Biological Conservation 67 (1994) 129-134
MITIGATION OF BIRD COLLISIONS WITH TRANSMISSION
LINES T H R O U G H G R O U N D W l R E M A R K I N G
Juan C. Alonso, a Javier A. Alonso, b Rodrigo Mufioz-Pulido a
a Museo National de Cieneias Naturales, CSIC, JosO GutiOrrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain,
bDepartamento de Biologia Animal, Facultad de Biologia, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
(Received 26 September 1992; revised version received 18 March 1993; accepted 20 March 1993)
A~traet
A study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of
groundwire marking in reducing bird mortality through
collision at a power transmission line in southwestern
Spain. Monthly flight intensity observations and weekly
searches for dead birds were carried out at four sectors
of the line comprising 28.2 km, during two consecutive
winters, 1989-90 and 1990-91, respectively before and
after groundwire marking with coloured P VC spirals.
Flight intensity and collision frequency decreased respec-
tively by 61% and 60% at marked spans compared to the
same spans prior to marking, while there was no signifi-
cant change in collision frequency at spans left un-
marked. After marking, the percentage of birds flying
between the cables decreased and that flying above them
increased Our results suggest that many birds avoided
flying across the marked spans of the line or climbed
while approaching them, and therefore collided less fre-
quently. The percentage decrease in mortality observed in
our study falls within the range of results of other
groundwire marking or removal studies.
Keywords: bird mortality, collision, power lines, Spain.
INTRODUCTION
Electric power transmission lines are known to be a
cause of bird mortality through collision (Cornwell &
Hochbaum, 1971; Riegel & Winkel, 1971; Scott et al.,
1972; Fiedler & Wissner, 1980; Heijnis, 1980; Faanes,
1982, 1987; McNeil et al., 1985). Most accidents occur
with the groundwire, which is thinner than the conduc-
tors and therefore more difficult for flying birds to
see (Krapu, 1974; Meyer, 1978; James & Haak, 1979;
Beaulaurier, 1981; Faanes, 1981). Various measures
have been proposed to minimize bird mortality at
power lines, including route planning and rerouting
lines, underground cables and groundwire removal or
marking (see review in Beaulaurier, 1981). The last two
methods are only applicable once the line is con-
structed. Removing the groundwire, however, reduces
the system reliability as it leaves the line unprotected
Biological Conservation 0006-3207/94/$07.00 1994 Elsevier
Science Ltd, England. Printed in Great Britain
129
against lightning strikes. Therefore, making the cables
more visible to birds through marking seems the most
appropriate method in most cases for mitigating colli-
sion mortality.
In the present study we evaluate the effectiveness of
groundwire marking as a method of reducing bird mor-
tality through collision at a transmission line in south-
western Spain. The death of a number of individuals of
endangered species such as great bustards or common
cranes had been reported to the regional authorities by
local conservation associations. The Spanish Electricity
Company (Red E16ctrica de Espafia) was informed of
these accidents and decided to mark the groundwires
experimentally in some critical sectors of the line to
study the effects of this measure on bird mortality.
STUDY AREA
The line studied was a double-circuit 380 kV transmis-
sion line with six bundles of two conductors forming
three cable planes, and two overhead groundwires sup-
ported by steel lattice towers 25-30 m tall. The line
crosses a typical mediterranean scrubland area of Ex-
tremadura, southwestern Spain, between the towns of
Valdecaballeros and Guillena (Fig. 1). Cereal cultiva-
tion (mainly wheat and barley, in some areas also
maize) alternate with open holm oak Quercus rotund#
folia woods with some cork oaks Quercus suber and an
understorey of Cistus ladanifer. Part of the area is in-
cluded in the List of Important Bird Areas in Spain
(Grimmet & Jones, 1989), as it supports high densities
of many protected species, such as common cranes,
white storks, black storks, great bustards, and several
raptors.
METHODS
The study was carried out during two consecutive win-
ters, December to April 1989-90 and 1990-91, the first
before and the second after groundwire marking, which
was done during the summer of 1990. Prior to field
study, the four most critical sectors of the line were de-
termined according to published or known information
on local bird populations and collision data (Fig. 1 ).
These four sectors measured respectively 4236 m, 7370 m,
130 J . C . Alonso, J. A. Alonso, R. Mu~oz-Pulido

f
C_B

A I I I I I

B'

O I I I I I I I I I I I I f

0 I km
t - - J

Fig. 1. Location of the study area in Spain (top left), and map of the study area (top right) showing the main roads, towns (dots)
and rivers, and the transmission line with the four sectors studied marked with thick lines (A, B, C and D). The asterisk indicates
the beginning of the powerline at the nuclear station of Valdecaballeros. The lower part of the figure represents the four sectors
A to D studied. Small vertical lines represent the towers and double lines indicate the spans of the line that were marked with
PVC spirals in the second year.

