STUDY UNIT 9

9.10
9.11

Alcohol Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation

Pyruvate forms acetaldehyde, releasing carbon
dioxide in the process.
Alcoholic fermentation yields alcohol molecules
as well as carbon dioxide molecules.
Many bacteria and yeast carries out alcohol
fermentation in anaerobic conditions.
NADH is oxidised to NAD+ and acetaldehyde is
reduced to ethanol.
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate.
Lactic acid fermentation yields lactic acid
molecules.
Commercially important products of lactic acid
fermentation include cheese and yogurt.
NADH is oxidised to NAD+

STUDY UNIT 10

10.4 Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

Higher plant cells show cell plate cytokinesis

The middle part of spindle persists during cytokinesis
It forms a complex called phragmoplast
A mid body is absent
A row of vesicles develops in the equatorial plane in plant cell cytokinesis
Vesicles fuse to form cell plats
There is little role of microfilaments in plant cell cytokinesis
It starts with the formation of cell plate during telophase
Cell plate grows from the centre to the lateral walls. It is centrifugal
Wall formation occurs in the region of cytokinesis
It has no centrosomes
Chloroplast is present

Cytokinesis in Animal Cell

It occurs through cleavage

Spindle degenerates during cytokinesis
The mid body develops centrally
A row of vesicles does not form in animal cytokines
Cell plate is formed
Microfilament are actively involved
It starts as a construction in the cell membrane during late anaphase and early telophase
The furrow deepens from the outside towards the centre and meets the centre, so it is
described as centripetal
Wall formation is absent
Centrosomes are present
Chloroplast are absent
STUDY UNIT 11

11.2 Asexual reproduction

It involves no creation and synthesis of gametes

It has a single parent
Reproductive units are somatic cells of parent
It contains only mitotic divisions
Children are genetically similar to parents
Often results in rapid duplicate of big number of children

Sexual reproduction

It contains formation and fusion of gametes

Two parents give rise to offspring
Reproductive units are germ cells of parent
Involves meiosis during gamete from parents
Children are genetically different from parents
Less rapid increase in numbers

11.5 Phases of meiosis I

Prophase I - The nuclear membrane dissolve, chromosomes develop and the centrosomes
push away from each other, creating a spindle. Crossing over take place where similar
chromosomes from both parents pair up and exchange DNA. Homologs are in synapsis but it
ends in mid-prophase and the chromosomes in each pare more apart.
Metaphase I - Spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes centromeres, arranging the
homologs to form a vertical line (on the metaphase plate) in the centre of the cell.
Anaphase I Homologs are pulled apart from each other. One half is going to one side of
the cell and the other goes the opposite side guided by the spindle apparatus. Chromatids
move as a unit toward the same pole.
Telophase I - At the end of anaphase 1 and the development of telophase 1, cytokinesis split
to form two daughter cells.

Phases of meiosis II

Prophase II - Centrosomes form and push apart into two new cells. Chromosomes still
consisting of chromatids associated at the centromere, move toward the metaphase II plate.
Metaphase II - Spindle fibres connect to chromosome centromeres arranging the homologs
to form a horizontal line on the metaphase plate. Chromosomes are not genetically
identical.
Anaphase II - Centromeres break, and the spindle fibres pull the chromatids apart. The two
split parts of the cell are known as sister chromosomes. The chromatids move toward
opposite poles as individual chromosomes.
Telophase II - The two daughter cells from telophase 1 splits again to form 4 haploid cells
called gametes. Each daughter cell are genetically distinct from each other and from the
parent cell.
STUDY UNIT 12

12.6

The genotypes are: PPLL and ppll

Gametes: PL, Pl, pL and pl

Gametes PL Pl pL pl
S1

Gametes PL PPLL PPLl PpLL PpLl

S2
Pl PPLl PPll PpLl Ppll
pL PpLL PpLl ppLL ppLl
pl PpLl Ppll ppLl ppll
9 out of 16 has a one pod condition and has normal leaves.

3 out of 16

The ratios between the different phenotypes are 9 out of 16, 3 out of 16, 3 out of 16 and 1 out of 16.
Thus is the ratio of the Mendelian dihybrid cross, 9:3:3:1.

Refer to page 73 in Study Guide

STUDY UNIT 13

Transcription the synthesis of an RNA molecule complimenting the DNA strand. A genes protein-
synthesizing instructions are transcribed to mRNA. mRNA is the carrier of codes from DNA to
ribosomes, where translation into protein occurs.

Initiation RNA bind to the promoter sequence of the DNA, the polymerase unwinds the DNA for
the initiation at this point to start transcribing the template strand.

Elongation RNA polymerase move along the DNA template strand and untwist the double helix
while doing so, this allows a number of nucleotides to be paired with DNA at a time. New RNA
nucleotides disappears from the DNA template and the double helix reforms.

Termination RNA continues to elongate until it reaches the number of nucleotides that signals the
end of transcription.

STUDY UNIT 14

14.14

Parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic interaction between two species. One organism benefits while
the other one is harmed. The parasite grows its nourishments from its host, which is harmed in the
process. Parasites that live inside its host, such as tapeworms are called endoparasites. Parasites
that feeds externally on its host are called ectoparasites.
Mutualism is the interaction that benefits both species. The mutualistic relationship is where two
species work together, both benefiting from each other. For example bees gather nectar from
flowers, benefiting the bees. While the bees fly from flower to flower the bees are carrying pollen
from one flower to the other, benefiting the flower to reproduce.

Commensalism is the interaction of two organisms of different species that benefits one of the
species but neither harms or helps the other. For example the remora fish that rides attached to
sharks, feeding on its leftovers of its meals but does not harm or benefits the shark.

STUDY UNIT 15

15.1

Heterotrophs are animals that cannot make its own food supply, so they have to eat other things
such as plants or other animals to survive. People are also heterotrophs by eating plants and meat to
stay alive.

Autotrophs like green plants and algae are self-feeders by getting their energy from the sun and
carbon dioxide. They are also called producers because they provide food and energy for all
heterotrophic organisms.

15.10

While chlorine is a natural hazard to the ozone the CFCs are threat from humans. When the
breakdown products from these chemicals rise to the stratosphere, the chlorine they contain reacts
with ozone, reducing it to molecular2 . Once a UV radiation connects with a CFC molecule, it causes
one chlorine atom to break away. More UV radiation penetrates through the ozone layer and
reaches the surface of the earth. Therefore are the UV on earth rising and causes skin cancer in the
process. Subsequent chemical reactions release the chlorine, allowing it to react with other ozone
molecules in a catalytic chain reaction.

1. Chlorine from CFCs act together with ozone (3 ), making chlorine monoxide (CIO) and
oxygen (2 ).
2. Two CIO molecules react, making chlorine peroxide (2 2).
3. Sunlight cause 2 2 to break down to 2 and free chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms can
begin a new cycle. Refer to page 1241 Campbell Biology 8th Edition