berhubung isu bantuan
demokrasi di Malaysia masih terabai dan data preliminari menerbitkan persoalan sama ada
bantuan demokrasi wajar diterima sebagai satu bentuk pertolongan dalam melestarikan demokrasi
atau wajar dilihat sebagai satu agenda yang bersifat subversif seperti yang banyak didakwa
golongan konservatif Melayu-Islam. Data menunjukkan yang bantuan seperti ini menyasarkan
NGO dan parti politik pembangkang yang berpotensi untuk menggerakkan kesedaran massa di
dalam sesebuah pemerintahan autoritarian dan seterusnya boleh berakhir dengan pertukaran rejim.
Banyak kajian bagaimanapun tidak melihat Malaysia sebagai sasaran pertukaran rejim seperti
yang banyak didakwa oleh pemerintah dan penganalisis pro-kerajaan. Situasi semasa
memungkinkan isu ini dikaji dengan lebih sistematik bagi mendapatkan gambaran sebenar
berhubung jaringan dan impak bantuan demokrasi di Malaysia. Memandangkan masih tidak ada
perbincangan mengenai Malaysia diberi perhatian dalam kajian-kajian di peringkat antarabangsa,
fokus terhadap Malaysia boleh memberi nilai tambah terhadap korpus bantuan demokrasi.
Kata Kunci: Bantuan demokrasi, pendanaan asing, masyarakat sivil, NGO, pendemokrasian,
1. Pengenalan
Isu bantuan asing dan ancaman asing merupakan salah satu isu yang mendominasi politik
Malaysia bermula dari 2011 dan mencapai kemuncaknya menjelang kempen Pilihan Raya Umum
Ke-13 (PRU-13) yang berlangsung pada Mei 2013. Dengan bersandarkan kepada perhimpunan
menuntut reformasi pilihan raya iaitu Bersih 2 pada Julai 2011, Bersih 3 pada April 2012,
Himpunan Rakyat KL 112 pada Januari 2013 dan juga gerakan LBGT, pluralisme dan liberalisme,
golongan konservatif yang terdiri dari ahli UMNO, NGO Melayu, media Melayu dan beberapa
545
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ahli akademik mendakwa wujudnya pertalian yang jelas antara pembiayaan sumber asing dengan
gerakan masyarakat sivil di Malaysia. Mereka secara umumnya melihat bahawa pembiayaan dan
campurtangan ini boleh memberi kesan terhadap keselamatan politik negara (cf. Zaini, 2011;
Azmi, 2012; Khairuddin, 2012; Muhammad Afifi, 2012; Ruhanie, 2012; Chandra, 2012).
Mahathir pula melihat beberapa pertubuhan NGO ini mempunyai agenda untuk melakukan
pertukaran rejim dengan bantuan AS dan juga Israel (Mahathir, 2012a; 2012b). New Straits Times
bertarikh 21 September 2012 pula mendedahkan dalam halaman muka hadapannya plot to
destabilise the government yang ditunjangi oleh empat entiti utama iaitu Bersih, Malaysiakini,
Suaram dan agensi pungutan suara, Merdeka Centre. Akhbar tersebut mendakwa yang
keempat-empat pertubuhan ini menerima sumber bantuan kewangan yang besar bagi tujuan
menjatuhkan kerajaan Malaysia (New Straits Times, 2012). Mahathir selepas itu mengkritik tokoh
kewangan, George Soros yang menggunakan NGO untuk melakukan pertukaran rejim dan juga
portal berita Malaysiakini yang menerima dana dari individu itu (Mahathir, 2012c). Pada 30
Disember 2012, New Straits Times menyiarkan pula artikel muka penuh mengenai pengaruh
pendukung pertukaran rejim di US terhadap politik Malaysia (Bowie, 2012). Dalam isu
pencerobohan di Lahad Datu pada Februari 2013, wujud juga anggapan yang kes pencerobohan
tersebut sebagai suatu bentuk terorisme ciptaan Barat dan AS yang bertujuan untuk menukar rejim
pemerintahan sedia ada seperti yang berlaku di negara-negara Asia Barat (Cartalucci, 2013a;
Bowie, 2013). Pada hari-hari terakhir kempen PRU-13, kempen ancaman asing menjadi lebih jelas
menonjol. Pada 18 April, Menteri Pertahanan, Zahid Hamidi mengeluarkan kenyataan berhubung
unsur campur tangan dari negara luar untuk menggagalkan pembentukan kerajaan BN di Johor
(Sinar Harian, 2013a). Pada 21 April 2013, Timbalan Menteri Kewangan, Awang Adek
mendedahkan yang beliau telah menerima laporan yang telah dipercayai berhubung penyaluran
dana pelobi Zionis kepada pihak tertentu bagi tujuan PRU-13. (Sinar Harian, 2013b). Empat hari
sebelum hari pengundian, Timbalan Perdana Menteri, Muhyiddin Yassin memberikan amaran
tentang risiko campur tangan asing dalam urusan pentadbiran negara serta penyebaran ideologi
yang bertentangan dengan budaya masyarakat Malaysia oleh kuasa-kuasa asing yang berada di
belakang pembangkang jika pihak tersebut memenangi PRU-13 dan menjadikan Anwar sebagai
Perdana Menteri (New Straits Times, 2013). Selepas kemenangan BN dalam PRU-13, seorang
penganalisis menyifatkan keputusan tersebut sebagai membayangkan kegagalan AS melakukan
pertukaran rejim di Malaysia (Cartalucci 2013b). Perkembangan yang berlaku di Malaysia dilihat
selari dengan perkembangan yang berlaku di peringkat antarabangsa apabila banyak negara mula
memandang serius fenomena penyumbang asing dan menguatkuasakan undang-undang
berhubung penerimaan bantuan asing terhadap NGO (The Economist, 2014, New Straits Times,
2015; The Star, 2015). Artikel ini menyoroti beberapa perbincangan penting berhubung
pendanaan asing atau dikenali dalam perbincangan akademik sebagai bantuan demokrasi.
Beberapa sintesis awal yang dikemukakan di akhir sorotan diharap dapat mewajarkan mengapa
kajian berhubung bantuan demokrasi di Malaysia harus diberi perhatian.
546
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Bantuan demokrasi dan pendemokrasian
Promosi demokrasi pula merupakan set tindakan aktor bukan domestik yang berniat untuk
mengatasi kuasa autoritarian dengan menyokong aktor domestik yang berkongsi objektif yang
sama (Beichelt, 2012). Selepas kejatuhan komunisme, terdapat peningkatan yang begitu
mendadak dalam perlaksanaan aktiviti bantuan demokrasi oleh negara demokrasi liberal dan
organisasi antarabangsa (Burnell, 2000a). Bantuan demokrasi merupakan instrumen yang boleh
dianggap paling lazim dan signifikan dan dijalankan di lebih 100 buah negara (Santiso, 2001;
Bush, 2015). Kebanyakan sarjana menggunakan definisi Carothers (1999) yang melihat bantuan
demokrasi sebagai bantuan yang dirangka khusus untuk merangsang ruang demokratik di
negara-negara bukan demokratik atau memperluaskan lagi transisi demokrasi negara-negara yang
telah membuka pintu demokrasi. Umumnya terdapat tiga bentuk bantuan demokrasi yang utama
(Carothers, 1999: Santiso, 2001) dan dua lagi bantuan yang boleh dianggap sebagai sampingan.
Pertama ialah proses politik iaitu bantuan pilihan raya atau sokongan kepada parti politik
khususnya parti pembangkang. Kedua ialah bantuan terhadap institusi pemerintahan (pengukuhan
institusi polis, kehakiman, perlembagaan, kerajaan tempatan. Ketiga ialah bantuan kepada
masyarakat sivil (media, NGO, kesatuan sekerja dan kumpulan pemikir). Bantuan ini merupakan
strategi yang paling sedang berkembang dan dianggap paling mendominasi. Selain tiga jenis
bantuan ini, Pertubuhan bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (PBB) memasukkan satu lagi komponen bantuan
iaitu projek kedaulatan undang-undang iaitu usaha mengukuhkan undang-undang dan
penghormatan terhadap hak asasi manusia (Bush 2015). Terakhir ialah pemerhati pilihan raya
antarabangsa meliputi NGO seperti Asian Network for Free Elections, Carter Centre, International
Republican Institute (IRI), National Democratic Institute (NDI) dan Electoral Institite of South
Africa (Hyde, 2012).
Bush (2015) menyenaraikan 150 organisasi utama yang terlibat dalam establishment demokrasi.
Dari jumlah itu, beliau mengelompokkan 20 sebagai organisasi yang paling berkuasa dari segi
hubungan sosial (yang mempunyai jaringan hubungan antara satu sama lain) dan selebihnya
sebagai sampingan (peripehery). Antara 20 organisasi yang dianggap sebagai aktor utama ini ialah
badan seperti USAID, EC, NED, Freedom House, Transparency International, Bank Dunia,
OECD, NDI dan Open Society Foundations. Dua badan utama dalam bantuan demokrasi di AS
ialah NED dan USAID. Empat penerima geran terbesar tahunan NED ialah The International
Republican Institute (IRI), The National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI),
Solidarity Center dan Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE). Dari keempat-empat
badan ini, IRI dan NDI merupakan penerima dana yang terbesar terbesar. USAID pula merupakan
organisasi tertua dan utama yang wujud sejak 1960-an. Ia memainkan peranan penting dalam
transisi demokrasi seperti di Amerika Latin pada 1980-an seperti di Chile. Pada 1990, USAID
melancarkan inisiatif demokrasi yang memperluaskan programnya ke beberapa benua lain
(Bush, 2015). Stiftungen Jerman pula merupakan organisasi penyumbang tertua di dunia iaitu
yayasan berkaitan parti politik di Jerman. Antara organisasi penting dalam Stiftungen ialah
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES), Konrad Adeneur Stiftung (KAS), Friedrich Naumann Stiftung
(FNS) dan Hans Seidel Stiftung (HSS). Badan-badan ini berhubungan dengan dekat dengan
547
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
parti-parti utama Jerman seperti Social Democratic Party (SDP), Christian Democratic Union
(CDU) dan KAS (Burnell 2000b; Mair 2000). Sebuah lagi badan penyumbang yang penting ialah
Open Society Foundations (OSF). Yayasan yang didanai oleh tokoh kewangan antarabangsa,
George Soros memulakan operasinya pada OSF 1979 dengan memperjuangkan hak asasi manusia.
Pada 1980-an, ia mula menyalurkan sokongan pada parti-parti pembangkang. Dengan bajet
tahunan USD300 juta dan telah menghabiskan USD8 billion dalam tempoh 30 tahun pertama, ia
merupakan badan penyumbang paling besar di dunia. OSF memainkan peranan penting dalam
Coloured Revolution di bekas jajahan Soviet sejak awal 2000-an (Burnell, 2000; Bush, 2015).
Sememangnya diakui bahawa bantuan demokrasi yang bersifat konfrontasi mempunyai korelasi
dengan pertukaran rejim dan berjaya mengalahkan penyandang kuasa seperti yang dibuktikan di
Kenya (2002), Macedonia (2002), Iran (2005 dan 2006), Haiti (2006) (Bush (2015). Sentimen
penentangan terhadap bantuan demokrasi juga mula dirasakan dengan lebih meluas dengan
tumbangnya rejim pemerintah di negara-negara bekas jajahan Soviet iaitu Slovakia, Croatia,
Serbia, Georgia dan yang paling mendapat perhatian, Orange Revolution yang berlaku di Ukraine
pada 2004. Fenomena ini memberi amaran pada rejim-rejim hibrid untuk lebih mengetatkan
ekspresi politik dan mengetatkan akses terhadap bantuan demokrasi (Gershman dan Allen, 2006).
Justeru, tidak menghairankan, kajian terkini oleh Bush (2015) mendapati berlakunya peralihan
bantuan demokrasi kepada bentuk yang lebih lunak dan bukan bertujuan berhadapan dengan
diktator untuk tujuan pertukaran rejim. Bantuan berbentuk teknikal didapati menjadi lebih lazim
berbanding bantuan kepada parti politik yang pernah mendominasi bidang ini. NGO kini hanya
memfokuskan bantuan yang bertujuan untuk memajukan tadbir urus tempatan tanpa bertujuan
mengusik status quo. Dalam istilah Bush, bantuan demokrasi bertukar dari wild kepada tamed.
Peralihan ini disebabkan kebanyakan NGO kini memikirkan kelangsungan organisasi mereka dan
menjadi lebih profesional. Mereka memberikan prioriti terhadap soal mendapatkan dana dan akses
dalam negara bukan demokratik. NGO kini sedar yang sekalipun mereka memperolehi dana,
pemerintah masih mempunyai kuasa untuk mengekang aktiviti seperti itu. Kebanyakan NGO juga
semakin profesional dan dalam bidang yang lumayan dan ditandai oleh persaingan yang sengit,
mereka hanya akan menumpukan kepada program yang dijangka memberi impak.
3. Bantuan Demokrasi, Masyarakat Sivil Dan Ngo
Dalam konteks bantuan demokrasi, promoter demokrasi menumpukan perhatian yang khusus
terhadap masyarakat sivil iaitu bantuan kepada NGO dan penumpuan ini telah merangsang
kebanjiran NGO (Carothers, 1999). Kajian-kajian telah menunjukkan bahawa sememangnya
kebanyakan NGO menerima bantuan dari dana asing dan terpaksa memperjuangkan nilai Barat
yang dilihat lebih tinggi dan universal serta dilihat menjadi agen tempatan bagi proses imperalisme
(Petras, 1999; Fletcher, 2003; Storey, 2003). Chahim dan Prakash (2014) dalam kajian terhadap
NGO di Nicaragua mendapati pendanaan asing menonjolkan ketampakan (visibility) NGO moden
berbanding organisasi berkaitan kerajaan (GRO) yang lebih tradisional. Implikasi dalam
hubungan ini ialah kerana NGO yang didana oleh pihak asing akan menjadi lebih
bertanggungjawab kepada penyumbang berbanding penerima manfaat dan lebih memfokuskan
548
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
pada penyampaian berbanding sebagai pejuang perubahan sosial. Justeru, NGO seperti ini akan
mengutamakan soal mendapatkan dana. Persoalan perbezaan nilai juga telah dikaji oleh
Sundstrom (2005) dalam melihat bantuan asing kepada NGO di Russia. Apabila sesuatu nilai yang
disebarkan itu disokong secara universal, ia akan menjurus kepada gerakan NGO yang berjaya.
Tetapi jika penyumbang mengejar norma yang hanya bersifat spesifik dalam masyarakat lain, ia
akan menjadi gagal. Kajian ini melihat bagaimana konsep feminisme yang dibawa terhadap
perjuangan hak wanita di Russia mempunyai kesan terbatas kerana ia merupakan sesuatu yang
dibawa dari Barat. Namun bagi perjuangan membela hak tentera, ia menampakkan hasil yang
lebih baik kerana ia merupakan satu isu yang universal.
4. Bantuan Demokrasi Di Malaysia
Dominasi kuat pemerintah dan kelemahan kelas menengah telah mengekang pertumbuhan
masyarakat sivil yang autonomi dan yang dapat menjadi penimbal kepada pemerintah (Jesudason,
1995). Sepanjang lewat 1980-an, Mahathir menggelar NGO advokasi yang mendapat tajaan asing
ini sebagai duri dalam daging dan instrumen kepada kuasa asing Tidak mengejutkan,
aktivis-aktivis NGO merupakan antara mereka yang ditahan dalam Operasi Lalang yang
dilancarkan pada 1987 (Singh, 1990). Namun seperti yang ditunjukkan Sharifah (2003), dalam
isu-isu tertentu khususnya yang melibatkan musuh bersama seperti hak negara membangun dan
dunia ketiga serta alam sekitar, kerajaan bersedia mengadapatasi cadangan dari NGO yang kritikal
seperti Third World Network. Hubungan kerajaan dengan gerakan sivil semakin menegang
berikutan wacana gerakan sivil yang semakin hangat dengan gerakan-gerakan protes jalanan
seperti protes terhadap Second Asia Pacific Conference on East Timor di Kuala Lumpur pada
1996 apabila seramai 10 orang aktivis hak asasi manusia ditangkap dan kemudiannya didakwa
kerana menganggu tugas pihak berkuasa. Kerajaan juga mendakwa pendanaan yang diperoleh
NGO telah diselewengkan untuk tujuan peribadi dan mengkritik kerjasama yang terlalu rapat
dengan kuasa asing (Milne dan Mauzy 1999).
Kedudukan NGO sebagai unsur penimbal bagaimanapun berubah selepas krisis politik 1998 yang
menyaksikan pemecatan Timbalan Perdana menteri, Anwar Ibrahim atas dakwaan salah laku seks.
Beberapa kajian menyifatkan gerakan masyarakat sivil khususnya NGO telah berjaya
menempatkan diri sebagai satu unsur yang perlu diberi perhatian. Selain usaha parti-parti politik
pembangkang yang berjaya merapatkan perbezaan ideologi dalam memberikan tentangan
terhadap BN, gabungan dan penyatuan NGO seperti Gerakan Keadilan Rakyat Malaysia
(GERAK) dan juga kehadiran media alternatif seperti Malaysiakini telah berjaya meletakkan
rejim pemerintah dalam penelitian yang kritikal. Keputusan Pilihan Raya Umum ke-10 1999 yang
menyaksikan hegemoni BN mula terhakis dianggap sebagai fenomena politik baru yang
memberi nafas baru pada masyarakat sivil (Johan, 2001; Weiss dan Saliha, 2003; Loh, 2005).
Perkembangan selepas PRU 1999 juga telah memulakan hubungan simbiotis yang dekat antara
NGO advokasi dan parti pembangkang. Jika NGO selama ini disifatkan sebagai tidak
bermatlamatkan mencari kuasa politik, hubungan clear cut ini sudah semakin kabur kerana
kebanyakan NGO advokasi seperti Suaram, Bersih, Bar Council dan media seperti Malaysiakini
549
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
mempunyai kerjasama implisit dengan pakatan pembangkang. Hal ini lebih ketara dalam
PRU-12 2008 apabila beberapa aktivis NGO bertanding sebagai calon untuk Pakatan Rakyat dan
menang seperti Elizabeth Wong, Sivarasa Rasiah, Sim Tze Tzin dan Tian Chua (Weiss, 2009).
Dalam kajian Weiss (2003), beliau memperuntukkan serba sedikit perbincangan mengenai
pendanaan NGO di Malaysia. Menurut beliau, kebanyakan NGO Malaysia bergantung pada dana
luar apabila mereka boleh memperolehinya. Tetapi jumlahnya terhad dan tidak sebesar jumlah
yang diterima oleh NGO kelolaan kerajaan (GONGOs), agensi kerajaan serta NGO
berorientasikan pembangunan. Walaupun beberapa NGO ada menerima bantuan kerajaan tetapi
jumlahnya terhad dan beberapa NGO tidak mahu menerima sokongan kerajaan kerana
membimbangi kesan terhadap kebebasan mereka. Beberapa NGO juga cenderung untuk tidak
menerima bantuan luar atas dasar prinsip kerana ia akan membuka laluan bagi kerajaan untuk
menuduh mereka dimanipulasi oleh elemen asing. Sebahagian besar dari NGO juga menafikan
yang pemberi dana memberi pengaruh dalam pembuatan keputusan dan walaupun mereka ada
menerima dana tersebut, mereka masih lagi bergantung pada sumber-sumber lain seperti derma,
jualan buku dan baju dan yuran keahlian. Pada 2003, Mike Nahan dari kumpulan pemikir Institute
of Public Affairs (IPA) Australia mengeluarkan laporan pendanaan yayasan-yayasan AS kepada
NGO di Malaysia antara 1998-2001. Kajian ini menurutnya dijalankan kerana Malaysia semakin
menjadi pengkalan untuk NGO serantau dan mulltinasional dan bertujuan mendedahkan struktur
tadbir urus NGO advokasi yang tidak teratur berhubung ketelusan pendanaan. Walaupun
mengakui penerimaan dana asing tidak merupakan satu kesalagan, tetapi ketiadaan pendedahan
(dislosure) dalam kalangan sebahagian NGO boleh menimbulkan syak wasangka sama ada
mereka mengutamakan nilai dan kepentingan asing. Antara NGO advokasi yg menerima geran ini
ialah Third World Network (TWN), Sister in Islam (SIS), Suaram, Sahabat Alam Malaysia
(SAM), Persatuan Pengguna Pulau Pinang (CAP) dan Coalition of Concerned NGOs on Bakun
(Nahan, 2003).
Satu lagi bidang bantuan demokrasi yang semakin diberi perhatian selain NGO ialah pembiayaan
parti politik. Kajian Edmund Terence Gomez (2012) dan Ufen (2014) telah membangkitkan
mengenai peraturan pembiayaan parti politik yang buruk telah meningkatkan dakwaan mengenai
wujudnya penyumbang asing dalam membiayai aktiviti kepartian. Walaupun semua calon wajib
melaporkan jumlah dana yang dibelanjakan ke Suruhanjaya Pilihan Raya (SPR), mereka tidak
wajib mendedahkan sumbernya. Selain dari parti pemerintah yang dilihat berbelanja begitu besar
kesan dari hubungan politik dan perniagaan, parti pembangkang khususnya PKR juga didakwa
mempunyai sumber luar yang meragukan.
5. Anwar Ibrahim, Bantuan Demokrasi Dan Pertukaran Rejim
Semenjak pemecatannya pada 1998 dari kerajaan, Anwar digambarkan sebagai mempunyai
hubungan yang amat rapat dengan elit politik di Washington. Sokongan terbuka yang diberikan
oleh Naib Presiden AS, Al Gore pada 1998 dalam sidang kemuncak APEC di Kuala Lumpur telah
550
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
menjejaskan hubungan dua hala antara Washington dan Kuala Lumpur (Sodhy, 2012). Selepas
dibebaskan pada 2004, Anwar telah bertugas di dua buah universiti di AS yang menjadi pengkalan
intelektual bagi penyebaran idea-idea demokrasi iaitu John Hopkins University dan Georgetown
University. Beliau juga terlibat dekat dengan NED sebagai pemikir dan menulis dalam beberapa
jurnal tersohor berkaitan demokrasi seperti Journal of Democracy yang diterbitkan oleh John
Hopkins University (lihat contohnya Anwar, 2006;2007). Melalui hubungan rapat ini, tidak
menghairankan perkembangan yang berkaitan dengan Anwar Ibrahim dilihat oleh komuniti
akademik antarabangsa sebagai penanda aras berhubung pembangunan demokrasi di Malaysia.
Sebagai contoh, apabila Anwar didakwa semula atas salah laku seks pada 2009, beberapa sarjana
pendemokrasian melihatnya sebagai satu petunjuk penting dalam keterbelakangan demokrasi di
Malaysia (lihat contohnya Slater, 2012; Levistky dan Way, 2010).
Data preliminari bagaimanapun tidak menyarankan yang pertukaran rejim menjadi matlamat
utama AS dalam konteks bantuan demokrasi yang dihulurkan ke Malaysia dan hanya disebut
sepintas lalu. Carothers (1999) melihat Malaysia tidak menjadi negara tumpuan kerana hubungan
baik yang ingin dikekalkan Washington dengan rejim yang tidak demokratik tetapi antikomunis.
Data USAID berhubung program Democracy & Governance antara 1993-2001 juga tidak
meletakkan Malaysia sebagai penerima bantuan ini kerana Malaysia disifatkan sebagai sekutu
utama AS selain Singapura, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Arab Saudi dan United Arab Emirates
(Bouchet, 2015). Kajian Lum (2007) terhadap bantuan USAID antara 2003-2007 juga mendapati
Malaysia tidak menerima bantuan ekonomi bantuan ekonomi dan pembangunan AS kerana tingkat
pembangunan ekonominya yang tinggi dan berkongsi kepentingan strategik di Asia Tenggara.
Begitu pun, AS tetap menyalurkan bantuan keselamatan dan ketenteraan iaitu The International
Military Education and Training (IMET) dan Nonproliferation, Anti-terrorism, Demining, and
Related Programs (NADR). Bantuan IMRT contohnya turut bertujuan to impart democratic
ideals and norms upon the armed services of Malaysia.
6. Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan sorotan di atas, beberapa sintesis awal dapat dikemukakan untuk kajian ini. Pertama,
bantuan demokrasi merupakan bidang yang berkembang pesat dan sedang menemui potensinya di
Malaysia. Kedua, isu bantuan asing merupakan antara isu yang sering dimainkan pemerintah
dalam konteks ancaman asing. Ketiga, bantuan demokrasi mempunyai korelasi positif dengan
pertukaran rejim walaupun strategi ini bukan lagi menjadi keutamaan. Keempat, NGO di Malaysia
diketahui menerima sumbangan asing walaupun dalam jumlah yang tidak besar. Kelima,
kelemahan soal pembiayaan parti politik merupakan antara pembuka ruang kepada sumbangan
asing. Keenam, di sebalik hubungan rapat antara Anwar dan Amerika Syarikat, tidak ada petunjuk
kukuh yang Malaysia merupakan sasaran pertukaran rejim. Terakhir, masih tidak wujud satu
kajian khusus, komprehensif dan terkini berhubung bantuan demokrasi di Malaysia.
Sintesis-sintesis ini mencadangkan keperluan untuk satu kajian menyeluruh bagi mencari jawapan
terhadap beberapa persoalan iaitu 1) organisasi-organisasi luar yang menyumbang
kepada NGO dan parti politik di Malaysia 2) jenis dan takat bantuan demokrasi yang diterima
551
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
oleh NGO dan parti politik di Malaysia 3) jaringan yang wujud antara
penyumbang-penyumbang luar ini 4) hubungan antara bantuan demokrasi dan agenda pertukaran
rejim di Malaysia 5) impak bantuan demokrasi terhadap pendemokrasian di Malaysia 6) reaksi dan
tindakbalas pemerintah terhadap bantuan demokrasi
7. Penghargaan : Penulisan ini ditaja oleh GUP UKM 2014-045 dan GGPM UKM 2014-009.
8. Rujukan
Anwar Ibrahim, 2006. Universal Values and Muslim Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 17(3),
pp. 5-12.
____________, 2007. A Quarter-Century of Promoting Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 18(4),
pp. 5-12.
Azmi Hassan, 2012. Berhati-hati agenda NGO demokrasi. Utusan Malaysia, 8 Februari.
Beichelt, T., 2012. The Research Field of Democracy Promotion. Living Reviews in Demoracy,
[atas
talian]di:http://democracy.livingreviews.org/index.php/lrd/article/view/27/41http://democracy.liv
ingreviews.org/index.php/lrd/article/view/27/41 [diakses pada 13 Jun 2015 ].
Bouchet, N., 2015. Democracy Promotion as US Foreign Policy: Bill Clinton and Democratic
Enlargement. Oxon: Routledge.
Bowie, N., 2012. Dubious Backers of Regime Change. New Straits Times, 30 Disember.
________., 2013. US Sponsored Political Conspiracy in Malaysia? The Mysterious Case of the
Sulu Sultan. 21 Mac, [atas talian] di :
http://www.globalresearch.ca/us-sponsored-political-conspiracy-in-malaysia-the-mysterious-case
-of-the-sulu-sultan/5327660 [diakses pada 6 Jun 2015 ].
Burnell, P., 2000a. Democracy Assistance: The State of Discourse. Dalam: P. Burnell, pnyt. 2000.
Democracy Assistance: International Cooperation for Democratization. Oxon: Routledge.
__________2000b. Democracy Assistance: Origins and Organizations. Dalam: P. Burnell, pnyt.
2000. Democracy Assistance: International Cooperation for Democratization. Oxon: Routledge.
Bush, S.S., 2015. The Taming of Democracy Assistance: Why Democracy Promotion Does not
Confront Dictators. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carothers, T., 1999. Aiding Democracy Abroad: The Learning Curve. Washington DC: Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace.
Cartalucci, T., 2013a. Dirty Tricks Covert Op? Armed Philippines Based Islamists Land on
Beaches of North Borneo Ahead of Malaysian Election. 4 Mac [atas talian] di:
http://www.globalresearch.ca/dirty-tricks-covert-op-armed-phillippine-based-islamists-land-on-b
eaches-of-north-borneo-ahead-of-malaysian-elections/5325114 [akses pada 2 Mei 2015].
__________., 2013b. Malaysia: Failure of U.S. to Subvert the Elections and Install a Proxy
Regime. 9 Mei [atas talian] di:
552
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
http://www.globalresearch.ca/malaysia-failure-of-u-s-to-subvert-the-elections-and-install-a-prox
y-regime/5334439 [akses pada 2 Mei 2015].
Chahim, D. and Prakash, A., 2014. NGOization, Foreign Funding, and the Nicaraguan Civil
Society. Voluntas: International Society for Third-Sector Research, 25, pp.487513.
Chandra Muzaffar, 2012. Are we a target for regime change? Sunday Star, 4 March.
Gershman, C. dan Allen, M., 1996. The Assault on Democracy Assistance. Journal of Democracy,
17(2), pp. 36-51.
Gomez, E.T., 2012. Monetizing Politics: Financing Parties and Elections in Malaysia. Modern
Asian Studies, 46(5), pp.1370-97.
Hyde, S.D., 2012. Why Believe International Election Monitors? Dalam: Gourevitch, P.A., Lake,
D.A. dan Stein, J.G., pnyt.. 2012. The Credibility of Transnational NGOs: When Virtue is Not
Enough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jesudason, J.V., 1995. Statist Democracy and the Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia. The Journal
of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 33(3), pp.335-56.
Johan, Saravanamuttu, 2001. Malaysian civil society-awakenings?. Dalam: Maznah, Mohamad
dan Wong Soak Koon, pnyt. 2001. Risking Malaysia: culture, politics and identity. Bangi:
Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Khairuddin Othman, 2012. Waspada pihak mahu gulingkan kerajaan. Utusan Malaysia, 22
Februari.
Levitsky, S. dan Way, L.A., 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold
War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Loh, Francis K.W., 2005. Politik Baru di Malaysia?: Siri Syarahan Umum Perlantikan Profesor
USM. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Lum, T., 2006. U.S foreign Aid to East and South Asia: Selected Recipients. Washington:
Congressional Research of Service.
Mahathir, Mohamad, 2012a. Security of the state of Israel. The Malaysian Insider, 26 Februari
[atas talian] di
http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/sideviews/article/security-of-the-state-of-israel-mahathir-m
ohamed [akses pada 11 Ogos 2014 ].
________________, 2012b. Regime Change. Che Det, [blog] 13 Februari. Di:
http://chedet.cc/?p=699 [akses pada 9 April 2014].
______________, 2012c. Soros Using NGOs to Effect Regime Change. New Sunday Times, 7
Oktober.
Milne, R.S. dan Mauzy, D.K., 1999. Malaysian Politics Under Mahathir. New York: Routledge.
Muhammad Afifi Abdul Razak, 2012. Potensi Pengaruh Asing Dalam Politik Tempatan. Utusan
Malaysia, 1 Februari.
Nahan, M., 2003. NGO Project Report: US Foundation Funding in Malaysia. Melbourne: Institute
of Public Affairs.
New Straits Times, 2012. Plot to Destabilise the Government, New Straits Times, 21 September.
______________, 2013. Foreign Power Backs Opposition, New Straits Times, 1 Mei.
______________, 2015. Putin Signs Law To Shut Foreign Ngos, New Straits Times, 25 Mei.
553
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Petras, J., 1999. NGOs: In the service of imperialism. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 29(4),
pp.429-40.
Ruhanie Ahmad, 2012. Usaha gulingkan pemerintahan BN? Utusan Malaysia, 28 Februari.
Santiso, C., 2001. International Co-Operation For Democracy And Good Governance: Moving
Toward A Second Generation? European Journal of Developmental Research, 13(1), pp.154-80.
Sinar Harian, 2013a. Zahid: Kuasa Asing Mahu Sekat BN Kekal Di Johor. Sinar Harian, [atas
talian] 18 April. di:
http://www.sinarharian.com.my/mobile/politik/zahid-kuasa-asing-mahu-sekat-bn-kekal-di-johor-
1.151534 [akses pada 12 Jun 2015 ].
___________, 2013b. Awang Adek: Pelobi Zionis Biaya PRU13. Sinar Harian, [atas talian] 21
April. Di:
http://www.sinarharian.com.my/politik/awang-adek-pelobi-zionis-biaya-pru13-1.152488 [akses
pada 27 Jun 2015].
Singh, G.K.S., 1999. A Thorn In the Flesh. Petaling Jaya: Polygraphic Press.
Slater, D., 2012. Strong-State Democratization in Malaysia and Singapore. Journal of Democracy,
2(2), pp.19-33.
Sodhy, P., 2012. Malaysia-US Relations 2000-2011. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Strategic and
International Studies.
Sharifah Munirah, Alatas, 2003. The Role of NGOs and Non-State Actors in Malaysias Foreign
Policy Formulation During the Mahathir Era. Akademika, 62, pp.59-84.
Storey, A., 2010. Non-neutral humanitarianism: Ngos and the Rwandan crisis. Development in
Practice, 7(4), pp.384 94.
Sundstrom, L.M., 2005. Foreign Assistance, International Norms, and NGO Development: Lesson
from the Russian Campaign. International Organization, 5(2), pp.419-49.
Tembo, F., 2003. The multi-image development NGO: An agent of the new imperialism?.
Development in Practice, 13(5), pp.527-32.
The Economist, 2014. Donors: Keep out. The Economist, [atas talian] 13 September. Di:
http://www.economist.com/news/international/21616969-more-and-more-autocrats-are-stifling-c
riticism-barring-non-governmental-organisations [akses pada 23 Mei 2015 ].
The Star, 2015. Foreign Governments, Non-Profits Press China To Revise Draft NGO Law, 1 Jun.
Ufen, A., 2014. Asia. Dalam: Funding of Political Parties and Elections Campaign: A handbook
of Political Finance. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.
International IDEA.
Weiss, M.L. dan Saliha Hassan, pnyt. Social Movements in Malaysia: From Moral Communities
to NGO. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Weiss, M., 2003. Malaysian NGOs: History, legal framework and characteristics. Dalam: Weiss,
M.L. dan Saliha Hassan, pnyt. Social Movemnets in Malaysia: From Moral Communities to
NGOs. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Weiss, M., 2009. Edging Toward A Newpolitics In Malaysia: Civil Society at the Gate? Asian
Survey, 49(5), pp.741-58.
Zaini Hassan, 2011. Konspirasi Bersih dan kultus. Utusan Malaysia, 29 Jun.
554
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Clinical Trials: The Conflict between the Doctors Financial Interests of In
Recruiting Patients and the Patients Best Interests in Malaysia
Yuhanif Yusofa,*, Rohizan Halimb, Ahmad Masumc