8784 m, and 7811 m, totalling 28201 m of line (69
spans). They were searched for dead birds once weekly
by one or two observers walking in a zigzag pattern
under the line. The search width was about 50 m. The
location of each dead bird was marked on a map and
all remains were collected and removed from the area
to avoid repeated counts during subsequent surveys. In
our mortality estimations we did not account for errors
such as disappearance of dead birds due to scavengers,
undetected birds due to vegetation density, or birds
seriously injured but not immediately killed by the
collision. Such error estimations are largely subjective
and highly variable depending on several factors
inherent to each particular study area (review in
Beaulaurier, 1981). Our main objective was to compare
bird collision frequency before groundwire marking
with that after marking, and we assumed that such
causes of error in mortality estimations affected both of
our study periods equally and thus would not bias our
evaluation of the efficiency of groundwire marking.
The markers used were red-coloured spirals of PVC,
1 m long and 30 cm maximum diameter, rolled around
both groundwires at 10 m intervals. The length of line
with marked groundwires was 12500 m (29 spans). The
markers were placed at sites frequently crossed by birds
of several species during their daily flights between
roosts and feeding areas. They were installed in sectors
of 2-9 span lengths.
Full-day observations of bird flight intensity across
two spans of the line (approximately 800 m) were con-
ducted once monthly at each of the four sectors of the
line studied, totalling 366 h of flight intensity observa-
tion. These observations were made at the same spans,
before and after groundwire marking. Flight intensity
observations could not be made at unmarked spans
during the second year because the company decided to
mark all the spans previously selected for flight obser-
vations.
Bird nomenclature follows Howard and Moore
(1991). Scientific names for bird species mentioned in
the text are given in Appendix 1. Statistical tests used
were X2, signs test and Mann-Whitney U-test (Siegel,
1956).
RESULTS
Bird flight observations
During our flight intensity observations we recorded a
total of 7465 individuals of at least 59 identified species
(see Appendix 1). The most numerous birds observed
were common cranes (33.6%), black-headed gulls (13-5%),
lapwings (9.1%), spotless starlings (6.1%), linnets (5.1%),
 Bird collisions with transmission lines 131

and wood pigeons (3.5%). The mean daily numbers of Table 1. Numbers of birds observed flying across the transmis-
birds seen flying across the line decreased after marking sion line, and their flight altitudes with respect to the cables,
during flight intensity observations before and after groundwire
the groundwire (Table 1, Mann-Whitney U-test, Z = marking
1.983, p = 0.047). This decrease was independently sig-
nificant in three of the four sectors of the line studied. Before After
The total number of birds observed flying across the groundwire groundwire
marking marking
line corridor decreased by 61% after the groundwire (December 1989- December1990-
was marked. However, the species diversity was almost April 1990) April 1991)
equal, with only 4% less species after marking.
Mean number of birds flying 357.1 124.0
The mean number of individuals of the same species per day
seen flying across the line decreased from 74-4 birds SE 147.4 29.1
before groundwire marking (SE -- 34-7 n = 72 species Number of observation days 15 17
Total number of birds seen flying 5 357 2 108
including those not identified) to 29.3 birds after Total number of flocks 659 453
marking (SE = 7.3, n -- 72), although the difference was Total number of species 52 50
not significant (Mann-Whitney U-test, Z -- 0.476 p = % of flocks below conductors 34 35
0.634). There were significantly more species in which % between conductors and 19 14
flight intensity decreased after groundwire marking groundwire
% above groundwire 47 51
than those in which it increased (32 vs 23 species, signs
test, p < 0.05).
After marking, similar percentages of flocks crossed marking, while it increased from 19 birds (15 species)
the line below the conductors, slightly more above the to 25 birds (15 species) in the sectors left unmarked
groundwire, and slightly less between the conductors (Table 2). The decrease in the mean number of dead
and groundwire (differences significant at p < 0.001, birds found per survey day was significant in the
= 113-0, 2 d.f., Table 1). sample of marked spans (Mann-Whitney U-test, Z =
2.980 p = 0.003), while the increase in the sample of
Collision data spans which were left unmarked was not significant
No collisions were seen during bird flight intensity (Z = 0.430, p = 0-669).
observations. During our searches beneath the line To evaluate further the significance of the 60% de-
we found 107 dead birds belonging to 30 species crease in bird mortality at the marked spans of the line,
(Appendix 1). The most numerous species found were we used each marked span as an independent observa-
wood pigeons (16.8%), lapwings (13.1%), golden tion and found that the decrease in the number of dead
plovers (8-4%), common cranes (6.5%), domestic doves birds found per span was significant with respect to the
(5.6%), great bustards (4.7%), little bustards (4.7%), same spans prior to marking (Table 2, Mann-Whitney
and white storks (3.7%). The number and specific U-test, Z = 2.170, p -- 0.029). In 14 of these spans we
diversity of dead birds found in the marked sectors of found fewer dead birds, while in only three did we find
the line decreased from 45 birds (19 species) before more. In another two spans the number of dead birds
groundwire marking to 18 birds (13 species) after did not change and in the remaining 10 spans we found

