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PFM Alloys Text PDF 03 02
PFM Alloys Text PDF 03 02
PFM Alloys Text PDF 03 02
Metal-Ceramic Alloys
are in contact with one another will be welded The bonding discussed in the preceding is
together by the glassy silica matrix. chemical, but it is believed that mechanical
interlocking also plays a role in the bonding
Oxides at the alloy surface. As a general
between some alloys and porcelains. At high
rule, silica glass will not bond to alloys unless
magnification, many porcelain-alloy interfaces
the alloy is covered with a metal oxide.
are found to be very irregular, perhaps, be-
Oxide-free alloys will not bond to porcelain,
cause of selective dissolution of some alloy
probably because the covalent bonding of the
phases by the glassy porcelain. The irregular
glass is incompatible with the metallic bonding
interface may interlock the porcelain and the
of the alloy. Successful porcelain-metal bonds
metal.
can be formed if the alloy is covered with a
naturally occurring surface oxide (e.g., this Compatible Thermal Expansion With
occurs in Ni-Cr alloys) or if a surface metal Porcelain
oxide is produced by adding a small amount (1
The thermal expansion of the metal and
%) of oxide former (e.g., Sn, In, or Fe) to the
porcelain must be compatible. Bonds between
alloy. At high temperature, the oxide former
porcelain and metal formed at high tempera-
diffuses to the alloy's surface, where it reacts
ture will break if the metal and porcelain
with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce the
shrink at greatly different rates as they cool.
surface metal oxide.
Ideally the rates of contraction of the metal
Bonding mechanisms. At the former and porcelain should be equal or, also accept-
alloy surface, the feldspathic glass of the por- ably, the metal should contract at a slightly
celain matrix will be in nearly continuous con- higher rate than the porcelain. The latter con-
tact with the base metal oxide. Since the feld- dition places the metal side of the joint in ten-
spathic glass is primarily an oxide of silicon, it sion and the porcelain side in compression.
is chemically similar to the base metal oxide. Since the porcelain is much stronger in com-
The oxides can diffuse (either by interdiffusion pression than in tension, this strengthens the
of two viscous liquid oxides or by interdiffusion porcelain/metal joint. Reversing the thermal
of silicon and base metal atoms between two contractions, so that the metal is placed in
solid oxides) into one another. The diffusion is tension and the porcelain in tension, is likely
possible because the two oxides are chemically to produce porcelain fracture or delamination.
similar and, therefore, are able to mutually
No Discoloration
dissolve in one another. Note that normally
there will be little diffusion between an oxide- A metal-ceramic alloy should not discolor
free alloy surface and the silicate glass in den- the porcelain. Types III and IV ADA casting
tal porcelain. Because the alloy exhibits alloys cannot be veneered with porcelain.
metallic bonding and the silicate glass cova- These gold casting alloys all contain copper,
lent bonding, metals and glasses exhibit little which will react with porcelain to form blue or
mutual solubility. blue-green reaction products at the porcelain-
metal interface. Gold-based alloys that con-
For successful bonding, the bond must be
taining silver also discolor many porcelains.
strong at both the metal/metal oxide interface
Porcelain on these silver-containing alloys
and the metal oxide/porcelain interface.
takes on a very light green tint. Recently,
Selection of the proper oxide former ensures
porcelains that resist such "greening" have
that the metal oxide adheres to the underlying
become available. These porcelains contain
alloy (not all will).
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Metal-Ceramic Alloys
Oral Biomaterials - Chapter 7
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Metal-Ceramic Alloys
Oral Biomaterials - Chapter 7
IV. Noble Metal-ceramic Alloys cost per dental unit. They are corrosion resist-
ant and can be ground, polished and bur-
High Gold (Gold-Platinum-Palladium)
nished. These alloys are slightly more rigid
Alloys
and sag less than High Gold metal-ceramic
These contain between 75 and 98% gold. alloys. The main advantage of these alloys is
Because of their high density (18 to 19 g/cc) that they are gold-like alloys that cost only
and high precious metal content, these are the 60% as much as the High Gold alloys. Their
most expensive metal-ceramic alloys per den- main disadvantage is that, under some condi-
tal unit (e.g., per coping or pontic). Most of tions, the silver in these alloys can cause the
these alloys are yellow-gold. This color is par- porcelain to discolor.
ticularly pleasing under porcelain. The high
Gold-Palladium Alloys
noble metal content of these alloys makes
them very resistant to tarnish and corrosion. These are similar to Au-Pd-Ag metal-ceram-
The platinum and palladium in these alloys ic alloys, except that the silver has been re-
push their melting temperatures well above moved to prevent greening of the porcelain.
the fusion temperature of porcelain. These They contain 40-59-0% gold and 3-40% palladi-
alloys contain iron (in the older alloys), tin, or um. The elimination of silver reduces the
indium to produce the oxide film which is thermal expansion of these alloys. The reduc-
apparently prerequisite to bonding between tion leads to a thermal expansion incompati-
the metal and porcelain. bility with some high thermal expansion
porcelains. Alloy manufacturers readily admit
Most of these alloys are more ductile, softer,
this incompatibility and list incompatible
and weaker than other metal-ceramic alloys.
porcelains for their alloy.