a,b&cUniversiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
a brohizan@uum.edu.my, casmad@uum.edu.my
Email: yuhanif@uum.edu.my,
Abstract
The Hippocratic and the principle of beneficence require that doctors should always act in the
patients best interest. However, once the doctor puts on the hat of a doctor-investigator by
involving in clinical trials, the responsibility to safeguard the interests of the patient is no longer
a priority. This is because the interest or intent of the doctor-investigator is different from that of
the doctor who offers medical treatment solely in the best interests of patients. Instead, there are
many interests of doctor-investigators, which include financial incentives in return for recruiting
patients as research subjects. When there is a conflict between the financial interests of doctors in
recruiting patients and patients best interests, ethical challenges to the integrity of
doctor-investigators may arise in making decision which is not bias. Hence, the objective of this
paper is to discuss about conflict of interests between the doctor-investigator incentives to recruit
and the doctor-investigators duty to keep the patients best interest. A qualitative methodology
has been used in the process of writing this conceptual paper. The findings show that incentives
gained by doctor-investigators in return for recruiting patients violate the principle of ethics
because of the conflict of interests bearing in mind that the Hippocratic and the principle of
beneficence require doctors to act in the patients best interest.
Keywords: conflict of interests; incentives, recruiting patients; patients best interests; drug
company; doctor-investigators.
1. Introduction
The Hippocratic and the principle of beneficence require that doctors should always act in the
patients best interest. However, once the doctor puts on the hat of a doctor-investigator by
involving in clinical trials the responsibility to safeguard the interests of the patient is no longer a
priority. This is because the interest or intent of the doctor-investigator is different from that of
the doctor who offers medical treatment solely in the best interests of patients. Instead, there are
many interests of doctor-investigators, which include financial incentives in return for recruiting
patients as research subjects (Lenrow, 2006).
555
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
It is pertinent to note from the very beginning that recruiting humans as research subjects is
important in clinical trials for the development of medical science. Unless an adequate number of
participants is entered, the trial will not be able to answer the questions about benefit and risk.
Therefore, there is a great pressure to recruit an adequate number of participants and to do so as
quickly as possible. Likewise, the process to recruit humans as research subjects is not an easy
thing. It is a problem often faced by the drug company wishing to test new drugs. In 2001, the
Centre Watch reported that more than 85% of completed clinical trials experienced delay in the
recruitment process, while 34% were also delayed for more than a month (Smith, 2008). As such,
drug companies are 'forced' to make doctors their target for patient recruitment as research
subjects. In return, the doctor-investigators are given incentives for each patient they successfully
recruit (Gatter, 2006). When these doctor-investigators are also a patients doctor, there is a direct
conflict of interest between the doctor-investigators incentives to recruit and the
doctor-investigators duty to keep the patients best interest in mind (Sandhya Srinivasan, 2010).
Where there is a conflict of interest, ethical challenges to the integrity of doctor-investigators will
arise.
Conflict of interest in clinical trial may exist when a doctor accepts a fee, gift or other incentive
for finding and recruiting research subjects, especially if the research subject is his or her patient
(College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia, 2009). Some have defined conflict of
interest as a situation in which the self-interest of the individual is in conflict with an obligation
(Khushf & Gifford, 1998). Thompson (1993) has defined a conflict of interest as situations that
cause conflicts when a decision is made to give priority to the acquisition of secondary
importance such as financial income overcome such primary importance welfare of patients.
Therefore, it can be said that a conflict of interest generally occurs when a person is entrusted to
act or make decisions on behalf of others. In clinical trials, conflict of interest cannot be avoided
as doctor-investigators are the one who is responsible to determine whether patients should
participate in clinical trials as research subjects (Lo et al, 2000). The Hippocratic and the
principle of beneficence require that doctors should always act in the patients best interest.
However, when there is a conflict between the financial interests of the doctor-investigators in
recruiting patients and patients best interests, ethical challenges to the integrity of
doctor-investigators may arise in making decision when these doctor-investigators are also a
patients doctor. Hence, the objective of this paper is to discuss about conflict of interest between
the doctor-investigators incentives to recruit and duty to keep the patients best interest. A
qualitative methodology has been used in the process of writing of this conceptual paper.
1.3 The Causes of Conflict of Interests
In general, medical codes of ethics across the world prohibit doctors to put their financial
interests above the interests of their patients. For example, the American Medical Associations
Code of Medical Ethics specifies that: Under no circumstances may physicians place their own
financial interest above the welfare of their patients. In Malaysia, the Code of Professional
556
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Conduct adopted by the Malaysia Medical Council states that: A prescribing practitioner should
not only choose but also be seen to be choosing the drug or appliance which, in his independent
professional judgment, and having due regard to economy, will best serve the medical interests
of his patient. Practitioners should therefore avoid accepting any pecuniary or material
inducement which might compromise, or be regarded by others as likely to compromise, the
independent exercise of their professional judgment in prescribing matters. It is improper for
an individual practitioner to accept from a pharmaceutical firm monetary gifts or loans or
expensive items of equipment for his personal use. However, when it comes to rewards
particularly in the form of generous money, anyone including doctor-investigators will deviate
from these codes of ethics.
Incentives in the form of payment accepted which generally exceeds patients expenses incurred
by doctor-investigators lead them to enroll inappropriate participants. According to Foster (2003),
a doctor may receive $3000 per recruit or higher and a quota of 30 patients may be called for in
the study design. A study has shown that there are doctor-investigators who recommend trial
drugs to patients by participating in clinical trials although the patients are likely to be better
treated with existing treatments or no treatment (Shimm & Spece, 1991). There are also studies
showing that doctor-investigators do not care about the inclusion and exclusion criteria
established by the research protocol by recruiting patients who had no connection with the illness
thus posing a danger to the safety of life of their patients. In fact, there are also
doctor-investigators who commit fraud, falsifying recruit records solely to earn more income
(Gatter, 2006; Lemmens & Miller, 2003; Caulfield & Griener, 2002).
Furthermore, money can also interfere with the researchers ability to promote the rights and
welfare of human subjects. A doctor-researcher with strong financial or personal interests in
recruiting human subjects for a clinical trial may oversell the trial to his patients or take other
steps to compromise the informed consent process (Shamoo & Resnik, 2003). The existence of a
doctor-patient relationship also indirectly leads the patients to believe and feel confident that the
invitation to participate in the trial is for their best interest. In addition, the borne illness makes
patients have to rely on doctor-investigators to decide whether to enroll in the trial making them
easy prey to be exploited as research subjects. This seems to be true by virtue of Paragraph 26 of
the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki which states: When seeking informed
consent for participation in a research study the physician should be particularly cautious if the
potential subject is in a dependent relationship with the physician or may consent under duress.
In such situations the informed consent should be sought by an appropriately qualified individual
who is completely independent of this relationship. In fact, it is well established that the
doctor-patient relationship is generally one of dependence. This is true in Malaysia. As
mentioned earlier, the Malaysian society, especially the patients place great trust on their doctors.
As such, doctors do not disclose full information to them. A study by Yuhanif, Anisah & Zaki
Morad (2014) revealed that doctor-investigators fail to disclose full information to patients.
Instead, doctor-investigators only disclosed information which they thought were necessary for
557
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the patients to know. The study also showed that there were doctor-investigators who did not
disclose information at all to their patients.
In Malaysia, there is no study that has been conducted on conflict of interest of

doctor-investigators. However, this does not mean that there is no such problem in the country. In
support of this view, a reference can be made to the points put forward by the former Chairman
of Malaysian Research Ethics Committees Dato Dr. Zaki Morad Mohamed Zahir (personal
communication, 1 January 2015). He stated that: Konflik kepentingan memang wujud di
kalangan doktor-penyelidik di Malaysia antaranya adalah melalui bayaran yang diterima
daripada pihak industri sebagai balasan merekrut pesakit ... by right doktor-penyelidik kena
bagitau pesakit tentang perkara ini tapi banyak orang (doktor-penyelidik) tak bagi tau. This
opinion is also shared by the former Director of Clinical Research Centre Ministry of Health Dr.
Lim Teck Onn (2008) in his paper titled, Case studies and ethical issues in clinical trial which
was presented at the Good Clinical Practice Workshop held by the Sultanah Bahiyah Hospital
Alor Setar on the 12 to 14 August 2008. He stated that, Conflict of interests is extremely
common, in fact conflict of interests is unavoidable. Indeed, it is undeniable that the
doctor-investigators should be given compensation for their time, expertise and effort to do
research. One could argue, however that the incentives in the form of generous payment are
intended to do more than merely compensate doctors for their effort (DeRenzo, 2000). As such,
money or reward given by drug companies to doctors for recruiting patients into a study or trial
is considered unethical practice (College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia, 2009).
1.4 Law Relating to Disclosure of Conflict of Interests
Where conflict of interest cannot be avoided, the usual remedy is disclosure. The Declaration of
Helsinki explicitly requires doctors to fully disclose information of all their relevant financial
conflict of interest to the patient. Article 26 states that: In medical research involving human
subjects capable of giving informed consent, each potential subject must be adequately informed
of the aims, methods, sources of funding, any possible conflicts of interest, institutional
affiliations of the researcher, the anticipated benefits and potential risks of the study and the
discomfort it may entail, post-study provisions and any other relevant aspects of the study.
Nevertheless, generally patients are not told that the 'doctor' will be paid by the drug company
for entering them into a study (Harper & Reuter, 2009). The absence of federal requirements on
doctor-investigators or institutions to disclose financial conflict of interest to patients (Kim et al,
2004) makes things worse. To put it simply, the disclosure of information by doctor-investigators
on relevant conflict of interest is not a legal requirement. Therefore, it is not surprising that the
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) do not require doctor-investigators to disclose information
on the payment transactions during the informed consent process. In fact, there are IRBs who
think it is a private matter between doctor-investigators and sponsors (Roizen, 1988). However,
there is a precedent in tort law for suing doctor-investigators or institutions for insufficient
disclosure of conflicts (Moore v. Regents of University of California 793 P.2d 479 (CA, 1990),
558
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
cert. denied 112 S. Ct. 2967 (1992); Grimes v, Kennedy Krieger 782 A.2d 807 (MD, 2001)). This
is because the law of negligence holds doctor-investigators liable for failing short of the
customary standard in informing patients or subjects about the potential risks of a particular
intervention. It is the duty of the doctor-investigators to provide full information to subjects to
get consent.
In Malaysia, until today there is no case law decided by the courts on the conflict of interests. In
fact, the only guidelines that are related to clinical trials is the Malaysian Guidelines for Good
Clinical Practice which also does not outline any provisions relating to the duty of doctors to
disclose information on the conflict of interests to patients. This raises concerns to various parties.
In fact, concerns to this matter was voiced out by the former Director General of Health Tan Sri
Dr Mohd Ismail Merican at the Ethical Issues in Clinical Research Conference on 22 December
2005 saying that: As the benefits offered by health research are becoming obvious, so too are
the concerns they raised in terms of the ethical, legal and social issues with regard to the
participation of human subjects . Also, a Malaysian local newspaper, the New Strait Times
(2002) has reported that: Eyeing the expanding market for clinical research in the region,
Malaysia is trying to position itself as an ideal place for pharmaceutical majors to conduct
clinical trials. But critics worry about weak safeguards and poor enforceability of exiting
regulation. So, the only way for patient to know whether doctor-investigators have conflict of
interest is to ask the doctor-investigators. Nonetheless, it is impossible for this to happen, in view
of the attitude of the Malaysian society where patients put high hope on doctors.
Likewise, there have been efforts or measures taken by the government to enforce guidelines on
clinical trials. For example, the Control of Drugs and Cosmetics Regulations 1984 (Revised 2006)
states that: The Director of Pharmaceutical Services may issue written directives or guidelines
to any person or group of persons as he thinks necessary for the better carrying out of the
provisions of these Regulations and which in particular relate to clinical trials. However, it is
important to note that these regulations only exist in the form of directives issued by an
administrator. Hence, the regulations are weak and can be disputed in terms of their legal aspects
as compared to a legislation or an Act passed by the Parliament or the Legislative Assembly
which has to go through a fairly rigorous process. As such, it is a high time to impose a duty on
the doctor-investigators to disclose information related to conflict of interest to safeguard the
patients welfare. Henceforth, the authors humbly believe that Malaysia should learn from
Singapore and adopt a model to formulate regulations governing clinical trials in the country
which could be incorporated under the Medicines Act giving such regulations a force of law.
This would allow doctor-investigators to be punished if in case they contravene or fail to comply
with the Act (regulations). In Singapore, they have Medicines (Clinical Trials) Regulations which
have been incorporated under the Medicines Act (Chapter 176, Sections 18 and 74). For instance,
section 20 provides that doctor-investigators are prohibited from having any directly or indirectly
financial interest in the trial.
559
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Conclusion
Indeed, incentives to doctor-investigators in return for recruiting patients violate the principle of
ethics as doctor-investigators cannot put their personal or financial interests above the interests of
patients. However, this is not an easy thing to do because when confronted with generous money
then anyone would be influenced. As such, when faced with the problem of conflict of interest, a
doctor-investigator must be honest with patients by disclosing related information and recruiting
only a qualified patient as the research subject. This is because the doctor-patient relationship
which is based on trust and dependency creates an unusually high danger of exploitation and
abuse. In fact, doctor-investigators must also be honest with themselves as medical code of ethics
clearly prohibits them to put their personal interests above the interests of their patients. This is
so because doctor-investigators financial conflict of interest have the potential to undermine this
trust. When there is no trust in the doctor-patient relationship, then there is no guarantee of
continuity in the progress of clinical trials as there would be no participation by patients. It is
indeed a matter of balancing between these two conflicting interests. Hence, it is inevitable that
Malaysia should indeed learn from the Singapore as a model to formulate its own laws dealing
with clinical trials.
3. References
Caulfield, T. and Griener, G. 2001. Conflict of interest in clinical research: Addressing the issue
of physician remunition. 30(2) Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30(2), p.305.
Gatter, R., 2006. Conflict of interest in International Human drug research and the insufficiency
of International protections. American Journal of Law & Medicine, 32, p.351- 364.
Roizen, R. 1998. Why I oppose drug company payment of physician/investigators on a per
patient/subject basis. IRB, 10, p.9-10.
Lemmens, T. & Miller, P.B. 2003. The human subjects trade: Ethical and legal issues
surrounding recruitment incentives. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 31, p.398.
Lenrow, D.A. 2006. The treating physician as researcher: Is assuming this dual role a violation of
The Nuremberg Code? Temple Journal of Science Technology & Envirenmental Law, 25(1),
p.15-48.
Shimm D. S. and Spece R. G. 1991. Industry reimbursement for entering patients into clinical
trials: Legal and ethical issues. Annals of Internal Medicine. 115(2), p.148-151.
Kim, S.Y.H., Millard, R.W., Nisbet, P., Cox, C. and Caine, E.D. 2004. Potential research
participants views regarding researcher and institutional financial conflicts of interest. Journal
of Medical Ethics. 30, p.73-79.
Lo, B. Wolfe, L. and Berkekeley, A. 2000. Conflict-of-Interest policies for investigators in
clinical trials. The New England Journal of Medicine. 343, p.1616-20.
Srinivasan, S. 2010. Patient protection in clinical trials in India: some concerns. Perspect clinical
research. 1(3), p.101-103.
560
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Yuhanif Yusof, Anisah Che Ngah and Zaki Morad Mohamad Zaher. 2014. Informed consent in
clinical trials with reference to information disclosure to patient-subjects. Public Health
Research. 4(1), p.384-390.
Foster, R.S. 2003. Conflicts of interest: recognition, disclosure, and management. J Am Coll Surg.
196(4), p.50517.
DeRenzo, E. 2000. Coercion in the recruitment and retention of human research subjects,
pharmaceutical industry payments to physician-investigators and the moral courage to the IRB.
IRB. 22, p.1-5.
Harper, B. and Reuter, S. 2009. Paying Fees to referring physicians: Ethical or Not Ethical?.
Monitor. p.29-34.
World Medical Assn. 1997. Declaration of Helsinki. JAMA. 277, p.925-6.

Shamoo, A. E. and Resnik, D. B., 2003. Responsible conduct of research. Oxford University
Press.
Smith, V.A., 2008. Volunteers for medical research are desperately needed. in Wiener, G. (ed.),
At Issue Volunteerism, Greenhaven Press, Farmington Hills, 2008.
Khushf, G. and Gifford, R., 1998. Understanding, assessing and managing conflict of interest. In:
McCullough LB, Jones JW, Brody BA, eds. Surgical ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
WMA Declaration of Helsinki - Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human
Subjects <www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/b3 [Assessed 12 June 2014].
Zaki Morad Mohamed Zaher., 2014. Interview on conflict of interests. Interviewed by Yuhanif
Yusof [tape recorder] 1 January 2015, 04:30.
Lim Teck Onn, 2008. Case studies and ethical issues in clinical trial. CRC Hospital Sultanah
Bahiyah, Good Clinical Practice Workshop. Hospital Sultanah Bahiyah Alor Star, 12-14 August
2008. Kedah: Malaysia.
Ismail Merican, 2005. Message from the Director General of Health Malaysia. Institute of
Medical Research, Ethical Issues in Clinical Research Conference. Institute of Medical Research,
22 December 2005. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysia.
561
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Hukuman Jenayah dan Preventasi Hiv/Aids: Satu Tinjauan

Marina Hj Hashima,*, Anita Abd. Rahimb
a
Pensyarah Kanan, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: marina@uum.edu.my
b
Professor Madya, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
aar@ukm.edu.my
Abstrak
HIV/AIDS merupakan satu pandemik yang dilaporkan di seluruh dunia dan ianya boleh merebak
melalui pelbagai cara. HIV/AIDS juga penyebab utama kematian lelaki dan wanita yang berumur
di antara 15 sehingga 59 tahun; iaitu peringkat umur di mana hubungan seksual paling aktif.
Peningkatan jumlah mereka yang dijangkiti HIV/AIDS secara seksual telah menimbulkan
kebimbangan. Oleh yang demikian, undang-undang jenayah telah diguna pakai bagi mengatasi
isu jangkitan HIV/AIDS secara seksual yang dilakukan dengan niat atau gopoh dan cuai. Tindakan
ini telah menimbulkan reaksi yang pelbagai. Oleh itu, objektif utama kertas kerja ini ialah untuk
membincangkan tujuan penggunaan undang-undang jenayah dalam preventasi kelakuan yang
merebakkan HIV/AIDS secara seksual. Kaedah kajian perpustakaan telah digunakan bagi
penulisan kertas kerja berbentuk konsepsual ini. Dapatan menunjukkan, walaupun mendapat
tentangan dari pelbagai pihak, namun undang-undang jenayah telah digunapakai di beberapa
negara untuk menghukum mereka yang menjangkiti HIV/AIDS secara seksual.
Kata kunci: HIV/AIDS, jenayah, preventasi dan hubungan seksual.
1. Pengenalan
AIDS merupakan satu ancaman kepada dunia masa kini, namun belum ada satu persetujuan
mengenai apakah cara yang terbaik bagi menangani penyebaran HIV khususnya penyebaran yang
dilakukan dengan niat (Ruby, 1999). AIDS merupakan akronim kepada acquired immune
deficiency syndrome. Perkataan acquired bermaksud satu keadaan yang mana ia bukanlah
kecacatan semasa lahir tetapi ianya diperolehi daripada orang lain. Immune deficiency
bermaksud sistem imunisasi yang berulangkali diserang oleh penyakit atau jangkitan sehingga ia
menjadi amat lemah dan tidak mampu melaksanakan tugasnya. Syndrome, merupakan satu tanda
atau pun simptom yang terjadi yang menghuraikan sesuatu keganjilan (Stine, 2009). HIV ialah
human immunodefiency virus yang menyerang dan melumpuhkan sistem semulajadi pertahanan
badan. HIV/AIDS, menjadi topik perbincangan dalam akademik pada awal 1980an semenjak
kes pertama ditemui. Dari segi undang-undang, HIV/AIDS juga telah mengundang banyak
perbincangan dan perdebatan.
562
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2. Perkembangan Hiv Secara Global
Kes AIDS yang pertama di dunia telah di temui di Amerika Syarikat pada tahun 1980 di kalangan
pengamal homoseks, sehinggakan AIDS dikenali sebagai Gay Related Immune Defiency (GRID).
Semenjak itu penyakit ini merebak di kalangan golongan homoseksual, mereka yang
mengamalkan seks rambang dan juga penagih dadah.
Kajian ke atas 45 negara yang menandatangani Konvensyen Eropah mengenai Hak Asasi Manusia
menunjukkan kebanyakan jangkitan HIV adalah melalui hubungan heteroseksual iaitu sebanyak
54% (Terrence Higgins Trust, 2006). Di kebanyakan negara tersebut kecuali Austria dan
Netherlands, ramai yang telah disabitkan kesalahan jenayah kerana menjangkiti HIV melalui
hubungan heteroseksual berbanding jangkitan cara lain.
Kajian itu juga menunjukkan di negara Croatia, Italy, Norway dan United Kingdom kesemua kes
yang disabitkan dengan kesalahan jenayah melibatkan jangkitan melalui hubungan
heteroseksual. Manakala di Norway dan United Kingdom sungguhpun jangkitan melalui
homoseksual adalah perkara biasa, namun, hasil kajian menunjukkan kesemua mereka yang
disabitkan kesalahan jenayah adalah melalui hubungan heteroseksual.
Di Malaysia, data yang dikeluarkan oleh Kementerian Kesihatan (Ungass Country Progress
Report 2008 Malaysia,) menunjukkan terdapat dua corak utama jangkitan HIV. Pertama,
melalui penggunaan dadah dan kedua, jangkitan heteroseksual. Bagi jangkitan melalui
heteroseksual, kebanyakannya berlaku di antara lelaki muda, berumur antara 20 hingga 39 tahun.
Data ini menunjukkan corak terkini HIV di Malaysia ialah, hanya sedikit lelaki yang dijangkiti
HIV melalui suntikan dadah, manakala terdapat peningkatan bagi wanita yang dijangkiti HIV
melalui hubungan heteroseksual. Data terkini oleh Kementerian Kesihatan (2013) menunjukkan
pada tahun 1990 terdapat 41 kes jangkitan baru, 964 kes pada tahun 2000, 1773 kes pada tahun
2010 dan 2498 kes pada tahun 2013. Hubungan seksual yang tidak dilindungi secara
heteroseksual dan homoseksual membentuk lebih daripada kes jangkitan yang baru. Data ini
jelas menunjukkan terdapat peningkatan yang ketara bagi jangkitan secara seksual mulai tahun
1990 sehingga 2013 (Ungass Country Progress Report 2014 Malaysia).
Terdapat beberapa negara yang telah menggunakan undang-undang jenayah dalam menangani isu
jangkitan HIV/AIDS secara seksual. Sebagai contohnya, United Kingdom telah menggunakan
Offences Aganist Persons Act 1861 bagi menangani isu ini. Dodds, C., Weatherburn, P., Hickson,
F., Peter Keogh, P., dan Nutland, W., (2005) telah membincangkan isu menggunakan Offences
Against the Person Act 1861 bagi jangkitan HIV/AIDS secara seksual ini dengan panjang lebar
dalam kajian mereka yang bertajuk Grievous Harm? Use of the Offences Against the Person Act
1861 for sexual transmission of HIV. Penggunaan akta ini telah menimbulkan reaksi yang
berbeza daripada pelbagai pihak, Justeru itu, objektif kertas kerja berbentuk konsepsual ini ialah
563
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
untuk membincangkan tujuan penggunaan undang-undang jenayah dalam preventasi kelakuan

yang merebakkan HIV secara seksual. Kaedah perpustakaan digunakan bagi penulisan kertas
kerja ini dengan menumpukan kepada data utama seperti akta dan kes undang-undang, serta data
sekunder seperti buku dan artikel daripada jurnal
3. Tujuan Penggunaan Undang-Undang Jenayah Dalam Preventasi Kelakuan Yang

Merebakkan HIV
AIDS merupakan satu malapetaka yang menyebabkan kematian dan sehingga kini tiada ubat atau
pun vaksin yang boleh menyembuhkannya. Menurut Lawrence (dipetik dari Rebecca Ruby
(1999) ahli sains juga masih tidak dapat menyediakan satu senarai yang lengkap bagaimana
AIDS disebarkan. Maka, masalah AIDS ini perlu diberi perhatian yang khusus, terutamanya bagi
kes-kes yang melibatkan jangkitan terhadap orang lain yang dilakukan dengan niat.
Menurut Ruby (1999) cara terbaik bagi membendung penyebaran virus ini ialah dengan
mengenakan hukuman jenayah, berdasarkan akta yang sedia ada bagi kes-kes yang secara berniat
menyebarkan virus ini. Isu liabiliti jenayah bagi jangkitan HIV melalui hubungan seksual ini
mendapat reaksi yang berbeza daripada berbagai pihak. Ada yang menyokong dan juga menentang
pendakwaan yang dilakukan ke atas mereka yang merebakkan HIV melalui hubungan seksual
yang dilakukan dengan niat atau gopoh dan cuai.
Fungsi sosial undang-undang juga dapat dilihat dalam undang-undang jenayah. Undang-undang
jenayah dapat memastikan bahawa hak dan kebebasan seseorang itu akan dilindungi, walaupun
dalam konteks jangkitan HIV melalui hubungan seksual. Menurut Strickland (2001) penggunaan
undang-undang jenayah yang sedia ada secara inklusif yang menghukum jangkitan HIV dalam
keadaan yang pelbagai mempunyai kelebihan. Pertama, ia memudahkan kerajaan untuk
mengelakkan tuduhan diskriminasi atas alasan hanya bahagian tertentu dalam masyarakat yang
disasarkan. Kedua, ia membantu untuk memastikan orang ramai memahami bahawa
undang-undang jenayah adalah untuk melindungi bilamana terdapat risiko sebenar transmisi HIV.
Ketiga, ia akan membantu menjamin orang ramai bahawa undang-undang itu tidak akan
mengganggu kehidupan peribadi mereka dengan berlebihan. Akhirnya, ia mengukuhkan
justifikasi penggunaan undang-undang jenayah dengan cara ini membolehkan falsafah yang
berbeza digunakan untuk keadaan jenayah yang berbeza. Oleh yang demikian tujuan penggunaan
undang-undang jenayah dalam preventasi kelakuan yang merebakkan HIV adalah seperti di
bawah.
Pertama, hukuman dalam undang-undang jenayah adalah untuk mencapai objektif

melemahkan, pemulihan, pembalasan dan juga pencegahan, walaupun digunakan di negara
ataupun dalam kes yang berbeza. Menurut Ruby (1999) dan Wolf & Vezina (2004), tujuan
menghukum defendan dengan hukuman jenayah bagi jangkitan HIV adalah berdasarkan objektif
ini. L.J Lawton dalam kes Reg v Sergent [1974] 60 Cr. App. R, hlm 74. menyatakan dalam
564
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
membuat keputusan, hakim perlu melihat keempat-empat prinsip ini dan memutuskan mana satu
yang mempunyai peranan penting dalam kes yang dibicarakannya.
Menurut Hashim Mehat (1991) sesiapa yang melakukan jenayah perlu dihukum secara fizikal atau
mental. Ini bertujuan untuk memastikan pesalah merasa penderitaan yang dialami oleh mangsa
dan sedar kesilapan yang telah dilakukan supaya tidak akan mengulanginya di masa hadapan.
Andrew Karmen (2004) pula menegaskan hukuman terhadap mereka yang melanggar
undang-undang dapat mengawal penjenayah dalam pelbagai cara. Antaranya ialah, penjenayah
yang merasai kesan hukuman yang perit akan berfikir dua kali sekiranya hendak melakukan
kesalahan pada masa hadapan. Ia juga boleh dijadikan teladan kepada mereka yang ingin
melakukan jenayah supaya memikirkan kesan hukuman sekiranya mereka ditangkap.
Menurut Hermann (1990), hukuman ke atas perlakuan yang berisiko mendedahkan jangkitan
HIV adalah bertujuan meletakkan sempadan antara perlakuan yang dibenarkan dan tidak
dibenarkan. Tambahnya lagi, akta HIV yang spesifik boleh memberikan notis yang jelas mengenai
tahap kelakuan sosial yang tidak boleh diterima khusus kepada wabak HIV dan boleh
memudahkan hukuman untuk jenayah tertentu bagi tingkah laku menjangkiti HIV.
Kedua, undang-undang jenayah juga menyediakan kemudahan sosial untuk mendidik dan
mengukuh norma perlakuan sosial (Hermann, 1990). Oleh itu, mereka yang sengaja melanggar
peraturan berhak dihukum, sepertimana yang dinyatakan dalam Report of the Presidential
Commission on Human Immunodefiency Virus Epidemic (dipetik Hermann, 1990, hlm 351).
Menurut Matthew Weait (2007) prinsip liabiliti jenayah diterima pakai bagi kes jangkitan HIV
bukanlah disebabkan ianya perbuatan salah ataupun tidak bertanggungjawab, tetapi prinsip ini
lebih menekan kepada kepentingan untuk menghormati manusia. Tambahnya lagi, justifikasi
dalam mengenakan liabiliti jenayah kepada mereka yang menjangkiti HIV, bertujuan sama ada
sebagai pembalasan, pencegahan, ketidakupayaan dan juga pemulihan.
Ketiga, undang-undang jenayah boleh menjadi satu cara yang efektif bagi menghalang perlakuan
menjangkiti HIV. Undang-undang jenayah secara khusus menyatakan perlakuan menjangkiti
orang lain dengan penyakit merupakan satu kesalahan, maka dalam keadaan ini kanun boleh
menjadi satu cara yang efektif dalam mengekang perlakuan merebakkan HIV (Becker, 1968).
Keempat, keputusan yang adil dapat dicapai dengan menghukum perlakuan menjangkiti HIV
(Hermann, 1999). Ia merupakan satu keputusan yang adil dalam mengenakan hukuman jenayah,
jika perlakuan yang dilarang itu ialah perlakuan yang secara saintifik dan juga perubatan
merupakan perlakuan yang memungkinkan jangkitan HIV berlaku. Jika kelakuan yang dilarang
itu berada dalam kawalan seseorang, dan undang-undang telah jelas melarang perlakuan tersebut,
namun seseorang itu masih melakukan perbuatan tersebut, maka penggunaan undang-undang
jenayah adalah adil (Hermann, 1999). Undang-undang jenayah dapat memastikan bahawa hak dan
kebebasan seseorang itu akan dilindungi, walaupun dalam konteks jangkitan HIV melalui
565
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
hubungan seksual. Menurut Strickland (2001) penggunaan undang-undang jenayah yang sedia ada
yang menghukum jangkitan HIV dalam keadaan yang pelbagai mempunyai kelebihan.
Kelima, momentum yang menyokong penggunaan undang-undang jenayah ini bertitik tolak
daripada kegagalan dalam metod lain untuk mencegah penularan virus HIV yang berleluasa dalam
masyarakat (Ruby (1999). Pendidikan dan kaunseling telah digunakan sebagai satu kaedah bagi
mengelak jangkitan virus HIV (Hermann, 1990). Professional dari penjagaan kesihatan dan juga
pihak berkuasa kesihatan awam menyatakan, pendidikan dan kaunseling adalah cara paling
berkesan untuk membendung penyebaran HIV. Hermann (1990) menyatakan program-program
pendidikan berkaitan perebakan HIV dan risikonya dapat mengubah kelakuan populasi yang
berisiko tinggi daripada jangkitan HIV. Kedua-dua cara ini mungkin menjadi lebih efektif kerana
melalui kaedah ini, pengetahuan lebih lanjut mengenai virus ini dan bagaimana ia boleh
disebarkan akan diperolehi.
Namun, persoalan yang timbul ialah adakah pendidikan dan kaunseling merupakan cara yang
paling efektif bagi mengelak dan melambatkan proses penyebaran virus ini? Ini kerana statistik
menunjukkan peningkatan kes-kes AIDS/HIV dari tahun ke tahun. Pada awal kemunculan virus
ini, majoriti yang dijangkiti terdiri dari golongan homoseksual lelaki, penagih dadah dan juga
penerima darah. Namun kini, keadaannya sudah berubah di mana wanita, kanak-kanak, golongan
heteroseksual lelaki juga menerima padah akibat daripada perlakuan merebakkan HIV ini (Ruby,
1999).
Pendidikan dan kaunseling dapat membantu dan penting bagi menyekat perebakan AIDS, tapi
ianya tidak mencukupi (Jones, 1988). Banyak lagi yang perlu dilakukan bagi menghalang AIDS
daripada merebak sama ada yang dilakukan secara berniat atau pun tidak berniat. Menurut
Ruby (1999) mereka yang menjangkiti orang lain secara berniat mestilah di dakwa menggunakan
kanun jenayah yang sedia ada, dengan menggunakan status HIV sebagai aggravating factor.
Hermann (1990) menegaskan, seseorang individu yang telah menggugat kesihatan orang awam
melalui tindakannya yang disengajakan atau pun gopoh, maka, kerajaan perlu mendakwanya
melalui undang-undang jenayah.
Keenam, walaupun banyak usaha telah dilakukan oleh profesional dari kesihatan awam untuk
mengurang atau membasmi jangkitan HIV, tetapi usaha ini masih gagal (Lo, 1989). Sebagai
contohnya dalam Public Health (Infectious Disease) Regulations 1988 memperuntukkan kuasa
kepada pihak berkuasa tempatan untuk memohon kepada Jaksa Pendamai satu perintah untuk
menahan mereka yang hidup dengan AIDS di hospital. Sekiranya orang yang hidup dengan
AIDS itu ingin meninggalkan hospital, dia perlu menunjukkan bahawa tindakan yang sewajar
telah diambil bagi menghalang rebakkan jangkitan, dan jika gagal berbuat demikian, maka dia
boleh ditahan di hospital. Penggunaan seksyen ini juga membolehkan seseorang itu ditahan untuk
suatu tempoh yang panjang dan melanggar hak asasi manusia seperti yang diputuskan dalam kes
Enhorn v Sweden (2005) 41EHRR 633.
566
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Dalam kes ini, Encik Enhorn, pemohon, seorang rakyat Sweden telah dikenalpasti menghidap
HIV. Pegawai perubatan telah mengarahkan Enhorn supaya hadir untuk temujanji di hospital
berdasarkan peruntukan di bawah Akta Penyakit Berjangkit. Walau bagaimanapun, pemohon
gagal untuk hadir sebanyak lima kali, menyebabkan pegawai perubatan telah memohon kepada
Mahkamah Unit Pentadbiran (County Administrative Court ) mengeluarkan suatu perintah supaya
pemohon dikenakan pengasingan wajib untuk tempoh tiga bulan di hospital. Permohonan ini
dibenarkan oleh Mahkamah Unit Pentadbiran, namun pemohon gagal mematuhi arahan ini.
Pemohon telah dibawa oleh pihak polis ke hospital pada 16 Mac 1995. Tempoh tahanan ini telah
dilanjutkan kepada enam bulan dan dilanjutkan lagi berdasarkan rolling-basis. Pada tahun 1999,
rayuan pemohon supaya perintah penahanan lanjutan ditolak kerana dia telah melarikan diri
beberapa kali dan dia akan mendatangkan risiko kepada orang lain. Akhir sekali, pada tahun 2001,
pihak perubatan memohon supaya perintah tahanan dilanjutkan kerana pemohon gagal untuk
mematuhi perintah sebelum ini. Walau bagaimanapun, permohonan ini telah ditolak oleh
mahkamah dan Enhorn telah mengambil tindakan terhadap negaranya dengan menyatakan
bahawa pengasingan wajib yang dikenakan terhadapnya merupakan satu pelanggaran hak asasi
berdasarkan Artikel 5(1) Konvensyen Hak Asasi Manusia Eropah (European Convention on
Human Rights). Pemohon juga menyatakan bahawa penahanannya yang berbentuk pengasingan
wajib yang bertujuan untuk mengelakkan virus HIV daripada disebarkan kepada orang lain
melanggar artikel 5(1)(e) kerana bersifat arbitrariness. Dalam hujahnya Enhorn menyatakan
bahawa penahanannya di bawah seksyen 38 Akta Penyakit Berjangkit 1988 adalah tidak sah
kerana peruntukannya yang luas dan tidak jelas. Dia juga menyatakan bahawa walaupun gagal
menghadirkan diri dalam temujanji yang ditetapkan, ini tidak boleh dijadikan alasan yang dia
berisiko untuk menjangkiti orang lain. Akhirnya, mahkamah memutuskan bahawa permohonan ini
dibenarkan, kerana terdapat pelanggaran hak kebebasan di bawah Artikel 5(1) Konvensyen Hak
Asasi Manusia Eropah. Mahkamah menyatakan bahawa kriteria penting bagi menilai kesahihan
penahanan seseorang bagi mencegah penyebaran penyakit berjangkit ialah samada penyebaran
penyakit berbahaya kepada bagi kesihatan awam atau keselamatan, dan samada penahanan
seseorang yang dijangkiti merupakan jalan terakhir untuk mengelak penyebaran penyakit ini
kerana langkah-langkah lain telah didapati tidak mencukupi untuk melindungi kepentingan awam.
Apabila kriteria ini tidak lagi wujud, asas bagi hak kebebasan tidak lagi wujud dan dengan
melanjutkan tempoh pengasingan wajib pemohon, pihak berkuasa telah gagal untuk mengimbangi
di antara keperluan untuk memastikan bahawa virus HIV tidak merebak dan hak pemohon untuk
kebebasan. Justeru itu, timbul persoalan sama ada undang-undang kesihatan lebih berkesan
daripada undang-undang jenayah dalam menyekat perlakuan merebakkan HIV.
Menurut Hermann (1999), statut jenayah perlembagaan yang sah mesti dengan jelas menerangkan
tingkah laku yang dilarang, manakala statut kesihatan awam boleh menjadi lebih luas. Bagi sabitan
jenayah ianya dibuktikan tanpa sebarang keraguan yang munasabah, sementara pelanggaran
kesihatan awam boleh disabitkan berdasarkan bukti yang jelas dan menyakinkan. Tambahnya lagi,
tempoh pemenjaraan bagi sabitan jenayah adalah tetap dan berdasarkan kepada keseriusan
jenayah, namun penahanan di bawah peraturan-peraturan kesihatan awam tidak boleh ditentukan.
567
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
4. Penutup
Tidak dinafikan bahawa, penggunaan undang-undang jenayah dalam isu ini menimbulkan reaksi
dan respon yang pelbagai. Apa yang pentingnya ialah hukuman yang dijatuhkan kepada mereka
yang telah menjangkiti virus ini kepada orang lain bukan disebabkan oleh faktor bahawa mereka
ini mempunyai HIV. Ianya disebabkan oleh tindakan atau pun perbuatan yang mereka lakukan
telah mendatangkan kecederaan ataupun bahaya kepada orang lain dan ianya dilarang oleh
undang-undang. Justeru itu, walaupun terdapat tentangan dalam mengenakan liabiliti jenayah
kepada mereka yang menjangkiti HIV/AIDS secara seksual, namun masih terdapat negara-negara
yang menggunakan undang-undang jenayah dalam menangani isu ini.
5. Rujukan
Abdul Aziz Hussin., 2010. Panduan Umum Undang-Undang Jenayah Di Malaysia. Edisi ke 2.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Abdul Hadi Zakaria, 1993. Crime Prevention: A Theoretical Exposition. Current Law Journal,
2, hlm. xxx.
Ashworth, A., 2005. Sentencing and Criminal Justice. Edisi ke 4. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press.
Carrabine, E., Iganski, P., Lee, M., Plummer, K dan South, N., 2004. Criminology A
Sociological Introduction. Edisi ke1. London: Routlege.
Claire. S., 2001. Why Parliament Should Create HIV Specific Offences. Web Journal Current
Legal Issues. Vol 2, hlm 1-15.
Clarkson, CMV & Keating, HM., 2003. Criminal Law: Text and Materials. Edis ke 2. London:
Curzon., L.B., 2003. Dictionary of Law. Edisi ke 6. Malaysia: International Law Book
Services.
Doods C, Weatherburn P, Hickson F, Keogh P dan Nutland W, 2005. Grievous Harm? Use of the
Offences Against Act 1861 for Sexual Transmission of HIV, Briefing Paper. [online]Available
at:<http://www.sigmaresearch.org.uk/downloads/report05b.pdf>diakses [28 Disember 2006].
Gerald J Stine., 2009. AIDS UPDATE. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
568
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Hart, H.L.A., 1973. Punishment and Responsibility: Essay in the Philisophy of Law. Oxford:
Claredon Press Oxford.
Hashim Mehat., 1991. Malaysian & Islamic Law On Sentencing. Kuala Lumpur: International
Law Book Services.
Hermann, D.H J., 1990. Criminalising Conduct Related To HIV Transmission. St. Louis
University Public Law Review. Vol 9, hlm 351-327.
Herring, J., 2004. Criminal Law Text, Cases And Materials. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hj Mohamed Hj Abu Samah dan Hjh Asidah Hj Mohd Ali., 2008. Alman Undang-Undang
Jenayah di Malaysia. International Law Book Services: Malaysia.
Karmen, A., 2004. Crime Victims An Introduction to Victimology. Edisi ke 5. United States of
America: Thomson Wadsworth.
Luis Ernesto Chiesa Aponte, L.E.C., 2007. Taking Victim Seriously: A Dworkin Theory of
Punishment.76 Rev. Jur. U.P.R 76, hlm 118.
Ruby, R., 1999. Note: Apprehending the Weapon Within: The Case for Criminalizing The
Intentional Transmission of HIV. American. Criminal. Law Review. Vol 36: hlm 313-314.
Rychlak. R.J., 1990-1991. Societys Moral Right to Punish: A further Exploration of the
Denunciation Theory of Punishment. 65 Tulane Law Review, hlm 325.
Study by Terrence Higgins Trust and Global Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS Survey
of Criminalisation of HIV Transmission in Europe 2006. [online] Avalaible at :<
www.gnpplus.net/criminalization/intro.shtml > diakses [10 Mac 2006 ].
Symington, A., 2009. Criminalization Confusion and Concerns: The Decade Since Cuerrier
Decision. HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review, 14 (1), hlm 1.
Ungass Country Progress Report 2008 Malaysia, Reporting period: January 2006
December 2007, Submission Date : January 2008. 2008. [online] available at:>
http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/Malaysia_2008_country_progress-report-en.pdf> diakses
[13 Mac 2008].
Ungass Country Progress Report 2014 Malaysia, Reporting period: January 2013 December
2013, Submission Date: January 2013 retrieved
http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2013/Malaysia_2013_country_progress-report-en.pdf diakses
[9 June 2015]
569
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Weait, M., 2007. Intimacy and Responsibility The Criminalisation of HIV Transmission. New
York: Routledge-Cavendish.
Wilson, W., (2008). Criminal Law Doctrine and Theory. Edisi ke 3. Pearson Education.
Wolf., L.E dan Vezina, R., 2004. Crime and Punishment: Is There A Role For Criminal Law in
HIV Prevention Policy? Whittier Law Review, Vol 25, hlm 821- 836.
Woolf, L., 2004. A New Approach To Sentencing. Current Law Journal, 2, hlm xxxvii.
570
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Corporate Social Responsibility for Childrens Education in the Rural Areas:
Insights from Literature Review
Athirah Azhar
PhD Student, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Malaysia
Email: athirahazhar@hotmail.com
Abstract
This paper focuses on educational programme in Malaysia in general and specifically in rural
areas. It is based on the on-going doctoral research of the author. Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR) have long been practised since the thirteenth century in England and it has been
spearheaded now to most of the Asian countries. The most popular sub-themes for CSR among
corporate is education. Due to the costs, most of the education programmes were not reported,
non-disclosure, irrespective of company nationality, lack of recognize reporting framework and
fear how the reader would react (Thompson & Zakaria 2004). Many rural children never enter a
school; those who do enrol fail to complete the full primary, even among those who do complete
it, leave school barely literate because the curriculum and the language are not suited to local
conditions (Lakin & Gasperini 2003). Department of Statistics Malaysia reported that as of year
2010 there are 117,607 not yet schooling and 29,845 never attended school among 1.6 million
children between five and fourteen years old. As Malaysia is a small country, never attended
school and did not go to school should not happened in this developing country. Government
have provided education facilities like schools and teachers, corporate should also be part of the
education system for practical, to encourage and motivate the students in the under-served areas.
Other than that, by working on the rank will not give the quality of the education for the children
but working on the ensurement that children get the formal education will do. De Muro and
Burchi (2007) stated that increased access to relevant and quality basic educational services for
rural people contributes directly and positively to improves productivity, food security and
livelihoods. Corporate social should not just be a responsibility but should be sustainability
for the community. (300 words)
Keywords: CSR, Corporate Social Responsibility, Rural Education, Children, Education
Programme
1. Introduction
Globally, government, private companies and Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have been
practised Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as part of their companies role and culture.
Decades ago, social responsibility has not become an almost universal topic of conversation and
concern only because of racial unrest, urban decay, and a variety of threatening ecological
issues-to mention just a few of the seemingly causal forces (Votaw 1973). Votaw (1973) said
571
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
that in that era, a few representatives of the corporate sector have accepted the newer concept,
some of them without recognizing the consequences of doing so. In this twenty-first century,
CSR has been widely well-known in the most developed and developing countries. There are
three words in CSR where corporate, social and responsibility itselves have its own meaning
which corporate represents people who do or involves in business, social represents the whole
community and responsibility represents the tasks that have to be done. The combination of these
words, CSR, results in substantial definition, perception and theories about CSR. Dahlsrud
(2008) in his research coded CSR in five dimensions which are environmental dimensions (the
natural environment), social dimension (the relationship between business and society),
economic dimension (socio-economic or financial aspects), stakeholder dimension (stakeholder
and stakeholder groups) and voluntariness dimension (actions not prescribed by law). Jenkins
(2005) added that CSR initiatives do not include poverty reduction as a major objective, focusing
rather on environmental issued; and labour and human rights. Picture 1 shows how corporate
philanthropy leads to business success. This model explains the impact and the effect if corporate
citizenship programmes on the behaviour of stockholders. The corporate could choose from the
performance on the programme to be conducted, perceptions on how to help; to overall giving on
overall perception of corporate philanthropy. All these will give a positive impact to the
company in terms of company attitude, behaviour and loyalty to the company that will make the
business success.
Picture 1 : How Corporate Philanthropy Leads to Business
Source: Walker Information 2002 in Rubenstein (2004)
The right CSR strategy achieves convergence between economic and social goals, though, to
formulate a successful CSR strategy, companies must understand that its benefits will depend on
both mediating variables and situational contingencies (Lindgreen & Swaen 2010). More,
organisation realised that the main benefit of CSR to improve image and reputation and
increased employee motivation.
572
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
It can be concluded that CSR is now well-known by all mostly corporate sector. The dimensions
have been spread out through environment, social, economic, stakeholder and voluntary. In fact,
CSR was saying as not for poverty reduction as a major objective but focusing on environmental
issues; and labour and human rights.
Some general principles of CSR are corporations in economics institutions run for profit, all
firms must follow multiple body of law, managers must act ethically, corporations have a duty to
correct adverse social impacts they cause, social responsibility varies with company
characteristics, managers should try to meet legitimate needs of multiple stakeholders, corporate
behaviour must comply with norms in an underlying social contract and; corporations should
accept a measure of accountability toward society (Merck & Co. Inc 2009).
2.1 CSR in Malaysia from the cultures and religions perspectives