Table 2. Numbers of birds found dead before and after groundwire marking, in the samples of marked and unmarked spans (numbers
of spans in parentheses), at the four sectors of the line studied

Sample of marked spans (n) Sample of unmarked spans (n)

Before marking After marking (Winter 1989-90) (Winter 1990-91)

(winter 1989-90) winter 1990-91)

Sector A 25 10 (9) 1 0 (1)

Sector B 10 6 (6) 11 12 (12)
Sector C 9 2 (9) 3 2 (13)
Sector D 1 0 (5) 4 11 (14)
Total birds 45 18 (29) 19 25 (40)
Number of species 19 13 15 15
Mean number of dead
birds per survey 0.63 0.24 0.24 0.34
SE 0.15 0.06 0.06 0-09
Number of surveys 71 74 71 74
Mean number of dead
birds per span 1.55 0.62 (29) 0.47 0.62 (4o)
SE 0.32 0.17 0.12 0.15
Mean number of dead
individuals per species 0.63 0.26 0.26 0.35
SE 0-22 0.07 0.07 O.10
 132 J. C Alonso, J. A. Alonso, R. Mu~oz-Pulido
no dead birds before or after marking. In contrast,
there was no significant change in the number of dead
birds found in the sample of spans which were left
unmarked (Z = 0.737, p = 0.461). These relationships
between marking and collision frequency were similar
when each of the four sectors of the line studied was
considered separately (Table 2).
Finally, considering each species as an independent
observation, the mean number of individuals of the
same species found dead also decreased significantly
after groundwire marking in the sample of marked
spans (Table 2, signs test, Z = 2.294, p = 0.022). The
frequency of collisions decreased in 15 species and in-
creased in four. In the sample of unmarked spans the
number of dead individuals per species did not change
after marking (signs test, Z = 0-236, p -- 0.814, decreas-
ing in eight species and increasing in 10.
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study show that both flight
intensity and collision frequency decreased by 60% at
those spans of the line where groundwires had been
marked with colour spirals. In contrast, in the sample
of spans left unmarked there was a non-significant
increase in bird mortality. Comparison of various
measures of this decrease in mortality at marked spans
(total number of deaths, number of species, mean
number of individuals per survey day, per span and per
species, trend at four different sectors of the study area)
with the absence of any significant change at unmarked
spans strongly suggests that the decrease in mortality
was not random.
Furthermore, the coincidence in sign and magnitude
between collision frequency and flight intensity changes
at marked spans of four independent sectors of the line
during the second winter compared to the same spans
prior to marking suggests that both events were re-
lated. The decrease in mortality was probably brought
about by a reduction in flight intensity across marked
spans due to the higher visibility of the marked
groundwires. We suggest that many birds approaching
the power line during the second winter avoided the
marked spans by changing their flight direction and
either flew through unmarked sectors of the line or
aborted flight.
Beaulaurier (1981) and Faanes (1987) showed that
flight direction change and aborted flight were common
reactions of birds approaching a power line, making up
4-43% of all bird reaction types, and representing
1-4-5% of all birds approaching the power line. Since
these figures were obtained at unmarked lines, it is
reasonable to assume that a much higher percentage
of birds approaching our marked lines changed flight
direction or aborted flight.
The significant changes in the height at which birds
crossed the line after groundwire marking, with less in-
dividuals flying between the cables and more above
them, compared to the same spans before marking,
suggests that birds saw the groundwire markers and
climbed to avoid flying too close to the cables. Other
authors have shown that flaring and climbing is the
most common reaction when birds see groundwires
(Faanes, 1987). This and most other previous studies
(Meyer, 1978; James & Haak, 1979; Beaulaurier, 1981;
Faanes, 1981) have shown that more than 80% of ob-
served bird collisions occur with overhead groundwires.
Faanes (1987) argued that this is usually because birds
react to the more visible conductors by flaring and
climbing and collide with the thinner groundwires.
Although we have no flight intensity data across
