CHAPTER 12 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS; ANALYTICAL METHODS The main advantage of the analytical approach to synthesis is its extreme accuracy. Unfortunately, this superiority over graphical methods is more than offset by a number of adverse features. For instance, the absence of progressive physical images of the mechanism precludes the introduction of desirable modifications during the develop- mental stage, and the result, obtained after lengthy and laborious computations, may prove to be completely impracticable. Moreover, because it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess intelligently the effects of parametric changes on the design, the method often degenerates into a tedious trial-and-error procedure. Its full potentialities can be realized only with the aid of a high-speed digital computer. 12-1. Function Generation; Freudenstein’s Equation’ If the links of a four-bar mechanism are regarded as directed line ele- ments, as shown in Fig. 12-1, then rcosh = p +s cosy —qcos¢ (a) and rsind =ssiny+qsing @) Squaring and addition of Eqs. (a) and (b) yields the relation rt = pt tg? + s* + 2ps cosy — 2pg cos ¢ — 2g cos (@— ¥) (c) which, with the introduction of the side ratios PR =2 a=Mte+e—e % GG uD MR ge (12-1) reduces to ®y — R, cO8 $ + Ry COB Y = cos ($ — ¥) (12-2) Equation (12-2), first derived by Freudenstein, forms the basis of a 1F, Freudenstein, Approximate Synthesis of Four-bar Linkages, Trans. ASME, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 853-861, 1955. 319 Google UNIV F MICHI320 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS powerful analytical approach to synthesis. It is adaptable to both the precision-point and precision-derivative methods of function generation. The following will be recalled from the discussion of Chap. 11. In the first method, the generated and specified functions agree in a number of discrete precision points, and everywhere else an unavoidable structural error e is introduced, whose magnitude depends on the spacing of the precision points and the nature of the function. (The lowest maximum error is obtained with a spacing in which e reaches the same value between each pair of precision points and between the limits of the range and the adjacent precision points.) In thesecond method, the generated and ideal functions agree in one point and have a number of derivatives in common. Fig, 121 As a preliminary step to the design of a function generator, the given funetion y = f(z) is converted into the function y = f(#) by means of the linear transformation equations g=ketdo or bo =kydr and vakyty%o or tp = ky dy (12-3) where kg, ky = scale factors, degrees per unit of variable 40, ¥o = values of ¢ and y corresponding, respectively, to x = 0 and y = 0 Equations (12-2) and (12-3) demonstrate anew that seven independent design parameters are involved in the mechanization of a function by means of a four-bar mechanism, viz., the three side ratios, the two scale factors, and the angles ¢> and yo (or the initial positions 4; and ¥,). Consequently, the maximum possible number of points of agreement between the generated and specified functions is seven, e.g., seven pre- cision positions; one precision position with six precision derivatives ; two precision positions, one with four and the other with three deriva- tives. In practice, however, at least two parameters are assumed, so that the maximum number of attainable points of agreement is reduced to five, Google JNIVERSITY OF MICHSYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS: 321 12-2. Function Generation; Precision-point Approximation As in the preceding chapter, precision points will be designated by ny Yn n= 1, 2, 3, ete. while the limits of the range will be denoted by the new symbols be On The initial point ¢,, ¥; may, but need not, coincide with the first precision point $1, yi. Three Precision Points. The chosen parameters are ky, ky, di, and ¥. The precision values are computed by means of Eq. (12-3), as follows: bn = G+ din = b+ grin, ete. Substitution of these values into Eq. (12-2) yields three equations from which the three side ratios may be calculated: Be — R, C08 $1 + Ry cos Yr = cB ($1 — yr) Re — R, COB oz + Ry COB Yr = cos (2 — Y2) ®, — B, COB os + Ry COs Ys = cos ($s — Hs) Four Precision Points. The parameters assumed are ky, ky, and ¢y, leading to the following four equations: — B, cos $1 + Re cos (Ys + ¥i1) = cos [1 — vir) — Vd — B. cos oe + Ry cos (Yi + Yi2) = cos [(2 — Yi2) — vi] Ge — R, cos $s + Ry cos (Yi + i,3) = 008 [(d2 — via) — vd Bs — Ry cos $4 + Ry cos (Ys + ia) = 008 [Ch — vi) — Yad Gradual elimination of the side ratios yields a cubic equation in tan yi, of the form my tan’ y; + m, tan? yi + ms tan i + m = 0 (For details of the coefficients m, the reader is referred to Freudenstein’s original paper.) With 4, and y; known, the side ratios are found as in the three-point approximation. Five-point Approximation. The arbitrary choice of ky and ky leads to the following equations: = B, C08 (4; + $41) + Ay cos (Yi + Yar) = & — A, cos ($ + $42) + A, cos (Yi + ¥i,2) — B. cos ($i + Gi,3) + Re cos (Wi + vi, — Ba cos (bi + Gi,4) + Ry cos (Ys + 108 [(di,4 — Via) + o: — vi) — Bs cos ($i + o4,8) + Ry cos (Wi + Vis) = 08 [(di,8 — v8) + b: — vi) Gradual elimination of the side ratios yields, after extremely tedious and 608 [($4,1 — Via) +o: — Vid c08 [($i,2 — Wa2) +o: — Vi 08 [(di,8 — via) + bi — vd Google JNIVERSITY OF MICH322 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS lengthy algebraic operations, the following expressions, which must be solved simultaneously: tan 6 = F, (-Fi + VF — FF) and tan ye = gp l-Fs + VE OP where Fy, Fs, and F are cubic expressions in tan y;, and F', Fi, and F%, are similar expressions in tan 4. (For details of these expressions, the reader is referred to Freudenstein’s original paper.) After 4, and ¥; have been computed, the side ratios are determined as in the three-point approximation, The solution of a particular problem, based on the use of a desk calculator, may take 10 to 12 weeks. 12-8. Function Generation; Precision-derivative Approximation Preliminary Work. As a preliminary step in the mechanization of a function y = (x) by the method of precision derivatives, it is necessary to convert its derivatives into corresponding derivatives of the function v = f(o): pat Wey de “dé dy dzde But, by Eq. (12-3), dy = ky dy and do = kedx Hence (12-4) Further and (12-5) Similarly w= z& y” (12-6) and v= i yw” (12-7) Substitution of the prescribed values of these derivatives into the basic equations yields the conditions which determine the particular linkage. Basic Equations. The basic equations are obtained by successive differentiations of Eq. (12-2). Freudenstein’s equation: @, — Ry cos ¢ + Ry cos y = cos (¢ — ¥). (12-2) First derivative: R, sin ¢ — Rp sing = —(1 — ¥’/) sin (6 — ¥) (12-8) izes y Google unSYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS 323 Second derivative: R, cos $ — Ri (y’)? cos y + y” sin y] = "sin (¢ — ¥) — (1— ¥/)P eos (6 — ¥) (12-9) Third derivative: R, sin ¢ + Ral3y'y" cosy + [y” — (¥’)] sin y} = —3(1 — WW" cos (@ — ¥) — [W” + (1 — ¥)4] sin (@ — ¥) (12-10) Fourth derivative: R, cos 6 + R,{l4y/'” — W)* + 3(Y")] cosy + [y’"” — 6(/)*¥'"] sin ¥} = BW") — A — v4 — 401 — vv" cos (¢ — ¥) — y'" — 601 — v/)*y"] sin ( — y) (12-11) Third-order Approximation. The arbitrary design parameters are the scale factors ky and ky and the link positions ¢, and ¥» which define the chosen precision point. The known values, that is, ¢), ¥p, ¥/,, and yj, are substituted into Eqs. (12-2), (12-8), and (12-9), yielding three equa- tions from which the side ratios can be computed. Fourth-order Approximation. The arbitrary parameters are ks, ky, and ¢». Substitution of the known values into Eqs. (12-2), (12-8), (12-9), and (12-10) and progressive elimination of the side ratios leads to an equation of the form wi tant yy + ws tan? yp + us tan? yy + us tan yy + ws = 0 After ¥, has been found, the side ratios are computed as in the third- order approximation. Fifth-order Approximation. The arbitrary parameters are k, and ky. The known values are substituted into Eqs. (12-2) and (12-8) to (12-11). Elimination of the side ratios and of the angle ¢, finally yields the equation Di tant yy + dz tan! ¥y+ As tant yp +A, tan? ¥p + As tan vy + de = 0 After ¥, has been found, ¢, and the side ratios are determined from the intermediate equations obtained during the reduction process. 12-4. Path Generation Using the complex-number representation of vectors (Fig. 12-2), Freudenstein and Sandor have developed a very elegant approach to the 1, Froudenstein and G, N, Sandor, Synthesis of Path-generating Mechanisms by Means of Programmed Digital Computer, Trans. ASME, vol. 81B, no. 2, pp. 159-168, 1959; G. N. Sandor and F. Freudenstein, Kinematic Synthesis of Path- generating Mechanisms by Means of the IBM 650 Computer, JBM 650 Program Library File 9.5.003. Google UNIV F MICHI