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Differential Calculus Full PDF
Differential Calculus Full PDF
Differential Calculus Full PDF
surface Area S.
V = x3 S = 6x2
Ex. Express the surface area S of a sphere in
2) f(x)= x4 - 4x2
3) f(x)= x2+2x+1
4) f(x)= 1 + cos x
Graphs of Eight Basic Types of
Functions
Linear functions. These are functions of the form:
y = m x + b,
where m and b are constants. A typical use for
linear functions is converting from one quantity
or set of units to another. Graphs of these
functions are straight lines. m is the slope
and b is the y intercept. If m is positive then the
line rises to the right and if m is negative then the
line falls to the right.
Graph of Linear Function
Quadratic functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = a x 2+ b x + c, where a, b and c are
constants. Their graphs are called parabolas.
This is the next simplest type of function after
the linear function. Falling objects move along
parabolic paths. If a is a positive number then
the parabola opens upward and if a is a
negative number then the parabola opens
downward.
Graph of Quadratic Function
Power functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = a x b, where a and b are constants.
They get their name from the fact that the
variable x is raised to some power. Many
physical laws (e.g. the gravitational force as a
function of distance between two objects, or
the bending of a beam as a function of the
load on it) are in the form of power functions.
Graph of Power Function
Polynomial functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0,
where an, an 1, , a2, a1, a0 are constants.
Only whole number powers of x are allowed.
The highest power of x that occurs is called
the degree of the polynomial. The degree
gives the maximum number of ups and
downs that the polynomial can have and also
the maximum number of crossings of the x
axis that it can have.
Ex. Y = x4 8x2
Graph of Polynomial Function
Rational functions. These functions are the ratio of
two polynomials. One field of study where they are
important is in stability analysis of mechanical and
electrical systems (which uses Laplace transforms).
When the polynomial in the denominator is zero
then the rational function becomes infinite as
indicated by a vertical dotted line (called an
asymptote) in its graph. For the example to the right
this happens when x = 2 and when x = 7.
When x becomes very large the curve may level off.
The curve to the right levels off at y = 5.
Exponential functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = a b x,
where x is in an exponent (not in the base as was the
case for power functions) and a and b are constants.
(Note that only b is raised to the power x; not a.) If the
base b is greater than 1 then the result is exponential
growth. Many physical quantities grow exponentially
(e.g. animal populations and cash in an interest-
bearing account).
If the base b is smaller than 1 then the result
is exponential decay. Many quantities decay
exponentially (e.g. the sunlight reaching a
given depth of the ocean and the speed of an
object slowing down due to friction).
Graph of Exponential Function
Logarithmic functions.
Can be defined in the form:
y = a ln (x) + b,
where x is in the natural logarithm and a and
b are constants. They are only defined for
positive x. For small x they are negative and
for large x they are positive but stay small.
Logarithmic functions accurately describe the
response of the human ear to sounds of
varying loudness and the response of the
human eye to light of varying brightness.
Graph of Logarithmic Function
Sinusoidal functions.
These are functions of the form:
y = a sin (b x + c),
where a, b and c are constants. Sinusoidal
functions are useful for describing anything that
has a wave shape with respect to position or
time. Examples are waves on the water, the
height of the tide during the course of the day.
Parameter a (called the amplitude) affects the
height of the wave, b (the angular velocity)
affects the width of the wave and c (the phase
angle) shifts the wave left or right.
Graph of Sinusoidal Function
Composite Functions
- a function that took an input of another
function. If you had one function, f, and you
wanted it to take an input of another function, g,
you would write it in form:
f (g(x)) or (f g) (x)
Ex.
Given : f(x) = x2 - x + 2 , g(x) = 3x 4
Evaluate (f g)(x)
(f g)(x) = (3x - 4)2 - (3x - 4) + 2
(f g)(x) = (9x2 - 24x + 16) - (3x - 4) + 2
(f g)(x) = 9x2 - 27x + 22
Piecewise Function
-a function that is defined on a sequence
of intervals.
-a function which is defined by multiple
subfunctions, each subfunction
applying to a certain interval of
the main function's domain (a
subdomain).
Ex.