Though Malaysia is following the footsteps of developed countries, there are still a lot of
differences between them such as economic development and practices, religious beliefs, culture
and social values (Mohamed Zain et al. 2006). Research decades ago by Votaw (1973) have
already stated that art and culture, instead of economy, are beginning to shape the social
structure. Mohamed Zain and Mohammad (2007) proven a success in Malaysia local giant
companies such as Guthrie, Sime, Petronas, IJM, YTL have shown great improvement in their
CSR disclosure. They are exporting the Malaysian cultures and values to their subsidiaries
abroad (Mohamed Zain & Mohammad 2007). Lee, Mak, and Pang (2012) in their study stated
that religion and individual values of SME owner-managers have a significant impact on CSR
decision making process. How modern or developed Malaysia are, the Malaysian and Asian
culture should not be dissolved as said by the interviewer below;
It is in our eastern culture to be modest which our company adopts. This culture should never be
forgotten. (Interviewee for Mohamed Zain et al., 2006).
No matter what racial, culture or religion the focus would be the same which is to help the
community.
2.2 Childrens Rights
Childrens participation rights are compromised by poverty, neglect, and violence (Ferguson
2013). Therein lies a complex rights-based application in which protecting children and
protecting childrens rights are interdependent elements, particularly protecting childrens rights
to participate alongside their peers (Ferguson 2013). It would be remarkable if the children could
be part of the decision making as they will be the shareholder in the future. Thus, the children
would understand more what other children wants. Adult will have to look on the pros and cons
before the matter been raised up and implemented. (Peleg 2013) said that when the 'human
573
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
becomings' conception of childhood is used in conjunction with developmental psychology, it is

almost impossible to interpret the right to development in any way other than as a right of the
child to become an adult. We could work to develop a truly child-centred understanding of what
it means to say that children have children's rights, so that thinking of children in terms of
children's rights would necessarily lead to better outcomes for children (Ferguson 2013). Yes the
adult knows best for the children but the children knows better. Claiming rights for children and
young people is, therefore, part of a hugely important project, based intellectually in a belief in
the importance of human dignity and the value of the individual, but rights regimes are weak in
practice when it comes to delivering welfare rights in general, and the international childrens
rights regime set up by the CRC is particularly fragile in this respect (Grugel 2013).
Referring to Convention on the Rights of the Child (Unicef 2011), children right for the
education were mentioned in the Article 28 and Article 29. Archard (2004) in his book stated
that the CRC gives children rights to, freedom of expression, association, thought, conscience
and religion, protection against abuse and violence, enjoyment of the highest attainable standard
of health, education, rest and leisure, protection from economic exploitation and hazardous work.
In reality there are no such thing of education for the certain culture as education is important
and it should be thought for all the human level either children, adult or senior citizen. Education
is broad and it is not just a formal education at school but it can also be a non-formal education
where the children could learn.
CRC has stated that the children have right in education where the education is compulsory for
all the children. CRC has been prepared as a guideline and it is the adult responsibility to assure
that it has been done or on-going in their country.
2.3 What Children Want and What Children Need
2.3.1 What children want
Te One, Blaikie, and Egan-bitran (2014) in their study said without adequate economic
resources, children reported food insecurity, difficulties in paying school fees; missing out on
school trips; not being able to afford school uniforms, stationery, books and computers; and
feeling as though they could not take part in sports and other activities that often caused a sense
of shame and further alienated them from their peers. Devine and Kelly (2006)in their study
found out that when children say they dont want to get picked on by anyone, this raises
questions not only about inclusion and exclusion in childrens friendship groups but also about
the reasons why they are picked on and marked out as different. Childrens culture is utterly
different from the adult where it is fun and play. Besides children do not like to be excluded,
isolates and being alone.
The children who love school suggested that suggested that social studies would be more
interesting if there are more maps, globes, videotapes, trade books, and interactive software Zhao
and Hoge (2005). This would not happen if there is no moral support from the school
administration. Other than that, they wanted to have more support and to attend workshops
574
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
promoting creative ideas for how to integrate social studies with other content areas, especially
language arts and math, so that they could justify giving social studies more attention (Zhao &
Hoge 2005).
2.3.2 What children need
Children need many loving experiences, opportunities to express their feelings about being loved
and also need experiences in managing their emotional liveslearning to control their reactions
to various situations (Swick 2005). Erikson (1975)earlier in his book about eight stages of man,
which in second stage called industry and inferiority (early school stage), the inner stage seems
all set for entrance into life, except that life must first be school life, whether school is field,
jungle or classroom. Some of the children do not like to go to school since they could not see
what the purpose of school as staying at home is much more fun with television and gadgets.
School is a must as that is part and parcel of life and that is where they learn new things. Some
may cry and do not want to go to school and that is where the parents or guardian have to play
their important role to support and give motivation for them to go to school. Many childs
development is disrupted when family life had failed to prepare him for school life or when
school life fails to sustain the promises of earlier stages (Erikson 1975). Other than that, the
children need basic survival, safety, belongingness, esteem of others and need to be
self-actualized (Goodman 2008).
2.3 Education for the Children in the Rural Areas
Although there are certain constants, such as literacy and numeracy skills, the basic learning
needs of rural children and adults today are probably more extensive than those of a generation
ago and these learning needs continue to evolve (Lakin & Gasperini 2003). De Muro and Burchi
(2007) stated that research focusing specifically in education and rural development indicates
that increased access to relevant and quality basic educational services for rural people
contributes directly and positively to improves productivity, food security and livelihoods.
School learning may appear quite irrelevant and unnecessary in respect to their more
immediate survival needs. Consequently, schooling must offer an attractive and affordable
alternative in order for such families to accept to enrol their children in school, forego their
labour and pay the direct costs of schooling, such as fees, books, materials and uniforms (Lakin
& Gasperini 2003). Basic needs are crucial to sustain the human life.
As Malaysia is a small country never attended school and did not go to school should not
happened in this developing country. Ministry of Education Malaysia (2013), stated that
Malaysia ranked number 54 for reading, 57 for mathematics and 52 for science which the
international average is 40. Forget about ranking in the world but focus more on the children and
the community. By working on the rank will not give the quality of the education for the children
but working on the ensurement that all the children must get the formal education will do. Many
rural children never enter a school; many of those who do enrol fail to complete the full primary
cycle and even among those who do complete it, many leave school barely literate because the
575
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
curriculum and sometimes the language of instruction are not suited to local conditions (Lakin &
Gasperini 2003). Teachers who offer more emotional support are warm and responsive, and they
foster relationships with students that would facilitate childrens connectedness to school (Curby
et al. 2009).
2.4 Corporate Social Responsibility to Corporate Social Sustainability
One of the objectives for social responsibility is to contribute to the sustainable development.
Sustainable development could be defined in a broad context. It has been stated by Votaw (1973)
decades ago that it is no longer necessary for society as a whole to shape itself to the economy in
order to produce the necessaries of life, but it is becoming increasingly necessary for the
economy to adjust to the rest of the society. CSR contribution is not only within the human but
also the environment. Frost (2011) added that sustainable business for organizations means not
only providing products and services that satisfy the customer, and doing so without jeopardizing
the environment, but also operating in a socially responsible manner. The organisations are
responsible to not pollute the environment. An organizations performance in relation to the
society in which it operates and to its impact on the environment has become a critical part of
measuring its overall performance and its ability to continue operating effectively (Frost 2011).
An economist Friedman (1970) in his article mentioned that only people have responsibilities
while a corporation is an artificial person and in this sense may have artificial responsibilities,
but business as a whole cannot be said to have responsibilities, even in this vague sense. As was
said before, business would not happen without the community. Depending on the community to
only buy the products or use the service are not enough without organisations responsibility to
tackle communitys heart by practising social responsibility. Carroll (1991) added that although
it may be appropriate for an economist to take this view, one would not encounter many business
executives today who exclude philanthropic programs for their firms range of activities. Thus,
Coombs and Holladay (2012) sharing the same thoughts where when CSR is infused throughout
various departments, it becomes part of the corporations culture and ownership of CSR is
advanced and it will lead everyones responsibility thereby reinforcing its importance to the
organisation. Both Coombs and Holladay (2012) also added that internal stakeholders
(employee) are also important and should not be neglected. In the bottom line, CSR actually
benefits both organisations and society but still there would have the pros and cons. The
challenge is how to put the principles into practice and how to implement social responsibility
(SR) effectively and efficiently when even the understanding of what social responsibility
means may vary from one programme to another (Frost 2011).
3. Conclusion
In 2007 Khazanah Nasional Berhad has come out with The Silver Book as a guideline for the
GLCs and corporate companies who wish to implement CSR. CSR are able to contribute in
terms of cash, facilities, give awareness, motivate and educate for the growth of the countrys
economy, social well-being and environment. Haron et al., (2007) in their studies stated that
576
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
board of directors who possess academic qualification tend to have a higher level of CSR
activities compared to companies with board of directors who possess professional qualification.
Windell (2010) added that the academic researchers want to contribute to new and objective
knowledge in the area, whereas the consultants seek to sell new services and to change corporate
practices.
More education programmes for the children in the rural areas must be implemented rather than
focus on the children in the urban areas. According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia
(2010), the children in the rural area as of the year 2010, age between five and 14 are 1.6
million. Corporate companies and GLCs must work together to adopt some schools to give
support in terms or facilities, motivation and awareness to the children on the importance of
education and attending schools daily. As from the children side, they want people to listen to
them as they have the feeling of wanted, needed, trusted and respected. It is true indeed that the
adult nowadays wants the children to follow what they do. Besides, the education system do not
allow the children to grow and think creatively on their own but were spoon fed by the system.
The children are like robots where they have to follow the education system guidelines, which to
get all As in the examination.
Conclusion, there are more valuable impacts than the loss in implementing CSR in companies.
From the past research said that it could adapt new attitudes about the kinds of activities their
companies should overtake. Not only individuals have responsibilities but even companies have
responsibilities which is called social responsibility. CSR are able to increase corporations
reputations, attract consumers and also help to connect social and environmental problems.
Long-term social responsibility could lead to social sustainability.
4. References
Archard, D., 2004. Childrens Rights: Moral and Legal. In Children: Rights and Childhood.
London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 5369.
Carroll, A.B., 1991. The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral
Management of Oraganizational Stakeholders. Business Horizon, 34(4), pp.3948.
Coombs, W.T. & Holladay, S.J., 2012. Managing Corporate Social Responsibility: A
Communication Approach, UK: A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Publication.
Curby, T.W., Rimm-Kaufman, S.E. & Ponitz, C.., 2009. Teacher-Child Interactions and
Childrens Achievement Trajectories Across Kindergarten and First Grade. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 101(4).
577
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Dahlsrud, A., 2008. How corporate social responsibility is defined: an analysis of 37 definitions.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 15(1), pp.113. Available
at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/csr.132 [Accessed November 23, 2014].
Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010. Education and Social Characteristics of the Population
2010, Putrajaya, Malaysia.
Devine, D. & Kelly, M., 2006. I just dont want to get picked on by anybody: Dynamics of
inclusion and exclusion in a newly multi-ethnic irish primary school. Children and Society,
20(2), pp.128139.
Erikson, E.H., 1975. Childhood and Society, England: Penguin Books.
Ferguson, L., 2013. Not merely rights for children but children s rights: The theory gap and the
assumption of the importance of children s rights. , (2005).
Friedman, A., 1970. Foundations of Modern Analysis, Courier Corporation.
Frost, R., 2011. ISO 26000 Social Responsibility: The Essential. , pp.1013.
Goodman, J.F., 2008. The interpretation of childrens needs at home and in school. Ethics and
Education, 3(1), pp.2740.
Grugel, J., 2013. welfare after the Convention on the Rights of the Child. , 1, pp.1930.
Haron, H. et al., 2007. Governance, Ethics, and Corporate Social Responsibility of Public Listed
Companies in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Institute of Integrity.
Jenkins, R., 2005. Globalization , Corporate Social Responsibility and poverty. , 2004(March
2004).
Lakin, M. & Gasperini, L., 2003. Basic Education in Rural Areas: Status, Issues and Prospects. In
Education for Rural Development: Towards New Policy. Paris: UNESCO, pp. 77169.
Lee, M.H., Mak, A.K. & Pang, A., 2012. Bridging the Gap: An Exploratory Study of Corporate
Social Responsibility among SMEs in Singapore. Journal of Public Relations Research,
24(4), pp.299317.
Lindgreen, A. & Swaen, V., 2010. Corporate Social Responsibility.
Merck & Co. Inc, 2009. Corporate Social Responsibility. In J. F. Steiner & G. A. Steiner, eds.
Business, Government, and Society. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin, pp. 117143.
578
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2013. Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 (Preschool to

Post-Secondary Education), Putrajaya, Malaysia.
Mohamed Zain, M. & Mohammad, R., 2007. CSR in Malaysia: The Dawn of a New Beginning,
Kuala Lumpur: University Publication Centre (UPENA).
Mohamed Zain, M., Mohammad, R. & Ibrahim, M.K., 2006. Corporate Social Responsibility
Disclosure in Malaysia, Shah Alam: University Publication Centre (UPENA).
De Muro, P. & Burchi, F., 2007. Education for Rural People and Food Security. In A Cross
Country Analysis, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. Rome.
Te One, S., Blaikie, R. & Egan-bitran, M., 2014. Educational Philosophy and Theory:
Incorporating ACCESS You Can Ask Me If You Really Want to Know What I Think.
Educational Philosopy and Theory, 46(9), pp.10521068.
Peleg, N., 2013. Reconceptualising the Child s Right to Development: Children and the
Capability Approach. , 21(May).
Rubenstein, D., 2004. The Good Corporate Citizen, United States of America: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
Swick, K., 2005. Preventing violence through empathy development in families. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 33(1), pp.5359.
Thompson, P. & Zakaria, Z., 2004. Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting in Malaysia.
Journal of Corporate Citizenship, (13), pp.125136.
Unicef, 2011. FACT SHEET: A summary of the rights under the Convention on the Rights of the
Child. , 1, pp.14. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf.
Votaw, D., 1973. Genius become rare. In D. Votaw & S. P. Sethi, eds. The Corporate Dilemma:
Traditional Values Versus Contemporary Problems. United States of America: Prentice-Hall,
Inc, Englewood Cliffs, pp. 1145.
Windell, K., 2010. The Proliferation of CSR from Two Professional Perspectives: Academic
Researchers and Consultants. In S. O. Idowu & W. L. Filho, eds. Professionals Perspectives
of Corporate Social Responsibility. pp. 363376.
Zhao, Y. & Hoge, J.D., 2005. What Elementary Students and Teachers Say About Social Studies.
The Social Studies, 96(5), pp.216221.
579
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Pengertian Hidup Golongan Gelandangan: Satu Kajian di Kuala Lumpur
Farrah Wahida Bt Mustafara, Faudziah Bt Yusofb

aJabatan Warisan, Fakulti Sains Sosial, Kolej Universiti Islam Melaka, Melaka
Email: farrahwahida@kuim.edu.my
bJabatan Psikologi, Fakulti Sains Sosial, Kolej Universiti Islam Melaka, Melaka
Email: faudziah@kuim.edu.my
Abstract
This purpose of the present study was to examine the level of understanding of the homeless. The
Meaning in Life Questionnaire was used to collect data. The study was conducted in Jalan Tuanku
Abdul Rahman, Kuala Lumpur. Participants in this study were a total of 21 male and 15 female.
The study used two methods of analysis descriptive in view of the demographic distribution of
survey respondents. Inferential analysis was used to trace differences in the meaning of life
homeless by demographic factors. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS). The results of this study indicate that the meaning of life homelessness
around Kuala Lumpur did not differ by sex, race, age and academic achievement. This research
has shown that the main cause of the problem is the neglect of families homeless, prisoners, drug
addiction and bankruptcy. Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended.
Keywords: Meaning in life; homelessness
Abstrak
Kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk melihat tahap pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan. Kajian
ini menggunakan satu set soal selidik iaitu Soal Selidik Pengertian Hidup (The Meaning in Life
Questionnaire). Kajian ini telah dijalankan di Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Kuala Lumpur.
Seramai 21 orang lelaki dan 15 orang perempuan golongan gelandangan terlibat dalam kajian ini.
Kajian ini menggunakan dua kaedah analisis iaitu kaedah analisis deskriptif dalam melihat taburan
demografi responden kajian. Analisis inferensi pula digunakan bagi melihat perbezaan pengertian
hidup gelandangan berdasarkan faktor demografi. Data diperoleh dianalisis dengan menggunakan
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa pengertian hidup
gelandangan sekitar Kuala Lumpur tidak berbeza mengikut jantina, bangsa, umur dan pencapaian
akademik. Kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa antara faktor utama penyebab kepada masalah
gelandangan adalah pengabaian keluarga, banduan, penagihan dadah dan bankrap. Beberapa
cadangan turut diberikan untuk dilanjutkan pengkajian terhadap golongan gelandangan pada masa
akan datang.
580
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kata kunci: Pengertian hidup; gelandangan
1. Pengenalan
Gelandangan dalam Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat (2010) bermaksud orang yang pekerjaannya
atau tempat tinggalnya tidak tetap dan tidak tentu tempat kediamannya atau pekerjaannya.
National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients (NSHAPC) mentakrifkan
gelandangan adalah golongan individu yang tinggal di sesuatu tempat perlindungan kecemasan
atau program perumahan peralihan. Dalam kenyataan media Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita,
Keluarga dan Masyarakat (2014) mengatakan golongan gelandangan ini terdiri daripada pelbagai
latar belakang antaranya warga emas, penagih dadah, penganggur, pesakit mental, pesakit melarat,
orang yang bekerja tetapi tidak mempunyai rumah dan lain-lain. Salah sebuah pertubuhan badan
bukan kerajaan (NGO) iaitu dapur jalanan PERTIWI yang memberikan pertolongan dan
menguruskan bantuan makanan kepada golongan gelandangan telah mendapat tentangan daripada
Menteri Wilayah Persekutuan, Datuk Seri Tengku Adnan Tengku Mansor yang menganggap
pemberian makanan secara percuma akan menggalakkan orang jalanan menjadi malas. Menurut
pengasas PERTIWI, Munirah Abd. Hamid (2014), kebanyakan gelandangan menghidap penyakit
mental dan fizikal, mangsa penderaan, latar belakang bermasalah dan masalah ketagihan minuman
keras. Selain itu, terdapat bekas banduan, orang tua, orang miskin, orang yang mengamalkan gaya
hidup seperti gay, lesbian, biseksual atau transgender.
Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM) telah menyelamatkan 4628 pengemis dan gelandangan
melalui operasi berkala dan ad-hoc yang dilakukan di seluruh negara sejak dari 2011 hingga
Ogos 2014. Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat (KPWKM) melalui
JKM juga telah membuat kajian profil ke atas sebahagian gelandangan khususnya di Kuala
Lumpur. Kajian tersebut dilakukan adalah bertujuan untuk mendapatkan gambaran sebenar isu
gelandangan, mengenalpasti profil secara individu, mengenalpasti faktor berlakunya masalah
gelandangan dan memudahkan pihak bertanggungjawab membuat perancangan bagi membantu
golongan gelandangan.
Menurut Rafiza Mohamed (2015) terdapat 17 faktor (intervener variable) sudah dikenalpasti oleh
pihak JKM yang telah membuat kajian profil awal ke atas 1837 orang gelandangan di Bandaraya
Kuala Lumpur. Statistik dari JKM mendapati faktor tertinggi yang menyebabkan terjadinya
gelandangan adalah individu yang tidak mempunyai pekerjaan, diikuti miskin dan berpendapatan
rendah, miskin, tua, sebatang kara, penagihan dadah dan lain-lain.
Menurut pengkaji, kajian mengenai golongan gelandangan ini perlu diberi tumpuan. Oleh yang
demikian, tujuan utama kajian adalah untuk melihat tahap pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan
di sekitar Jalan Tun Abdul Razak, Kuala Lumpur. Frankl (1985) mengaitkan makna hidup sebenar
terhadap diri individu telah menekankan bahawa seseorang itu boleh terus hidup atau berani untuk
mati demi memperjuangkan makna hidup yang didukungnya (Ratna Roshida 2010). Pengertian
581
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
hidup merupakan salah satu ukuran psikologikal yang dikaitkan dengan emosi positif dan bebas
daripada kemurungan dan mana-mana kecelaruan emosi (White 2004). Menurut Bronebright dan
rakan-rakan (2000) pula menegaskan bahawa seseorang yang memiliki pengertian hidup yang
tinggi secara positifnya akan memperoleh keseronokan dalam hidup. Menurut Ryff dan Singer
(1998), pengertian hidup adalah berkaitan dengan perkembangan individu yang juga berkait rapat
dengan proses-proses lain seperti perkembangan identiti, hubungan sosial dan matlamat. Di mana,
erti hidup ini memerlukan manusia untuk memahami, memberi maksud atau melihat kepentingan
dalam hidup mereka. Oleh itu, makna dalam hidup boleh dianggap penting yang perlu dicapai oleh
setiap individu.
Dalam konteks kajian ini, makna dalam hidup diberi tumpuan terhadap golongan gelandangan.
Justeru, kajian ini mempunyai dua objektif iaitu:-
1. Mengukur tahap pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan.

2. Mengukur perbezaan pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan berdasarkan demografi.
2. Metodologi Penyelidikan
2.1 Sampel Kajian
Kajian ini melibatkan seramai 36 orang gelandangan yang terdiri daripada lelaki (21 orang) dan
perempuan (15 orang). Daripada 36 orang sampel tersebut, 33 (91.7%) berbangsa Melayu, dua
(5.6%) berbangsa Cina dan satu (2.8%) adalah berbangsa India. Purata umur setiap sampel kajian
adalah dari 20 tahun sehingga 66 tahun. Kebanyakan sampel dalam kajian ini mempunyai
pendidikan Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) dan Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) sahaja.
Selain itu, alasan sampel kajian menjadi gelandangan adalah kerana terjebak dengan dadah, tiada
tempat tinggal, pengabaian dari keluarga, bankrap, keluar dari penjara dan tiada bantuan.
2.2 Prosedur kajian dan alat kajian
Semua gelandangan melalui kajian ini telah dipilih berdasarkan persampelan bertujuan di sekitar
Tune Hotel, Jalan Tar Kuala Lumpur pada 17 Ogos 2014. Pengkaji terlebih dahulu membuat
perbincangan dengan pihak badan bukan kerajaan (NGO) bagi menetapkan tarikh perjumpaan
bersama gelandangan. Selain itu, pengkaji turut menerangkan tentang kajian yang bakal
dijalankan, kepentingan dan juga rasional kajian. Pihak badan bukan kerajaan juga turut
menyatakan segala maklumat berkaitan dengan gelandangan seperti hari dan tempat
pengumpulan sampel kajian kepada pengkaji. Setelah segala maklumat,diperoleh, kutipan data
dikendalikan pada 17 Ogos 2014.
582
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Kebanyakan sampel kajian memerlukan bantuan dari segi pembacaan bagi proses melengkapkan
jawapan. Oleh itu, pengkaji telah membacakan setiap item dalam bahagian yang telah disediakan
bagi gelandangan yang memerlukan. Hal ini kerana, semasa pengkaji mengedarkan borang soal
selidik, setiap gelandangan yang berada di kawasan tersebut sedang menjamu selera hasil
makanan yang telah dibekalkan oleh badan bukan kerajaan tersebut. Oleh yang demikian, bagi
menghormati mereka, pengkaji mengambil keputusan untuk membacakan setiap item dalam soal
selidik tersebut. Selain itu, terdapat juga gelandangan sukar memahami setiap item yang ditanya.
Soal selidik dalam kajian ini merangkumi dua bahagian utama iaitu bahagia A dan bahagian B.
Bahagian A merangkumi soalan-soalan yang berkaitan dengan latar belakang golongan
gelandangan. Antara soalan-soalan yang ditanya merangkumi jantina, bangsa, umur, pencapaian
akademik dan faktor menjadi gelandangan.
Soal selidik piawai The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger, Frazier, Oishi dan kaler, 2004)
telah digunakan bagi mengukur pengertian hidup dalam bahagian B. Skala berbentuk Likert
tujuh pilihan jawapan telah digunakan di dalam soal selidik ini. Ianya dikadarkan dengan pilihan
jawapan daripada sangat tidak tepat sehingga sangat tepat. Kehadiran soal selidik pengertian
hidup ini adalah berkenaan dengan pengertian hidup yang dirasai atau dialami oleh seseorang
secara subjektif dan orientasi yang mendorong seseorang untuk mencari pengertian dalam
hidupnya.
3. Keputusan Kajian
3.1 Kebolehpercayaan soal selidik
Kebolehpercayaan ujian bermakna ujian itu konsisten (Tuckman, 1978). Sesuatu ujian itu
dikatakan mempunyai kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi sekiranya skor yang sama diperoleh
individu yang sama dengan menjawab ujian yang sama pada masa yang berbeza (Sidek Mohd
Noah, 1990). Kajian ini telah menguji kebolehpercayaan soal selidik dengan menggunakan
pekali alfa cronbach. Kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi untuk sesuatu alat ujian amat diperlukan.
Menurut Mohd Majid Konting (1990), pekali kebolehpercayaan yang lebih dari .60 boleh
digunakan di dalam kajian. Oleh itu, nilai kebolehpercayaan yang diperoleh di dalam kajian ini
ialah .801.
3.2 Pembahagian tahap pengertian hidup gelandangan mengikut skor pemarkatan
Jumlah skor pemarkatan Tahap pengertian hidup Bilangan (%)

10- 23 Rendah 0 (0%)
24 46 Sederhana 18 (50%)
47 - 70 Tinggi 18 (50%)
583
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Berdasarkan jadual berikut, pengertian hidup yang diterima oleh gelandangan kebanyakannya
berada pada tahap yang sederhana dan tinggi. Pengertian hidup gelandangan pada tahap rendah
mencatat angka sifar. Manakala, pada tahap sederhana dan tinggi masing-masing mencatat
bilangan gelandangan seramai 18 orang (50%).
3.3 Perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan faktor jantina
Jantina N Min Sisihan Piawai t dk Sig

Lelaki 21 43.4762 9.42135 .061 34 .951
Perempuan 15 43.2667 10.97703
Hasil ujian t di atas menunjukkan bahawa nilai signifikan yang diperoleh adalah sebanyak .061.
Nilai kebebasan pula ialah 34 dan nilai kebarangkalian ialah .951. Keadaan ini membawa
maksud pengertian hidup antara gelandangan lelaki dan perempuan adalah tidak berbeza antara
satu sama lain. Walaubagaimanpun, golongan gelandangan lelaki dibuktikan mempunyai nilai
min pengertian hidup melebihi gelandangan perempuan iaitu sebanyak 43.4762.
3.4 Perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan faktor bangsa
JKD dk MKD F Sig

Antara kumpulan 470.495 2 235.247 2.595 .090
Dalam kumpulan 2992.061 33 90.669
Hasil dalam jadual Anova di atas, menunjukkan perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan faktor
bangsa gelandangan. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa nilai statistik F ialah 2.595 dengan nilai
signifikan yang diperoleh adalah sebanyak .090. Nilai ini melebihi aras signifikan .50. Keadaan
ini menunjukkan bahawa pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan adalah tidak berbeza mengikut
bangsa. Semua gelandangan yang terdiri dari pelbagai bangsa mempunyai pengertian hidup yang
sama.
3.5 Perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan faktor tahap umur
JKD dk MKD F Sig

Antara kumpulan 419.681 2 209.840 2.276 119
Dalam kumpulan 3042.875 33 92.208
Jadual 3 pula menunjukkan perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan tahap umur gelandangan.
Nilai F yang terhasil adalah sebanyak 2.276. Manakala, nilai signifikan yang terhasil adalah
sebanyak .119. Oleh yang demikian, ianya menunjukkan bahawa pada setiap peringkat umur,
pengertian hidup yang diperoleh gelandangan adalah tidak berbeza
584
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3.6 Perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan tahap pencapaian akademik
JKD dk MKD F Sig

Antara kumpulan .253 1 .253 .002 .961
Dalam kumpulan 3462.303 34 101.832
Jadual 4 menunjukkan perbezaan pengertian hidup berdasarkan tahap pencapaian akademik.