unmarked spans of the line during the second winter,
once some of the spans had been marked, we know
that the wintering populations at the study site did not
change significantly in numbers between both years
(own unpublished data; ADENEX, pers. comm.), nor
are there any reasons to believe that the sizes of
resident populations would have decreased markedly.
Thus, if there was already a 60% decrease in flight in-
tensity at marked spans it is more reasonable to expect
an absence of change or an increase at unmarked spans
than a decrease.
Finally, mortality decreased in eight of nine species
which experienced a reduction in flight intensity at
marked spans, showing that the positive relation be-
tween both events was significant (p = 0.04, signs test,
using only those species with flight and collision data at
marked spans before and after marking, Appendix 1).
Interestingly, in five of those species there was an in-
crease in mortality during the second winter at un-
marked spans.
Beaulaurier (1981) summarized the results from 17
studies that involved marking groundwires or conduc-
tors and found an average reduction in bird mortality
of 45% compared to unmarked lines. However, in these
studies corresponding flight intensity changes were not
documented. The mortality reduction observed in our
study was similar to that found in some of the studies
quoted by Beaulaurier (1981), in which black and white
or yellow ribbons were attached to the groundwires
(Gylstorff, 1979), or reflective raptor silhouettes were
hung from them (Heijnis, 1980). Beaulaurier (1981)
also recorded a reduction in collision rates of an aver-
age of 48% when groundwires were removed. Since
marking and removing the groundwires seem to be
similarly effective in mitigating bird collisions, and
groundwire removal presents more electrical problems
for line reliability and system life, marking is probably
the best way to reduce bird mortality at power lines.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We sincerely thank J. Sierra, F. Gragera and F. Sierra
for the many field hours they spent doing flight inten-
sity and dead bird searches. A. S~nchez of the Junta de
Extremadura and several people from ADENEX pro-
vided useful information and helped in various ways.
Two anonymous referees and Dr E. Duffey contributed
with their comments to improve the manuscript. This
research was accomplished through a cooperative
 Bird collisions with transmission lines 133

agreement between Red El6ctrica de Espafia, SA, and
the Fundaci6n para la Ecologia y Protecci6n del Medio
Ambiente. We would like to express our thanks to both
institutions, and particularly to J. Roig, J. Ar6valo and
V. Navazo (REE) and J. Martin (FEPMA) for their
help and encouragement. The study was financed by
Red E16ctrica de Espafia, SA.
REFERENCES
Beaulaurier, D. L. (1981). Mitigation of birds collisions with
transmission lines. Bonneville Power Administration, US
Department of Energy, Boulder, Colorado.
Cornwell, G. & Hochbaum, H. A. (1971). Collisions with
wires--a source of anatid mortality. Wilson Bull., 83,
305-6.
Faanes, C. A. (1981). Assessment of power line siting in
relation to bird strikes in the Northern great plains. Ann.
Rep. US Fish & Wildl. Serv. 1980, Northern Prairie
Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota.
Faanes, C. A. (1987). Bird behavior and mortality in relation
to power lines in prairie habitats. US Dept. Int., Fish &
Wildl. Serv. Tech. Rep., 7, 1-24.
Fiedler, G. & Wissner, A. (1980). Freileitungen als t6dliche
Gefahr ftir St6rche Ciconia ciconia. Okologie der VOgel, 2,
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Grimmet, R. F. A. & Jones, T. A. (1989). Important bird
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birds of the world, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London.
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flight behavior and collision mortality at transmission lines.
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overhead wires in North Dakota. Prairie Nat., 6, 1-6.
McNeil, R., Rodriguez, J. R. & Ouellet, H. (1985). Bird
mortality at a power transmission line in North Eastern
Venezuela. Biol. Conserv., 31, 153-65.
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Appendix 1. Fright intensity and collision frequency data for each bird species