1 x, x 1
f ( x) = 2
x ,x 1
Piecewise-defined function
1 x, x 1
f ( x) = 2
x ,x 1
Interval Notation
open interval, (a, b)
all the numbers between two numbers, but
not including the two endpoints
a < x < b , x is between a and b but never
equal to.
closed interval, [a, b]
all the numbers between two number
including the two endpoints. ... and can be
translated as for all values of x so that a x b
Interval Notation
half- open intervals
(a, b] defining all numbers between a and b
not including a, but including b or a < x b
[a, b) defining all numbers between a and b
not including b, but including a or a x < b
unbounded interval
[a, )
-contains end point a to positive infinity
(a, ) contains points greater than a to
positive infinity
Domain and Range of a Function
The set D of all numbers for which f(x) is
defined is called the domain ( or domain of
definition) of the function f.
Domain of the function f is the set of all
real numbers x for which the expression f(x)
makes sense and produces a real number y. A
domain can be expressed in interval notation.
Ex.
Find the domain of
1
g ( x) = Domain:
2x + 4 (- , -2) ( -2, )
1
h( x ) = Domain: (-2, )
2x + 4
u +1
f (u ) = Domain: (- , -2) (-2,-1) (-1, )
1
1+
1+ u
The number f(x), read f of x, is called the
value of the function f at the number ( or
point ) x. The set of all values y=f(x) is called
the range of f. That is, the range of f is the set
{y:y= f(x) for some x in D}
Domain:
1 (- , -2) ( -2, )
g ( x) =
2x + 4
Range:
(- , 0) ( 0, )
Find the range of
1) x if x 0
f ( x) = x Range= { -1, 0, 1 }
0 If x = 0
3) f ( x) = x 5
2
Range= [ 5, )
Combinations of Functions
Suppose that f and g are functions and c is a
fixed real number.
scalar multiple (cf)(x) = c * f(x)
sum (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
difference (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
product ( f*g)(x) = f(x) * g(x)
quotient (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) but g(x) 0
Combination of Functions
Ex. Let f(x)= x2 + 1 g(x)= x 1
(3f)(x) = 3(x2 + 1)
(f + g)(x) = (x2 + 1) + (x 1) = x2 + x
(f - g)(x) = (x2 + 1) - (x 1) = x2 - x + 2
( f*g)(x) = (x2 + 1) * (x 1) = x3 - x2 + x 1
(f/g)(x) = (x2 + 1) / (x 1)
but ( x 1)
1 Limits and Their Properties
Solution:
Let f(x) = (x3 1)/(x 1)
Because
Solution:
This result is shown graphically in Figure 1.18.
Note that the graph of the function f coincides with the graph of
the function g(x) = x 2, except that the graph of f has a gap at
the point (3, 5).
Figure 1.18
Dividing Out and Rationalizing Techniques
Solution:
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form
0/0.
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the
numerator.
Now, using Theorem 1.7, you can evaluate the limit
as shown.
Example 8 Solution contd
Figure 1.20
Example 8 Solution contd
The Squeeze Theorem
The Squeeze Theorem
The next theorem concerns the limit of a function that is
squeezed between two other functions, each of which has the
same limit at a given x-value, as shown in Figure 1.21
Figure 1.21
The Squeeze Theorem
Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0.
Now, because
Figure 1.23
Evaluating Limits
1) x 1 2
lim =
x 3 x + 2 5
x 4 2
0
2) lim = Indeterminate form
x 2 x + x 6
2
0
x 4
2
( x + 2)( x 2) x+2 4
lim 2 = lim = lim =
x2 x + x 6 x 2 ( x + 3)( x 2) x2 x + 3 5
Evaluating Limits
3) x + 25 5 0 Indeterminate form
lim =
x 0 x 0
x + 25 5 x + 25 5 x + 25 + 5
lim = lim
x 0 x x 0 x x + 25 + 5
x + 25 25 1 1
= lim = lim =
x 0
x( x + 25 + 5) x 0 x + 25 + 5 10
Evaluating Limits
Investigate lim
x 0
f ( x), given
x 1 if x 0
lim f ( x) = =
x 0 x 1 if x 0
3) lim 2 x + 1 = 6) lim 1 = +
x1 x 1 +
x 0 x
7) 3
3x
lim 3 = 3/ 4
x 4 x + x + 4
2
8) 2
lim x = +
x 3
9) lim 5 = 5
x 3
Basic Trigonometric Limit
Ex.