Nilai F yang terhasil adalah sebanyak 2.276. Manakala, nilai signifikan yang dihasilkan adalah
sebanyak .961. Oleh yang demikian, ianya menunjukkan bahawa pada setiap tahap pencapaian
akademik, pengertian hidup yang diperoleh mereka adalah tidak berbeza.
4. Perbincangan
Kajian ini mempunyai dua objektif iaitu 1) mengukur tahap pengertian hidup golongan
gelandangan dan 2) mengukur perbezaan pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan berdasarkan
faktor demografi. Keputusan kajian mendapati bahawa pengertian hidup gelandangan pada tahap
rendah mencatat angka sifar. Manakala, pada tahap sederhana dan tinggi masing-masing mencatat
bilangan gelandangan seramai 18 orang (50%). Keadaan ini berlaku kerana golongan gelandangan
ini sentiasa berada dalam persekitaran dan lingkungan kawan-kawan mereka sahaja. Pengertian
hidup mereka dipengaruhi oleh faktor persekitaran dan juga faktor intrinsik. Menurut Maslow,
makna hidup merupakan sesuatu yang muncul secara intrinsik dari dalam diri manusia sendiri.
Manusia harus memenuhi keperluan asas terlebih dahulu untuk memenuhi nilai-nilai tersebut.
Apabila individu memilih melakukan aktiviti-aktiviti yang sesuai dengan nilai-nilai intrinsik
dalam dirinya, maka ia akan mendapat makna hidup yang positif dan menyihatkan bagi
perkembangan keperibadian. Keadaan ini juga boleh dikatakan kerana perkara yang paling
mempengaruhi makna hidup adalah hubungan antara manusia (Takkinen & Ruopilla 2001).
Menurut Cynthia (2001) yang meneliti tentang proses pencapaian kebermaknaan hidup
menunjukkan bahawa ketika seseorang memilih untuk tidak lari dari masalah dan mampu
mengambil hikmah atas segala peristiwa yang dialaminya, dikatakan orang tersebut akan
merasakan hidupnya menjadi lebih bermakna. Memandangkan sampel kajian dari latar belakang
bermasalah, dan sehingga sekarang mereka masih boleh bertahan meneruskan hidup justeru
mereka mempunyai makna dalam hidup. Pengkajian ini menyokong kepada makna dalam hidup
ini adalah kerana, walaupun mereka bukanlah orang yang berjaya dalam kehidupan namun mereka
mempunyai motivasi untuk terus hidup.
Frankl (1970) menyebutkan makna hidup bermula dari sebuah visi kehidupan, harapan dan
merupakan alasan kenapa manusia harus tetap hidup. Mohamad Hudaeri (2007) mengatakan
bahawa setiap orang yang hidup jelas mendambakan adanya pengertian hidup. Pengertian hidup
ialah kesedaran akan adanya nilai-nilai yang dipandang sebagai penting, dirasakan berharga, dan
diyakini sebagai sesuatu yang benar serta dapat dijadikan sebagai tujuan hidup. Pengertian hidup
585
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
atau makna hidup merupakan nilai-nilai penting dan sangat bererti bagi kehidupan peribadi
seseorang yang berfungsi sebagai tujuan hidup yang harus dipenuhi dan merupakan pengarah
kepada kegiatan-kegiatan seseorang individu.
Frankl (2000) telah menjalankan pemerhatian ke atas individu dan mengatakan orang yang tiada
pengertian dalam hidup akan meninggal dunia lebih awal berbanding orang yang mempunyai
tujuan dalam hidup. Menurutnya lagi, tidak mempunyai pengertian dalam hidup juga boleh
menyebabkan lemahnya menghadapi kesulitan, kemurungan, bunuh diri, tidak boleh berdikari dan
kesejahtaraan negatif. Mohamad Hudaeri (2007) setiap orang yang hidup jelas mendambakan
adanya makna hidup, iaitu kesedaran akan adanya nilai-nilai yang dipandang sebagai penting,
dirasakan berharga, dan diyakini sebagai sesuatu yang benar serta dapat dijadikan sebagai tujuan
hidup. Makna hidup dilihat bertindak sebagai panduan kepada pencapaian sesuatu objektif dalam
kehidupan seseorang individu dan sumber kepada makna ini adalah berbeza-beza berdasarkan
pengalaman dan pembelajaran yang dialami sepanjang hidup individu tersebut.
Selain itu, kajian juga mendapati bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan pengertian hidup antara
gelandangan lelaki dan perempuan. Keadaan ini membawa maksud pengertian hidup antara
gelandangan lelaki dan perempuan adalah tidak berbeza antara satu sama lain. Dalam kajian
imigran Latin menunjukkan golongan perempuan lebih tinggi mempunyai pengertian hidup
kerana mereka meletakkan agama dan penyerahan diri kepada Tuhan sebagai suatu destinasi.
Justeru, mereka lebih bermotivasi untuk meneruskan kehidupan kerana sentiasa berada dalam
komuniti keagamaan. Manakala dalam kajian Arpad Skrabski (2005) menunjukkan terdapat
hubungan antara pengertian hidup dengan tahap pengamalan keagamaan oleh pesakit wanita
berbanding lelaki. Pesakit wanita dikatakan penglibatan dalam keagamaan menjadikan mereka
lebih tertumpu kepada pencarian pengertian hidup yang bermakna. Berdasarkan kajian yang telah
dijalankan oleh pengkaji-pengkaji lain menunjukkan kebanyakan individu meletakkan agama
sebagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan rasa tegang. Beberapa kajian menunjukkan terdapat
perbezaan makna hidup berdasarkan demografi namun dalam kajian ini tidak terdapat perbezaan
dari segi gender, umur dan pendidikan.
Melalui kajian ini juga, hasil mendapati bahawa pengertian hidup gelandangan adalah tidak
berbeza mengikut bangsa. Walaupun mereka datang dari pelbagai bangsa, pengertian hidup di
antara satu sama lain adalah sama. Budaya merupakan aspek penting dalam nilai diri seseorang
individu, jangkaan hidup dan keperluan (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Budaya akan memberikan
individu maklumat tentang sekeliling, termasuklah apa itu kegembiraan dan bagaimana untuk
mencapainya (Constantine & Sue 2006; Uchida, Norasakkunkit & Kitayama 2004). Tambahan
lagi, budaya akan membentuk pengalaman yang spesifik terhadap individu berkaitan dengan
pengertian hidup. Kajian lain mendapati bahawa kehadiran pengertian hidup sangat berkait rapat
dengan kesejahteraan hidup di dalam budaya yang spesifik atau tertentu (Shek 1992). Menurut
Michael F. Steger (2007) budaya memainkan peranan dalam memberikan makna hidup kepada
manusia. Justeru bagi golongan gelandangan ini, budaya persekitaran yang membentuk corak
586
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
pemikiran dan motivasi dengan berfikiran positif bagi memenuhi keperluan sehariannya.
Hasil lain kajian ini turut mendapati bahawa pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan ini adalah
tidak berbeza mengikur tahap umur. Walaupun terdapat perbezaan umur dalam diri gelandangan,
ianya tidak dapat membezakan pengertian hidup masing-masing. Kajian ini bercanggah dengan
hasil kajian Arnetts (2000). Menurut beliau, peringkat umur ini membezakan individu dari segi
pengalaman hidup dan bermulanya proses pembuatan keputusan diri. Marcia (1993) menyatakan
bahawa perbezaan akan wujud antara lelaki dan perempuan semasa proses pembentukan identiti
semasa peringkat dewasa. Matlamat dan tujuan hidup lelaki muda adalah lebih cenderung kepada
faktor iedeologi (agama, politik, pekerjaan). Manakala, matlamat dan tujuan hidup wanita muda
adalah lebih cenderung kepada faktor interpersonal (persahabatan, temujanji, keluarga). Hasil
kajian Reker et. al (1987) mendapati bahawa wanita mempunyai skor yang tinggi berbanding
lelaki dalam proses kawalan dan tanggungjawab dalam hidup. Keadaan ini mempunyai hubungan
dengan pengukuran dalam keadaan sosial yang diingini. Bagi meneruskan kelangsungan hidup,
pengertian hidup dikatakan sebagai indikator yang penting bagi menguatkan mental dan fizikal
seseorang. Oleh itu, kestabilan mental, emosi dan spiritual akan mempengaruhi personaliti
seseorang dalam mencapai kesejahteraan hidup mereka.
Hasil kajian terakhir mendapati bahawa pengertian hidup gelandangan adalah tidak berbeza
berdasarkan tahap pencapaian akademik. Kajian ini adalah selari dengan Salleh Amat dan Zuria
Mahmud (2009) yang mendapati bahawa tidak wujud perbezaan antara kepuasan hidup dengan
pencapaian akademik. Peranan pendidikan adalah amat penting untuk membina kehidupan yang
berkualiti. Pendidikan mempunyai impak yang besar ke atas peluang kehidupan manusia untuk
memperoleh dan mengekalkan kualiti kehidupan.
Menurut Frankl (1985) dalam Bastaman 1996, ketika membahas tentang pengertian dari makna
hidup mengatakan bahawa makna hidup adalah berbeza antara seorang individu dengan individu
lain. Pengertian hidup individu juga bahkan berbeza setiap hari malahan setiap jam. Beliau cuba
menggambarkan bahawa makna hidup merupakan sesuatu yang sangat peribadi bergantung
kepada keperibadian dan keunikan individu itu sendiri dalam usaha memaknakan hidupnya.
Frankl (dalam Bastaman 1996), juga mengemukakan karakteristik pengertian hidup iaitu:
i) Sifat makna hidup adalah unik dan peribadi, maksudnya apa yang dianggap penting dan
bermakna bagi seseorang individu belum tentu menjadi sesuatu yang bermakna bagi orang
lain.
ii) Sifat makna hidup adalah konkrit dan spesifik, maksudnya pengertian hidup ini dapat
ditemui dalam pengalaman-pengalaman yang dilalui dan kehidupan realiti sehari-hari.
iii) Makna hidup bersifat memberi pedoman dan arah kepada kegiatan-kegiatan yang
dilaksanakan sehingga makna hidup seakan-akan mencabar diri dan merangsang individu
untuk berusaha memenuhinya.
Secara umumnya, pengertian hidup boleh didefinisikan sebagai perkara yang mampu membuatkan
587
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
individu melihat kehidupan sebagai berharga. Ianya berkait rapat dengan melaksanakan sesuatu
yang positif atau baik yang boleh membawa kepada objektif hidup. Apabila manusia berhasil
melaksanakan matlamat hidup mereka, maka kehidupan akan dilihat bererti dan penting. Sumber
kepada pengertian hidup manusia boleh hadir dalam beberapa aspek merangkuimi pengalaman
dan pembelajaran serta pegangan dan nilai. Pengalaman yang menjadi komponen pembentukan
makna hidup ini pula terbahagi kepada dua aspek iaitu pengalaman yang baik atau
menggembirakan dan pengalaman yang pahit atau dukacita.
5. Kesimpulan dan cadangan
Kajian ini tidak boleh digeneralisasikan ke atas populasi lain kerana sampel yang kecil. Oleh itu
adalah mustahil dapatan kajian ini boleh digeneralisasikan kepada semua gelandangan di seluruh
dunia. Kajian berkaitan dengan pengertian hidup golongan gelandangan perlu diperbanyakkan.
Pengkaji juga merasakan ianya suatu topik yang menarik untuk dibincangkan. Kajian ini juga
dapat membantu golongan gelandangan dengan mengenalpasti personaliti dan memberi
pendedahan yang sewajarnya kepada mereka agar terus bermotivasi untuk pembangunan diri.
Hasil kajian ini membuktikan bahawa makna dalam hidup terhadap golongan gelandangan
menyebabkan mereka terus berfikiran positif bagi memenuhi keperluan asas harian. Hasil dari
kajian ini akan dapat memberi maklumat dan pengetahuan terhadap pihak berkuasa tentang
golongan gelandangan ini. Hal ini adalah kerana golongan gelandangan biasanya mempunyai
masalah sokongan sosial yang rendah juteru perlunya pihak tertentu yang bertanggungjawab bagi
mengekang masalah gelandangan di bandar-bandar besar khususnya.
Kajian ini mempunyai beberapa limitasi antaranya ialah pengkaji sukar mendapatkan sampel. Ini
adalah kerana sampel berada di kawasan-kawasan yang berisiko. Justeru pengkaji menyarankan
perlunya pengawasan dari pihak berkuasa agar tiada sebarang permasalahan berlaku.
Antara limitasi lain yang dihadapi oleh pengkaji adalah masa yang terlalu lama yang diambil oleh
sampel kajian kerana pengkaji perlu membacakan soalan kepada sampel. Keadaan ini berlaku
kerana kebanyakan sampel sedang menjamu selera dan ada yang sedang tidur ketika kajian sedang
dijalankan.
Limitasi seterusnya adalah pengkaji perlu menunggu masa tertentu bagi mendapatkan sampel. Ini
adalah kerana golongan gelandangan sukar didapati dan dikenalpasti pada waktu siang. Justeru
pengkaji perlu menunggu waktu malam iaitu sekitar jam 11 malam dan ke atas untuk menjalankan
kajian.
588
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
5. References
Arnetts, J. J. 2000. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the
twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480
Arpad Skrabski, Maria Kopp, sandor Rozsa, Janos Rethelyi & Richard H. Rahe. 2005. Life
Meaning: An important correlate of health in the Hungarian population. International
Journal of Behavioral Medicine 12 (2): 78-85.
Bastaman, Hanna Djumhana. 1996. Meraih Hidup Bermakna: Kisah Peribadi dengan Pengalaman
Tragis. Jakarta: Paramadina
Bastaman, H.D. 2007. Logoterapi Psikologi untuk Menemukan Makna Hidup dan Meraih
Hidp Bermakna. Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada.
Bonebright C.A., Clay, D. L. & Ankenmann, R. D. 2000. The relationship of workaholism with
work-life conflict, life satisfaction, and purpose in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology
47:469-477
Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. 2006. Factors contributing to optimal human functioning in
people of color in the United States. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 228-244.
Cynthia, T. 2007. Proses pencapaian kebermaknaan hidup pada perempuan yang mengalami
peristiwa traumatis. Jurnal Proceeding PESAT (Psikologi, Ekonomi, Sastra, Arsitek &
Sipil) Auditorium Kampus Gunadarma 2: 43-50..
Frankl, V. E. 1970. The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotheraphy. New
York: New America Library
Frankl, V. E. (1985). Mans search for meaning (Revised and updated). New York, NY:
Washington Square Press
Frankl, V. E. 2000. Mans search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.
Gary T. Reker. 2004. Meaning in life of young, middle-aged, and older adults: factorial validity,
age, and gender invariance of the personal meaning index (PMI). Personality and Individual
Differences 38: 71-85.
Hudaeri, M. 2007. Agama dan Problem Makna Hidup. Al-Qalam, 24 (2). (Mei-Ogos).
Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat. 2010. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Kartika Melati, Yoyon Supriyono & Faizah. T.th. Pencapaian kehidupan bermakna (The
Meaningful Life) setelah kematian pasangan berdasarkan teori Victor Frankl pada janda
lanjut usia. Universitas Brawijaya Malang.
http://psikologi.ub.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/JURNAL-SKRIPSI-KARTIKA-M.p
df [18 Jun 2015].
Kenyataan media Dato Sri Rohani Abdul Karim. Menteri Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga Dan
Masyarakat., Isu Gelandangan. [3 Jun 2014].
Man Yee Ho, Fanny M. Cheung & Shu Fai Cheung. 2010. The role of meaning in life and
optimism in promoting well-being. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences 48:
658-663.
589
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Marcia, J. 1993. The status of statuses: Research review. In J. Marcia, A. Waterman, D. Matteson,
S. Archer, & J. Orlofsky (Eds.), Ego identity: A handbook for psychological research (pp.
22-41). New York: Springer-Verla
Marianne G. Dunn & Karen M. OBrien. 2009. Psychological health and meaning in life:
stress, social support and religious coping in Latina/Latino Immigrants. Hispanic Journal of
Behavioral Sciences 31 (2): 204-227.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. 1991. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion,
and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253
Michael F. Steger, Yoshito Kawabata, Satoshi Shimai & Keiko Otake. 2007. The meaningful life
in Japan and the United States: Levels and correlates of meaning in life. Journal of
Research in Personality 42: 660-678.
Mohd Majid Konting. 1990. Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka.
Mohd. Hizam Hanafiah & Zafir Mohd Makhbul. 2003. Pengurusan Organisasi. Kuala
Lumpur: McGraw-Hill Sdn. Bhd.
Molina-Jackson, E. 2008. Homeless not hopeless. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Rafiza Mohamed. 2015. Gelandangan Antara Tret Personaliti dan Religiositi. Kuala Lumpur:
Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia.
Ratna Roshida Abd Razak, Modal Insan Aset Utama Pembentukan Tamadun Bangsa, in Mohd.
Roslan Mohd Nor & Ahmad Zaki Berahim @ Ibrahim(Ed.), Pembangunan Modal Insan &
Tamadun Dari Perspektif Islam ( Universiti Malaya: Akademi Pengajian Islam, Jabatan
Sejarah dan Tamadun Islam, 2010).
Reker, G. T., Peacock, E. J., & Wong, P. T. P. 1987. Meaning and purpose in life and well-bening:
A life span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49
Ryff C.D. & Singer B.H. 1998. The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry
9 (1): 1-28.
Saiful Bahri Kamaruddin. 2014. Forum: Isu gelandangan perlu ditangani pada peringkat akar
umbi. http://ukm.my [17 Julai 2014].
Salleh Amat dan Zuria Mahmud. 2009. Hubungan antara ketegasan diri dan kepuasan hidup dalam
kalangan institut pengajian tinggi. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia. Jil 2. 49-65
Shek, D. T. L. 1992. Meaning in life and psychological well-being: An empirical study using the
Chinese version of the purpose in Life Questionnaire. The Journal of Genetic Psychology,
153, 185-200
Sidek Mohd Noah. 1990. Penilaian dalam kaunseling: Interpretasi keputusan ujian meliputi
kesahan dan kebolehpercayan. Kertas kerja dibentangkan di Seminar Pengujian dalam
Bimbingan Kerjaya, di Pusat Pengembangan dan Pendidikan Lanjutan, UPM, Serdang,
pada 25-26 November 1991.
Takkinen S. & I. Ruopilla. 2001. Meaning in life in three samples of elderly person with high
cognitive functioning. International Journal Aging and Human Development. 53 (1): 51-73.
Tatjana Schnell & Peter Becker. 2006. Personality and meaning in life. Personality and
Individual Differences 41: 117-129.
590
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Tayfun Dogan, Fatma Sapmaz, Fatma Dilek Tel, Seda Sapmaz & Selin Temizel. 2012.
Meaning in life and subjective well-being among Turkish University students. Procedia
Social and Behavioral Sciences 55 : 612-617.
Tuckman, B.W. 1978. Conducting Educational Research, 2nd Edition. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Uchida, Y., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kitayama, S. 2004. Cultural constructions of happiness:
Theory and empirical evidence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 223-239
Ulrich Diehl.. 2009. Human suffering as a challenge for the meaning of life. Existenx: An
International Journal in Philosophy, Religion, Politics and the Arts. 4 (2): 36-44.
White, C. A. 2004. Meaning and its measurement in Psychosocial oncology. Psycho
Oncology 13 : 468-481.
591
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
SCIENCE AND SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES
592
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Conceptual Analysis of E-recruitment: The Role of Web-Site Usability and
Organizational Attraction of Personnel in Nigeria.
Naziru Mohammed Musalli*, Azhar Harun**, Ruslan Zainuddin***

School of Government, College of Law Government and International Studies.
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: *muserlly@gmail.com, **azhar@uum.edu.my, ***zruslan@uum.edu.my
Abstract
E-recruitment is interchangeably used as the practice of recruitment by means of cyber space.

E-recruitment has been described as online recruitment, internet recruiting or cyber space
recruiting using electronic web-based practice to advertise job vacancies online. As a result of
rapid increased of technology advancement, the level of utilizing internet and electronic mails in
conducting business activities in organizations had evident globally. The aims of this study are to
examine the importance of e-recruitment in facilitating organizational process of selecting
quality and competence employees. The impact of globalization on todays tight and competitive
labour market, available vacancies most be fill with qualified candidates as a major roles played
by human resource managers. In the same vein, organizations realised that proper management
of men, money, method, machinery etc, resulted to higher degree of productivity when suitable
qualified people are recruited. In view of the above discussion therefore, this study is carried out
to investigate the problems and provide the possible solution to organization on how to attract
large pools number of applicants in recruitment process.
Keywords: E-Recruitment, Web-side usability, Online Recruitment, Quality and competency,

Organizational Attraction in Nigeria.
1.0 Introduction
E-recruitment is interchangeably used as the practice of recruitment by means of cyber space J

(Adumeru, 2012). Online recruiting is a component in human resource that today serve as the
most recent means of organizational searching for potential staff (Pfiefelmann et al., 2010).
E-recruitment has been described as online recruitment, internet recruiting or cyber space
recruiting. Using electronic web-based practice to advertise job vacancies online (Galanaki,
2002). As a result of rapid increased of technology advancement, the level of utilizing internet
and electronic mails in conducting business activities in organizations had evident globally.
593
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The importance of e-recruitment in facilitating organizational process of selecting potential staff

cannot be over emphasise, beside it success of choosing quality and competence employee, the
practice is organizations cost effective (Odumeru, 2012; Pfiefelmann, et al, 2010). Internet
web-based application provides organizations instants and speedy access of assessing large pools
of job seekers within a stipulated time frame. Another reason that made online process of
application options significance as a recruiting medium, above other options such as professional
recruitment agencies, such as Newspaper advertisement and other traditional recruitment
method, are in house web-based recruitment which lower cost to employee (Cappelli, 2011;
Cober, Brown, Blumental, Doverspite, Levy, 2000; Selden & Orenstein, 2011).
Organizations such as Nigerian Military, Nigerian Police force (NPF) Custom Service
Commission, Nigerian Drugs Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), Independent National
Electoral Commission (INEC), Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), CBN and
commercial Banks, companies and host of others, to mentioned but few, were using
e-recruitment as strategy in recruiting their teeming workforce. However, recent research had
shown that tremendous numbers of applicant are searching for jobs with the use of internet
web-based. The main objective of this study is to explain the importance of E- recruitment of
web-side usability on organizational attraction to employees.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Recruitment
There are a lot of divergent views used in describing the word recruitment, for example,
Peretomode, (2001) explained the word as integral part of human resource which involves
identification of attracting prospective applicant with needed talents and skills to pet into the
vacant post exist in the organization. Recruitment is described as a series of activities carried
out legally by organization to obtain sufficient number of qualified workers at the right time to
put in the right place (Nickles et al, 1999).
Recruitment is the activity of human resource management, where as it main function is to

critically identify an attractive potential applicant into existing vacant post of organization.
While it is often clear that poor recruitment decision have a devastating effect to organizational
performance and limit the desire goal to be achieved in the long run. Hence, the prerequisite to
high quality of good and services begins from recruitment strategy (Randall, 2004). The concept
is also perceived from the same point of views that emphasise must be given to identification of
qualified candidate, as against the organization cost and time savings (Peretomode, 2001;
Nickles 1999; & Randall, 2004). On the other hand recruitment is seeing as the practice and
activities conducted by organization through human resource management with the primary aims
of selecting prospective employees to fill the existing vacant posts (Breaugh & Strarke, 2000), in
the work of (Parry & Wilson 2009). According to a study carried out by Khan, Khan & Khan,
(2011) the important of human resource were highlighted that is considered as the backbone of
every organization. Most of the organizations intend to invest huge amount of capitals in human
594
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
resource department because it is the major area that will ultimately improves the performance of
organization toward achieving goals and objectives. The improvement of performance increases
effectiveness and efficiency in organization and assist the organization for the achievement of it
goals in the long run. Certain factors were identified which help in improving work of staff are
flexible schedules and training among others (Khan et. al., 2011).
Michael (2006) describes human resource management as strategic and intelligible method of
management in an organization. It is a place where the most valuable human resources
individuals who collectively cooperate together and contribute to the achievement of
organizational objectives. The main purpose of human resource department is assuring the
organization attainment of maximum level of productivity to the achievement of success using
organizational manpower. Basically human resource management mostly concern with the
achievement of the following goals and objectives
Jusola (2010) asserted that the main purpose of recruitment by organizations is to fill in existing
vacancies with competence personnel and proper staffing maintenance in order to tally with the
organizational needs. Globalization paradigm shifted the human resource management nature of
organizational employment. There are involvement of several steps and stakeholders in
organizational hiring process, which paved way to external participants such as recruiting firms
or consultants as well as agencies (Compto et al, 2009; Jusala, 2010). Recruitment process began
with the blue print statement of the organizational objectives (Jusala, 2010).
2.2 E-Recruitment
Electronic recruitment system was championed in 1980s as a form of independent job sites
known as Bulletin Board System. E-recruitment is interchangeably use as the practice of
recruitment by means cyber space (Adumeru, 2012). Online recruiting is a component in human
resource that today serves as the most recent organizational means of search for potential staff
(Pew internet survey, 2002; Pfieffelmann, S. H. Wagner and T. Libkuman, 2010).
According to Smith (1999) the concept e-recruitment had positive impact to employers. Despite
the fact that certain amount of huge money could be spend in designing a simple web-based,
which consider expensive by small companies, but it is cost effective than the uses of
newspapers. Another study conducted in U.K. on decision to recruit online. The author
discovered internet agencies provide company with substantial amount of better applicants more
than that of traditional method of recruitment (Galanaki, 2006).
The current competitive war of talents among recruiters is becoming increasingly more in the
contemporary global arena. The organizational successes mostly depend or achieve through the
attainment of employees which are highly valuables catalyst in organizations. A study
ascertained that Web-based is the most popular means of recruiting staff to various post across
both private and public sectors (Chapman & Webster, 2003). Another important factor that affect
potential applicants is delays in accessing application process, this extensively discourage large
595
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
number of applicants and causes job seekers to loss interest concerning a particular job especially
the applicants with little computer knowledge. Speed and navigation of computer devices usually
influence the perception of jobs seekers positively (Matthias & Justus, 2010).
2.3 Web-Site Usability
Digitalization has changed the method of traditional ways of recruitment; it has been
supplemented with uses of web-based procedure. The initial stage of staffing process to the
employment of competence and qualified applicants is very important to the organizational
success, where by the potential applicants may have relevant knowledge on the particular job
(Ployhart, 2006). Current trend of technological advancement played vital role on the process of
recruitment which increases the number of organizations engages into uses of web-based in
recruitment of personnels.
The rise of recruitment using web-based by the organizations has been evident in the recent
decade, a research survey shown that about 90% of the organizations are currently conducting
the recruitment through their official web pages (Cappelli, 2001). Both public and private
organizations nowadays use their websites in advertising vacant jobs and employment of their
staff, through proper utilization of their human resource management activity (Elliot &
Tevavichulada, 1999).
In recent years the usability and accessibility of web-based are not only applicable to
organisations along but it is also applicable to the general interactive systems. A well and sound
criteria and guidelines have to be created and follows systematically for the purpose of obtaining
more usable and accessible web-based to organizations (Barbara & Fabio, 2003).
In another study conducted by Sangmook (2012) ascertained that Public Service Motivation
(PSM) serve as a driven force to encourage personnels to the job satisfaction that will satisfy the
general public interest. Person-Organization Fit theory postulated that in many instances the
characteristics of an organization inspire prospective applicants to search for job in the
organization. It also determine the level of correlation between the applicant characteristics of
individuals attitudes as well as behaviours to that of organization, which have the direct
influence to a certain degree of marching or fit between organizations and individuals
(Sangmook, 2012). Many organizations developed a specific strategy of attracting attention of
target individuals in recruiting new applicants. Although it was proved that attracting attention of
people can be very difficult, due to the fact that many at times it used to be hard to know how to
reach some of the most appropriate target applicants (Breaugh, 2009).
3.0 Conclusion
This paper contributes to a deeper understanding of the role of website usability in attracting
potentials applicants into organizations in Nigeria. It also indicated the numbers of advantages
drive by organizations in searching competence and qualified personnel using Website in the
596
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
recruitment process. The study clearly spelt out certain factors the organizations would adhere in
order to attract a large pools of prospective job seekers whos in the long run would result to the
higher productivity in the organization. However, it is as a result of higher scarcity of talent in
globalized labour market it become important issue to many organizations to search for more
talented individuals into their work place. This make it imperative for organizations to engages
in practices a sound strategy of stimulating as well as retaining the talented staffs that can
contribute to the higher and profitable operation in the organization. It is very obvious employees
always tends to get the best responses of their job performance from the organization.
4.0 References
Allen, D. G., Otondo, R. F. & Matho, R. V. 2007. Web-based recruitment: Effects of

information, organizational brand, and attitudes toward a web-site on applicant attraction.
Journal of Applied Psychology.
Barbari L. & Fabio P. 2003. Criteria for usability of accessible web-sites. Department of
Computer Science, University of Pisa, Italy.
Baum, M., & Kabst, R. 2010. Websites in the recruitment context: A conceptual
model. Evidence-Based e-HRM? On the way to rigorous and relevant research. 128.
Cappelli, P. (2001). On-line recruiting. Harvard business review, 79(3), 139-146.
Cappelli, Peter. "On-line recruiting." Harvard business review 79.3 2001: 139-146
Casal, L. V., Flavin, C., & Guinalu, M. 2008. The role of satisfaction and website usability in
developing customer loyalty and positive word-ofmouth in the e-banking services. International
Journal of Bank Marketing, 26(6), 399417.
Cavana, R., Delahaye, B.B.L., and Sekaran, U. 2001. Applied business research: qualitative
and quantitative methods, Singapore: Markono Print Media Ltd. 252
Cesar, C. & Servein, L. 2003. The effects of infrastructure development on growth and income
distribution
Chandrasekar, K. 2011. Workplace environment and its impact on organisational performance in

public sector organisations. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business
Systems, 1(1), 1-16.
Chatterjee, S., & Yilmaz, M. 1992. A Review of regression diagnostics for behavioral research.
Applied Psychological Measurement, 16, 209-227.
597
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
James A. B. 2009. Recruiting and attracting talent: A guide to understanding and managing the
Recruitment process.
Kim, S. 2012. Does personorganization fit matter in the publicsector? Testing the mediating
effect of personorganization fit in the relationship between public service motivation and work
attitudes. Public Administration Review, 72(6), 830-840.
Kristo A. L. (1996) Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations,

measurement, and implications personnel psychology
Lievens, F., Decaesteker, C., Coetsier, P., & Geirnaert, J. 2001. Organizational attractiveness for
prospective applicants: A personorganisation fit perspective. Applied Psychology, 50(1), 30-51.
Marr, E. R. 2007. E-recruitment: the effectiveness of the internet as a recruitment source.
Odumeru J. A., 2012. Diffusion of online recruiting technology in Nigeria. online journal of
Social Sciences Research ISSN 2277-0844; Volume 1, Issue 4, pp 104-114; July 2012.
Palmer, J. W. 2002. Web site usability, design, and performance metrics. Information systems
research, 13(2), 151-167.
Parry E. and Shoun T. An analysis of the use and success of online recruitment method in the
UK. Human resource management journal Volume 18, issue 3 pages 257-274
Pfieffelmann B., Stephen H., Wagner and Libkuman T., 2010. Recruiting on corporate web-sites:
Perceptions of fit and attraction. International journal Volume 18 Number 1
Sally S. Orenstein J., 2011. Government e-recruitment web-sites: The influence of e-recruitment
content and usability in recruiting and hire outcomes in US State government. International
Journal Volume 19 Number 1
Sanskrity J. Susmiriti S. Khan A., Zaman K. 2014. Organizational attractiveness as a predictor of

employee retention. IOSR Journal of Business and Management Volume 16, issue 9. Ver. IV
Sanusi, A. 2012. Good governance practices in e-recruitment adoption in Nigerian public

service (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Utara Malaysia).
Shah, N. 2010. Internet and society in Asia: challenges and next steps. InterAsia Cultural
Studies, 11(1), 129-135.
Sharma, V. 2010. Impact of e-recruitment on human resource supply chain Management: An

Empirical Investigation of service industry in Indian Context (Doctoral dissertation, Jaypee
Institute of Information Technology, Noida).
598
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Williamson, I., Lepak, D., & King, J. 2003. The effect of company recruitment web site
orientation on individuals' perceptions of organizational attractiveness. Journal of Vocational
Behaviour.
599
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Risk Assessment on General Safety
In Air Separation Unit of A Gas Process Plant
Nurul Muhayuni Mahayuddina*, Fathiah Mohamed Zukib

ab Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, KL,
Malaysia.
Email: muhayuni90@gmail.com, fathiahmz@um.edu.my
Abstract
Accident happened in gas process plant produces a catastrophic disaster and the cost of accident
is big. Our industry is still struggling to comply with standards and regulations inline with
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 and Factories and Machineries Act (FMA)
1967. This paper focuses on general risk assessment framework in related to safety and health
issues. An internationally well-known gas process plant in Selangor was selected as a study area
focuses on its Air Separation Unit (ASU). This paper aims to identify the safety and health
hazards within the gas process plant and to assess the risk related to the hazards. The possible
risk that could arise from a particular case is also determined and to recommend preventive or
corrective measures to ensure that the risks are under control beside to assess the workers
awareness on safety and health issues. Qualitative method is used in this assessment and tools
used to gather data are site visit observation, interview, checklist, questionnaire and past accident
records. A total of 10 work activities were managed to be assessed. Result shown that risk to
health and safety was found to be significant. Among the most potential hazard in this plant are
height hazards, chemical hazards and ergonomic hazards and the worst health effect that is
expected to be arise among workers are noise induced hearing loss. On the other hand, in terms
of safety effect, if no improvise method or technique in handling gaseous is done, leaking and
overpressure may happen.
Keywords: gas process plant, risk assessment, hazard, safety, health
1. Introduction
Industry in Malaysia is still struggling to comply with standards and regulations in line with
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994 and Factories and Machineries Act (FMA)
1967 although the accidents in gas process plant produce catastrophic disaster and big cost lost.
Risk assessment is used as the method to get rid of the hazard or at least reduce the level of its
risk (CCOSH, 2002) in this study.
600
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The plant assessed is dealing with hazardous substances exceeding the threshold quantity and in
case of accidents, the situations are uncontrolled, involving fires, explosion or the release of
toxic substances will resulted in a large number of deaths and injury towards people inside and
outside of the plant and extensive damage to the property and the environment (ILO, 1991).
The gas process plant consists mainly of an Air Separation Unit (ASU), Special Gas Centre
(SGC) and Distribution Unit however this study only focuses on ASU due to its high intensity of
risk. A total of 10 work activities are assessed as in Table 1.
Table 1. Work Activities Assessed

No. Name of work activities
1 Painting of VIE tank
2 Trouble shooting in times of machinery trip
3 Routine log sheet reading
4 Cylinder transfer from SG to ASU for analyser span / zero gas
5 Change pre-filter mat at air compressor
6 VIE tank top up (LO, LN, LAr)
7 Cleaning of oil filter at refrigeration unit using TCE
8 Vibration monitoring
9 Sulphuric acid top up for cooling tower water treatment
10 Change filter element at air compressor
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Causes of accidents
Process plant contain large volumes of flammable and hazardous chemicals thus accidents can
easily happening although the standards and guidelines in the design, construction and operation
are followed. There many causes of accidents but ten most frequent cause of accidents are
lightning, maintenance error, operational error, equipment failure, sabotage, crack and rupture,
leak and line rupture, static electricity and open flames (Chang and Lin, 2006).
2.2 Hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control (HIRARC)
The complete process of hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control (HIRARC)
involves steps of classification of work activities, identification of the hazard, conducting risk
assessment and determine if the risk is tolerable and suggests suitable control measure (DOSH,
2008). Hazard communication, education and training programs are also recommended for future
implementation.
601
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.3 Legislation laws in Malaysia
One of the OSHA Act 1994 regulation is Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards (CIMAH)
Regulation 1996. This regulation is important since the gas process plant related closely to
regulation which cover most chemical and petrochemical industries and industrial sites with large
dangerous substances storage. The hazard installation with installations handling and storing
hazardous materials with storage of ammonia more than 200,000 threshold values should
implement CIMAH regulation in their plant.
Noise Exposure Regulation 1989 is one of important regulation in FMA 1967 due to the high
level of noise in study area. This regulation applies to all factories which expose employee to
excessive noise level. Employee at any circumstances should not be exposed to continuous noise
level exceeding 90Db (A) or exceeding the limit specified in First Schedule of regulation or
exceeding 115Db (A) at any time (DOSH, 2004).
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Site visit observations
The site visits were conducted once in the week or twice a week depends on the necessity for a
period of three months. Workplace observation was conducted during the site visits around the
air separation unit in order to identify and classify the hazards and risks existing.
3.2 Interview
Interviews with workers were conducted to get workers opinion regarding their safe working
experience and to understand any problems they are facing while handling equipment or
conducting work tasks. Workers opinion and suggestion for safety issues are taken into account
to figure out suitable measures to increase the current implemented control measures
effectiveness.
3.3 Checklist
Checklist template provided by previous risk assessor was utilized to gain and compile data
gathered in the company. The purpose is to give clear guidance on conducting hazard
identification, the risks that may arise from hazards identified and determining appropriate
control measures in order to maintain the occupational safety and health of all parties at the
respected workplace.
3.4 Questionnaire
602
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
A self-administered well-structured standard questionnaires were designed. The purpose of this

questionnaire is to find out the level of workers participation and their perspective on existing
safety practices and control measures on safety and health at the workplace. The questionnaire
form consists of two sections, Section A focuses on demographic information while Section B
focuses on safety aspects.
3.5 Accidents records
Three consecutive year accidents reporting records in the entire plant were provided by the Plant
SHEQ Manager. These reports record were analyses to find out the factor that interrelated with
the occurrence of accidents such as the main causes for accidents to happen.
4.0 Result and discussion
4.1 Site visit observation
During the site visit, the plant was assessed to observe the compliances of the plant management
on safety and health issues at the workplace. From the observation made, the management is
providing the workers with sufficient safety knowledge. The management takes the initiative to
display the poster on the information board around the plant and inside meeting room regarding
5S housekeeping practices, total quality management and quality environment concept at
workplace.
4.2 Interview records analysis
From the interview record conducted with workers, it can be summarized that workers are
satisfied with the safety training they received and have knowledge on current safety isssues in
the plant. Workers claimed that they received latest information on any safety updates from their
supervisors and the information is communicate well using this method.
4.3 Checklist analysis
The checklists were distributed among workers in ASU. The summary of risk ranking percentage
of work activities at air separation unit is presented in table below.
Table 2. Summary of risk level percentage based on work activities.