Consequently, these alloys are easier to grind,
polish and burnish than other metal-ceramic These silver-free alloys have largely sup-
alloys. planted the Au-Pd-Ag alloys in the U.S. mar-
ket. Like the Au-Pd-Ag alloys, they are 60% of
Negative factors associated with these
the cost of the High Gold alloys.
alloys include their cost, lack of rigidity (low
elastic modulus) and lack of sag resistance. Palladium-Silver Alloys
The cost for the alloys alone (not including the
These alloys contain no gold. Typical for-
dental technician's labor) is about $50 per pon-
mulations would include 50 to 65% palladium,
tic or $28 per coping. If a long-span bridge is
30 to 40% silver, and 4 to 10% base metals (tin
not rigid, flexing of the bridge can cause the
or indium). The low density of these alloys (10
bond between the metal and the porcelain to
to 11 g/cm) and the absence of gold makes
fail or the porcelain itself to fracture. As men-
these the least expensive of the precious metal
tioned above, sag of a long-span bridge can
alloys. They are only 14% of the cost of the
cause it not to fit over the prepared teeth.
High Gold alloys. These alloys have the high-
Gold-Palladium-Silver Alloys est sag resistance of the precious metal-
ceramic alloys.
These alloys contain between 50 and 60%
gold and between 20 and 30% palladium. Unless special procedures are followed,
Again, tin and indium are added to promote these alloys will tint most porcelains green.
bonding. The lower gold content and lower Recent studies show that silver from the alloy
density (13 to 14 g/cc, because there is less of can diffuse through the porcelain to the metal
the dense gold) of these alloys decreases the surface. This explains why the greenish tint is
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Metal-Ceramic Alloys
Oral Biomaterials - Chapter 7
usually most striking where the porcelain is chromium. The remaining 5% of the available
thin. Here diffusing silver atoms rapidly base metal alloys are iron-chromium and
reaches the surface. More research is needed cobalt-chromium, both of which contain 12 to
on mechanism of greening. As was mentioned 15% chromium. Beryllium is added to many of
earlier, there are now porcelains on the mar- these alloys to improve their castability and to
ket that resist greening. control surface oxide thickness (see below).
chromium oxide layers are dark green or gray. and sandblasting, which may increase
This color may show through the porcelain, mechanical bonding by roughening the surface
producing a poor color match with natural of the alloy.
teeth.
Biocompatibility
To reduce the thickness of the chromium
Nickel dust. The nickel and beryllium in
oxide, small amounts of elements that oxidize
nickel-chromium alloys are potentially haz-
more readily than chromium are added to the
ardous. Long-term exposure to nickel dust has
alloy. These form thin surface oxides, which
lead to cancers of the lung and nasal passages.
act as a barrier between oxygen and chromi-
However, such long-term exposure has been
um, thereby, decreasing the amount of chromi-
observed only in the nickel industry where the
um oxide and chromium, thereby, decreasing
quantity and persistence of the exposure
the amount of chromium oxide that forms.
would be expected to be much greater than
Therefore, the elements aluminum, molybde-
that encountered in dental laboratories.
num and beryllium are added to some nickel-
chromium alloys to reduce the thickness of the Nickel allergies. A substantial percentage
chromium oxides. Beryllium is the most effec- of patients are allergic to nickel. Such aller-
tive of these elements for this purpose. Other gies are sometimes missed by dentists. In
manufacturers suggest that the thickness of some patients, nickel allergy manifests itself
the oxide be reduced by sandblasting the as swollen and reddened soft tissues in the
oxide. mouth. In other patients, there is no evidence
of intraoral reaction. Instead, nickel alloys
Aside from minimizing the thickness of
can produce dermatitis at sites distant from
chromium oxides, there is no general rule for
the prosthesis (e.g., inside the elbow or in the
achieving bonding between nickel-chromium
arm pit). In the U.S., up to 12% of women
alloys and porcelain. In some alloys, interme-
tested and a growing percentage of men are
diary oxides, which affect the transition from
allergic to nickel. Before nickel-chromium
the alloy (metallic structure) to the porcelain
crowns and bridges are placed, patients should
(glassy structure), are apparently formed. For
be asked if they have experienced rashes when
a particular alloy, these transition oxides may
wearing nickel plated jewelry.