Flight intensity is the number of individuals seen flying across eight spans of the power line during 15 observation days. Flight
intensity was studied only in spans to be marked, both before and after groundwire marking. Collision frequency is the number of
birds found dead during our searches on foot beneath the line (respectively, 71 before and 74 after marking). Collision frequency
is given separately for the samples of spans to be marked (A) and to be left unmarked (B) (both before marking) and marked (A)
and unmarked (B) spans (after marking).

Before groundwire marking After groundwire marking

(December 1989-April 1990) (December 1990-April 1991)

Flight Collision Collision Flight Collision Collision

intensity frequency frequency intensity frequency frequency
A B A B

Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis 1 1

Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis 97 1 45 1
Little egret Egretta garzetta 4
Grey heron Ardea cinerea 3
White stork Ciconia ciconia 95 2 1 32 1
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 33 1 2 1
Unidentified ducks Anas spp. 42
Black-winged kite Elanus caeruleus 13
Black kite Milvus migrans 11 11
Red kite Milvus milvus 26 25
Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus 2
Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus 11 5
Black vulture Aegypius monachus 2
Short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus 3 1
Hen harrier Circus cyaneus 1 4
Montagu's harrier Circus pygargus 60 14
Common buzzard Buteo buteo 33 27
Bonelli's eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus 4 1
Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni 9
Common kestral Falco tinnunculus 51 68
Hobby Falco subbuteo 10
Red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa 11 9
Common crane Grus grus 2 269 2 3 243 2
Litte bustard Tetrax tetrax 102 1 1 30 2
contmued
 134 J. C Alonso, J. A. Alonso, R. Muaoz-Pulido

Appendix 1--continued

Before groundwire marking After groundwire marking

(December 1989-April 1990) (December 1990-April 1991)

Flight Collision Collision Flight Collision Collision

intensity frequency frequency intensity frequency frequency
A B A B

Great bustard Otis tarda 29 3 1 1 1

Stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus 1 1 1
Golden plover Pluvialis apricaria 46 3 1 61 2 3
Lapwing Vanellus vanellus 471 6 2 212 3 3
Snipe Gallinago gallinago 1
Green sandpiper Tringa ochropus 1
Black-headed gull Larus ridibundus 1 007 1
Lesser black-backed gull Larusfuscus 5 6
Domestic dove Columba livia domestica 101 5
Wood pigeon Columba palumbus 197 14 62 3 1
Great spotted cuckoo Clamator glandarius 1 3
Barn owl Tyro alba 1 1
Little owl Athene noctua 1
Bee-eater Merops apiaster 6
Common roller Coracias garrulus 1
Hoopoe Upupa epops 7
Unidentified larks 1
Short-toed lark Calandrella cinerea
Crested lark Galerida cristata 10 19
Swallow Hirundo rustica 1 7
Meadow pipit Anthus pratensis 55 2
White wagtail Motacilla alba 3 1
Robin Erithacus rubecula 2
Black redstart Phoenicurus ochruros 1
Stonechat Saxicola torquata 6 2
Blackbird Turdus merula 1 6
Unidentified thrushes Turdus spp. 27
Song thrush Turdus philomelos 3
Sardinian warbler Sylvia melanocephala
Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla
Unidentified warblers Sylvia spp.
Great tit Parus major
Great grey shrike Lanius excubitor 2
Woodchat shrike Lanius senator
Azure-winged magpie Cyanopica cyana 36 74
Magpie Pica pica 82 26
Jackdaw Corvus monedula 54 54
Raven Corvus corax 84 48
Unidentified starlings Sturnus spp. 9
Spotless starling Sturnus unicolor 115 341
House sparrow Passer domesticus 160
Unidentified finches Fringillidae 9
Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs 1 1
Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis 17 161
Linnet Acanthis cannabina 247 131
Corn bunting Emberiza calandra 12 1 10
Unidentified passerines 2 1
Unidentified birds 1
Total birds 5 357 45 19 2 108 18 25