Risk value (%)
Work activities at ASU Low Medium High
Painting of VIE tank 58 28 14
Trouble shooting in times of machinery 100 0 0
603
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
trip
Routine log sheet reading 100 0 0
Cylinder transfer from SG to ASU for
analyser span / zero gas 60 40 0
Change pre-filter mat at air compressor 50 38 12
VIE tank top up (LO, LN, LAr) 38 38 24
Cleaning of oil filter at refrigeration unit
using TCE 36 36 28
Vibration monitoring 71 29 0
Sulphuric acid top up for cooling tower
water treatment 60 40 0
Change filter element at air compressor 38 50 12
Based on the data collected from the checklist, the work activity that recorded highest risk
ranking level is cleaning of oil filter at refrigeration unit using (TCE) with 28%. Based on the
collected checklist data, this acitivity has the highest risk ranking level due to presence of
occasional likelihood and major severity of chemical hazard and ergonomic hazard.
Chemical hazard imposed from this activity is due to the use of trichloroethylene (TCE) as
organic solvent degreaser during the compressor oil filter cleaning process. Workers are exposed
to health problems due to inhalation exposures to the trichloroethylene. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) Office Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT),
identifies cancer risk concerns and short-term and long-term non-cancer risks for workers and
occupational bystanders that use TCE-based solvents. TCE is a volatile organic compound
(VOC) that is classified as a human carcinogen. It is used widely in industrial and commercial
processes despite of its high risk towards human health (EPA, 2014).
Another chemical hazard in this work activity is during the process of depressurization of filter
housing by opening a valve to the oil collector to drain it out. As consequences, ammonia smell
is detected. Many parts of a refrigeration system contain ammonia liquified under pressure.
Under pressure ammonia have a greater risk of exposure due to larger quantities of the
refrigerant have potential for rapid release into the air (EPA, 2014). Ammonia is toxic and
harmful if inhaled in high concentrations and due to its hygroscopic characteristic, it readily
migrates to moist area of body such as eye, nose and throat. Exposure to liquid ammonia will
result in frosbite and in the worst case cause fatality. Among hazard reduction aspect that can be
taken care to reduce the hazards according to the American Industrial Hygiene Association
604
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
(AIHA) in Emergency Response Planning Guidelines are remove refrigeration oil from
refrigeration system on a regular basis, provide barriers to protect refrigeration equipment,
perform regular vibration testing on compressor, develop and maintain a written preventive
maintenance program and schedule.
4.4 Questionnaire analysis
The main aspect that is crucial in questionnaire analysis is emergency response team (ERT)
training. The result shows that the company has a variety of emergency response team such as
fire-fighting team, oil spill team and first aid team. The 10% of workers are in the fire-fighting
team, 40 % of workers are in oil spill team and 50% workers are in a first aid team. In addition,
workers are required to attend ERT training conducted either twice a year, once a year or once a
month.
Table 3. The workers involvement in ERT training.

The frequentness of ERT training Involvement of workers (%)
Twice a year 60
Once a year 20
Once a month 20
Emergency response training is mainly conducted in order to prepare the employees with
adequate knowledge and enable them to react safely in case of any unwanted circumstances /
accidents. The emergency response training and emergency response team imply that the
company act in accordance to Occupational Safety Health Act, Control of Major Hazard
Installation (CIMAH) Regulations 1996, for a major hazard installation, it is the duty of the
employer to prepare emergency response plan and update it once every three years and provide
information regarding the hazards of the activity to person/public who may likely be affected by
major accident around the site.
4.5 Accident reporting records
Accident is an unexpected, unavoidable and unintended event (Suchman, 1961). The gas process
plant accident history is analyses and made comparison with the occupational accidents statistics
by sector endorsed by the Department of Safety and Health.
Based on the study made on the accident record happened in the gas process plant for the past
three consecutive years, 2012, 2013 and 2014 three accident cases were reported.
In 2012, according to the past accident reports received from the plant safety manager at the
plant recorded zero accident throughout the twelve months. However, in 2013, one accident case
recorded among the operators. The case was reported in the same year on October 30. New
605
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
generate nitrogen compressor (GNC) fell down during lifting job and hit into radio network
controller (RNC). Two lost time injury (LTI) was recorded in 2014. On June 20, one technician
suffered injury at the little finger while on August 26, one operator suffered a back injury while
working on the tanker control panel.
According to statistics endorsed by DOSH until March 2015 manufacturing sectors recorded the
highest number of accidents compared to other sectors. This statistics alert industry practitioners
on the important to take immediate action to reduce the statistics value. According to the
statistics, seven numbers of death is recorded of investigated accidents, 411 workers having
non-permanent disability (NPD) and 22 workers having permanent disability compared to other
sectors (DOSH, 2015).
By comparison with statistics made by DOSH on the occupational accidents statistics by sector
until March 2015, the accident rate in the plant is considered low since no major accidents that
result in total permanent disability or death are recorded. Although the plant is considered in safe
condition, an improvement on safety matter still needs to be done. Since all the information
regarding the past accident history was obtained without a near miss record it is very crucial for
safety team to create a near miss recording.
Near miss record is important to prevent serious, fatal and catastrophic incidents that are less
frequent but far more harmful than other incidents. All occupational injuries should be reported
to assist in planning, implementing and controlling safety and health policy at work.
Furthermore, by installing near miss reporting policy helps in promoting safety commitment
(Pavlic et al., 2011). Therefore, in order to prevent major injuries occurring in the future, the
employer should establish a reporting culture reinforcing an opportunity to identify hazards,
reduce risk and prevent accidents. The employer should also investigate the near miss report
from the root cause and use the investigation result to improve safety systems, hazard control,
risk reduction and lesson learned (National Safety Council, 2013). This is to prevent any
massive accidents from happening since the gas process plant involved with high risk activities
and chemicals.
5.0 Conclusion
Based on the risk assessment conducted in ASU, the risk analysis shows that 50% of ten work
activities in ASU have presence of high risk. Among the most potential hazard in ASU are height
hazards, chemical hazards and ergonomic hazards. A more detailed preventive and corrective
measures should be prioritize on work activities with presence of high risk and medium risk.
The worst health effect that is expected to be arise among workers are noise induced hearing
loss. On the other hand, in terms of safety effect, if no improvise method or technique in
handling gaseous is done, leaking, overpressure and line rupture may happen. In order to control
606
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the risk present in plant, control measures need to be revised such as safe work procedure,
refreshment trainings and PPE.
Future recommendation such as implementation of near miss record, improvement of risk

assessment communication and organising safety and health engagement program are crucial in
order to enhance the safety and health awareness in the plant.
6.0 References
CCOSH 2002. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations.

CHANG, J. I. & LIN, C.-C. 2006. A study of storage tank accidents. Journal of Loss Prevention
in the Process Industries, 19, 51-59.
DOSH 2004. Factory and Machinery (Noise Exposure) Regulations 1989.
DOSH 2008. Guidelines for Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment and Risk Control.
DOSH 2015. Statistics of Department.
EPA 2014. TSCA Work Plan Risk Assessment. United States Enviromental Protection Agency.
ILO 1991. Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents.
NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 2013. Near Miss Reporting Systems.
PAVLIC, M., LIKAR, B., PAVLIC, A. & MARKIC, M. 2011. Managing occupational injuries
records in Slovenia from 1948 to 2008. Safety Science 834-842.
SUCHMAN, E. A. 1961. A conceptual analysis of the accident problem. Social Problems, 8,
241246.
607
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
STRESS AND ANXIETY
608
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Personality and Commitment :
A Case Study at Ahmad Dahlan University
Erita Yuliasesti Diahsaria,*, Tristiadi Ardi Ardanib

aAhmad Dahlan University, Indonesia
Email: ediahsari@yahoo.com
bMalik Ibrahim State Islamic University, Indonesia

Email: ardiardani.uinmalang@gmail.com
Abstract
This study aims to examine the role of the Big-five personality on employee commitment at
Ahmad Dahlan University. There were 97 respondents participated in this research. Employee
commitment and the Big five personality scale were used to collect the data, and the Pearsons
product-moment correlation was used to analyze data based on each factor. The results showed
positive correlation between Extraversion, Conscientiousness and Openness to experience with
employee commitment, whereas Agreeableness and Neuroticism were negatively correlated with
employee commitment. The majority of employees have moderate level of commitment; low
category in four personality factors except on the Conscientiousness factor.
Keywords: commitment, employee, personality
1. Introduction
Higher education has a great responsibility to the community as stakeholders, and to anticipate the
globalization of education, it has a very significant role in shaping the culture of the community
(Kienle & Loyd, 2005). Reliable resources are necessary to achieve the purpose of an institution,
which have sufficient personal qualities, abilities and a strong desire to be part of the organization.
Therefore, it is necessary to have strong commitment to the organization, because everyone in an
organization has obligation and it is a psychological bond to the workplace. This commitment
relates to the acceptance of the goals and values of the organization, willingness to work with the
organization (Riggio, 2009). Employees with strong commitment are psychologically connected
to the goals and values of the organization, working hard for the benefit of the institution and feel
proud to be a member of the organization (Lin, 2010).
2. Literature review and hypothesis
609
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Employee commitment. Employee commitment can be defined as a commitment to the rule that
drives individuals to behave according to the goals and organization (Wiener in Chen, Tsai &
Chen, 2009) or level of confidence and acceptance of employees to organizational goals (Mathis &
Jackson, 2006). Kreitner and Angelo (2005), says that employee commitment reflects how
individual identifies himself with the organization. Commitment to the organization identifies how
employees are bound by the goals set by the organization. That is, the employee commitment is a
form of self identification of an individual, he or she will feel that live in an organization is a part
of them, so that they will have insight to the organization.
Sopiah (2008) suggested several factors that affect the commitment: a. personal factors such as
expectations, psychological contracts, factors within the individual that influence the choice of the
job, such as interests, and personal characteristics; b. organizational factors, such as employment,
supervisory, and consistency of purpose; c. factors that come from outside the organization, such
as other job alternatives.
The studies about commitment generally included personal and non-personal as predictor
variables. Bashir and Ramay (2008) found that work-life policies and career opportunities have a
significant positive correlation with organizational commitment.
Furthermore, similarity between the individual perception and organization strategy will drive
commitment, meaning that if employee feel comfortable with the way the organization treats them,
the commitment will be increases (Da Silva, Hutcheson & Wahl, 2010), but this is mediated by the
condition if the employee has got choice of the type of work. Aamodt (2007) mentions that one of
the factors is often called antecedent that affect the level of satisfaction and commitment is a
personal predisposition that want to be satisfied. There is a tendency of certain individuals to
satisfy their needs in certain types of work, and this satisfaction will emerges commitment by
itself. Positive commitment to employees eventually led to consequences on positive behavior, for
example on improving performance (Khan et al, 2010).
Meyer and Allen (Aamodt, 2007; Riggio, 2009), identified three dimensions of employee
commitment to the organization, namely: a. Affective commitment; an emotional attachment to
the organization, individuals want to feel close to the organization, concerned with the
organization, and are willing to exert effort and energy; b. Continuance commitment; related to the
perception of a loss that would be obtained if the employee does not resume work within the
organization. The employees believe that they should remain in the organization because of time
and effort has been given the organization; c. Normative commitment; the employees feel obliged
to live / survive in the organization because they feel indebted.
Big-five personality : Big-Five known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM). One of this model is
from work of Costa and McCrae, known as NEO-FFI (John & Srivastava, 1999), and personality
dimensions of this model are the most relevant to be applied to all cultures (Rothmann & Coetzer,
2003).
610
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Neuroticism : This dimension indicates the general tendency in the experience of negative affect,
such as fear, sadness, shame, anger, and guilt. Individuals with higher scores have an irrational
idea, impulse control problems, and difficult to cope stress. Low scores on these factor indicate
emotional stability. Individuals tend to be calm, relaxed, and able to deal with stressful situations
without feeling disappointed. Employees with high neuroticism tend to be anxious,
temperamental, self-pitying, self-conscious, emotional, and susceptible to stress disorder. They
will easily break out when organization faced with a major problem and does not have the ability
to establish relationships or committed. Conversely, they are individuals who have satisfaction in
life and happier, confident and able to commit or relationships. Thus,
H1 : Neuoriticism is negatively correlated to employee commitment.
Extraversion : Extraversion can predict a wide range of social behavior. People who have high
scores on this dimension tend to be loving, kind, talkative, like being a member of a group or
organization, dominant in the social environment, able to maintain social relationships, energetic,
ambitious, happy-working, high interest in many things, and fun-loving. People who have low
extraversion scores tend to be hesitate or cautious in attitude, quiet or less talk, love solitude,
passive, do not have the ability to express emotions, and difficult to get along (Feist & Gregory,
2006). Employees with high extraversion tend to be the loving, good-natured, talkative, like a
member of the group. They have good commitment to the organization, because they are happy to
be part of the organization. Thus,
H2 : Extraversion is positively correlated to employee commitment.
Openness to experiences : This dimension include active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity,

attention to the "inner feelings", variations, intellectual curiosity, and independence in decision
making, introvert (Rothmann et al, 2003). Openness has easy tolerant characteristics, focused and
able to alert the various feelings, thinkers and impulsive. Individuals with a high score in openness
described as someone who has a value of imagination, creative, curious, and liberal or free.
Instead, individual with low score of openness is a person who has a common type, down-to-earth,
compliance, and security. Low scores on openness also illustrate the narrow thinking person,
conservative and difficult to change. (Feist & Gregory, 2006). Someone with high openness is
described as a person who has value of imagination, creative, curious, and liberal. Employees with
these characteristics can also have a good commitment to the organization, because they are able to
adapt and be creative. They are able to adapt, usually the one that is resistant to certain situations.
Nevertheless, specifically found that individual with high openness should feel that he stay in an
organization not because of a debt of gratitude, but because of the encouragement of his love in the
organization (Kumar & Bakhshi, 2010). Thus,
H3: Openness to experiences is positively correlated to employee commitment.
Agreeableness : People who have agreeableness show wheeling or generous, friendly, avoid
conflict, helpful, forgiving, compassionate, able to produce something, have a sense of acceptance,
and has a good-natured. This type is also cooperative and willing to be together with others
611
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
(Kumar & Bakshi, 2010). People who have low scores on agreeableness are generally suspicious,
stingy, not friendly, slow to anger, and love to criticize others, more aggressive, and less
cooperative. Employees with high agreeableness, have a good commitment to the organization
because they have good sense of acceptance of everything that is contained in the organization and
have the ability to survive in the organization, and they will try to do the best for the organization.
Thus,
H4: Agreeableness is positively correlated to employee commitment.
Conscientiousness : Conscientiousness describe how people govern, control, organize, ambitious,

focused on achievement, and have discipline. In general, people who scored high on
conscientiousness is a hard worker, perfectionist, thorough, timely, and persevering. This aspect is
related to affective commitment as it involves individual attachment to the organization (Kumar &
Bakhshi, 2001). In contrast to those who have low scores on conscientiousness, they show an
inability to organize, reckless, lazy, easily distracted attention, and do not have a goal, and easily
succumbed to heavy work. Employees who scored high on conscientiousness are hard-working,
conscientious, punctual, and industrious. They do not give up easily, and have a great sense of
belonging to the job and the organization (Kumar & Bakhshi, 2010). Thus,
H5: Conscientiousness is positively correlated to employee commitment
3. Method
There were 97 respondents participated in this research. Two instruments namely The Employee
Commitment Scale and The Big-Five Personality Scale were used to collect data. Employee
commitment scale is based on the affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Other
instruments are the Big-five Personality Scale with five dimensions, namely neuroticism,
extraversion, openness to experiences, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The analysis
technique used is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation imposed on each factor or dimensions.
4. Results and discussion
Mosier formula (Azwar, 2012) were used to measure instruments reliability. By using this
formula, a composite score reliability were obtained, that is 0.934 for The Employee commitment
scale, and 0,744 for Big-Five personality scale. Categorization show that 93% of respondents have
a moderate commitment category, only 1% of respondents have a high commitment category,
and 6% in a low category. Categories on the Big-Five personality variables occupy dominant on
low category, and only Conscientiousness factor has a moderate category.
The correlation between neuroticism - employee commitment is r = - 0.201 (p <0.05),

extraversion - employee commitment is r = 0.301 (p <0.01), openness to experience - employee
commitment is r = 0.136 (p> 0.05), agreeableness - employee commitment is r = - 0.227 (p <0.05),
conscientiousness employee commitment is r = 0.154 (p> 0.05). These results indicate that only
extraversion was positively correlated to the employee commitment and neuroticism factor that
negatively correlated with employee commitment. openness to experience and conscientious are
612
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
not correlated to employee commitment. Overall, this research can explain that employees have
moderate tendency to be bound by the organization,
It seems that employees do not need to leave the organization despite the retirement age is still
quite long, but they cannot provide maximum capacity in the organization and feel emotionally
closed. The persistence of the employees in the organization of future work appears mostly more
than 10 years. However, this last effort, though not sure, possibly based on the rational
consideration, for example with ages ranging from 45 years, it would be difficult to find another
job. It also shows that the rational reasons more acceptable than an emotional attachment reasons.
The employees do not fully have the character of a hardworking, conscientious, punctual, and
persevering. Emotional stability is generally good, calm, relaxed, able to deal with stressful
situations without feeling disappointed. Employees have a curiosity, down-to-earth, compliance,
and security together, and on the other hand, they are conservative and do not like the change. Also
noted that the employees cautious in attitude and passive, the possibility of suspicious, less
friendly, like to criticize others, more aggressive, and less cooperative.
5. Conclusion
The employee commitment showed moderate levels, which showed moderate attachment to the
organization, and less emotionally closed to the organization. These circumstances led employees
not to welcome the various programs offered by the organization. If they run a program, that is
driven by compliance and security together. On the other side, the employees be able to deal with
the problem well, able to control themselves and cope well under pressure situations. The
institution has to revisit need for strengthening the psychological characteristics those benefits
primarily to strengthen the attachment to the organization. On the other hand, organizations need
to review the various programs for the member of organization that will be bringing a strong
commitment for the employees. Employees will be committed because they are satisfied, and this
satisfaction comes from the organization.
References
Aamodt,M.G., 2007. Industrial/organizational psychology : an applied approach.5th ed.

Belmont, CA : Thomson Wadsworth.
Azwar,S.,2012. Reliabilitas dan validitas. 4th ed. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar.
Bashir,S., & Ramay,M.I., 2008. Determinants of organizational commitment : a study of

information technology professionals in Pakistan, Journal of Behavioral and Applied
Management, 9(2),pp. 226 238.
613
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Chen, M.L., Tsai,J.M., and Chen,K.J., 2009. The effects of personal traits and conflict
management on organizational commitment A case study of financial services personel, The
Journal of International Marketing Studies, 4(1), pp. 20 29.
Da Silva, N. Hutcheson, and J. Wahl, G.D., 2010. Organizational strategy and employee
outcomes: a Person-Organization Fit Perspective. The Journal of Psychology, 144 (2) pp.
145-161.
Feist, J,. & Gregory, JF., 2006. Theories of personality. 6th ed. New york : McGraw-Hill
International.
John, O.P., & Srivastava, S.,1999. The Big-Five trait taxonomy: history, measurement, and
theoretical perspectives, (in press), to appear in L. Pervin and O.P. John (Eds.), Handbook of
personality: Theory and research, 2nd ed,. New York: Guilford (in press).
<http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf> [Accessed 9 August 2012].
Khan,M.R., Ziauddin., Jam,F.A., & Ramay,M.I.,2010. The impacts of organizational

commitment on employee job performance, European Journal of Social Sciences, 15 ( 3), pp
292 298.
<http://www.eurojournals.com/ejss_15_3_01.pdf>[Accessed 10 August 2012].
Kienle, A.W., & Loyd, N.L.,2005. Globalization and the emergence of supranational
organizations: implications for graduate programs in higher education
Administration, College Student Journal, September 2005
<www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/is_3_39/ai_n 15384404> [Accessed 2 July 2011].
Kreitner, R., & Angelo, K., 2005. Perilaku organisasi. 5th ed. Penerjemah : Suandy Erly. Jakarta:
Salemba Empat.
Kumar,K., & Bakhshi,A., 2010. The Five-factor model of personality and organizational
commitment : is there any relationship?. Humanity and Social Sciences Journal, 5 (1) pp 25 34.
Lin, J.S.J., Lin, S.C., & Lin, B.Y., 2010. The moderating effects of employee personality
characteristics on organizational commitment during periods of organizational change. African
Journal of Business Management,4(17), pp 3681-3690.
<http://www.academicjournals.org/ajbm/PDF/pdf2010/4Dec/Lin%20et%20al.pdf> [Accessed 8
August 2012].
Mathis, L., & Jackson, H.J., 2006. Human resource management. 10th ed. Penerjemah: Diana
Angelica. Jakarta: Salemba Empat.
614
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Riggio, R.E., 2009. Intoduction to industrial/organizational psychology. New Jersey: Prentice

Hall.
Rothmann, S., & Coetzer, E.P., 2003. The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance.
Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(1), pp.68-74.
Sopiah., 2008. Perilaku organisasional. Yogyakarta: ANDI.
615
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Psychological Empowerment, Work Stress and Organizational Commitment
among Academic Staff in Malaysian Public Universities
Farah Lina Azizan, Aflah Isa , Noor Afzainiza Afendi

School of Business Management, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah, Email:
farahlina_azizan@yahoo.com
Faculty of Business Management, University Teknologi MARA, Johor, Malaysia,
Email: aflah5610@gmail.com
School of International Studies, College of Law, Government and International Studies,
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah,
Email:afzainizaafendi@yahoo.com
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the significant impact on the relationship between
psychological empowerment, work stress and organizational commitment among academic staff
in public universities. A total number of 297 academic staff in northern region public universities
in Malaysia was responded to this study. Data was analyzed using SPSS 21 to test the hypotheses
of the study. The results indicated that psychological empowerment and work stress have
significant impact on organizational commitment. Future research can be done by identifying
other factors such as work-life balance, job overload, job security, pay and benefits,
communication and work conflict that effect employees commitment towards organization. It is
also recommended that this study could be further extended to compare between public and private
universities as well.
Keywords: Organizational Commitment, Psychological Empowerment, Work Stress
1. Introduction
Nowadays, human resources are the important assets of the organization (Malik, Nawab, Naeem
and Danish, 2010). Every organization targets to have employees who are committed towards the
achievement of the organizational goals. It is important for organization or institution especially to
know what features play the main role to enhance commitment of the employee. They have many
factors impact on organizational commitment and at the same time effect on job satisfaction.
Therefore, this is seriously issue that organization must obtain because organizational efficiency is
depending on employees productive and commitment. It is difficult for organization to shift
forward in achieving their objectives without productive and committed individuals. Malaysia
needs work forces that possess high commitment, productivity and progressiveness, competitive,
and efficient in its mission to achieve the Vision 2020 targets (Ismail, 2012).
616
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The demand of meeting the key performance indicators (KPI) from universities and the demand
from stakeholders to produce quality and employable graduates have put Malaysian academic
staffs in situations in big challenge (MoHE, 2012). With these demands and the quick growth in
education sector in Malaysia, academics are facing more stresses. This effect of stress is supported
by Nilufar, Abdullah, Fie, and Alam (2009) in their studies that work stress has influence on work
satisfaction among academics in public institution in the Klang Valley. Academics that are always
having stress and unsatisfied with their work will have negative influence on their performance
and quality of work and also their commitments towards organization (Adebiyi, 2013; Barkhuizen,
Roodt and Schutte, 2014).
In order to maintain the teaching quality and to compete successfully in the domestic and
international market, it is crucial for leaders to understand the behavior and attitudes of academic
staffs. In this context, deans and heads of department would be able to shape the attitudes of the
academics by implementing empowerment that will subsequently lead to higher organizational
commitment (Dee Henkin and Duemer, 2002; Bogler and Somech, 2004; Choong, Wong and Lau,
2011).
The role of the academic staff is very important to the university in improving corporate image and
produce graduates who excel. They have professional interests, work and their own personal
connection with their university, including the freedom to pursue excellence, the right to make
decisions regarding curriculum and research agenda, ensuring a balance between work and family,
ensure a satisfactory level of salary, as well as opportunities for advancement career. As the role of
academia is very important, efforts should be taken to encourage loyalty among them. That is why
the commitment is one of the most important elements in making academic staff loyalty and
should be seriously considered by all higher education institutions. Academic staffs who are
always stressful and dissatisfied with the work that will have an impact on the performance and
quality of their work and will indirectly affect student achievement. In addition, it is also important
in higher education to know what aspects play an important role and have a significant impact in
improving employee commitment.
Empowerment is a process of increasing employees feeling of self-efficacy within the

organization and the topic of empowerment is necessary due to limited understanding of the
empowerment construct and its underlying process (Conger and Kanungo, 1998). Further, in order
to increase employees commitment to the organization, organizations should provide them with
substantial opportunities to obtain more responsibilities and perform challenging work (Onn,
2012). Employees will feel empowered when they are given responsibility to undertake tasks and
more responsibilities to give opinion and make a decision in work, consequently they are willing to
617
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
remain within organization and to work harder (Spreitzer, 1995; McShane and Von Glinow,
2010).
Consequently, the increasing perception of work empowerment promotes increasing

organizational commitment. This view have been supported by Liu, Fellows and Chiu (2006),
Krishna (2007), Nabila (2008), and McShane and Von Glinow (2010). Furthermore, when
superior empower them by giving an opportunity to make decision about their work methods, pace
and efforts which able to influence the organization outcome, this will automatically increase staff
commitment (Onn, 2012). It can be concluded that, in order to promote loyalty among employees
especially academic staff, dean or head of department should play a key role by empower them in
term of responsibilities such as make a decision making and obtain more challenging task so that
they are willing to stay in organization.
Likewise, a study on a universitys staff in South Africa revealed that work stress played a role in
decreasing organizational commitment (Khairuddin and Makhbul, 2011). Work stress (Beehrs and
Newman, 1997) is something which influences physiological feedback and behavior towards
unpleasant inspiration. Work stress is a condition arising from the interaction of people and their
jobs and characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal
functioning (Luthans, 2002). Michael, Court and Petal (2009) in their research paper found that
work stress had negative influence on affective commitment. This means the level of affective
commitment tends to increase when stress decreases. In addition, similar study has also been
conducted on workplace stress and work fatigue among academics by Adebiyi (2013) and
Barkhuizen, et al. (2014). Academics that are always having stress and unsatisfied with their work
will have negative influence on their performance and quality of work and also their commitments
towards organization (Adebiyi, 2013; Barkhuizen, Roodt and Schutte, 2014). However,
OLaughin and Bischoff (2005) in their study suggested that women have reported higher level of
stress as compared to men. Conversely, Purvanova and Muros (2010) in their recent research
paper revealed that female and male employee experience equally experience stress. Work stress
currently is not a new trend and it is become visible in each of organization until today.
Therefore, based on the arguments, we proposed the following hypotheses:

H1: There is significant relationship between psychological empowerment and organizational
commitment
H2: There is significant relationship between work stress and organizational commitment
3. Methodology
A simple random sampling consisting two hundred and ninety seven of academic staff in northern
region public universities were participated in this study. The questionnaire were administered to
test organizational commitment, psychological empowerment and works stress among academic
618
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
staff represented various groups and categories such as lecturers, senior lecturers, associate
professors and professors. 11 items examined respondents commitment developed by Meyer and
Allen (1991; 1997), 10 items related to psychological empowerment developed by Ashforth
(1989); Hackman and Oldham (1980); Jones (1986); Spreitzer (1995) and Tymon (1988), whereas
9 items were utilized to assess respondents work stress level and the instrument was from
Cartwright and Cooper (2002) and Kelloway and Barling (1994). The respondents indicated the
extent to which they agreed with each statement on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Analysis of data was done using statistical analysis (SPSS version
21.0) and analysis included descriptive, and regression to test the hypotheses.
4. Findings
Respondents Profile
Out of the 297 respondents, 54.2 per cent were female and 45.8 per cent were male. The
composition of the highest age group is from 26-30 years which is 32.0 per cent, while the lowest
is age less than 25 years (10.4%). The largest group in current position is from lecturer at 70.0 per
cent. A majority of them have experience from one to five years. In terms of marital status, 73 per
cent were married, 27 per cent were single and 2 per cent were from other status. Finally, most of
the respondents hold a Master degree (57.2%) while the rest have PhD and Bachelor degree.
Descriptive Analysis, Reliability, and Correlation

Table 1 shows that the result of descriptive statistics and Cronbachs alpha reliabilities for the
variables. The mean range for all variables in positive side and mostly agree range at 3.16 3.39.
The reliabilities finding showed the alpha value for each variable in the range between .70 and .82
which that exceeded recommended value .50 suggested by Hair et al. (2010). The range of
correlation among the constructs from .329 to .415 which is accepted level and met requirement.
Table 1: Means, Reliability Coefficient, Correlation

Variables Mean Std. Cronbachs 1 2 3
Deviation Alpha
Psychological 3.37 .625 .82 1
Empowerment
Work Stress 3.39 .465 .73 .399** 1
Organizational 3.16 .366 .70 .329** .415** 1
Commitment
** Correlation is significant at the level 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Hypotheses Testing
Table 2 below illustrates the result of regression analysis between psychological empowerment,
work stress and organizational commitment. Based on the result, psychological empowerment and
619
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
work stress have significant impact on organizational commitment (B= .194, p < .001; B= .337, p<
.001). The variable had explained 19.8 per cent of variance influence on organizational
commitment. Hence, H1 and H2 are accepted.
Table 2: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis

Construct Dependent R F Std. Beta t-value Sig. Decision
variable Error of
the
Estimate
Psychological Organizational .198 37.65 .327 .194 3.42 .001 H1
empowerment commitment accepted
Work stress .337 5.94 .000 H2

accepted
5. Discussion
The results of the descriptive (Table 1) indicated that the academic staff in selected universities
had significantly higher in work stress with mean rating of 3.39 and standard deviation of .465.
The moderate level was reported for psychological empowerment with (M= 3.37, SD = .625). The
results illustrated that the mean value for organizational commitment quite low compare to other
variables with value (M = 3.16, SD = .366). To the result it shows that majority of academic staff in
this study was low in commitment and high in work stress. Multiple regression analysis (Table 2)
was used to determine the relationship between independent variables (psychological
empowerment and work stress) and dependent variable (organizational commitment). The results
demonstrated that psychological empowerment and work stress found to be a significant
relationship with organizational commitment (B= .194, p < .001; B= .337, p< .001). Thus, the
finding led to the confirmation of the research hypotheses (H1 and H2). Furthermore,
psychological empowerment and work stress among academic staff explained about 19.8 per cent
of variance in their university commitment. The percentage was quietly low and may be there have
another factors more influencing on organizational commitment. The results of current findings in
line with previous research such as Adebiyi (2013), Barkhuizen, Roodt, and Schutte (2014),
Khairuddin, and Makhbul (2011), McShane, and Von Glinow (2010), Nabila (2008) and Onn
(2012).
620
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
6. Conclusion
The study of organizational commitment among academic staff nowadays is becoming more
popular for researchers because of its link to behavior and attitudes that contribute to
organizational outcomes and as a result may play a key role in how academic staff works in order
to achieve goals and objectives of universities and student performance as well. However, many
researchers much focus on academic staff in private sector. Even so, the researchers should also
pay attention among academic staff in public sector because to become a Research University
(RU), the level of committed performance among academic staff is extremely important since it
would affect the productivity, creativity and quality contribution and also would affect the
perception of external stakeholders toward university as a whole. In the same with other studies,
this study also has some limitations. Firstly, this study focuses on academic staff; future research
could further extended for non-academic staff as well. Secondly, the sample size was too small
which is focus on northern region area; future research should employ a much larger sample size
and focus on Peninsular Malaysia. Thirdly, a cross-sectional strategy was employed when doing
survey distribution; future studies could look into and employ a longitudinal strategy for further
findings. In addition, the researcher also recommend a few approaches to be undertaken by
identifying other factors such as work-life balance, job overload, job security, pay and benefits,
communication and work conflict that effect employees commitment towards organization.
7. References
Adebiyi, D.R., 2013. Occupational stress among academic staff of Ekiti State University,
Ado-Ekiti. European Scientific Journal, 9(4), pp.202-20
Ashforth, B.E., 1989. The experience of powerlessness in organizations. Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes, 43, pp.207-242
Barkhuizen, N., Roodt, N. and Schutte, N., 2014. Talent management of academics: Balancing job
demands and job resources. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20),
pp.2033-2038.
Bogler, R. and Somech, A., 2004. Influence of teacher empowerment on teachers organizational
commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in schools.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, pp.277-289
Cartwright, S. and Cooper, C.L., 2002. ASSET: The management guide. Manchester: Robertson
Cooper Ltd.
Choong, Yuen-Onn, Wong, Kee-Luen and Lau, Teck-Chai., 2011. Psychological empowerment
and organizational commitment in the Malaysian private higher education institutions: A
review and research agenda. 2nd International Conference on Business and Economic
Research.
621
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Conger, J. A. and Kanungo, R. N., 1988. The empowerment process: Integrating Theory and
Practice.
Academy of Management Review, 13(3), pp.471-482
Dee, J. R., Henkin A. B. and Duemer L., 2002. Structural antecedents and psychological correlates
of teacher empowerment. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(3), pp.257-277.
Hackman, J. R. and Oldham, G. R., 1980. Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 60,pp.159-170.
Hair, J. F., Black, W.C., Babin, B. J. and Anderson, R. E., 2010. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed.
New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Ismail, N., 2012. Organizational commitment and job satisfaction among staff of Higher Learning
Education Institutions in Kelantan. Unpublished Master Dissertation. Universiti Utara
Malaysia.
Jones, G.R., 1986. Socialization tactics, self-efficacy, and newcomers adjustments to
organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 29, pp.262-279.
Kelloway, E.K. and Barling, J., 1991. Job characteristics, role stress and mental health. Journal of
Occupational Psychology, 64, pp.291-304.
Khairuddin, S. M. H. S. and Makhbul, Z.M., 2011. Stress at the workplace and productivity: A
pilot study on faculty administrators in a Malaysian Research University. 2nd
International Conference on Business and Economic Research (2nd ICBER).
Krishna, Y. R., 2007. Psychological empowerment and organizational commitment. The Icfai
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 6(4), pp.26-36.
Liu, A.M.M., Fellows, R. and Chiu, W.M., 2006. Work empowerment as an antecedent to
organizational commitment in the Hong Kong quantity surveying profession. Surveying
and Built Environment, 17(2), pp.63-72.
Luthans, F., 2002. Organizational behavior. 9th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin
Malik, M.E., Nawab, S., Naeem, B. and Danish, R.Q., 2010. Job satisfaction and organizational
commitment of University Teachers in Public Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of
Business and Management, 5(6), pp.17-26
McShane, S. L. and Von Glinow, M. A., 2010. Organizational behavior: Emerging knowledge
and practice for the real world. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Meyer, J. P. and Allen, N.J., 1991. A three-component conceptualization of organizational
commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, pp.61-89.
Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N.J., 1997. Commitment in the workplace: theory, research, and
application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Michael, O., Court, D. and Petal, P., 2009. Job stress and organizational commitment among
mentoring coordinators. International Journal of Educational Management, 23(3), pp.266
288.
Ministry of Higher Education. 2012. In Komoo, I., Azman, N. and Aziz, Y.F.A. Malaysian
research universities and their performance indicators. Bulletin of Higher Education
Research, 11, pp. 5-7
622
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Nabila, A.A., 2008. The relationship between Psychological Empowerment and organizational
Commitment: A case study among employees in construction sector in Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah. Unpublished Master Dissertation. Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
Nilufar, A., Abdullah, Z., Fie, D.Y.G. and Alam, S.S., 2009. A study of job stress on job
satisfaction among university staff in Malaysia: Empirical study. European Journal of
Social Sciences, 8(1), pp.121-131
O'Laughlin, E. M. and Bischoff, L. G., 2005. Balancing parenthood and academia: Work/family
stress as influenced by gender and tenure status. Journal of Family Issues, 26(1), pp.79-106
Onn, C., Y., 2012. Antecedents of organizational commitment amongst academic staff of private
universities in Malaysia. Master Dissertation, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman.
Purvanova, R. K. and Muros, J. P., 2010. Gender differences in burnout: A meta-analysis. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 77, pp.168-185.
Spreitzer, G. M., 1995. Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement,
and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), pp.1442-1465.
Tymon, W.G.Jr., 1988. An empirical investigation of a cognitive model of empowerment.
Unpublished PhD. Temple University.
623
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Validation of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic
Anxiety in a Sample of Malaysian Undergraduates
Tan Chee Senga*, Lim Jia Weib, Low Mei Yanc, Phang Joo Yeed, Tan Ting Yinge
Department of Psychology and Counselling, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia.