include one or more of the following: chromi-
um oxide (Cr2O3), nickel oxide (NiO), berylli- Beryllium. Beryllium, which is added in
um oxide (BeO), and complex nickel-chromium small quantities to some nickel-chromium
oxides. alloys, is a hazard to laboratory personnel who
can breathe in the dust during grinding or the
Mechanical retention of porcelain.
fumes during casting. Exposure to very small
Other nickel-chromium alloys appear to relay
quantities of beryllium can produce contact
wholly or, at least partially, on mechanical
dermatitis, ulcers, corneal burns, and respira-
bonding to achieve adhesion between porcelain
tory diseases. Symptoms of acute berylliosis
and metal. Many alloy manufacturers achieve
may include pulmonary dysfunction, conges-
bonding through trial and error experimenta-
tive heart failure, and spleen and liver
tion. It is important that dental laboratories
enlargement.
follow the alloy manufacturer's procedures
exactly. Procedures that may or may not be Fortunately, berylliosis has yet to be docu-
used include preoxidation treatments, which mented in a dental setting. Nevertheless,
produce an oxide before porcelain is applied, avoidance of grinding dust (proper masks) and
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Metal-Ceramic Alloys
Oral Biomaterials - Chapter 7
casting fumes (adequate venting) seems pru- alloys tends to restrict the alloy ingots to their
dent. There is no evidence that beryllium in original shapes. The correct casting tempera-
crowns and bridges is harmful to the patient. ture is recognized by noting when the ingots
begin to "slump".
VI. Techniques for Metal-Ceramic Alloys
K = c
, (4)
o
If heating is continued in an effort to pro-
Investing
duce spherical globules, an overheated liquid
Because of their higher fusion tempera- alloy will be cast. Such a liquid alloy will
tures, metal-ceramic alloys undergo more ther- attack the surfaces of the mold and the result-
mal contraction on cooling than do gold and ing casting will have a rough surface. In addi-
silver-palladium casting alloys. Consequently, tion, overheating the alloy can cause low melt-
investments for metal-ceramic alloys must be ing point elements in the alloy to evaporate.
expanded more than investments for gold and Loss of such elements can affect bonding of
silver-palladium casting alloys. Also because porcelain to the alloy. The oxide scale can
of the higher melting range of metal-ceramic also cause one to under heat the melt. The
alloys, gypsum-bonded investments cannot be oxide scale may be lowing white-hot, but the
used. Instead, phosphate-bonded investments alloy below may be considerably cooler.
are used. Because under heated alloy is relatively vis-
cous, castings are likely to be incomplete.
These investments are heated to tempera-
tures between 700oC and 950oC. (A specific Another property specific to palladium-sil-
temperature will be recommended by the alloy ver alloys and nickel-chromium alloys is their
gold
manufacturer). There are two reasons for low density. To achieve sufficient casting
using these high temperatures: (1) the high
copper pressures, arms of centrifugal casting
temperatures increase the thermal expansion machines may need to be wound one or two
of the investment, and (2) the high tempera- more extra turns. the extra spring tension
tures are necessary so that alloy will remain will produce higher rotational velocities and,
fluid when in contact with the walls of the consequently, will increase the casting pres-
mold. Fluidity is a problem because of the sure.
high fusion temperatures of metal- ceramic
Cleaning Castings
alloys; they quickly become viscous at lower
disorderedViscous liquid
temperatures. ordered
alloy may have Metal-ceramic alloys should not be pickled.
difficulty flowing into fine chambers of the Acids may selectively dissolve base metals
mold cavity. which are important in achieving bonding to
porcelain. Generally, it is recommended that
Casting
the alloys be cleaned by sandblasting. Sand-
Metal-ceramic alloys are usually cast with a blasting may also be necessary for freeing the
gas-oxygen torch or with an induction casting castings from phosphate-bonded investments.
machine. The melting characteristics of all This is particularly true for nickel-chromium
the metal-ceramic alloys except the nickel- alloys, most of which form surface oxides
chromium alloys are fairly similar to those of which interact with the investment.
gold and silver-palladium casting alloys. That a
= 1+ 2 ,
Objectives
VII. Behavioral
max (5)
is, the alloys will pool into single circular glob- b
ules. Most nickel-chromium alloys, on the From a list of choices, you will be able to
other hand, do not coalesce into circular glob- select:
ules. The relatively thick oxide scale on the
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Metal-Ceramic Alloys
Oral Biomaterials - Chapter 7