lim
sin x
=1 1) lim
x 0
sin 5 x 5
= lim
sin 5 x
x 0 x 5 x 0 x
x
sin 5 x
= 5 lim = 5(1)
x 0 5 x
lim cos x = 1
x 0 2) lim
tan 2 x 1
= lim
sin 2 x 2
x 0 3x 3 x 0 x cos 2 x 2
2 sin 2 x 1
= lim lim
3 x 0 2 x x 0 cos 2 x
2 1 2
= 1 =
3 1 3
The Concept of Continuity
A function f(x) is continuous if,
f (a) = M Ex.
f ( x) = 2 x 2 for x 2
lim f ( x) = M
xa
lim+ f ( x) = M f (2) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
xa
lim (2 x 2 ) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
x2
f (a ) = lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
xa xa lim+ (2 x 2 ) = 2 22 = 2 4 = 2
x2
Ex. b) 1
f ( x) = 3 = x 3
a) f(x) = x3 x
f(x) = 3x2 f ' ( x) = 3 x 4 3
= 4
x
3. Derivative of Linear Combination
Ex.
a) f(x) = 6x4 f(x) = 24x3
Ex.
f(x)= (1 - 4x3)(3x2 5x 2 )
f(x) = (-12x2)(3x2 5x 2)+(1 - 4x3 )(6x 5)
= - 36x4 + 60x3 + 24x2 + 6x -24x4 + 20x3
5. The Reciprocal Rule
1 f ' ( x)
Dx =
f ( x) [ f ( x)] 2
Ex.
1
f ( x) = 2
x +1
2x
f ' ( x) = 2
( x + 1) 2
6. The Quotient Rule
f ( x) f ' ( x) g (( x) g ' ( x) f ( x)
Dx = 2
g ( x ) [ g ( x )]
Ex. Find the derivative of,
1 t3
z=
1+ t4
dz (3t )(1 + t ) (1 t )(4t )
3
2 4 3
=
dt (1 + t )
4 2
dz t 6 4t 3 3t 2
=
dt (1 + t 4 ) 2
Tangent and Normal Lines
Ex. Write an equation of a line tangent to the
curve y = f(x) at a given point P on the curve.
y = x3 + 3x2 4x 5; P(1,-5)
Express the answer in the form, ax + by = c.
If, over a period of time t, the object changes its position by the
amount s = s(t + t) s(t), then, by the familiar formula
Figure 2.21
Example 10(a) Solution
To find the time t when the diver hits the water, let s = 0 and
solve for t.
2. f (v) = 3v 2
+ 4v 5 10
v
f (v) = 3
v
Ex. Find the given derivative by finding the first
few derivatives and observing the pattern that
occurs.
d 75
75
sin x
dx
Higher-Order Derivatives
Just as you can obtain a velocity function by differentiating a
position function, you can obtain an acceleration function by
differentiating a velocity function.
s(t) = 0.81t2 + 2
Solution:
Let u = 3x 2x2.
Then f(x) = (3x 2x2)3 = u3
and, by the General Power Rule, the derivative
Simplifying Derivatives
Simplifying Derivatives
The next three examples illustrate some
techniques for simplifying the raw derivatives
of functions involving products, quotients, and
composites.
Example 7 Simplifying by Factoring Out the Least Powers
Example 8 Simplifying the Derivative of a Quotient
Example 9 Simplifying the Derivative of a Power
Trigonometric Functions and the Chain
Rule
Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule
shown in
Figure 2.30. This graph is called a lemniscate.
Figure 2.30
2.6 Related Rates
Figure 2.33
Finding Related Rates
you can differentiate implicitly with respect to t
to obtain the related-rate equation
Figure 2.35
Example 3 Solution
Let V be the volume of the balloon and let r be
its radius.
Because the volume is increasing at a rate of 4.5
cubic feet per minute, you know that at time t
the rate of change of the volume is So,
the problem can be stated as shown.