Emaila: tcseng@utar.edu.my
Emailb: bernice.wei18@gmail.com
Emailc: piaopiaoxiang@hotmail.com
Emaild: pjooyee@yahoo.com
Emaile: tantingy@utar.edu.my
Abstract
The 21-item State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA; Ree, MacLeod,
French, & Locke, 2000) was developed to assess cognitive and somatic symptoms of anxiety.
Despite past studies examining factor structure of the STICSA in students, community, and
clinical samples show that it is a reliable and valid measurement of the cognitive and somatic
features of anxiety, these studies were conducted with western samples. Given that few studies
have applied the STICSA to Asian sample, little is known about the psychometric qualities of the
STICSA in Malaysia context. The aim of the present study was to assess the psychometric
properties of the STICSA among Malaysian young adults in assessing trait anxiety. A total of
220 undergraduates (147 females) participated in the study. Consistent with past findings,
confirmatory factor analyses supported the two-factor structure of the STICSA among Malaysian
young adults. In addition, results indicated good internal consistency. The results offer initial
evidence that the STICSA is a valid measure for investigating both cognitive and somatic trait
anxiety in young adults. Future studies, however, are needed and suggested to replicate the study
and examine validity of the STICSA with other populations. It is also important to explore the
psychometric properties of the STICSA in assessing cognitive and somatic state anxiety.
Keywords: trait anxiety, state anxiety, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, confirmatory factor
analysis, Malaysia
1.0 Introduction
Anxiety refers to a felt, affective, and unpleasant state accompanied by the physical sensation of
uneasiness (Feist & Feist 2009). It is one of the major mental issues in Malaysia (ZamZam et al.
2009). Al-Naggar (2011) examined the prevalence of anxiety among 468 Malaysia university
students and found that 53.85% of them reported anxiety.
624
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The high prevalence of anxiety deserves more attention. Studies have consistently found that
anxiety is detrimental to cognitive performance in aptitude or achievement tests (Eysenck 2012),
social interaction (Wu et al. 2013), and health (Leander et al. 2013). Hence, a valid and reliable
measure of anxiety for Malaysian is urgently needed to accommodate the demand for anxiety
assessment.
1.1 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, 1983) has been widely used in research and
clinical settings to measure state and trait anxiety. State anxiety refers to a transitory feeling of
tension and apprehension; this feeling may vary in intensity across time. For example, an
individual tend to report high state anxiety prior to his or her examination. The high anxiety,
however, may dissipate to a moderate level after the examination. On the other hand, trait
anxiety refers to a stable tendency to experience anxiety frequently. Similar to personality trait,
trait anxiety is relatively stable and will not be easily affected by situation or by environment.
Individual with high trait anxiety will react less appropriately to anxiety provoking stimuli (Kaur
et al. 2012). For example, high trait anxiety individual may be easily anxious towards unplanned
changes throughout his or her life.
Empirical evidence has been found for the psychometric qualities of the STAI. According to
Balsamo et al. (2013), the STAI was found to have good internal consistencies, with Cronbach
alphas between .86 (clinical sample) and .87 (nonclinical sample), for measuring anxiety factor.
Similarly, evaluation of the STAI based on 253 engineering students in Malaysia showed good
internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = .85) and construct validity (Vitasari et al. 2011).
Although studies have consistently evidenced the positive psychometric features of the STAI, it
is important to note that the STAI is not without limitation. For instance, the STAI is not able to
distinguish between symptom of anxiety and depression and its psychometric properties limited
in younger, less educated populations (Gros et al. 2007). Therefore, researchers have called for a
need of a new measure of state and trait anxiety that has good discriminant validity.
1.2 State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety
On the basis of the Spielbergers theoretical background, Ree, MacLeod, French, and Locke,
2000 (as cited in Gros et al. 2007, p. 370) developed the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and
Somatic Anxiety (STICSA) to better discriminate between the symptoms of anxiety and
depression (Gros et al. 2007). The STICSA consists of 21 items and separates anxiety into
cognitive (10 items) and somatic symptoms (11 items).
As in the STAI, the items can be used to measure both state and trait anxiety using different
instructions. Specifically, when measuring state anxiety, respondents are asked to rate how they
625
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
feel right now, at this very moment, but not how they usually feel. When assessing trait anxiety,
respondents are asked to report their general feeling. Regardless of state or trait scale,
respondents rate the extent to which each statement is true for them on a 4-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much so).
Ree and colleagues (as cited in Gros et al., 2007) found evidence to the psychometric features of
the STICSA. CFAs on the responses derived from student and community samples supported the
two-factor structure (i.e., cognitive and somatic) for both the state and trait scales. Moreover, all
items loaded strongly on the predicted cognitive and somatic factors and both state and trait
scales showed excellent internal consistency (s > .90).
Although Ree and colleagues findings suggest that the STICSA is a promising measure, Gros
and colleagues (2007) argued that the generalizability of the findings derived from student and
community sample to clinical sample remains open. To further examine psychometric qualities
of the STICSA, Gros and colleagues administered the STICSA, STAI, Depression Anxiety
Stress Scales 21-item version (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and Structured Clinical
Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-IV; First et al., 1996) to 567 psychiatric patients and 311
undergraduates. The results of CFA showed that the four-factor model (State-Cognitive,
State-Somatic, Trait-Cognitive, & Trait-Somatic) yielded adequate-to-excellent fit across
different fit indices (e.g., RMSEA, CFI) in both patient and student samples. Moreover, the two
state factors (State-Cognitive and State-Somatic) were significantly associated (r = .64), as well
as the two trait factors (Trait-Cognitive and Trait-Somatic, r = .57). Similarly, high correlation
was found in the two cognitive factors (State-Cognitive and Trait-Cognitive, r = .84) and the two
somatic factors (State-Somatic and Trait-Somatic, r = .76). In other words, the results support
that the STICSA is composed of cognitive and somatic factors and the difference in instruction
can clearly distinguish state anxiety from trait anxiety. In addition, the STISCA showed excellent
internal consistency in the patient sample: Cronbach alpha coefficients of .88 for the
State-Cognitive and State-Somatic subscales and .87 for both subscales of STISCA-Trait. The
student sample was also found to have similar pattern of internal consistency, though the alpha
values were slightly lower than the patient samples.
Correlation analysis confirmed the convergent validity of the STICSA. The STICSA-State was
found to have higher correlation with the STAI-State than the STICSA-Trait. Similarly, the
STICSA Trait was significantly more correlated with the STAI-Trait than the STICSA-State.
More importantly, the STISCA was found to have good discriminant validity. Specifically, the
STISCA-Trait associated more strongly with DASS-Anxiety subscale than with the
DASS-Depression subscale. Similar pattern was also observed for the State versions of the
STISCA, with the exception that the correlation of the STICSA-State with DASS-Depression
was not significantly differed from the relationship between STAI-State and DASS-Depression.
The results indicate that the STISCA is more closely related to measure of anxiety than
depression. In other words, the STISCA has higher discriminant validity than the STAI.
626
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Gros et al. (2010) further examined psychometric features of the STICSA-Trait in friendship
dyads. Gros and colleagues (2010) asked individuals who signed up for the study (target) to
bring a friend (informant) to the study. Targets and informants responded to the questionnaire
battery with a different set of instructions. Specifically, the targets were instructed to answer the
questionnaire based on their own characteristics, whereas informants responded to the
questionnaire based on their view of the target participants. CFAs on both the target and
informant responses supported the two-factor model of the STICSA-Trait. Moreover, the results
of invariance measurement suggested that the STICSA-Trait has a similar structure across
self-reports and other-reports. High internal consistency (alphas > .91) and convergent and
discriminant validity were also observed for both cognitive and somatic subscales in the target
and informant reports. These findings further demonstrated that the reliability and validity of the
STICSA-Trait are independent of method of assessment.
Inconsistent findings, however, were revelaed in a recent study. Lancaster et al. (2015)
administered the STICSA to African Americans and European Americans undergraduate
students. Although convergent validity was supported, the results of CFAs did not support the
original factor structure for both trait and state scales. The findings not only question the
generalizability of the previous findings but also indicate the need to further examine
pcychometric qualities of the STICSA within different ethnic and cultural groups.
1.3 The Present Study

Despite studies have found that the STISCA is psychometrically sound for anxiety assessment, it
is worth to note that the findings were mainly derived from Western context and the
investigation among diverse populations is still limited (Lancaster et al. 2015). Therefore, it is
not clear if the STICSA can be transported across cultural and ethnic groups.
This study intended to minimize the gap and extend the previous findings to the Asia context. As
an exploratory and the first study on Malaysian sample, we examined factor structure and
internal consistency of the STISCA-Trait scale. This cross-cultural validation may offer insight
into the structural invariance of the STISCA across cultures. Moreover, it is hoped that the
preliminary evidence may encourage further examination and application of the STISCA in
Malaysia.
2.0 Method
2.1 Participants
The present study was part of a larger study on the relationship between anxiety and creativity. A
total of 220 undergraduates (73 men, 147 women) were recruited via convenience sampling and
snowball sampling. The participants aged from 19 to 25 years old (M = 21.99, SD = 1.35). The
sample comprised 206 Chinese, 12 Indian, and two Malays.
627
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2.2 Measures
The State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA; Ree et al., 2008)
consists of 21 items with 10 items assessing cognitive symptoms of anxiety (e.g., Think worst
will happen) and 11 items reflecting on the somatic symptoms of anxiety (e.g., Breathing is
fast and shallow). Participants responded to the items on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1
(Not at all) to 4 (Very much so). Higher score indicates higher anxiety. By modifying the
instructions, the STICSA can be used to assess both state (the feeling of respondents right now,
at this present moment) and trait anxiety (the feeling of respondents in general). In the present
study, however, the STICSA was used as a measure of trait anxiety.
2.3 Procedure
An online questionnaire battery consisting of several scales (e.g., STICSA-Trait, self-perceived

creativity test) was created for the original study. Researchers sent the link of the online
questionnaire to undergraduates at a private university in Malaysia via social networking and
email. Upon obtaining informed consent, participants were asked to fill up their demographic
information including gender, age, race, and type of universities, and other measurements. At the
end of the questionnaire, participants were asked to share the link of the questionnaire with their
friends and invite them to take part in the study. Most of the data were collected within one
week.
2.4 Data Analysis Plan
Factor structure of the STICSA was assessed using CFA with maximum likelihood (ML)
estimation. The fitness of the model was examined with several indices, including model
chi-square, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean-square (SRMR). A model is
considered poor fit if chi-square value is large and statistically significant. Given that this value
is highly sensitive to sample size, we used the ratio of chi-square divided by degrees of freedom
as an index of model fit. A ratio below three is considered as acceptable (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007). For the TLI and CFI, values greater than .95 indicate a good fit, with values .90 are
considered as an acceptable fit. The RMSEA value should be less than .05 for a good model fit,
but values less than .08 are acceptable. The SRMR should be less than .08 for a good model fit
(Hu & Bentler, 1999).
3.0 Results
3.1 Confirmatory Factor Analyses
The means and standard deviations for each item of the STICSA ranged from 1.38 to 2.37 and
0.64 and 0.94, respectively. The skewness for the STICSA items ranged between -.17 and 1.55
628
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
and kurtosis ranged between -1.09 and 1.61. As the absolute value of skewness and kurtosis less
than three and eight, the data can be considered as normally distributed (Kline, 2011).
CFA on the theoretical two-factor model (Cognitive and Somatic) yielded acceptable fit statistics:
2(188) = 354.78 (ratio = 1.89), p < .001, TLI = .89, CFI = .90, RMSEA = .06, 90% confidence
interval (CI) [.05, .07], SRMR = .06. All factor loadings were found significant and the two
factors were intercorrelated.
Although majority of the indices indicated that the model was acceptable, the TLI was slightly
below the acceptable value. We, therefore, referred to modification indices to explore for further
improvement. Examination of modification indices suggested adding an error covariance
between item 1 and item 2 and item 19 and item 20. The modification further improved fitness of
the model: 2(186) = 318.73 (ratio = 1.71), p < .001, TLI = .91, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .06, 90%
CI [.05, .07], SRMR = .06.
In addition, we also examined one-factor model to understand if this alternative model is better
than the proposed two-factor model. Results showed poor fit model statistics: 2(189) = 420.73
(ratio = 2.22), p < .001, TLI = .85, CFI = .86, RMSEA = .08, 90% confidence interval
[.07, .08], SRMR = .06. Taken together, the results supported the two-factor structure of the
STICSA-Trait.
3.2 Internal Consistency of the STICSA
Internal consistency of the STICSA was assessed by Macdonalds Omega. Results showed that
the two subscales had good internal consistency: .83, 95% Bias corrected CI [.79, .87] for
somatic trait anxiety; .89, 95% CI [.86, .91] for cognitive trait anxiety.
4. Discussion
The STICSA is a recently developed self-assessment on trait and state anxiety. Each scale taps
on the cognitive and somatic dimensions of anxiety. The present study assessed the psychometric
qualities of the STICSA-Trait. Our results supported that the STICSA-Trait subscales is a
reliable and valid measure of cognitive and somatic anxiety.
Consistent with literature (e.g., Gros et al., 2007; Gros et al., 2010), the cognitive and somatic
factors are replicated. Moreover, compared to the alternative (one-factor) model, the theoretical
two-factor model shows better fit across the indices, though the TLI value was slightly below the
cut-off level. Our findings lend support to the theoretical two-factor structure of the
STICSA-Trait. Although the model fit was improved after adding error covariance, the
theoretical model was retained because the modification was not supported by any theoretical
rationale. The specification, however, suggests the need of item modification to further
distinguish the items conceptually.
629
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Unlike the past studies (e.g., Gros et al., 2010), we used the Macdonald Omega to assess
reliability of the STICSA-Trait scale. This is because coefficient alpha tends to underestimate the
reliability when the assumption of equal factor loadings and/or unidimensionality (i.e.,
tau-equivalence) is violated (Teo & Fan 2013). In line with past findings, both cognitive and
somatic subscales show good internal consistency. The consistency between different methods of
assessment lends further support to the reliability of the STICSA-Trait scale.
The present study has implication for the development of the STICSA and assessment of anxiety
in Malaysia context. This study was the first investigation of the factor structure of the
STICSA-Trait scale on a Malaysia sample. The replication suggests that the STICSA is a
psychometric sound measurement across cultures, though more studies are needed to further
confirm psychometric qualities of the STICSA.
There are several limitations of the study that should be taken into consideration. Despite the
STICSA-Trait scale shows good internal consistency and its factor structure is consistent with
theory, it is important to note that validity was not directly examined. Future studies are
suggested to assess convergent and divergent validity of the STICSA. Furthermore, the results
were based on undergraduates. It is not clear if the findings can be replicated with other
populations (e.g., adolescents, older adults). It is also interesting to know whether the
STICSA-Trait scale is valid for other ethnicity groups in Malaysia, though there is no reason for
us to assume differences. Finally, it is important to note that the present study only assessed the
STICSA-Trait scale. Although previous studies reported that the state scale is as valid as the trait
scale, researchers are suggested to assess the psychometric qualities of the STICSA-State scale.
4.0 Conclusion
The present study provides first piece of evidence that the STICSA-Trait scale is a factorial valid
and reliable measure of cognitive and somatic anxiety for Malaysia young adults. Researchers
and practitioners may consider this relatively new measurement in their research and assessment.
5.0 Reference
Al-Naggar, R.A., 2011. Prevalence and associated factors of phobia and social anxiety among
university students. ASEAN journal of psychiatry, 13 (2), pp.112234.
Balsamo, M. et al., 2013. The state-trait anxiety inventory: Shadows and lights on its construct
validity. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(4), pp.475486.
Eysenck, M.W., 2012. The impact of anxiety on cognitive performance. In S. Kreitler, ed.
Cognition and motivation: forging an interdisciplinary perspective. New York: Csmbridge
University Press.
630
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Feist, J. & Feist, G.J., 2009. Theories of personality 7th ed., New York: McGraw Hill.
First, M.B. et al., 1996. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorder, Research
Version, Patient Edition, New York: New York Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research
Department.
Gros, D.F. et al., 2007. Psychometric propoerties of the State-Trait inventory for cogntiive and
somatic anxiety (STICSA): Comparison to the State-Trait anxiety inventory (STAI).
Psychological Assessment, 19(4), pp.369381.
Gros, D.F., Simms, L.J. & Antony, M.M., 2010. Psychometric Properties of the State-Trait
Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA) in Friendship Dyads. Behavior
Therapy, 41(3), pp.277284. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.07.001.
Kaur, N. et al., 2012. A comparative study of working and non-working married women: Effect
of anxiety level on life satisfaction. Indian journal of psychology and mental health, 6 (2),
pp.169178.
Lancaster, S.L. et al., 2015. Ethnicity and Anxiety: A Psychometric Evaluation of the STICSA.
Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. Available at:
http://mec.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0748175615578757.
Leander, M. et al., 2013. Impact of anxiety and depression on respiratory symptoms. In

Occupational and environmental medicine. Pennsylavania.
Lovibond, S.H. & Lovibond, P.F., 1995. Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales 2nd
ed., Sydney, Australia: Psychology Foundation of Australia.
Spielberger, C.D., 1983. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y), Palo Alto: CA:
Mind Garden.
Teo, T. & Fan, X., 2013. Coefficient Alpha and Beyond: Issues and Alternatives for Educational
Research. Asia-Pacific Edu Res, 22(2), pp.209213.
Vitasari, P. et al., 2011. Re-test of State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) among engineering
students in Malaysia: Reliability and validity tests. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 15, pp.38433848. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.383.
Wu, T. et al., 2013. The impact of anxiety on social decision-making: Behavioral and
electrodermal findings. Soc Neurosci, 8(1), pp.1121.
631
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
ZamZam, R. et al., 2009. Psychiatric morbidity among adult patients in a semi-urban primary
care setting in Malaysia. International journal of mental health systems, 3(13), pp.16.
632
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Reliability and Factor Analysis of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
(UWES-17)

Uma Devi Nagalingam*, Fatimah Omar*, Nor Bayah Abdul Kadir*,
Suzana Mohd. Hoesni
a,b,c&d
School of Psychology and Human Development, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia
Email: aumadevi_nagalingam@yahoo.com,
fass@ukm.edu.my, aknbayah@ukm.my,smh@ukm.my
Abstract
Work engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by

vigor, dedication, and absorption. Numerous studies in assessing work engagement among
employees has administered Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17), a well-known and
established psychological scale developed by Schaufeli et al (2003). It consists of 17
self-reported items which measures three underlying dimensions of work engagement: vigor,
dedication and absorption. This present study aims to examine the psychometric properties of
UWES-17 by focusing on reliability and factor analysis. A total of 52 employees involving
lecturers (46.2%) and customer service executives (53.8%) completed the scale. The results
revealed a strong and satisfactory reliability and factor analysis value on UWES-17 scale. This
concludes that UWES-17 is consistent in precisely measuring work engagement level among
employees.
Keywords: Work engagement; Reliability; Factor Analysis
1. Introduction
In recent years, the term work engagement has gained popularity in the field of psychology, in
which numerous research examining the application and consequence of work engagement with
various work-related markers such as job satisfaction has been carried out. This concept has been
found to be strongly associated with employees regardless of occupation and nature of the
organization as it emphasizes on employeeswell-being, motivation level and relationship with
their work. Hence, organizations these days are placing importance on their employees to be
conscientious, blended and focused on his or her standard of job performance whereby these
behaviours are connected to higher work engagement level amongst employees in the
organization.
633
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The term work engagement was first conceptualized by Kahn in 1990 by stating that engaged
employees are connected, attentive, integrated and focused on their job performance and
consistently contribute more effort in their position because they are able to identify themselves
strongly with their work. He further added that highly engaged employees put in more personal
energies consisting of cognitive, physical, emotional and mental into their line of work and
responsibilities and hence, are capable of producing positive development and growth for the
employee and organization respectively. Later on, many other researchers begin exploring the
concept of work engagement which includes Maslach and Leiter (1997) who stated that work
engagement as the opposite of job burnout which consists of energy, involvement and efficacy.
Work engagement is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is

characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzlez-Rom, and
Bakker, 2002). Vigor is regarded as having high level of energy and resilience at work, the
readiness to put in effort in work and determination to overcome any difficulties. Dedication on
the other hand refers to having strong belongingness in their work in the organization which
includes being enthusiastic, inspired and pride. Lastly, absorption means having complete
concentration and fulfilment in work. Many researches have suggested that employees with high
engagement are often more committed, enthusiastic, optimistic and engrossed in their work
(Basikin, 2007).
Based on these three dimensions of work engagement, Schaufeli, et al (2002) initially developed
the first version of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) consisting of 24 self-reported
items. Upon conducting a primary study, seven items from the original scale was removed due to
low psychometric value. Hence UWES-17 was developed which comprises of 5 items of
dedication and 6 items respectively for both vigor and absorption. Besides the 17 items
self-reported scale, another shortened version of UWES consisting of 9 items was created and
made accessible.
Generally, studies have revealed that UWES-17 has high reliability value and that it is consistent
in measuring the level of work engagements among employees and students. For example,
Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) reported that the internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha) for the
three dimension are .83 (vigor), .92 (dedication) and .82 (absorption). This was also support by
other researchers such as Demerouti, Bakker, de Jonge and Schaufeli (2001) indicating that the
value of Cronbachs alpha for the three dimensions and the entire scale is above .70. Based on a
study by Storm and Rothmann (2003), the reported internal consistency value for vigor was .78,
dedication was .89 and absorption was .78. Fong and Ng (2012) reported the Cronbachs alpha
value of above .70 for the dimensions and total scale of UWES-17 (vigor = .74, dedication = .77,
absorption = .70 and total = .88).
The focus of this present study is to examine the psychometric properties of UWES-17 by
focusing on its reliability and factor analysis. Through analysis, the researcher intends to identify
634
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
the suitability of UWES-17 in accurately measuring work engagement level amongst employee
population, primarily lecturers and customer service executives.
2. Method
Participants and procedure
The respondents for this research consisted of 52 employees who are recruited from two different
occupational backgrounds within the vicinity of Selangor. To obtain the required sample for this
research, the researcher randomly distributed 100 sets of self-reported questionnaire consisting of
socio-demographic details and UWES-17 scale to the targeted respondents through
acquaintances and colleagues from the related occupational background. Each respondent was
given 3 days to fill-up and return the completed questionnaire to the researcher. Overall, the
response rate was 52% upon screening the received questionnaires for missing data and
discrepancies.
Adding on, the number of male and male respondents are equally 26 respectively, with a
majority of them are from the age range of 20 to 30 years old (n=31) whereas the least number of
respondents are from the age range of 41 to 50 years old (n=4). A total of 24 (46.2%)
respondents were lecturers from a private college whereas the remaining 28 (53.8%) were
customer service executives from several telecommunication companies. Most respondents
(n=16) has below 2 years of working experiences, followed by 15 respondents with 6 to 10 years,
14 respondents with 2 to 5 years and lastly, 7 respondents with 11 years and above of working
experience. The respondents are also from various education backgrounds comprising of
SPM/STPM (n=7), Certificate/Diploma (n=8), Degree/Masters/PhD (n=36) and other
professional qualifications such as ACCA (n=1).
Measure
The present study focused on the administration of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES)
which contains 17 items to the targeted respondents. UWES-17 is a self-reported scale which
was developed based on the three essential dimensions of work engagement: vigor, dedication
and absorption. The dimensions of vigor and absorption have each of 6 items per dimension
correspondingly while the remaining 5 items measures the dimension of dedication (Schaufeli
and Bakker, 2003). Examples of items for each dimensions of UWES-17 are shown in Table 1.1.
Respondents are required to provide response for each item based on 7-point Likert scale ranging
from never (0) to always (6). The respondents were also required to provide
socio-demographic details such as gender, age, occupation, education level and year of working
experience.
Table 1.1: Sample of items for Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17)
635
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Sub-scale No. of items Sample of items

1. Vigor 6 1. At my work, I feel bursting with energy
4. At my job, I feel strong and vigorous
2. Dedicatio 5 2. I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose
n 5. I am enthusiastic about my job
3. Absorpti 6 3. Time flies when I'm working
on 6. When I am working, I forget everything else around me
Total 17
3. Results
The purpose of this research was to examine the psychometric properties of Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale (UWES-17) by conducting reliability and factorial analysis based on the
collected questionnaires. The Table 2.1 shows that the Alpha Cronbach for the three dimensions
of work engagement in UWES-17. For all 17-items in the scale, the mean ranged from 2.67 to
4.49 whereas the inter-item correlation ranged from .371 to .804. The Cronbachs alpha value for
the entire scale (17-item) was .933 whereas for the three dimensions are = .832 for vigor; =
.870 for dedication and = .855 for dedication. This indicates that the 17-items Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale is consistent in measuring the level of work engagement among the
respondents in this study as the reliability value is between .832 and .933.
Table 2.1: Reliability analysis for UWES-17

Dimension No. of items Cronbachs Mean Std.
Alpha Deviation
1. Overall scale 17 .933 62.35 17.58
2. Vigor 6 .832 21.94 6.634
3. Dedication 5 .870 19.69 6.172
4. Absorption 6 .855 21.08 6.678
The exploratory factorial analysis by applying a Principle Component Analysis technique with
Varimax Rotation and extraction on Eigen values was conducted for all items in UWES-17. The
descriptive analysis noted that the mean scores for all 17 items ranged from 2.70 to 4.49. The
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy revealed a significant value of .824
which is greater than 0.05. As this value is closer to 1, it indicates that the patterns of correlations
are satisfactory in order to conduct a factor analysis for this data set. According to Kaiser (1974),
values between 0.8 and 0.9 are marvellous and appropriate for factor analysis to be carried out.
Furthermore, the Bartletts Test of Sphericity result was also significant at the level of .000 (
(136) = 656.537, p < .05) which means factor analysis is suitable as all 17 items are correlated
well with each other.
636
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Principle Component Analysis also revealed that the communalities (initial = 1.0) upon
extraction were all above .353 with the highest value of .865 contributed by item WE5,
demonstrating that 86.5% of variances associated with item WE5 is shared with others.
However, only three factors were extracted as it was significant with Eigen values greater than 1
and it consist of Factor 1, Factor 2 and Factor 3 representing 50.859%, 8.802% and 7.697% of
variances respectively in all 17 items analysed. The accumulative of variances was 67.359% and
be can further be concluded that the remaining 14 factors were not significant.
Further statistical analysis was conducted to examine all 17 items, designed based on three
dimensions; vigor, dedication and absorption. Table 2.2 provides clear indication that factor
loading from all items of UWES-17 ranged from .425 to .881 whereby the coefficient suggest
that 11 items loaded strongly on factor 1 (vigor), 8 items strongly loaded on factor 2 (dedication)
and 4 items loaded strongly to factor 3 (absorption). Items with the highest loading for factor 1, 2
and 3 are UWE5 (.881), UWE14 (.794) and UWE17 (.789) respectively. However, it was also
observed that two items were loaded on two factors (overlapping), namely UWE8 and UWE12,
indicating that these items are weak and not adequately strong to measure their respective
dimension. Both UWE8 and UWE12 loaded fairly on factor 1 (vigor) and factor 2 (dedication).
Item UWE8 When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work and UWE12 I can
continue working for very long periods at a time, which intend to measure the dimension of
vigor could also reflect the dimension of dedication of the UWES-17 scale. However, the factor
loadings for the remaining items reflect that each item is able to measure its respective
dimension of work engagement.
Table 2.2: Results of Explanatory Factorial Analysis

Factor Loading
Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
UWE1 .527 .523
UWE2 .718
UWE3 .528
UWE4 .718
UWE5 .881
UWE6 .761
UWE7 .825
UWE8 .743 .433
UWE9 .597 .663
UWE10 .675
UWE11 .668 .657
UWE12 .502 .582
UWE13 .662
UWE14 .794
UWE15 .554 .681
637
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
UWE16 .425
UWE17 .789
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure value: .824
Bartletts Test of Sphericity sig. level : .000
Percentage (%) of variances explained: 67.359
Communalities ranged from: .353 to .865
Overall, the results based on both reliability and factor analysis provided support that the
17-items Utrecht Work Engagement scale is highly reliable and valid in measuring the level of
work engagement among the respondents in this study.
4. Discussion
The Utrecht Work Engagement scale (UWES) is recognized as an established and extensively
administered scale for the purpose of measuring work engagement among employees from
various occupational backgrounds. This scale is has been translated into more than 20 languages
and used in many countries around the world such as China and Japan. In this present study, the
17-item Utrecht Work Engagement scale was administered to examine the psychometric
properties (UWES-17) by focusing on its reliability and factor analysis. For this purpose, the
researcher analyzed the data collected from 52 respondents comprising lecturers and customer
service executives.
The reliability analysis revealed a high Cronbachs Alpha coefficient value for overall scale ( =
.933) and the three dimensions ranged from .832 to .855 (vigor, = .832; dedication, = .870
and absorption, =.855) respectively. This strongly indicated that the UWES-17 is good internal
consistent in measuring work engagement level among the respondents in this study.
Additionally, the results from Explanatory Factorial Analysis indicated that Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartletts Test of Sphericity were significant at .824
and .000. Besides that, the communalities were within the satisfactory range and the factor
loading from all the items ranged from .425 to .881. These values strongly acknowledge the fact
that UWES-17 scale has high ability in measuring work engagement among employees.
This outcome is supported by Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) who reported that the internal
consistency (Cronbachs Alpha) for overall UWES-17 scale and its dimensions ranged from .70
to .96 whereas Md. Yusoff, Md Ali, Khan and Abu Bakar (2013) noted its consistency to be
between .81 and .95. These researchers also noted that this scale has the satisfactory range of
validity in measuring the level of work engagement.
In conclusion, this study has provided sufficient evidence to support that 17-item Utrecht Work
Engagement scale is a reliable and valid scale in measuring work engagement among lecturers
and customer service executives. Even though the sample size was small (n=52) but the
reliability and factorial analysis conclusively indicated that the UWES-17 is indeed a good
638
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
instrument in assessing work engagement. The findings of this current research will encourage
the researcher of this present study to administer UWES-17 for future research purpose involving
larger sample size and also various occupational background.
5. Reference
Basikin., 2007. Vigor, dedication and absorption: Work engagement among secondary school
English teachers in Indonesia. In: 2007 AARE International Conference, 27-28 November 2007,
University of Notre Dame, Fremantle, Perth, Australia. (Unpublished)
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.b., de Jonge J., and Schaufeli. W. B., 2001. Burnout and engagement
at work as a function of demands and control. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and
Health, 27(4), pp. 279-286.
Fong, C.T. and Ng, S.M. (2012). Measuring engagement at work: Validation of the Chinese
version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,
19(3), pp. 391-397.
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at
work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, pp. 692-724.
Kaiser, H. F., 1974. An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, pp. 31-36.
Maslach, C., and Leiter, M. P., 1997. The truth about burnout: How organizations cause
personal stress andwhat to do about it. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Md Yusof, R., Ms Ali, A, Khan, A., & Abu Bakar, S. (2013). Psychometric evaluation of Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale among academic staff in University of Pakistan. World Applied
Sciences Journal, 28(11), pp. 1555-1560.
Schaufeli, W.B., and Bakker, A., 2003. Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Preliminary manual.
Occupational Healthy Psychology Unit, Utrecht University.
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzlez-Rom, V., and Bakker, A. B., 2002. The measure of
engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 3(1), pp. 71-92.
Storm, K. and Rothmann, S., 2003. A psychometric analysis of the Utrecht Work Engagement
Scale in the South African police service. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(4),
pp. 62-70.
639
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
INDUSTRIAL ECONOMICS
640
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Relationship between Market Concentration and Performance:
Evidence from Malaysian General Insurance Industry

Chia Sin Yeea,*, Keoh Leong Yongb , Lim Ee Shiangc
a,b&c
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
e-mail : asinyee_chia@yahoo.com, bleongyong_91@yahoo.com, ceslim@usm.my
Abstract
General insurance industry plays a vital role in the economic growth of Malaysia. The
performance of general insurance sector in Malaysia was negatively affected during the 2007/2008
Asian Financial Crisis. Statistics from the Central Bank of Malaysia (BNM) have shown that the
claim ratio is higher than its underwriting profit ratio. This has led to a drop in the performance of
the industry. In 2009, BNM has implemented the liberalization plan to strengthen the general
insurance industry and improve its competitiveness. The plan has led market consolidation which
resulted in change in the degree of market concentration of the industry. According to the
Structure-Conduct-Performance hypothesis, a higher degree of market concentration would lead
to better firm performance. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of market
concentration on firm performance in the Malaysian general insurance industry. The analysis is
carried out by using panel data covering the period from 2000 to 2012. The results indicate that
there is no significant relationship between market concentration and firm performance.
Keywords: Market Concentration; Firm Performance; Insurance; Panel Data; Malaysia
1. Introduction
Insurance industry plays a vital role in the economic development of a nation. The insurance
industry is one of the key sectors contributing to the economic growth of Malaysia. The finance
and insurance sector has accounted for 9.4% of the real GDP in 2012 (MOF 2015; DOSM 2013).
The growth rate of finance and insurance sectors contribution to the real GDP is much higher
than the growth rate of total real GDP (MOF 2015; DOSM 2013). During the 2007/2008 Asian
Financial Crisis, the general insurance industry in Malaysia has encountered major challenges in
one key product segment, namely motor insurance. Due to the increasing number of motorcycle
thefts and motor accident cases, the frequency of insurance claims have escalated (Foong & Idris
2012). The claim ratio is higher than its underwriting profit ratio and this has led to deterioration in
the performance of the industry. The industry has experienced underwriting losses amounting to
RM 173.6 million in 2008 (BNM 2008). This has raised concerns over the financial strength of
this industry. Following this, a liberalization plan was implemented by the Central Bank of
Malaysia (BNM) in 2009 to strengthen the insurance industry and to improve its competitiveness.
Among the measures introduced include the relaxation of foreign equity limits as well as the
641
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
permitting the establishment of unlimited number of branches nationwide by locally-incorporated

foreign insurance companies (BNM 2009). These measures have led to series of mergers and
acquisitions among foreign and local controlled insurance companies (Foong & Idris 2012). For
example, Tokio Marine Insurance Malaysia acquired PanGlobal Insurance Berhad in 2009 and
MUI Continental Insurance Berhad in 2012 (TMIM 2015). The liberalization plan has indirectly
affected the number of insurers and the market concentration in the industry. Statistics from BNM
have shown that the number of general insurers and composite insurers have decreased from 33 in
2008 to 26 in 2012 (BNM 2008; BNM 2012). The degree of market concentration changed after
the implementation of the liberalization plan. The market concentration ratio of the four largest
firms (CR4) has increased from 35.5 in 2008 to 37.1 in 2012 (BNM 2008; BNM 2012). The
scenario raises the question whether changes in the market concentration will affect the
performance of firms in the Malaysian general insurance industry?
The relationship between market concentration and performance have received increasing
attention in the insurance sector (Pope & Ma 2008). Several studies have examined this
relationship for insurance industries in European countries (Berry-Stlzle et al. 2011; Njegomir et
al. 2011) and the United States of America (Choi & Weiss 2005; Pope & Ma 2008; Liebenberg &
Sommer, 2008; Cole et al. 2014). Nevertheless, the results of these empirical studies do not reach
a consensus on the relationship between market concentration and performance. Clearly, most of
these previous studies have been carried out in the context of developed countries. Econometric
analyses on the relationship between market concentration and performance in insurance industry
in developing countries have been scarce and minimally examined in Malaysia. The paper fills this
research gap. The paper aims to provide empirical evidence on the relationship between market
concentration and performance in the insurance industry in the context of developing country,
namely Malaysia. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The second section presents the
literature review of related research. The next section describes the data sources and the
methodology, including the formulation of empirical model. Subsequently, it is followed by the
presentation of empirical results in the fourth section. Finally, the last section concludes the paper.
The traditional Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) paradigm has been a central focus of

analysis in industrial organization. In the SCP paradigm, the term of structure refers to market
structure which is often measured using indicators of market concentration such as CR4. The term
of conduct refers to the conduct of firms which include pricing strategies, collusion, advertising,
research and development, and capacity development. The term of performance refers to the
outcome or social efficiency, and is often proxied by profitability and price-cost margin.
According SCP hypothesis, there is a positive relationship between market concentration and
profitability (Cole et al. 2014). Larger firms in a highly concentrated market may collude to set a
higher price, and hence this would lead to higher profit (Nabieu 2013).
642
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Few studies have been carried out to examine the relationship between market structure and firm
performance in insurance industry (Choi & Weiss 2005; Liebenberg & Kamerschen 2008; Cole et
al. 2014; Berry-Stlzle et al. 2011). However, the results of these studies are mixed. Choi & Weiss
(2005) find that the market concentration (HHI) has a positive impact on the insurers profits for
property-liability insurance market. Cole et al. (2014), in a study of health insurance, also observed
a positive impact of market concentration on insurers profits. In contrast, Berry-Stlzle et al.
(2011) which conducted a similar study for European property-liability insurance market do not
find any significant impact of market concentration on firm performance. Similar finding is
observed by Liebenberg & Kamerschen (2008) who carried out their studies in the South African
auto insurance market.
Beside market concentration, there are few factors that may affect firm performance have been
considered in the literature. These include market shares (Foong & Idris 2012; Liebenberg &
Sommer 2008), market growth (Berry-Stlzle et al. 2011), economic growth (Chang 2013) and
government policy (Pope & Ma 2008; Njegomir et al. 2011). It is argued that firms with larger
market share are able to enjoy lower costs and greater profitability because they are of greater
efficiency in their operations (Cole et al. 2014). Empirical studies find that there is a positive
impact of market share on firm performance (Foong & Idris 2012; Liebenberg & Sommer, 2008).
Liebenberg & Sommer (2008) in a study of the effects of corporate diversification find that larger
insurers perform better as the willingness of customer to buy insurance is higher for larger insurers
due to lower insolvency risk.
Market growth may attract potential firms to enter the market. This may increase output supply,
and lead to a drop in prices and hence profitability (Berry-Stlzle et al. 2011). Berry-Stlzle et al.
(2011), in a study in European property-liability insurance market for the period of 2003-2007,
have accounted market growth in their empirical model. Unfortunately, their results show that
market growth do not have a significant impact on firm performance.
Economic fluctuation may affect the demand and supply, and hence influence the performance of
businesses (Chang 2013). Pervious studies find that macroeconomic boom will enhance
performance (Chang 2013; Chen & Chiu 2014). Chang (2013) in a study in telecom manufacturing
industry, find that macro economy boom lead to better performance. Similar finding is observed
by Chen & Chiu (2014) in the hotel industry in Taiwan. So far, none of the previous studies in
insurance sector has accounted the role of macroeconomic conditions when examining the
relationship between market concentration and performance.
According to SCP paradigm, government policies may affect structure, conduct and performance
(Waldman & Jensen 2014). A few studies have examined the relationships between market
structure, liberalization policy and market profitability (Pope & Ma 2008; Njegomir et al. 2011).
The result of Njegomir et al. (2011), in a study in property-liability market of ex-Yugoslavia,
supports the notion that government policies would affect the profitability of the industry.
643
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
3. Data and Methodology
The paper uses firm-level data made available from the Central Bank of Malaysia (BNM) and the
Department of Statistics Malaysia to analyze the relationship between market concentration and
firm performance in the Malaysian general insurance industry. The data is an unbalanced
firm-level panel data covering the period from 2000 to 2012. After dropping outliers using the
Cook's distance test, a total of 394 observations is used for final analysis.
To examine the impact of market concentration on firm performance, the study formulated a
performance equation. Both LM Breusch-Pagan and Durbin-Wu Hausman tests are carried out to
determine the appropriate model (Gujarati & Porter 2009). Diagnostic tests are carried out to
examine whether the model is subjected to the problems of autocorrelation, heteroscedasticity
and multicollinearity. The specification of performance equation is as follows:
= 0 + 1 4 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 2010_12 +
Where subscript refers to insurer , and refers to the time period, and is the error terms for
insurer at time period , and s represent vector of coefficients. The dependent variable is firm
performance (PERFORMANCE), which is proxied by the underwriting profit or loss for each
general insurer at time t.
The independent variable of interest, the market concentration, is proxied by CR4, which is
defined as the summation of market shares for the four largest general insurers in the industry at
time t. The relative size of the firm (MS) is proxied by the ratio of total earned premium income of
each general insurer to the total earned premium income of the industry at time t. The performance
of the insurance industry is proxied by the market growth of the Malaysian insurance industry
(MG). The market growth is measured by the rate of change in total earned premium income of
industry at time t with respect to the total earned premium income of industry at time t-1. The
economic performance of Malaysia (EG) is measured by the rate of change in real gross domestic
product at time t with respect to the real gross domestic product at time t-1. A time dummy
variable (2010_12) is included in order to capture the differences of firm performance between
periods prior to 2010 and 2010 and after. The variable 2010_12 will take the value of one if the
period is 2010 and after, zero otherwise. The year 2010 is selected since BNM has implemented
the liberalization plan in 2009.
644
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Table 1: The Empirical Results of Performance Equation
Independent Variables Dependent Variable (PERFORMANCE)

OLS RE
Market Concentration (CR4) 375.6 127.0
(0.85) (0.27)
Relative Size of the Firm (MS) 3035.2*** 3537.5***
(3.26) (3.96)
Market Growth (MG) 347.6** 353.1***
(2.34) (2.96)
Economic Growth (EG) 507.5 475.0**
(1.67) (1.75)
2010_12 6763.8* 7999.3***
(1.96) (2.49)
CONSTANT -18514.9 -11712.7
(-1.27) (-0.75)
Note: The results shown in the second column and third column are estimated by ordinary least square model (OLS)
and random effect model (RE), respectively.
***, **, *
indicate that the results are statistically significant at 1 per cent, 5 per cent, 10 per cent levels of significance,
respectively
4. Empirical Results
Table 1 presented the results for the empirical model after adjusting the problem of autocorrelation
and heteroscedasticity. The results for both the LM Breusch-Pagan and Durbin-Wu Hausman tests
indicated that the random effect model (RE) is the appropriate statistical model. Following this, the
discussion will be based on the results for RE model, and the results for OLS model is presented
for comparison. A quick review on the results indicates that all variables have similar signs and the
impact of indepedent variables is signficiant for both OLS and RE models with the exception of
market concentration and economic growth (for OLS model only).
According to SCP hypothesis, largest firms in a highly concentrated market may collude in order
to set a higher price and gain higher profit (Nabieu 2013). Surprisingly, the results does not
support this notion. The market concentration variable (CR4) was not significant, indicating that
market concentration do not affect firm performance. Similar finding is observed by
(Berry-Stlzle et al. 2011; Liebenberg & Kamerschen 2008). One possible explanation is the
Malaysian government has been strictly and indirectly monitored and governed the behaviour of
firms via regulation such as Financial Service Act 2013 and Anti Competition Act 2010 (BNM
2014). As for the relative size of the firm, the coefficient of MS variable, as expected, yielded a
positive and significant result on firm performance. This suggests that the larger the size of the
firm to the industry, the better the firm performance. This similar finding is reached by Liebenberg
645
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
& Sommer (2008) and Foong & Idris (2012). Firms with larger relative size are able to spread their
risk across a larger pool of premium (SECP 2010).
The coefficient for market growth variable (MG) has a significant and positive sign. This suggests
that the market growth in the insurance industry has led to higher profit enjoy by incumbent firms.
Potential firms can not freely enter the industry to capture growing output in the market due to the
presence of barriers to entry in the industry. As for economic growth, the coefficient for EG has a
a positive and significant sign. This indicates that positive economic growth would enhance firm
performance. Similar result is observed by previous studies (Liu & Zhang 2008; Chen & Chiu
2014).
As for time dummy variable, the coefficient for 2010_12 shows a positive and significant impact
on firm performance. The result indicates that the underwriting profit after the implementation of
liberalization plan is higher for period 2010-2012 as compared to that for period 2000-2009.
Following the liberalization plan implemented by BNM, series of merger and acquisition activities
(M&A) among insurers have been observed (Foong & Idris 2012). The incidences of M&A might
have indirectly reduced the number of competiting insurers, and also resulted significant
efficiency gain in the insurance industry.
5. Conclusion
The paper examines the relationship between market concentration and firm performance in
general insurance industry in Malaysia. The analysis uses an unbalanced panel data covering the
period of 2000-2012. A single equation is formulated to account for the variation of the firm
performance and was estimated using the random effect model. The analysis shows that market
concentration do not affect firm performance, and hence do not provide support to the SCP
hypothesis of which higher market concentration would lead to better firm performance. A
plausible explanation is that the insurance industry in Malaysia is governed by the government via
regulation and hence the insurers could not freely change their prices unless approval from Central
Bank of Malaysia is obtained. Nevertheless, firms with larger market and higher economic and
market growth tend to enhance firm performance in the general insurance industry in Malaysia.
The result also indirectly suggests that firm performance has significantly improved after the
implementation of liberalization plan. To conclude, the variation of firm performance in general
insurance industry in Malaysia during the period of study is mainly due to the market share, the
market and economic growth, and the government policy.
6. References
Berry-Stlzle, T., Weiss, M. & Wende, S., 2011. Market Structure, Efficiency, and Performance in
the European Property-Liability Insurance Industry, Available at:
646
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
http://www.aria.org/meetings/2011 papers/Market_Structure_in_EU_insurance_markets
072311.pdf [Accessed January 18, 2015].
Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 2008. Annual Insurance Statistics 2008, Available at:
http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php?ch=statistic&pg=stats_insurance&lang=bm&eId=box2
&ac=72.
Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 2012. Annual Insurance Statistics 2012, Available at:
http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php?ch=statistic&pg=stats_insurance&lang=bm&eId=box2
&ac=100.
Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 2009. Liberalisasi Sektor Kewangan. Available at:
http://www.bnm.gov.my/?ch=bm_press&pg=bm_press_all&ac=1820&lang=bm.
Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 2014. Memorandum of Understanding between Bank Negara
Malaysia and the Malaysia Competition Commission. Available at:
http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php?ch=en_press&pg=en_press_all&ac=3018.
Chang, Y., 2013. An Empirical Test of SCP Hypothesis in World Telecom Manufacturing. In
Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Applied Social Science Research
(ICASSR-2013). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, pp. 206212.
Chen, C.-M. & Chiu, H.-H., 2014. Re-Examining the Market Structure Effects on Hotel
Performance Using Market Share Inequality. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 41, pp.6366.
Choi, B. & Weiss, M., 2005. An Empirical Investigation of Market Structure, Efficiency, and
Performance in PropertyLiability Insurance. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 72(4), pp.635
673.
Cole, C., He, E. & Karl, J., 2014. Market Structure and the Performance of the US Health
Insurance Marketplace: A State-Level Analysis. Social Science Research Network.
Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2401213 [Accessed
January 18, 2015].
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM), 2013. Malaysia Economics Statistics-Time Series,

Malaysia. Available at: https://www.statistics.gov.my/dosm/uploads/files/3_Time
Series/Malaysia Time Series 2013/Penerbitan_Time_Series_2013.pdf.
Foong, S. & Idris, R., 2012. Leverage, Product Diversity and Performance of General Insurers in
Malaysia. The Journal of Risk Finance, 13(4), pp.347361.
647
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Gujarati, D.N. & Porter, D.C., 2009. Basic Econometrics Fifth Edit., McGraw-Hill.
Kapunda, S.M. & Molosiwa, T.K., 2012. Economic Performance of Commercial Banks in
Botswana: A Structure-Conduct-Performance Approach. International Journal of
Economics and Business Studies, 2(1), pp.312.
Liebenberg, A.P. & Kamerschen, D.R., 2008. Structure, Conduct and Performance Analysis of
the South African Auto Insurance Market: 19802000. South African Journal of Economics,
76(2), pp.228238.
Liebenberg, A.P. & Sommer, D.W., 2008. Effects of Corporate Diversification: Evidence From
the Property-Liability Insurance Industry. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 75(4), pp.893
919.
Liu, J. & Zhang, J., 2008. An Empirical Research on the Relationships among Market Structure,
Efficiency and Performance of Chinese Banking Industry. , pp.2026.
Ministry of Finance (MOF), 2015. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) By Sector, Malaysia.
Available at: http://www.treasury.gov.my/index.php?option=com_
content&view=article&id=174&lang=en.
Nabieu, G.A.A., 2013. The Structure, Conduct and Performance of Commercial Banks in Ghana.
Journal of Business and Innovation Research, 1(4), pp.3447.
Njegomir, V., Stoji, D. & Markovi, D., 2011. Liberalisation, Market Concentration and
Performance in the Non-Life Insurance Industry of Ex-Yugoslavia. Ekonomska misao i
praksa, pp.2140.
Pope, N. & Ma, Y., 2008. The Market StructurePerformance Relationship in the International
Insurance Sector. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 75(4), pp.947966.
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP), 2010. How Insurance Works for You.
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan. Available at:
http://www.secp.gov.pk/ID/pub_id/pdf/InsuranceGuide09122010.pdf [Accessed June 17,
2015].
Tokio Marine Insurans Malaysia (TMIM), 2015. History of Tokio Marine Insurans (Malaysia)
Berhad. Available at:
http://www.tokiomarine.com/my/en/about-us/general-insurance/our-history.html#par_page_
heading [Accessed February 7, 2015].
648
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Waldman, D.. & Jensen, E.J., 2014. Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice, Harlow,
Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
649
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Knowledge Sources and In-House R&D among Small and Medium Sized
Enterprises: Evidence from Malaysian Manufacturing Sector
Lim Ee Shianga,*, Jacqueline Fernandezb
a&b
Email: aeslim@usm.my, blfjacq@usm.my
Abstract
It has been widely recognised that small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) do not innovate as
much as large enterprises. As such, there is a need to stimulate innovation activities among SMEs.
Knowledge sharing is particularly important especially for firms such as SMEs that have scarce
internal resources. As SMEs tend to rely on external sources for innovation activity, the role of
external knowledge sources in facilitating innovation activity needs to be understood in the
context of SMEs. This paper aims to provide an insight on the innovative behaviour of small and
medium msanufacturing firms by examining the links between knowledge sources and the
participation of firms in in-house R&D in the context of a developing country, namely, Malaysia.
The analysis is carried out using firm-level data obtained from Malaysias national survey of
innovation. The results of regression analysis show that external knowledge sources are important
for in-house R&D activity among Malaysian SMEs and that certain knowledge sources appear to
be of more importance in driving the in-house R&D activity.
Keywords : Innovation, R&D, Knowledge Sources, Small and Medium Enterprises

JEL Code : 032, L60
650
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Knowledge Sources and In-House R&D among Small and Medium Sized Enterprises:
Evidence from Malaysian Manufacturing Sector
1. Introduction
The innovation system approach highlights the fact that innovation emerges as a result of
complex interactions between firms and various players (Edquist, 1997). The firm is viewed as
operating in a wider environment that consists of various players. The environment in which the
firm operates is important in the sense that it supports and shapes the behaviour of firms. The
knowledge obtained from various players may be assimilated to help develop the firms stock of
knowledge and drive innovation activities. The players and their importance as sources of
knowledge in the process of innovation may differ from one nation to another (see studies in
Nelson, 1993). Developing nations have increasingly embraced the role of knowledge in driving
economic growth. In 2009, the Malaysian government formulated a national innovation model to
transform the country from a production-led economy to an innovation-led economy in which
knowledge is the main driver of economic growth (Malaysia, 2009). Given Malaysias aim to
transform the nation into an innovation-led economy, the role of these players in providing
knowledge that can be utilised for innovation has to be examined in the local context.
During the innovation process, firms may engage in a number of activities of which research and
development (R&D) activity is one key activity in this regard. Empirical studies have shown that
undertaking R&D enhances productivity at the firm-level (Crepon et al., 1998; Hall & Mairesse,
1995). It is often observed in firm-level studies that firms of smaller size are less likely to engage
in innovation activities than their larger counterparts (Shefer & Frenkel, 2005; Hashi & Stoji,
2013). Firm-level innovation literature also reveal the presence of heterogeneity in innovative
behaviour across firms (Shefer & Frenkel, 2005). The way firms organise their innovation activity
differs between SMEs and large firms. Compared to their larger counterparts, small firms are more
likely to subcontract their R&D activity to other players such as academic institutions (Acs et al.,
1994). A survey which was carried out by SME Corp with the assistance of Bank Negara
Malaysia in 2010 revealed that a large majority of SMEs do not undertake any form of R&D
activities internally. Only approximately one third of SMEs, mainly in the manufacturing sector,
engage in some form of in-house R&D activity (Malaysia, 2011b). Therefore, there is a need to
further boost up SMEs engagement in in-house R&D.
Empirical results show that investment in external knowledge sourcing alone does not necessarily
lead to better innovation performance unless some in-house R&D has been carried out (Li,
2011). Empirical studies on the relationship between innovation and knowledge sources have
been carried out in developed countries (e.g. Piergiovanni et al., 1997; Thornhill, 2006; Tdtling et
al. 2009). Related works in developing countries are largely underdeveloped (Liu, 2009). External
knowledge sources are of particular importance for firms, especially SMEs. It is often argued that
SMEs seldom innovate in isolation and they often rely heavily on external knowledge sources
651
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
from various players within the innovative environment (Avermaete et al., 2004). This paper fills
the gap by examining the relationship between in-house R&D activity and various knowledge
sources among SMEs in the context of a developing country, namely, Malaysia. An insight in this
regard may assist to identify the role of various knowledge sources in driving innovators to engage
in in-house R&D activity and subsequently, to formulate policies more efficiently.
The remainder of the paper is organised as follows. Section 2 describes the data and Section 3
outlines the formulation of the empirical model used for the study. Section 4 presents the
empirical results on the role of various knowledge sources in driving in-house R&D activity.
Finally, Section 5 summarises the main findings and discusses policy implications.
2. Data
This study uses firm-level data obtained from the fifth National Survey of Innovation 2005-2008
conducted by the Malaysian Science and Technology Information Centre, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation. The questionnaire is formulated following the principles outlined in
the Oslo Manual and the fourth Community Survey of Innovation (Malaysia, 2011a). The survey
filtered out non-innovators in the early part of the questionnaire and hence this limits the collection
of information on non-innovators. The innovation-related information such as in-house R&D is
only available for the innovators. The analysis is carried out using the dataset of 252 small and
medium sized innovators in the manufacturing sector. Following the National Survey of
Innovation 2005-2008 (Malaysia, 2011a), the study defines a small and medium enterprise as a
firm with 150 employees or less.
3. Methodology
This study uses both descriptive and econometric analysis to examine the role of knowledge
sources in in-house R&D among SMEs in the manufacturing sector. The descriptive analysis
looks into the types of innovation activity undertaken and the type of knowledge sources utilised
by SME innovators. An empirical model is formulated to examine the role of various knowledge
sources in driving innovator firms engagement in in-house R&D activity. The innovator firms
decision to engage in in-house R&D is modelled as a probit model as follows:
1, = 1 1, + 1, (1)

1 1, > 0
1, ={ (2)
0 1, 0
where 1, is the latent variable that measures the firms propensity to engage in in-house
R&D activity and X1i is a vector of observed variables that explains the innovators decision to
engage in in-house R&D or not. 1, is not observed directly, but instead an indicator variable
1, is observed. The variable 1, is a binary variable that takes the value of 1 if the firm
decided to engage in in-house R&D activity, and zero if the firm decided not to do so.
652
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The independent variables X1i included in the model are knowledge sources variables and control
variables. Various knowledge sources which may contribute to building firms knowledge stock
and drive firms innovation activity have been included. The knowledge sources variables in this
study are proxied by the perceived importance of information sources for innovation obtained
from various players. The importance of each information source is measured by a binary
variable that takes a value of 1 if the firm cited the source as being highly important and 0
otherwise. The sources of information include information from clients (IMP_CLIENT),
suppliers (IMP_SUPPLIER), competitors (IMP_COMPETITOR), consultants
(IMP_CONSULTANT), private and commercial research laboratories or institutions
(IMP_RESEARCH), universities or higher education institutions (IMP_UNIVERSITY), and
government or public research institutions (IMP_GOVERNMENT).
A number of control variables have been included in the empirical model. These are size of firm,
age of firm, foreign ownership, export intensity, affiliation to a group of companies, and
ownership structure. The size of the firm (SIZE) is measured in terms of the number of
employees (log). The age of the firm (AGE) is measured in terms of the number of years since
the firm was established. The export intensity (EXPORT) is used to measure the extent of export
activities undertaken by the firms, and it is proxied by the proportion of annual sales being
exported. This variable can be an indicator to measure the extent of global competition pressure
faced by the firms. To measure the degree of foreign ownership, the FOREIGN variable is
proxied by the proportion of foreign equity shares in the ownership structure. To account for the
existence of group linkages, the GROUP variable will take a value of one if the firm has
indicated that it is part of a particular group of companies. As for ownership structure, the
LIMITED variable will take a value of one if the firm has cited its ownership structure as a
private company with limited liabilities or a public listed company with limited liabilities, and
zero otherwise.
4. Empirical Analysis
The empirical results are discussed in two parts. The first part provides a descriptive analysis on
the types of innovation activity undertaken and this is followed by a discussion of the relevance
and importance of knowledge sources for innovation that is available to SMEs. The second part
is the econometrics analysis which examines the role of various knowledge sources on the
propensity of firms to engage in in-house R&D.
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
Table 1 presents the various types of innovation activities that are carried out by SME
innovators. Innovators may engage in in-house R&D activity, acquisition of external knowledge,
acquisition of capital goods, the development, production, distribution activities, training and
market preparation, and other implementation activities for innovations (OECD & Eurostat,
653
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
2005). The data shows that three major innovation activities which are frequently undertaken by
SMEs are the acquisition of machinery and equipment, innovation-related training and in-house
R&D. Acquisition of machinery and equipment is the most common innovation activity
undertaken by SMEs. More than half of the firms have engaged in the acquisition activity. This
is followed by innovation related training and in-house R&D and it is noted that one third of the
firms have carried out these innovation activities. SMEs seldom acquire external R&D. The
proportion of firms engaged in this type of innovation activity was the lowest.
Table 2 shows the relevance and the importance of information sources that firms utilised for
innovation activities. The relevance of knowledge source is proxied by the proportion of firms
citing a particular information source as being of some importance (i.e. low/medium/high
importance). The importance of knowledge source is proxied by the proportion of firms citing a
particular information source as being of high importance.
Table 1: Types of Innovation Activity Engaged by SME Innovators

Types of Innovation Activity Proportion of SME
Innovators Engaging in
Innovation Activity (%)
Acquisition of machinery and equipment 51.0
Innovation related training 32.3
In-house R&D 31.6
Market Introduction of innovations 27.4
Design 22.4
Acquisition of external knowledge 20.9
Acquisition of external R&D 14.5
Among all the information sources relevant for innovation, information sources from players in
the value chain and competitors appear to be more frequently used by firms during the
innovation process. The majority of innovators source their ideas either from customers,
suppliers or competitors. More than 85 per cent of firms cited utilising information sources from
customers and more than 70 per cent of them cited utilising information sources from suppliers
and competitors. This is followed by information sources from consultants (49%). In
comparison, less than two fifth of the firms cited the information sources from commercial
laboratories, higher education and government institutions are relevant to their innovation
activity. This suggests that firms seldom obtain their ideas or other information from these
players during the innovation process.
As for the importance of knowledge source, a quick glance at Table 2 shows that both customers
and suppliers are ranked equally in terms of their importance. Approximately 35 per cent of
firms cited information from customers and suppliers are of high importance for their innovation
activities. This is followed by information from the competitors, i.e. 30 percent of firms cited this
654
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
source of information as important. In comparison, information from other players such as

consultants, commercial laboratories, higher education and government research institutes are
regarded as important in innovation activity by a smaller proportion of SMEs.
Table 2: The Relevance and Importance of Knowledge Sources for Innovation

Knowledge Sources (from) All SMEs
The Relevance of The Importance of
Knowledge Knowledge
Sources (%) Sources (%)
Customers 86.3 34.9
Suppliers 76.1 34.9
Competitors 71.4 29.8
Consultants 49.0 17.3
Commercial laboratories 38.0 15.3
University or other higher education institutes 36.9 15.7
Government or public research institutes 36.9 16.5
Table 3 displays the importance of knowledge sources for innovators engaging in in-house R&D
and those that do not engage in in-house R&D but carry out other innovation activities. It is
noted that a higher proportion of firms cite each source of information as highly important when
innovation was in the form of in-house R&D vis--vis the proportion of firms that cite these
sources of information as highly important for other innovation activities. The ranking of the
importance of knowledge sources differed between firms engaging in in-house R&D and those
that do not. Information source from customers is perceived to be more important than those
from suppliers among firms that engaged in in-house R&D. Conversely, information source from
suppliers is perceived to be of greater importance compared to information from customers for
firms that engaged in other innovation activities. These firms might have obtained useful
information sources from the suppliers especially during the acquisition of machinery and
equipment.
Table 3: The Importance of Knowledge Sources and Engagement in In-House R&D

and Other Innovation Activities
Knowledge Sources (from) The Importance of Knowledge Source
SMEs engaged in SMEs engaged in other
in-house R&D (%) innovation activities (%)
Customers 53.3 27.1
Suppliers 49.3 28.3
Competitors 44.0 23.7
Consultants 30.7 11.3
Commercial laboratories 25.3 10.7
655
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
University/other higher education 26.7 10.7

institutes
Government or public research institutes 26.7 11.9
The above analysis shows that the majority of innovators utilised various information sources
during the innovation process and that information sources from customers, suppliers and
competitors appear to be of greater importance. In addition, various knowledge sources appear to
be perceived of greater importance among innovators engaging in in-house R&D than those are
involved in other innovation activities.
4.2 In-House R&D and Knowledge Sources

This section examines the role of various types of knowledge sources in driving the in-house
R&D activity among Malaysian SMEs. The result for the estimated model is presented in Table
4. Both export intensity and affiliation to a group of companies are significant in explaining the
propensity of innovators to engage in in-house R&D. The coefficient for EXPORT variable is
statistically significant. Apparently, firms facing greater exposure to the global market (implying
more intense market competition) show a higher inclination to engage in in-house R&D. Being
part of a group of companies affects a firms decision to engage in in-house R&D activity. The
coefficient for GROUP is statistically significant. The positive sign for GROUP suggests that
firms that are part of a group are more likely to engage in in-house R&D activity than those that
are not part of a group. Firm size and firm age are not key factors in affecting SME innovators
decision to engage in in-house R&D activity. The coefficients for SIZE and AGE are statistically
insignificant. As for ownership structure, the coefficient for LIMITED is not statistically
significant. The result did not show that firms with limited liabilities ownership structure are
more inclined to undertake in-house R&D activity. The coefficient for foreign ownership
(FOREIGN) is also not statistically significant. The result does not support that the notion that
greater foreign equity shares tend to increase the likelihood of engaging in in-house R&D.
As for knowledge sources variables, two coefficients turn out to be significant in affecting
innovators propensity to engage in in-house R&D. The coefficient for IMP_CLIENT is
significant and has positive sign. This suggests that innovators that perceive information sources
from customers as highly important are more inclined to engage in in-house R&D activity.
Similarly, the positive sign of the coefficient for IMP_CONSULTANT indicates that innovators
obtaining good information and advice from consultants are more likely to invest in in-house
R&D.
Table 4: Regression Results for Determinants of In-House R&D

Variables Coefficient
SIZE -0.0007
AGE -0.0105
GROUP 0.4579**
656
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
FOREIGN -0.0043
EXPORT 0.0086***
LIMTED 0.4477
IMP_CLIENT 0.5847**
IMP_SUPPLIER -0.1030
IMP_COMPETITOR -0.0210
IMP_CONSULTANT 0.9206*
IMP_RESEARCH -0.4167
IMP_UNIVERSITY 0.5938
IMP_GOVERNMENT -0.5113
CONSTANT -0.2427***
Remark: ***, **, * indicate statistically significant at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively
5. Concluding Remarks
Malaysia, like many developing nations, encounters difficulty in upgrading the technological
capability of SMEs in the manufacturing sector. One way of enhancing the technological
capability of SMEs is to encourage their engagement in in-house research and development
activity. During the innovation process, firms often obtain ideas or knowledge from various
players within its environment. The knowledge sources are of particular importance especially for
firms with constrained resources such as SMEs. In view of internal resource constraints, SMEs
tend to rely more on external knowledge sources for their innovation activities. The findings of this
study provide some insights on the role of various knowledge sources in affecting innovators
participation in in-house research and development. The results show that not all SME
innovators engage in in-house R&D activity and that innovators being part of a group of
companies and which are export-oriented are more likely to engage in in-house R&D. External
knowledge sources are more important among innovators engaging in in-house R&D than those
do not. The econometric results show that knowledge sources from customers and consultants
are instrumental to engaging in in-house R&D. The results suggest that the Malaysian
government may consider policies aimed at stimulating participation in in-house R&D among
innovators that are not part of a group of companies and are domestic market oriented, as well as
investing and promoting the link between the firms and key players such as customers and
consultants.
6. Acknowledgement
We gratefully acknowledge the Malaysian Science and Technology Information Centre

(MASTIC) for providing the data and Universiti Sains Malaysia for providing the financial
support (Short-term grant No. 304/PSOSIAl/6312084) for this research.
657
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
7. References
Acs, Z.J., Audretsch, D.B. & Feldman, M.P., 1994. R & D Spillovers and Recipient Firm Size. The
Review of Economics and Statistics, 76(2), pp.336340. Available at:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109888.
Avermaete, T. et al., 2004. Determinants of Product and Process Innovation in Small Food
Manufacturing. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 15(10), pp.474483. Available at:
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924224404001116.
Crepon, B., Duguet, E. & Mairessec, J., 1998. Research, Innovation And Productivi[Ty: An
Econometric Analysis At The Firm Level. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 7(2),
pp.115158.
Edquist, C., 1997. Systems of Innovation Technologies, Institutions and Organisations C. Edquist,
ed., Pinter.
Hall, B.H. & Mairesse, J., 1995. Exploring the Relationship between R&D and Productivity in
French Manufacturing Firms. Journal of Econometrics, 65(1), pp.263293.
Hashi, I. & Stoji, N., 2013. The Impact of Innovation Activities on Firm Performance Using A
Multi-Stage Model: Evidence from the Community Innovation Survey 4. Research Policy,
42(2), pp.353366.
Li, X., 2011. Sources of External Technology, Absorptive Capacity, and Innovation Capability in
Chinese State-Owned High-Tech Enterprises. World Development, 39(7), pp.12401248.
Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.05.011.
Liu, W., 2009. Do Sources of Knowledge Transfer Matter? A Firm-Level Analysis in the PRD
China, KIEL Institutes For The World Economy, Available at
http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?lang=en&id=111536.
Malaysia, 2009. National Innovation Model, Available at:
http://vision.cer.uz/Data/lib/vision_texts/Malaysia/MAL_National_Innovation_Model_EN_20
09.pdf.
Malaysia, 2011a. National Survey of Innovation 2005-2008. Available at:
http://www.mastic.gov.my/en/web/guest/national-survey-of-innovation-2005-2008.
Malaysia, 2011b. SME Annual Report 2011/12. Redefining the Future, Available at:
http://www.smecorp.gov.my/vn2/node/177.
Nelson, R.R., 1993. National Innovation Systems. A Comparative Analysis R. R. Nelson, ed.,
Oxford University Press, Inc.
OECD & Eurostat, 2005. Oslo Manual Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation
Data,
Piergiovanni, R., Santarelli, E. & Vivarelli, M., 1997. From Which Source Do Small Firms Derive
Their Innovative Inputs? Some Evidence from Italian Industry. Review of Industrial
Organization, 12(2), pp.243258. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007781501147.
Shefer, D. & Frenkel, A., 2005. R&D, Firm Size and Innovation: An Empirical Analysis.
Technovation, 25(1), pp.2532.
Thornhill, S., 2006. Knowledge, Innovation and Firm Performance in High- and Low-technology
Regimes. Journal of Business Venturing, 21(5), pp.687703.
658
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Tdtling, F., Lehner, P. & Kaufmann, A., 2009. Do Different Types of Innovation Rely on
Specific Kinds of Knowledge Interactions? Technovation, 29(1), pp.5971.
659
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
The Process of Developing Cost Management Skills Curriculum for Small And
Medium Enterprises (SMES) Training Programmes
Muhammad Rosni Amir Hussina, Kamariah Ismailb*, Rose Alinda Aliasc*

a
School of Accountancy, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah,
Malaysia
Email: mohdrosni267@gmail.com
b
UTM Technology Entrepreneurship Centre (UTMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM
Skudai,
81310 Johor, Malaysia
Email: drkay147@yahoo.com
c
UTM Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic and International) Office, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, UTM Skudai.
81310 Johor, Malaysia
Email: rosealindaa@gmail.com
Abstract
Cost management skills are very important to achieve competitive advantage, especially in the
globalisation era. However, SME owner managers in Malaysia still lack various entrepreneurial
skills and knowledge, especially cost management skills. Furthermore, current entrepreneurial
training programmes provided by the government do not include in-depth discussion on cost
management skills. Thus, this research intends to develop cost management skills curriculum for
training programmes of SMEs using an action research approach. The discussion of this paper is
based on the action research cyclical process of planning, acting, observing and reflecting.
Various data collection methods are employed, such as interviews, survey questions,
documentary and observation.
Keywords: cost management skills, training programme, action research, SMEs.
1. Introduction
Globalisation and liberalisation have led to the worldwide distribution and provision of products
and services. Malaysian SMEs are showing a stronger tendency for exporting their products and
services (Abdul Talib & Md Salleh, 1997). However, export of products of Malaysian SMEs is
less than 20 percent of total Malaysian exports and lagging behind compared to Asian countries,
660
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
such as Taiwan, Korea and Singapore (Goh, 2007; Hashim, 2000; Lall, 2000). SMEs face
numerous problems and challenges in competing globally, including limited entrepreneurial
skills knowledge (Nik Abdullah & Mohd Zain, 2011). According to Zulkifli and Jamaluddin
(2000), SME owner managers agree that the quality of the product and services and the cost are
the best weapons to compete globally.
Related to costing, cost management skills are very important to achieve competitive advantage
through cost leadership (Miller & Friesen, 1984; Porter, 1989; Reed & DeFillippi, 1990). David
(1997) states that cost leadership means producing standardised products or services at very low
per unit cost for customers who are price-sensitive. However, even though cost management
skills are very important for businesses, especially to compete globally (as discussed above),
SME owner managers in Malaysia still lack cost management skills knowledge (Jamaluddin &
Dickie, 2011; Jusoh, Ziyae, Asimiran & Abd. Kadir, 2011).
In most developing countries, to enhance entrepreneurial skills among the SME owner managers,
governments and their agencies provide various entrepreneurial training programmes (Abdullah
& Latif, 2014). However, entrepreneurial training programmes provided by the Malaysian
government and its agencies seem to have failed to achieve the set objectives (Ariff & Abubakar,
2000). This is because the contents of the training programme do not reflect the real needs of
SME owner managers (Gibb, 2011). This failure of the training curriculum to fulfil the needs of
SME owner managers can be attributed to the lack of involvement of SME owner managers in
the process of developing the training curriculum. The training curriculum is just a reflection of
the trainers expertise and experience, rather than SME owner managers needs (Honadle &
Hannah, 1982; Jennings & Hawley, 1996).
2. Action Research
The lack of cost management skills among the SME owner managers and the problem of having
the right entrepreneurial training programmes provided by the government motivated the
researcher to carry out this study. The main objective of this study is to develop cost
management skills curriculum for training programmes of SMEs using an action research
approach. The action research approach is normally used to resolve or to improve problematic
phenomena, through a spiral or cyclical process of planning, acting, observing and reflecting
(Cumming & Worley, 2005; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005; OBrien, 1998). For the purpose of
this study, practical action research was employed to develop cost management skills training
curriculum. The practical action research process involves understanding the problem through
thematic concern analysis and providing improvement techniques (McKernan, 1991). Since
the process of developing curriculum is a part of educational research, Elliot (1991) and Akdere
(2003) also suggest the use of practical action research in curriculum development for training
programmes.
661
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
According to the literature, based on the thematic concern analysis, SME owner managers in
Malaysia lack cost management skills; current training programmes do not help them to
strengthen their cost management skills knowledge. Current training programmes on accounting
are more focused on book-keeping and preparation of financial reports. The next topic discusses
the practical action research process employed in this study.
3. Data Collection Protocol
The researcher developed a mutual understanding with the Cooperative and Entrepreneurship
Development Institute, Universiti Utara Malaysia (CEDI, UUM). The accessibility of data is one
of the most crucial criteria in practical action research. CEDI, UUM provided various sources of
data, such as data on SME owner managers and accounting training providers, current
accounting modules and current training schedules. In addition, CEDI, UUM also arranged the
training sessions with the SME owner managers. The process of practical action research of this
study is as in Figure 1 below:
Based on the Figure 1 below, this study employed various data collection methods:
1. Semi-structured interview with the SME owner managers;
2. Semi-structured interview with the accounting training providers;
3. Demographic survey questionnaire;
4. Survey questionnaire on cost management skills;
5. Observation during the training; and
6. Feedback on cost management skills curriculum.
4. Research Findings And Discussions
At the planning stage, in the process of developing cost management skills knowledge, the
researcher distributed survey questions on the preferred topics to be covered in the cost
management skills training. The information on the preferred topics is very important because
cost management skills training covers a wide array of topics, such as products and services
costing, planning, control and decision-making process (Guan, Hansen & Mowen, 2009). The
current practice of entrepreneurial training is only two (2) hours for each module. Thus, the
researcher developed a survey questionnaire on cost management skills topic preference and
distributed it to the SME owner managers who were involved in the first interview. However, the
participants could not rank the topic appropriately based on the importance and preference
because of lack of understanding on cost management skills. Although the researcher had
explained the costing terms used in the survey, the SME owner managers were still confused.
Therefore, the researcher conducted a semi-structured interview to identify which cost
management topics are very important to the SME owner managers.
662
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Most of the participants referred to product costing when talking about cost management skills.
Product costing was considered as the most crucial among the SME owner managers because it
is related to pricing decisions and other decision-making processes. The importance of product
costing knowledge for SME owner managers was also supported by accounting training
providers. Based on
Cycle 1
1. Planning
1. In-depth semi-structured interview with training providers.

2. In-depth interview with SME owner managers.
3. Distribute demographic survey related to demographic background to
SME owner managers.
4. Distribute survey on cost management skills topics needed by SME
owner managers.
5. Develop cost management skills curriculum.
6. Review of cost management skills curriculum by the experts.
2. Acting
4. Reflecting 1. Conduct training for the SME owner
Analyse all the feedback as input to managers.
improve cost management skills 2. Tape the training using video
curriculum. camcorder.
Cycle 2
3. Observing
1. Distribute feedback survey questions to SME

owner managers to gain feedback on the cost
management skills curriculum.
663
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Figure 1: Practical action research in the development process of cost management skills
curriculum
their experience, SME owner managers are very weak in product costing. Thus, the researcher
developed product costing module with related examples. The product costing module and
related examples were then reviewed by two (2) management accounting lecturers to check the
suitability and appropriateness of each term used.
At the acting stage, on 25 October 2014 (Saturday), the module was delivered to thirty-two (32)
SME owner managers which took two (2) hours. During the delivery process, the researcher did
systematic observation on the acceptance of the participants of the product costing module. The
researcher also noted the questions and suggestions from the participants during the training. At
the end of the session, the researcher distributed the feedback survey questionnaire. The
feedback survey questionnaire was developed based on the reaction level during the training
evaluation based on Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006). The feedback survey included a likert
CONTENTS OF THE MODULE MEAN
1. The course contents achieve the objectives 4.53
2. The course contents meet my needs as an entrepreneur. 4.69
3. The course contents have been prepared well. 4.69
4. The course contents suit my business practices. 4.47
5. The contents of this course will help me to manage my business cost more accurately. 4.72
6. I can understand and can use the knowledge I have learned in my business. 4.66
7. I WILL NOT use the knowledge I have learned in my business. 1.19
TOTAL 4.63
COURSE TRAINER
1. The course contents are delivered simply and efficiently. 4.72
SUPPORT MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES 4.63

1. The course support materials are well prepared. 4.66
2. The course activities are relevant to the course contents. 4.56
COURSE DURATION
1. The duration of the course is appropriate. 3.41
664
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
scale ranging from 1 (very unsatisfactory) until 5 (very satisfactory) (Gay, Mills & Airasian,
2006; Mills, 2014; Schmuck, 2006) and open-ended questions (Koshy, 2005).
Table 1: Feedback survey result on product costing module
At the observing and reflecting stage, besides the feedback on the contents of the product costing
module, this survey also received feedback on trainers, course duration, support materials and
activities. As shown in Table 1, most mean scores are more than 4.5 out of 5.0; it can therefore
be concluded that the participants are satisfied with the contents of the product costing module.
However, from the researchers observation during the training, among the suggestions to
improve future training is to include service and trading costing in the module. The suggestion to
include service and trading costing was also highlighted by the participants in the open-ended
question in the feedback survey. The participants also suggested that the two (2) hours training
duration should be improved. The suggestion has been relayed to CEDI, UUM because it is
beyond the researchers control. All the suggestions for improvement of the product costing
module in the first cycle of action research were taken into consideration in the next cycle.
5. Conclusion
The main objective of this study is to develop cost management skills curriculum for training
programmes of SMEs. The development process of the module employed practical action
research approach. Practical action research approach is the process of understanding the
problematic phenomena and suggesting potential solutions or improvement. The action research
cycle is a continuous process and need not necessarily involve the same participants in each
cycle because the suggestions for improvement from the previous cycle will be incorporated in
the next cycle (Zuber-Skirritt, 2002).
6. References
Abdul Talib, A. N., & Md Salleh, N. F.,1997. Firm size and export attitudes of Malaysian
exporters, 2nd Asian Academy of Management Conference: Towards Management Excellent
in the 21st Century Asia, Langkawi, Malaysia.
Abdullah, A. S. M., & Latif, A., 2014. Evaluation of entrepreneurshipdevelopment training

programof bangladesh small & cottage industries corporation: a study on 3 days long
workshop on entrepreneurial development arranged by BSCIC, SYLHET Districh. Inidian
Journal of Commerce & Management Studies, V(2), pp. 53 61.
Akdere, M., 2003. Action research paradigm in the field of training and development. Journal of
European Industrial Training, 27(8), pp. 413422.
665
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ariff, M., & Abubakar, S. Y., 2000. Strengthening entrepreneurship in Malaysia.
Cumming, T. G., & Worley, C. G., 2005. Organisation development and change. 8th ed.. South
Western, USA: Thompson.
David, F. R., 1997. Strategic management. 6th ed.. USA: Prentice Hall.
Elliot, J., 1991. Action research for educational change. USA: Open University Press, Milton
Keynes Philadelhia.
Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P., 2006. Educational research: Competencies for analysis
and applications. 8th ed.. Upper Saddler River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Gibb, A., 2011. Concepts into practice: meeting the challenge of development of entrepreneurship
educators around an innovative paradigm: The case of International Educators Programme
(IEEP). International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(2), pp. 146165.
Goh, M., 2007. High-growth, innovative Asian SMEs for international trade and competitiveness:
challenges and solution for APU member countries. Tokyo.
Guan, L., Hansen, D. R., & Mowen, M. M., 2009. Cost Management. USA: South-Western
Cengage Learning.
Gunawan, T. , 2010. Innovation and competitiveness of Asian companies in facing globalisation.

International Conference on International Business. Mecedonia.
Hashim, M. K., 2000. SMEs in Malaysia: Past, present and future. Malaysian Management
Review, June, pp. 2230.
Honadle, G. H., & Hannah, J. P., 1982. Management performance for rural development:
packaged training or capacity building. Public Administration & Development, 2(4), pp. 295
307.
Jamaluddin, A., & Dickie, C., 2011. Decision making related to business growth: Malay small
businesses in Selangor. International Journal of Business and Management, 6(10), pp. 284
296.
Jennings, P., & Hawley, D., 1996. Designing effective training programmes. 19th Institute of
Small Business Affair - Small Firms National Conference. Birmingham.
666
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Jusoh, R., Ziyae, B., Asimiran, S., & Abd. Kadir, S., 2011. Entrepreneurship training needs
analysis: Implications on the entrepreneurial skills needed for successful entrepreneurs.
International Business & Economic Research Journal, 10(1), pp. 143148.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R., 2005. Participatory Actioa Research. In: N. K. Denzin & Y. S.
Lincoln. The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. 3rd ed.. London: SAGE Publications
Inc. pp. 559-603.
Kirkpatrick, D. L., & Kirkpatrick, James, D., 2006. Evaluating Training Programs: The four
levels. 3rd ed.. San Francisco: Berrette Koehler Publishers Inc.
Koshy, V., 2005. Action research for improving practice: A practical guide. Thousand Oaks,
California: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Lall, S.,2000. Comparing national competitive performance: an economic analysis of the world
economic forums competitiveness index. UK.
McKernan, J., 1991. Curriculum Action Research. A Handbook of Methods and Resources for the
Reflective Practitioner. London: Kogan Page.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P. H., 1984. Organisations: A quantum view. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Mills, G. E., 2014. Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. 5th ed.. Upper Saddler
River, New Jersey: Pearson.
Nik Abdullah, N. A. H., & Mohd Zain, S. N., 2011. The internationalisation of Malaysian SMEs.
In 2011 International Conference on Sociality and Economics Development. Singapore.
OBrien, R., 1998. An overview of the methodology approach of action research. [online]
Available at: http://www.web.ca/~robrien/papers/xx ar final.html.
Porter, M. E., 1989. The competitive advantage of nations. New York: The Free Press.
Reed, R., & DeFillippi, R. J., 1990. Causal ambiguity barriers to imitation and sustainable
competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 15, pp. 88102.
Schmuck, R. A., 2006. Practical action research for change. 2nd ed.. Thousand Oaks, California:
Corwin Press.
Zuber-Skirritt, O., 2002. A model for desinging action learning and action research programs. The
Learning Organization, 9(4), pp. 143149.
667
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Zulkifli, N., & Jamaluddin, M. Y., 2000. Manufacturing and business strategy practices of the
small and medium scale industries in Malaysia. Malaysian Management Review, pp. 1119.
668
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Issues Affecting the Adoption of HRIS in Banks
Abdul Kadar Muhammad Masum1, Md. Abul Kalam Azad2, Dr. Loo-See Beh3
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Administrative Studies & Politics, Faculty of Economics &
Administration, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Tel: +601117605543, E-mail:
akmmasum@yahoo.com
2
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Applied Statistics, Faculty of Economics & Administration, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: azadiiuc@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, Department of Administrative Studies & Politics, Faculty of Economics &
Administration, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: lucybeh@um.edu.my
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to identify the important factors influencing the adoption of human
resource information system (HRIS) in the banking sector of Bangladesh. A total number of 368
respondents were considered from 28 private banks using stratified random sampling. Employees
of the organizations responded a close-ended questionnaire based on a 7-point Likert scale. Data
was analyzed using statistical tools such as descriptive statistics and factor analysis. The result
shows that top management support, banks financial readiness, IT infrastructure, HRIS
expertise, and competitive pressure are influential factors for managerial decision to adopt HRIS
among the selected banks in Bangladesh. However, supervisor support is not explored as a factor
i.e. it is not influencing decision to adopt HRIS. The practical implication of the findings is
discussed at the end of this paper and recommendations for further research are also addressed.
Keyword: Human resource information system (HRIS); adoption; factors; banks; Bangladesh.
1. Introduction
Efficient and effective human resource management (HRM) plays a vital role in bank
performance (Masum, azad, & beh, 2015). Today, human resource (HR) professionals are more
reliant on information technology (IT) to perform HR activities efficiently and effectively due to
tremendous advancement of IT (Stone et al., 2015). Realizing the immense features and benefits,
they move from traditional HRM to human resource information system (HRIS). Like enterprise
resource planning (ERP) systems in other areas, an HRIS can automate HR activities in the HR
department (Strohmeier, 2009) and provide efficient HR services for the entire organization
(Bondarouk & Rul, 2009) , thus making the HR department as the strategic player within a firm
(Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury, 2015).
In Bangladesh, large companies have started to implement HRIS in last 5 years (Jahan, 2014).
However, its implementation is still limited within the large companies in Bangladesh. Small
privately owned firms and public companies have failed to realize the benefits of HRIS and
taken barely any inventiveness to implement the system. Since the discussion of HRIS in
Bangladesh context is still in its infancy, there is not much empirical research available
669
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
glancing at the factors that foster the application of HRIS (Jahan, 2014 & Masum, 2015). So,
the adoption decision and implementation of HRIS can thus be seen as an innovation in
Bangladesh. As like other countries, there are some factors that may influence HR managers
for implementing HRIS in Bangladesh. This research will guide Bangladeshi managers to
prepare for a successful shift from traditional HRM towards HRIS and thus contribute to the
economic development of the country.
The main thrust of this study is to identify the most influential factors that are related to
managerial decision for HRIS adoption in the banking sector of Bangladesh. This study
contributes to the knowledge of HRM by exploring some important factors especially for
developing countries. In search of our objective, the variables used in our analysis are selected
by extensive literature review. A conceptual framework identifying the significant factors for
HRIS adoption is also developed.
2. Background
2.1 Human resource information system (HRIS)
Information systems provide a vital link between IT and HRM and introduce HRIS or e-HRM
for HR activities. HRIS is the integration of software, hardware, support functions, and system
policies and procedures into an automated process. It is formulated for maintaining, collecting,
storing, retrieving, and validating data needed by an organization regarding its human resources,
and personnel activities (Stone et al., 2015). HR information systems support HR operations such
as identifying potential employees, maintaining employee records and creating programs to
develop employees talent and skills (Masum, 2015). Masum, Bhuiyan, & Kabir (2013) revealed
that HRIS contributes significantly to the various HR functions such as payroll, benefit
administration and pension sharing common database to all individual HR related units.
Furthermore, Bondarouk & Rul (2009) found that HRIS can support various HR practices such
as workforce planning, staffing, compensation, salary forecasts and employee relations. In
particular, the introduction of HRIS changes the strategic alignment of the HR department
(Strohmeier, 2009).
2.2 Limited research on HRIS in Bangladesh

Initially, the HRM practices were done manually by most of the organizations in Bangladesh.
Now, the situation has been changing very rapidly. Almost, all modern organizations are using
computer based information systems in managing their HR functions (Masum, 2015). Recently,
a study was conducted on 60 manufacturing and service organizations of Bangladesh to find out
the uses of HRIS. The survey exhibited that firms of Bangladesh are using HRIS either
extensively or moderately (Bhuiyan & Rahman, 2013). In another study, Chowdhury et al.
(2013) found recruitment and selection system, and payroll system as the most important HRIS
applications in banking sector of Bangladesh. Their study revealed the importance of HRIS in
cost saving for record keeping as about 86.7%. Moreover, a study on 18 companies working
under different industries in Bangladesh has found management reluctance; organizational
internal resistance, employee privacy issues, and conversion cost are the most potential barriers
670
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
for effective implementation of HRIS (Ferdous, Chowdhury, & Bhuiyan, 2015). In spite of going
through several studies, directly relating to HRISs and the proper use of HR in the context of
firms in Bangladesh, it is very scarce to see research works on the area this work is based on.
2.3 Factors affecting adoption of HRIS

Past literature indicates that some factors such as top management support (Teo, Lim, & Fedric,
2007; Masum, 2015), supervisor support (McCarthy, Darcy, & Grady, 2010), financial readiness
(Lau & Hooper, 2008; Kannabiran & Dharmalingam, 2012), IT infrastructure (Masum, Kabir, &
Chowdhury, 2015), HRIS expertise (Teo, Lim, & Fedric, 2007; Masum, 2015), and competitive
pressure (Teo, Lim, & Fedric, 2007; Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury, 2015) have significant
impact on HRIS adoption decision in organizations.
Top management support has been commonly identified as an important organizational-related
factor for any technology adoption by organizations in both developing and developed countries
(Burbach and Royle, 2013). Troshani, Jerram, & Hill (2011) and Ngai and Wat (2004) explored
that management commitment has significant impact on the success of E-HRM adoption. A study
conducted by Teo, Lim, & Fedric (2007) found top management support is only significant factors
among organizational factors for adoption and diffusion of HRIS in Singapore. Similarly, Masum
(2015) explored top management support as a significant factor for the adoption decision of
e-HRM in banking industry of Bangladesh.
Supervisor support affects employees awareness of the innovation (McCarthy, Darcy, & Grady,
2010) and deliver clear signals to employees about the innovations significance for organizational
goals (Townsend et al., 2012). Furthermore, it generates expectations about a positive response to
it and encourage employees to incorporate it into daily work processes (McCarthy, Darcy, &
Grady, 2010). Supervisors are strong sense-giving agents. In the case of HR innovation,
supervisors may influence employees responses by acting as interpreters of the innovations,
helping employees to understand how the innovations may improve job experience and deliver
individual benefits (Townsend et al., 2012).
Financial readiness is also identified as an influencing factor for HRIS adoption. Lau & Hooper
(2008) claimed that adequate budget is the decisive factor in the successful e-HRM adoption. The
cost factor was studied by various researchers and found direct relationship with adoption of
technology (Kannabiran & Dharmalingam, 2012). Although Mehrtens, Cragg, & Mills (2001)
found no significant relationship between IT adoption and financial support, this might be because
of large firms could readily afford the cost of adopting the IT at a basic level. Similarly, Chan and
Mills (2002) explored technology adoption as a costly initiative, but found insufficient evidence to
conclude whether financial readiness was a key factor.
Oliveira & Martins (2010) indicated that IT infrastructure consists of a set of physical devices
and software applications that are required to operate in the entire enterprise. They found IT
infrastructure as a vital element for e-business adoption. Similarly, Masum (2015) stated that IT
infrastructure with state-of-the-art facilities has a great influence on managerial decision to adopt
671
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
e-HRM among the banks in Bangladesh. A study of e-HRM adoption on 46 Bangladeshi

organizations indicate that the most important extracted determinant to take decision for E-HRM
adoption is IT Infrastructure (Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury, 2015). Moreover, Al-Mobaideen,
Allahawiah, & Basioni (2013) indicated IT infrastructure has a positive and significant impact on
the successful adoption of HRIS.
Expertise is an important factor in the adoption of new technologies. HRIS expertise refers to
employees knowledge of IT and technical competence in HRIS applications (Masum, 2015).
Panayotopoulou, Vakola, & Galanaki (2007) explored the fact that employees IT skills can
positively influence the adoption of HRIS. With that same train of thought, Teo, Lim, & Fedric
(2007) postulate that the expertise with HRIS fosters its implementation. In a study of e-HRM
implantation conducted by Masum (2015), e-HRM expertise was discovered as one of the
significant factors for e-HRM implementation in banking sector of Bangladesh. In addition,
Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury (2015) stated that users lack of understanding of a systems
functions and features is a major stumbling block in HRIS implementation.
Sophonthummapharn (2009) demonstrated that competitive pressure is environmental
determinant and it related with organizational adoption of technological innovation. In this study,
competitive pressure refers to the entire trend, direction of operational practices and extent of
competition that drive a firm to adopt technology innovation. According to Teo, Lim, & Fedric
(2007) and Masum (2015), competitive pressure compels a firm to adopt HRIS for an effective
and efficient HRM. Moreover, Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury (2015) stated that a firm cannot
gain competitive advantage without effective HRM. Consequently, gaining competitive
advantages has driven the firms to implement and use HRIS.
3. Conceptual Framework
Researchers identified some influential determinants of HRIS adoption. Among them, we

examined some independent variables for HRIS adoption among banks in Bangladesh. On the
basis of past literature, a conceptual model was developed. The model indicates the determinants
that influencing decision to adopt HRIS in bank operation. The conceptual model (figure 1)
comprises of six independent variables such as top management support (Masum, 2015; Teo,
Lim, & Fedric, 2007), supervisor support (McCarthy, Darcy, & Grady, 2010), financial readiness
(Lau and Hooper, 2008; Kannabiran and Dharmalingam, 2012), IT infrastructure (Masum, Kabir,
& Chowdhury, 2015; Masum, 2015), HRIS expertise (Teo, Lim, & Fedric, 2007; Masum, 2015),
and competitive pressure (Teo, Lim, & Fedric, 2007; Sophonthummapharn, 2009; Masum, Kabir,
& Chowdhury, 2015). Here HRIS adoption decision is a dependent variable.
672
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Independent variables
Top management support
Supervisor support Dependent variable
Financial reediness HRIS adoption

decision
IT infrastructure
HRIS expertise
Competitive pressure
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
4. Methodologies of the Study
A close-ended structured questionnaire was designed. Employing stratified random sampling

technique, four hundred twenty five (475) questionnaires were sent to HR personnel such as HR
executives, HR managers, and bank managers of sample banks in Bangladesh. The response rate
was 77.47% with 368 useable questionnaires. A 7-point Likert scale (where 1 = strongly disagree
and 7 = strongly agree) was applied to measure the six independent variables. Here, decision to
adopt HRIS was considered as a dependent variable. The duration of the survey was 4 months
(from 15th July 2014 to 15th November 2014). The collected data was analyzed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences Program (SPSS) version 22.0.
5. Data Analysis and Findings

Cronbachs coefficients () for each dimension of the survey ranged from 0.73 to 0.91 (typically
0.6 and above is acceptable), which indicate the internal consistency of each dimension (factor)
of HRIS adoption decision (Cronbach, 1951). The Central Limit Theorem is applied for this
large sample (368 HR personnel), and therefore, there is no issue surrounding the normality of
the data. In this relationship, MacCallum et al. (1999) stated that if all communalities of a sample
are above 0.5, the sample is perfectly adequate. The extracted communalities (h2) of the variables
were found to be between 0.529 and 0.789. Therefore, the sample size (368) of this study was
suitable for factor analysis. The KMO value for the overall matrix was 0.812, which indicates
that the sample size was statistically significant for factor analysis. Bartlett (1950) test was
applied to verify the appropriateness of the data for factor analysis. This test was also found to be
significant, having a value of less than 0.5.
To identify the most influential determinants of HRIS adoption, we employed Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) followed by the varimax rotation. Table 1 includes 29 items, their
673
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
loading value, Cronbachs alpha, and Eigen values. In this study, we consider the loading value
of the variable as 0.50 and above. According to Hair et al. (2003) loading value 0.50 is
significant for factor extraction. Due to lower loading value, we dropp some variables from our
analysis (i.e., Com3, Com5, Exp4, Sup1, Sup2, Sup3, Sup4, and Sup5). Now, the HRIS adoption
scales were reduced to 21 items. Five factors below extracted in the EFA together explained
66.317% of the total variance.
The first extracted factor is top management support. This factor is represented by five
variables, which accounted for 17.789% of the total variances. The factor loadings of the
variables range from 0.673 to 0.843. The five items are: top management enthusiastically
supports the adoption of HRIS; top management is aware of the benefits of HRIS; top
management has allocated adequate resources for the adoption of HRIS; top management
activity encourages HR personnel to use HRIS in daily tasks; and, top management has a
strategic plan for e-HRM.
The second extracted factor is banks financial readiness. This factor is represented by four
variables, which accounted for 15.558% of the total variances. The factor loadings of the
variables range from 0.772 to 0.823. The four items are: the bank is likely to invest funds in
HRIS applications; the bank has adequate financial strength for HRIS implementation; the bank
is likely to invest funds in training for HRIS applications; and, the bank is likely to invest funds
in IT infrastructure.
The third extracted factor is IT infrastructure. This factor is represented by five variables,
which accounted for 12.659% of the total variances. The factor loadings of the variables range
from 0.512 to 0.812. The five items are: HRIS applications are compatible with existing IT
infrastructure; the bank has a secure networking system; the bank has speedy internet facility; the
bank has adequate modern IT equipment for HRIS activities; and, the bank has a strong backup
plan for network failure.
Table 1. Summary of rotated component matrix, Cronbachs alpha, variance and Eigen values
Cronbachs
Factor Communalities % of variance Eigen
Name of factors Items 2
Reliability
loading (h ) (Cumulative) value
Coefficient
Top4 0.843 0.757
Top3 0.748 0.623
Top management 21.251
Top1 0.719 0.610 0.87 9.986
support (21.251)
Top2 0.696 0.602
Top5 0.673 0.598
Fin2 0.823 0.721
Banks financial Fin3 0.811 0.612 15.558
0.81 5.326
readiness Fin1 0.785 0.568 (36.809)
Fin4 0.772 0.788
674
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Infr2 0.812 0.787

Infr3 0.744 0.741
12.659
IT infrastructure Infr4 0.721 0.679 0.73 3.153
(49.468)
Infr1 0.641 0.601
Infr5 0.512 0.567
Exp1 0.822 0.742
Exp3 0.782 0.669 9.528
HRIS expertise 0.91 1.907
Exp2 0.614 0.577 (58.996)
Exp5 0.508 0.539
Com1 0.808 0.788
7.321
Competitive pressure Com2 0.713 0.689 0.84 1.139
(66.317)
Com5 0.534 0.531
Source: Developed by the authors on the basis of data collected for the present study
The fourth extracted factor is HRIS expertise and capabilities. This factor is represented by four
variables, which accounted for 9.528% of the total variances. The factor loadings of the variables
range from 0.539 to 0.822. The four items are: here is at least one computer expert in the HR
department; all HR personnel are computer literate; all HR personnel know how IT can be used to
support function; and, HR personnels understanding of computers is good compared with other
organizations in the industry.
The fifth extracted factor is competitive pressure. This factor is represented by three variables,
which accounted for 7.321% of the total variances. The factor loadings of the variables range
from 0.534 to 0.808. The three items are: the overall operational practices in our competitive
pressure us to adopt HRIS; we actively keep track of innovative usage of technology by
competitors; and it is a strategic necessity to use HRIS application to compete in my industry.
Supervisor support was dropped by PCA as the item loading for the related variables were
below 0.5.
6. Discussions
In the present study, the findings reveal that top management support, banks financial
readiness, IT infrastructure, HRIS expertise, and competitive pressure are the important
factors for the managerial decision of HRIS adoption. However, supervisor support is not
extracted as factors that is not influencing for HRIS adoption among banks in Bangladesh.
The result from this study is consistent with previous studies that found top management support
to be essential for HRIS adoption (Teo, Lim, & Fedric, 2007; Troshani, Jerram, & Hill, 2011;
Masum, 2015). Additionally, as adopting the HRIS may have significant impact on work
practices, top management support is crucial to overcome possible internal resistance to the
adoption of HRIS and ensure successful implementation. The next extracted factor - banks
financial readiness - supports the previous research, where it is identified one of the most
significant factors to take decision for HRIS adoption (Kannabiran & Dharmalingam, 2012; Lau
675
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
& Hooper, 2008). This result rejects the finding of Mehrtens, Cragg, & Mills (2001), where they
did not found any significant relationship between IT adoption and financial support. Similarly,
Chan and Mills (2002) did not found sufficient evidence to conclude whether financial readiness
as a key factor to adopt IT innovation. The present finding also rejects this conclusion. IT
Infrastructure is another vital factor to influence the organizational decision to adopt HRIS. This
finding support previous research (Oliveira and Martins, 2010; Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury,
2015). HRIS expertise is another significant factor influencing the decision to adopt HRIS. This
finding is consistent with (Panayotopoulou, Vakola, & Galanaki, 2007; Teo, Lim, & Fedric,
2007; Masum, Kabir, & Chowdhury, 2015) that indicates HRIS/ IT knowledge will facilitate
adoption of HRIS. Finally, competitive pressure was also found to be a significant factor
influencing the adoption of HRIS that is similar to the study of Sophonthummapharn (2009). In a
study conducted by Masum (2015), competitive pressure or industry pressure was identified as
most significant factors of HRIS adoption in banks of Bangladesh and we have also extracted
competitive pressure as an important factor. However, supervisor support was not found to be a
significant factor influencing the adoption of HRIS. This suggests that the supervisor support
does not really provide any direct push for organizations to adopt HRIS.
7. References
Al-Mobaideen, H., Allahawiah, S., & Basioni, E., 2013. Factors Influencing the Successful Adoption of
Human Resource Information System: The Content of Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority.
Intelligent Information Management, 5(1), pp.1-9
Bartlett, M.S., 1950. Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of statistical psychology, 3(2),
pp.77-85
Bhuiyan, M.R.U., & Rahman, M.R., 2013. Application of Human Resource Information System in the
Firms of Bangladesh and Its Strategic Importance. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Annual
Paris Business and Social Science Research Conference.
Bondarouk, T., & Rul, H., 2009. Electronic Human Resource Management: challenges in the digital era.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(3), pp.505-514
Burbach, R., & Royle, T., 2013. Levels of e-HRM adoption in subsidiaries of a US multinational
corporation: the mediating role of power, politics and institutions. European Journal of
International Management, 7(4), pp.432-449
Chan, P.Y., & Mills, A.M., 2002. Motivators and inhibitors of e-commerce technology adoption: online
stock trading by small brokerage firms in New Zealand. Journal of Information Technology Case
and Application Research, 4(3), pp.38-56
Chowdhury, M.S.A., Yunus, M., Bhuiyan, F., & Kabir, M. R., 2013. Impact of Human Resources
Information System (HRIS) on the Performance of Firms: A Study on Some Selected Bangladeshi
Banks. Paper presented at the 9th Asian Business Research Conference, BIAM Foundation, Dhaka,
Bangladesh
Cronbach, L.J., 1951. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3),
pp.297-334
676
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Ferdous, F., Chowdhury, M.M., & Bhuiyan, F., 2015. Barriers to the Implementation of Human Resource
Information Systems. Asian Journal of Management Sciences & Education, 4(1), pp.33-42
Hair, J., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., & Black., 2003. Multivariate data analysis. New Delhi: Peasrson
Education
Jahan, S. S. (2014). Human Resources Information System (HRIS): A Theoretical Perspective. Journal of
Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 2, pp.33-39
Kannabiran, G., & Dharmalingam, P., 2012. Enablers and inhibitors of advanced information technologies
adoption by SMEs: An empirical study of auto ancillaries in India. Journal of Enterprise
Information Management, 25(2), pp.186-209
Lau, G., & Hooper, V., 2008. Adoption of e-HRM in large New Zealand organizations. In T.
Torres-Coronas & M. Arias-Oliva (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Human Resources Information Systems:
Challenges in e-HRM: Challenges in e-HRM (pp. 31-41). Hershey, PA, USA: Information Science
Reference
MacCallum, R.C., Widaman, K.F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S., 1999. Sample size in factor analysis.
Psychological methods, 4(1), pp.84
Masum, A.K.M., 2015. Adoption Factors of Electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM) in
Banking Industry of Bangladesh. Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1), pp.1-6
Masum, A. K.M., Azad, M.A.K., & Beh, L.-S., 2015. The role of human resource management practices in
bank performance. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence(ahead-of-print), pp.1-16
Masum, A.K.M., Bhuiyan, F., & Kabir, R., 2013. HRIS Practices in Universities: An Exploratory Study on
the Private Universities In Bangladesh. Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research, 13(7),
pp.25-29
Masum, A.K.M., Kabir, M.J., & Chowdhury, M.M., 2015. Determinants that Influencing the Adoption of
E-HRM: An Empirical Study on Bangladesh. Asian social Science, 11(21), pp.1-7
McCarthy, A., Darcy, C., & Grady, G., 2010. Work-life balance policy and practice: Understanding line
manager attitudes and behaviors. Human Resource Management Review, 20(2), pp.158-167
Mehrtens, J., Cragg, P.B., & Mills, A.M., 2001. A model of Internet adoption by SMEs. Information &
Management, 39(3), pp.165-176
Ngai, E., & Wat, F., 2004. Dominance approach to risk analysis of computer systems. Decision Support
Systems, 37(4), pp.485-500.
Oliveira, T., & Martins, M.F., 2010. Understanding e-business adoption across industries in European
countries. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 110(9), pp.1337-1354
Panayotopoulou, L., Vakola, M., & Galanaki, E. 2007. E-HR adoption and the role of HRM: evidence from
Greece. Personnel Review, 36(2), pp.277-294.
Sophonthummapharn, K., 2009. The adoption of techno-relationship innovations: A framework for
electronic customer relationship management. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 27(3),
pp.380-412.
Stone, D.L., Deadrick, D.L., Lukaszewski, K.M., & Johnson, R., 2015. The Influence of Technology on the
Future of Human Resource Management. Human Resource Management Review, 25 (2),
pp.216-231
677
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
Strohmeier, S., 2009. Concepts of e-HRM consequences: a categorisation, review and suggestion. The
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(3), pp.528-543
Teo, T.S., Lim, G.S., & Fedric, S.A., 2007. The adoption and diffusion of human resources information
systems in Singapore. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 45(1), pp.44-62
Townsend, K., Wilkinson, A., Allan, C., & Bamber, G., 2012. Mixed signals in HRM: the HRM role of
hospital line managers1. Human Resource Management Journal, 22(3), pp.267-282
Troshani, I., Jerram, C., & Hill, S.R., 2011. Exploring the public sector adoption of HRIS. Industrial
Management & Data Systems, 111(3), pp.470-488
References
i
Huntington, Samuel P., 1991. The Third Wave Democratization in the Late Twentieth
Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
ii
Democracy Third wave spread following development of regime transition in South Europe
and Latin America, then spread around the globe in Asia starting in the late 1980s and into the
1990s.
iii
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 1959. Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic
Development and Political Legitimacy, American Political Science Review, 53; Almond,
Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba, 1963. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in
Five Nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ; Moore, Barrington, 1966. Social
Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World.
Boston: Beacon Press.
iv
Grugel, Jean, 2002. Democratization: An Introduction. New York: Palgrave, p.49.
v
I used the term regime and system interchangeably in the discussion, because the concept of
regimes in my study presents the method or a system of government. It also means a state system
or a political system.
vi
Opcit, pp. 35-36
vii
Carothers, Thomas, 2002. The End of the Transition Paradigm. Journal of Democracy, 13,
no. 1, pp. 5-21.
viii
See Diamond, Larry, 2002. Thinking about Hybrid Regimes, Journal of Democracy, 13,
no. 2, pp. 21-35 and Linde, Jonas, 2009. Into the Gray Zone: the Recent Trend of
Hybridization of Political Regimes, The Quality of Government Institute Department of
Political Science (Working paper Series, University of Gothenburg, Sweden).
ix
Ibid.
x
In his book (1991) Samuel Huntington and others argued that liberalized authoritarianism
was a halfway house [that] cannot stand, indication of a fragile regime that will not last.
xi
Hobson, Christopher, 2003. Rethinking Democracy: the End of Democratic Transition?
Melbourne Journal of Politics, 29, pp. 56-67.
678
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
xii
Merkel, Wolfgang, 2004. Embedded and Defective Democracies. Democratization, 11,
no. 5, pp. 33-58.
xiii
Brownlee, Jason, 2007. Authoritarian in an Age of Democratization. New York:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 16-17.
xiv
Bogaards, Matthijs, 2009. How to Classify Hybrid Regimes? Defective Democracy and
Electoral Authoritarianism. Democratization, 16, pp. 399-423.
xv
See William Case, 1993. Semi-Democracy in Malaysia: Withstanding the Pressures for
Regime Change. Pacific Affairs, 66, no. 2, pp. 183-205; Zakaria Hj. Ahmad, 1989.
Malaysia: quasi-Democracy in a divided Society, in Democracy in Developing Countries:
Asia, ed. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset. Boulder, CO: Lynne
Rienner Publishers, pp. 347-81; The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) has categorized Malaysia
as a flawed democracy, ranking 81 in 2007; The Freedom House, a renowned organization, has
ranked Malaysia as partly free on the rating of 4 in the countrys level of civil liberties in
2011.
xvi
Crouch, Harold A., 1996. Government and Society in Malaysia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
xvii
Slater, Dan, 2009. State Power and Staying Power: Institutional Origins and Durable
Authoritarianism in Malaysia and Singapore (Paper presented at mini-conference on
Comparing Past and Present, Comparative Historical Section of the ASA, Berkeley.
xviii
Esman, Milton, 1973. The Management of Communal Conflict. Public Policy, xii, pp.
49-78.
xix
The Star [online] 15 September 2011. Available at:
http://www.thestar.com.my/story/?sec=nation&file=%2f2011%2f9%2f15%2fnation%2f2011091
5205714
xx
Jesudason, James, 1995. Statist Democracy and the Limits to Civil Society in Malaysia. The
Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 33, no. 3, pp. 335-356.
xxi
Marina Ottaway (2003) gives the concept semi-authoritarian to describe the ambiguous
regimes that result from a failed transition process.
xxii
Mauzy, Diane K., 2006. The Challenge to Democracy: Singapores and Malaysias
Resilient Hybrid Regime. Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 2, no. 2, pp. 47-68.
xxiii
Pempel, T.J., 1990. Conclusion: One-party Dominance and the Creation of Regimes, in
Uncommon Democracies: the One-Party Dominant Regimes, ed. T. J. Pempel. Ithaca: Cornell
xxiv
Gomez , Edmund Terence and Jomo K. S. 1999. Malaysias Political Economy: Politics,
Patronage and Profits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 8.
xxv
Ibid.
xxvi
Clean in English translation is a peoples movement that demands for Clean and Fair
Elections from the government. The movement has held four rallies since 2006, when their
demands have not been met by the Election Commission.
679
eISBN 978-967-11473-3-7
xxvii
HINDRAF is a protest movement mainly involving the Indian community in Malaysia
demanding governments attention on their plight on social justice.
xxviii See Francis Loh Kok Wah and Johan Saravanamuttu, 2003. New Politics in
Malaysia, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies and Weiss, M. L., 2009. Edging
Toward a New Politics in Malaysia: Civil Society at the Gate? Asian Survey, 49 (5), 741-758.
xxix
Smith, Benjamin, 2005. Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and
Persistence under Single Party Rule. World Politics, 57, no. 3, pp. 421-451.
xxx
Hwang, In-won, 2003. Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State Under Mahathir.
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, p. 344.
680

Usm-Icoss 2015 Proceedings PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Usm-Icoss 2015 Proceedings PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

USM INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCES (USM-ICOSS) 2015

27th 28th AUGUST 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

First Edition, December 2015

Muhammad Fikri Ali Yasah

Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim

School of Social Sciences

Economic Growth Economic Growth Page Number

Lean Hooi Hooi

Noraihan Mohamad and Mohd Sobhi Ishak

Joko Susanto and Purwiyanta

Dian Indri Purnamasari, Rahmawati and Mulyanto

Bojonegoro District, The Best Governance Role in Indonesias Economic 89

Sri Suryaningsum, Moch. Irhas Effendi, and R. Hendri Gusaptono

Mohd Reduan Buyung and Haryati Shafii

Ho Siew Neo, Stella, Jamilah Mohamad and Nurulhuda Mohd Satar

The Evaluation of The Implementation of Regional Autonomy in Indonesia 121

Soemedi Hadiyanto and Agustinus Fatem

Sucahyo Heriningsih, Rusherlistyani and Agussalim

Vulnegarewarerable Groups Page Number

Chan Cheong Chong

Zakiyah Jamaluddin, Abdul Razak Abd Manaf dan Rusimah Sayuti

Household Behaviour and Malaria Control: A Conceptual Overview 174

Ahmad Yahaya Maigemu and Kalthum Bt Haji Hassan

Ong Beng Kok

Nithiya Guna Saigaran, Premalatha Karupiah and Parthiban S. Gopal

Nurshakirin Sulaiman and Ong Beng Kok

Aminu Musa Ahmed and Abd Halim Ahmad

Mitshel Lino and Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim

Urban And Rural Development

Suziana Mat Yasin and Ibrahim Ngah

Hartini Ahmad, Azhari Md Hashim and Nor Intan Saniah Sulaiman

Methods, Identity and Social Capital Page Number

hods, Identity And Social Capital

Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid and Noor Azizah Ahmad

Financial And Monetary Economics

Kizito Uyi Ehigiamusoe and Hooi Hooi Lean

Nor Asmat Ismail

IInterdisciplinary Page Number

Nur Zafifa Kamarunzaman and Nor Hafizah Selamat

Farah Syazwani Hayrol Aziz and Nor Hafizah Selamat

Reihaneh Attaran and Datin Rashidah Shuib

Politics and Administration Page Number

Mohd Nor Yahaya and Jegak Uli

Siti Khadijah Mohd Khaira, & Nuarrual Hilal Md Dahlan

Noreha Hashim & Daniel Ugih Echoh

Siti Zuliha Razali

Tong Sheng Tan, Eivon Lim and Yiing Jia Loke

Emotion and Aggression Page Number

Recovery Experience of Young Depressed Females in Malaysia: A Microsystemic 455

Kebebasan Beragama: Hak Peribadi atau Hak Negara?

Rohizan Halim dan Yuhanif Yusof

A Conceptual Study of Breastfeeding and Postpartum Mothers: A Malaysian

Maria Aloysius, and Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin

Digital Identity, Digital Other, Digital Community: Malaysian Youths Experience

Asar Ak, Bouhedda Ghalia and Mohd Rashid Bin Ab Hamid

Rights and Health Page Number

malatha Karupiah 498

Maria Aloysius, and Shariffah Suraya Syed Jamaludin

Asar Ak, Bouhedda Ghalia and Mohd Rashid Bin Ab Hamid

Sharifah Suraya. Syed Jamaludin

Interventions In Social Work

Bantuan Demokrasi di Malaysia: Satu Sorotan Preliminari 545