Find: when r = 2
Example 3 Solution contd
Figure 3.2
Relative Extrema and Critical Numbers
Example 2 Solution contd
12x2(x 1) = 0 Factor.
x = 0, 1 Critical numbers
Ex. g ( x=
) x 10 x
4 2
g ' ( x) = 4 x( x 2 5)
g ' ( x) = 0
x = 0, 5 , 5
Ex. 2
f ( x ) sin 5 x + cos 5 x
= 2
Solution:
Begin by differentiating the function.
f(x) = 3x4 4x3 Write original function.
Figure 3.5
Ex. Find the area of the largest rectangle
that can be inscribed in a given circle.
Figure 3.8(a)
Rolles Theorem
Figure 3.8(b)
Example 1 Illustrating Rolles Theorem
Note that this x-value lies in the open interval (1, 2), as shown in
Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9
The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem
Solution:
The slope of the secant line through (1, f(1)) and (4, f(4)) is
Figure 3.13
Example
Determine whether Rolle's Theorem can be
.
f ( x) = x 2
f ' ( x) = 2 x
2x = 8
x=4
c=4
3 Applications of Differentiation
34
The measured radius of a ball bearing is 0.7
inch, as shown in Figure 3.68. If the
measurement is correct to within 0.01 inch,
estimate the propagated error in the volume V
of the ball bearing.
35
The formula for the volume of a sphere is ,
where r is the radius of the sphere.
So, you can write
and
38
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
39
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
40
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Figure 3.15
41
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
42
Example 1 Intervals on Which f Is Increasing or Decreasing
Solution:
Note that f is differentiable on the entire real number line.
To determine the critical numbers of f, set f'(x) equal to zero.
43
Example 1 Solution contd
Because there are no points for which f' does not exist, you can conclude that x = 0
and x = 1 are the only critical numbers.
The table summarizes the testing of the three intervals determined by these two
critical numbers.
44
Example 1 Solution contd
Figure 3.16
45
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
46
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
A function is strictly monotonic on an interval if it is either increasing on the entire
interval or decreasing on the entire interval. For instance, the function f(x) = x3
is strictly monotonic on the entire real number line because it is increasing on the
entire real number line, as shown in Figure 3.17(a).
Figure 3.17(a) 47
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The function shown in Figure 3.17(b) is not strictly monotonic on the entire real
number line because it is constant on the interval [0, 1].
Figure 3.17(b)
48
The First Derivative Test
49
The First Derivative Test
The intervals on which a function is increasing or
decreasing, it is not difficult to locate the relative
extrema of the function.
For instance, in Figure 3.18 (from Example 1), the
function
51
The First Derivative Test
52
Example 2 Applying the First Derivative Test
Find the relative extrema of the function
in the interval (0, 2).
Solution:
Note that f is continuous on the interval (0, 2).
To determine the critical numbers of f in this
interval, set f'(x) equal to 0.
53
Example 2 Solution cont'd
54
Example 2 Solution cont'd
Figure 3.24(a)
Concavity
Figure 3.24(b)
Concavity
Example 1 Determining Concavity
Determine the open intervals on which the
graph of
is concave upward or downward.
Solution:
Begin by observing that f is continuous on the
entire real line.
Next, find the second derivative of f.
Example 1 Solution contd
Figure 3.26
Points of Inflection
Points of Inflection
If the tangent line to the graph exists at such a
point where the concavity changes, that point is
a point of inflection. Three types of points of
inflection are shown in Figure 3.28.
The concavity of changes at a point of inflection. Note that the graph crosses its tangent line at a point of
inflection.
Figure 3.28
Points of Inflection
Example 3 Finding Points of Inflection
Figure 3.29
The Second Derivative Test
The Second Derivative Test
Example 4 Using the Second Derivative Test
Find the relative extrema for f(x) = 3x5 + 5x3
Solution:
Begin by finding the critical numbers of f.
f '(x) = 15x4 + 5x2
= 15x2(1 x2) = 0
x = 1, 0, 1
Using
f ''(x) = 60x3 + 30x = 30(2x3 + x)
you can apply the Second Derivative Test as
follows.
Example 4 Solution contd
Figure 3.32
3.7 Optimization Problems
Figure 3.53
Example 1 Solution
Because the box has a square base, its volume is
V = x2h. Primary equation
W
2W
5 Logarithmic, Exponential, and
Other Transcendental Functions
Solution:
Example 6 Solution contd
The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
Example 7 Derivative Involving Absolute Value
Figure 5.29
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions