International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156

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International Journal of Coal Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijcoalgeo

Water resource impacts during unconventional shale gas development:

The Pennsylvania experience
Susan L. Brantley a,, Dave Yoxtheimer a, Sina Arjmand b, Paul Grieve a, Radisav Vidic b, Jon Pollak c,
Garth T. Llewellyn d, Jorge Abad b, Cesar Simon b
a
Earth and Environmental Systems Institute and Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, United States
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States
c
Consortium of Universities for the Advancement of Hydrologic Sciences, Inc., 196 Boston Ave, Suite 3000, Medford, MA 02155, United States
d
Appalachia Hydrogeologic and Environmental Consulting, LLC, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Improvements in horizontal drilling and hydrofracturing have revolutionized the energy landscape by allowing
Received 16 July 2013 the development of so-called unconventional gas resources. The Marcellus play in the northeastern U.S.A. doc-
Received in revised form 17 December 2013 uments how fast this technology developed: the number of unconventional Marcellus wells in Pennsylvania (PA)
Accepted 17 December 2013
increased from 8 in 2005 to ~7234 today. Publicly available databases in PA show only rare evidence of contam-
Available online 10 January 2014
ination of surface and groundwaters. This could document that incidents that impact PA waters have been rela-
Keywords:
tively rare and that contaminants were quickly diluted. However, rm conclusions are hampered by i) the lack of
Unconventional shale gas information about location and timing of incidents; ii) the tendency to not release water quality data related to
Environmental impact specic incidents due to liability or condentiality agreements; iii) the sparseness of sample and sensor data
Hydraulic fracturing for the analytes of interest; iv) the presence of pre-existing water impairments that make it difcult to determine
Hydrofracturing potential impacts from shale-gas activity; and v) the fact that sensors can malfunction or drift.
Water quality Although the monitoring data available to assess contamination events in PA are limited, the state manages an
Marcellus Shale online database of violations. Overall, one fth of gas wells drilled were given at least one non-administrative no-
tice of violation (NOV) from the PA regulator. Through March 2013, 3.4% of gas wells were issued NOVs for well
construction issues and 0.24% of gas wells received NOVs related to methane migration into groundwater. Be-
tween 2008 and 2012, 161 of the ~1000 complaints received by the state described contamination that implicat-
ed oil or gas activity: natural gas was reported for 56% and brine salt components for 14% of the properties. Six
percent of the properties were impacted by sediments, turbidity, and/or drill cuttings. Most of the sites of ground-
water contamination with methane and/or salt components were in previously glaciated northern PA where
fracture ow sometimes allows long distance uid transport. No cases of subsurface transport of fracking or
owback uids into water supplies were documented. If Marcellus-related owback/production waters did
enter surface or groundwaters, the most likely contaminants to be detected would be Na, Ca, and Cl, but those
elements are already common in natural waters. The most Marcellus-specic ngerprint elements are Sr, Ba,
and Br. For example, variable Br concentrations measured in southwestern PA streams were attributed to permit-
ted release of wastewaters from unconventional shale gas wells into PA streams through municipal or industrial
wastewater treatment plants before 2011. Discharge has now been discontinued except for brines from a few
plants still permitted to discharge conventional oil/gas brines after treatment. Overall, drinking water supply
problems determined by the regulator to implicate oil/gas activities peaked in frequency in 2010 while spill
rates increased through 2012. Although many minor violations and temporary problems have been reported,
the picture that emerges from PA is that the fast shale-gas start may have led to relatively few environmental in-
cidents of signicant impact compared to wells drilled; however, the impacts remain difcult to assess due to the
lack of transparent and accessible data.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Over the last decade, the techniques of horizontal drilling and hy-
draulic fracturing (hydrofracturing) have improved and opened up
Corresponding author at: 2217 EES Building, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, PA, USA, 16802.
huge new shale gas reservoirs for exploitation (Engelder, 2011; MIT,
2011). High-volume, high-pressure, multi-stage hydrofracturing of hor-
izontally drilled wells in the Marcellus formation in Pennsylvania began
in 2004 with Range Resources' Renz discovery well, which has since
lead to drilling of 7234 Marcellus wells as of November 2013 (Fig. 1A).
As of June 30, 2013, 4177 of the wells had been hydrofractured. The
wells that are hydraulically fractured with the new techniques are

0166-5162/$ see front matter 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.12.017
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156 141

both costlier and more productive than conventional wells in the technically recoverable reserves of the Marcellus alone could be
northeast. The Marcellus is an organic carbon-rich black shale sufcient to supply the U.S.'s current demands for decades. The fair-
which underlies an area of approximately 95,000 mile2 ranging way of the formation underlies ~ 70% of the state of Pennsylvania
from New York to Virginia to Ohio. Based on some estimates, the (PA).

Fig. 1. A) Marcellus Shale wells as of 2013 in Pennsylvania plotted on a map of physiographic provinces: N7000 wells drilled in the Appalachian plateau of PA. Through December 2012,
3500 wells were producing at rates ranging on average from b0.1 to N20 million ft3/day (MMCF/day) as shown. B) Locations of unconventional gas wells drilled in Pennsylvania that re-
ceived at least one non-administrative violation (see text) between 1/1/2005 and 11/1/2013 based on the PA DEP Oil and Gas Compliance Report and Spud External Data. C) Map
documenting the % of spudded wells in each county that received at least one NOV from the PA DEP through 11/1/2013 for casing, cementing or well construction issues. Counties colored
white or very light pink have no spudded wells or no NOVs for wells, respectively. D) Plot showing the approved surface water and groundwater withdrawal locations in the Susquehanna
River Basin (SRB, not including public water supply locations) based on shapeles produced by the SRB Commission and released 9/10/13. Pink and blue circles represent withdrawals by
active oil/gas or other companies respectively.
142 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156

Fig. 1 (continued).

At the same time that this unconventional shale energy develop-
ment has created new economic opportunities in PA and surrounding
states, it has also caused environmental issues, including both permitted
and unintentional discharges of drilling-related contaminants into sur-
face waters as well as cases of methane migration into water supplies
(Entrekin et al., 2011; Osborn et al., 2011; Vidic et al., 2013; Wilson
and VanBriesen, 2012). Here we treat shale energy development in
Pennsylvania as a case study of potential environmental impacts of
shale gas gas migration, release of contaminating uids, water con-
sumption, and sediment discharge. We also ask whether we can see
such impacts in databases of publicly available water quality data.
While our focus in the paper is PA where the development of the
Marcellus Formation has been most rapid, the treatment is of interest
for all regions of unconventional shale gas development. We use data
from the United States Geological Survey and the Environmental
Protection Agency as well as from the ShaleNetwork database. This
database is accessible using HydroDesktop (www.hydrodesktop.org)
and includes data from citizen scientists, universities, agencies, industry
and other private entities. Data from citizen scientists are included only
where groups have followed standards of quality control.
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156 143

2. Notices of Violations (NOVs)
The Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) is the primary oil
and gas regulator in PA. The DEP publishes an online database of Notices
of Violations (NOVs) issued for companies developing unconventional
gas wells (http://www.depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/
Pages/ReportViewer.aspx?/Oil_Gas/OG_Compliance). Here, these data
are used to estimate rates of violations.
All 115 violation codes for the NOVs (2005 through 11/1/2013) were
rst binned into 9 categories (Appendix). Many violations describe
issues that were readily xed or that had ephemeral impact. Table 1
summarizes wells drilled and NOVs per category per year, including
permitting and recording violations (i.e., administrative-type NOVs),
including all repeats. Table 2 shows the same data per county after all
repeats per well and per NOV type were removed. After removing
administrative NOVs and repeats per well, we calculate that 1416 of
7234 (19.6%) spudded wells received NOVs before 11/1/2013 (see
column labeled Year in Table 1). As shown in the rst column of
Table 1, the fraction of spudded wells receiving at least one NOV de-
creased from 29% (2008) to 15% (through 11/1/2013). The unconven-
tional gas wells that received at least one NOV are clustered on a map
of PA (Fig. 1B). Clusters roughly correspond with hotspots of drilling
activity, especially in the southwest and northeast (Fig. 1A).
In Fig. 2, the number of non-administrative NOVs was re-adjusted by
removing repeats in each category for each well; however, if a well
received NOVs in two different categories, this repeat was retained or
if a well received NOVs in the same category in a subsequent year this
repeat was retained. After these corrections, the non-administrative
NOVs increased from 6 in 2005 to a maximum of 717 in 2010 (see num-
bers above bars on gure). Fig. 2 documents that since 2008 the fraction
of NOVs for cementing/casing issues peaked in 2011. Likewise, the frac-
tion of wells that were not restored in a timely and proper manner in-
creased. The fraction of erosion/sedimentation and pit/impoundment
NOVs decreased while the fraction of issues related to pollution events
remained relatively constant. Pollution events included contamination
by owback/production waters, fracturing uids, fuels, test waters, or
drilling materials. Flowback is uid that returns to the surface soon
after hydraulic fracturing: once gas production commences, aqueous
uids that return are known as production waters. In contrast to these
wastes, fracking solutions contain many types of compounds used to
hydrofracture the well (Table 3).
3. Positive determination letters
Issues were also investigated by looking at positive determination
letters (PDLs) issued by the PA DEP. The DEP issues a PDL to a property
(i.e., private residence, church, business, farm) that has registered
a complaint about a water supply when the DEP nds that oil/gas
activity conventional or unconventional has impacted the water
supply. This determination follows an investigation that includes analy-
ses by a certied laboratory. For example, for water supplies situated
within the regulatory setbacks for a given oil/gas well, PDLs are issued
for diminishment of quantity or when post-drill samples are deleteri-
ously affected compared to pre-drill samples. The DEP also considers
the timing of impact, the integrity of the water and gas wells, and per-
meability of the local rock formations. In some cases the DEP presumes
an operator is liable according to the Oil and Gas Act because the oper-
ator chose not to or could not rebut the presumption of liability for
example if pre-drill samples were not analyzed. Before 2012 when Act
13 was passed, the PA Oil and Gas Act decreed that operators of both
conventional and unconventional oil/gas wells were presumed liable if
water supplies within 1000 ft were impacted within 6 months (unless
rebutted). After Act 13, stipulations increased to 2500 ft and 12 months
respectively for unconventional wells. PDLs are public records kept by
the PA DEP.
The PA DEP has stated that it received ~1000 complaints about pos-
sible impacts on water supplies from 2008 to 2012 (Table 4). PDLs were
issued for 161 of 969 complaints (i.e., 17%). These 161 letters include
both unconventional and conventional wells. Although no online re-
cords of the letters are maintained by the PA DEP, an open records re-
quest yielded an independent check of the DEP numbers by L. Legere
(Scranton Times-Tribune) and a map was published with the letters in
collaboration with FracTracker (http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/
gas-drilling-complaints-map-1.1490926?parentPage=2.2127).
The DEP classies the water impacts into broad cases of disruption
of quantity or quality of water supplies by well location. These cases can

Table 1
Notices of Violations (NOVs) by PA DEPa.

Yearb A B C D E F G H I Total NOVs Spudded wells

2005 1 2 2 2 6 13 8
4/8 12.5% 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 75.0%
2006 4 4 1 2 3 3 1 18 37
8/37 10.8% 10.8% 2.7% 5.4% 8.1% 8.1% 2.7%
2007 3 4 15 4 1 1 1 29 115
15/115 2.6% 3.5% 13.0% 3.5% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%
2008 2 27 9 151 2 30 52 41 314 335
98/335 0.6% 8.1% 2.7% 45.1% 0.6% 9.0% 15.5% 12.2%
2009 7 333 27 180 3 10 107 128 122 917 817
203/817 0.9% 40.8% 3.3% 22.0% 0.4% 1.2% 13.1% 15.7% 14.9%
2010 98 485 39 164 7 40 154 273 260 1520 1599
355/1599 6.1% 30.3% 2.4% 10.3% 0.4% 2.5% 9.6% 17.1% 16.3%
2011 123 395 6 242 4 28 168 150 240 1356 1963
352/1963 6.3% 20.1% 0.3% 12.3% 0.2% 1.4% 8.6% 7.6% 12.2%
2012 60 285 1 58 12 21 104 72 179 792 1348
227/1348 4.5% 21.1% 0.1% 4.3% 0.9% 1.6% 7.7% 5.3% 13.3%
2013c 24 149 17 39 25 83 26 92 455 1012
154/1012 2.4% 14.7% 1.7% 3.9% 2.5% 8.2% 2.6% 9.1%
a
The 115 violation codes (see Appendix) in the compiled data from the PADEP Oil and Gas Compliance Report were binned into major categories; violations were then sorted from
oldest to youngest based on the Violation Date and binned into the 9 categories. Values show the number of each violation category per year where repeat NOVs for each category and
well were not removed. The percentages indicate the number of each violation type divided by the total number of spudded wells that year. Categories: A = Cementing, casing, and
other well construction issues; B = Did not maintain best practices; C = Encroachment issues; D = Erosion and sedimentation issues; E = Failure to plug adequately; F = Failure to
restore; G = Permitting or reporting issues; H = Pit and impoundment issues; I = Pollution incident.
b
Small numbers in each cell summarize the number of wells with at least one non-administrative NOV (i.e. category G NOVs was removed) divided by the number of spudded wells that
year: for data in this column, all repeats per well have been removed over the entire dataset. 1416 wells received at least one non administrative NOV out of 7234 wells spudded between
2005 and 2013.
c
Through Nov 1, 2013.
144 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156

Table 2
Percent of wells with violations in each categorya.

County # Wellsb A B C D E F G H I

Allegheny 31 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.2% 0.0% 0.0% 6.5% 0.0% 3.2%
Armstrong 174 4.0% 4.6% 1.1% 2.3% 1.7% 5.2% 8.0% 0.0% 5.2%
Beaver 33 0.0% 3.0% 0.0% 3.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.0% 0.0% 3.0%
Bedford 1 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Blair 6 50.0% 16.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 16.7% 16.7% 50.0%
Bradford 1214 6.1% 9.1% 0.8% 6.1% 0.2% 1.1% 5.6% 4.9% 6.5%
Butler 253 1.2% 6.7% 0.0% 3.6% 2.4% 0.0% 3.6% 0.4% 4.7%
Cambria 7 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 28.6% 14.3%
Cameron 16 12.5% 25.0% 6.3% 31.3% 0.0% 18.8% 37.5% 18.8% 12.5%
Centre 63 0.0% 9.5% 0.0% 4.8% 0.0% 4.8% 4.8% 12.7% 20.6%
Clarion 25 16.0% 16.0% 0.0% 12.0% 24.0% 16.0% 20.0% 12.0% 16.0%
Cleareld 150 3.3% 10.0% 0.7% 2.0% 0.7% 0.7% 3.3% 2.7% 10.7%
Clinton 100 2.0% 18.0% 0.0% 8.0% 0.0% 1.0% 12.0% 11.0% 8.0%
Columbia 3 33.3% 66.7% 0.0% 33.3% 0.0% 0.0% 66.7% 33.3% 0.0%
Crawford 3 0.0% 66.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 33.3% 0.0% 33.3%
Elk 64 10.9% 6.3% 1.6% 15.6% 15.6% 6.3% 18.8% 1.6% 1.6%
Fayette 242 0.8% 2.5% 0.4% 3.3% 0.0% 2.1% 1.7% 4.1% 2.9%
Forest 22 0.0% 13.6% 0.0% 18.2% 0.0% 9.1% 4.5% 4.5% 13.6%
Greene 613 0.2% 3.1% 0.5% 2.0% 0.0% 0.3% 3.6% 2.1% 2.4%
Huntingdon 1 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0%
Indiana 48 2.1% 0.0% 0.0% 6.3% 0.0% 6.3% 2.1% 4.2% 2.1%
Jefferson 37 10.8% 29.7% 0.0% 16.2% 35.1% 13.5% 21.6% 5.4% 5.4%
Lackawanna 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Lawrence 30 0.0% 13.3% 0.0% 0.0% 10.0% 0.0% 6.7% 0.0% 3.3%
Luzerne 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
Lycoming 817 6.6% 11.0% 0.2% 5.4% 0.0% 0.9% 5.9% 7.0% 6.2%
McKean 74 2.7% 8.1% 0.0% 4.1% 10.8% 1.4% 14.9% 6.8% 5.4%
Mercer 15 0.0% 6.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 6.7% 0.0% 0.0%
Potter 70 14.3% 30.0% 1.4% 32.9% 0.0% 5.7% 52.9% 20.0% 18.6%
Somerset 25 0.0% 4.0% 0.0% 4.0% 4.0% 8.0% 8.0% 20.0% 24.0%
Sullivan 77 3.9% 19.5% 1.3% 19.5% 0.0% 0.0% 6.5% 5.2% 16.9%
Susquehanna 821 2.7% 17.5% 0.7% 10.4% 0.1% 1.3% 11.2% 11.9% 9.0%
Tioga 827 1.7% 12.3% 1.1% 7.1% 0.0% 1.0% 6.8% 7.9% 5.1%
Venango 6 0.0% 50.0% 0.0% 0.0% 16.7% 16.7% 33.3% 0.0% 16.7%
Warren 5 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 40.0% 20.0% 0.0% 0.0% 20.0% 0.0%
Washington 932 0.3% 4.8% 0.5% 2.3% 0.0% 1.4% 1.7% 0.6% 5.5%
Wayne 5 20.0% 40.0% 0.0% 80.0% 0.0% 0.0% 20.0% 20.0% 20.0%
Westmoreland 253 0.4% 2.0% 0.0% 2.0% 0.8% 1.6% 2.4% 4.3% 6.7%
Wyoming 167 6.0% 10.8% 0.0% 7.8% 0.6% 0.6% 7.8% 7.2% 13.8%
# Total 7234 236 689 43 430 59 107 469 402 477
3.3% 9.5% 0.6% 5.9% 0.8% 1.5% 6.5% 5.6% 6.6%
a
Data from the PADEP Oil and Gas Compliance Report from 1/1/2005 through 11/1/2013 were compiled and the 115 violation codes were categorized into 9 major violation types
(see Appendix). The table shows the percentage of wells in each county that had at least one NOV in each category after duplicates for a given NOV type were removed.
b
Spudded wells from 1/2005 through 10/2013 compiled from the PADEP Spud Data Report.

indicate water supplies that are impacted for multiple properties or by
multiple oil/gas wells. According to the DEP (K. Sunday, pers. comm.),
conventional wells typically impact one or at most a few water supplies
per case, and on average 2.1 cases per year received at least one PDL that
implicated such conventional oil/gas activity between 1987 and 2008
(Table 4). In contrast, unconventional wells can affect more than a few
drinking water wells: for example, at Dimock, PA, 18 private water
supply wells were affected by methane migration possibly from just
one gas well (K. Sunday, PA DEP, pers. comm.).
The data in Table 4 show that between 2008 and 2012 ~ 32
properties were affected per year (= 161/5) by unconventional +
conventional oil/gas activity. From the compilation however, only 85
of the 161 PDLs implicated companies known to develop unconvention-
al wells, i.e. a rate of 17 properties per year (=85/5). This value of 17 is

Fig. 2. Percent of unconventional shale-gas wells drilled in PA that received at least one NOV in a given category per year, after permitting and reporting violations were removed. Colors
indicate each category of violation shown in Table 1 from 5/2005 until 11/2013. NOVs received by one well but for two different categories were each counted, as were NOVs for the same
category but in different calendar years. Above each bar, the fraction indicates the total NOVs as a fraction of the wells drilled during the calendar year.
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
Table 3
Partial list of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing uids.
Additive type Example compounds
Gelling agent Guar gum
Fumaric acid
Crosslinker Boric acid
Ethylene glycol
Monoethanolamine
Breaker uid Ammonium persulfate
Diammonium peroxydisulfate
Surfactant Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol
2-Butoxyethanol
Biocide Glutaraldehyde, 2,2-Dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide,
Dimethyl oxazolidine
Corrosion inhibitor Methanol, Propargyl alcohol, Isopropanol
Friction reducer Polyacrylamide, petroleum distillate
Scale inhibitor Ethylene glycol
similar to the number of properties (15 (=3217)) per year that were
contaminated by conventional oil/gas activity (Table 4). It is somewhat
surprising that the rate of PDLs for conventional wells was higher than
before 2005, even approaching the value for unconventional energy
companies.
The number of problematic unconventional gas wells related to the
PDLs is not reported directly by the PA DEP. However, it is likely that
the 83 cases documented between 2008 and 2012 (Table 4) implicate
83 problematic oil/gas wells. Some of these were conventional wells as-
sociated with the 76 (=16185) PDLs that mention conventional ener-
gy companies. K. Sunday (PA DEP) stated that only a few properties
were contaminated per conventional oil/gas well before 2008 (pers.
comm.). Therefore, setting the ratio of PDLs per problematic conven-
tional well to a value between 1 and 4, we calculate from 7 to 64 prob-
lematic unconventional wells between 2008 and 2012 (=8376/1 or
8376/4 respectively). In turn, these problematic wells contaminated
85 properties (averaging ~12 or ~1.3 PDLs/unconventional well respec-
tively). This equates to problematic unconventional gas wells compris-
ing 0.1 to 1% of the 6061 spudded wells between 2008 and 2012. This
conclusion, based on the PDLs, is consistent with the number of wells
documented by the PA DEP to have received NOVs for methane migra-
tion into groundwater from 2008 to March 2013 (Vidic et al., 2013): 16
problematic wells (0.24% of spudded wells). Given all these consider-
ations, we therefore conclude that approximately 20 unconventional
gas wells impacted water supplies deleteriously between 2008 and
2012.
It is not clear why the number of reported water impact cases
peaked in 2010 while the number of spudded wells peaked in 2011
(Table 4, Fig. 3). Given the increasing media scrutiny, it is unlikely that
the PA DEP became less vigilant after 2010. In fact, as the play devel-
oped, the environmental regulations were strengthened. For example,
the PA Act 13 in 2012 increased the setback distances for drilling
unconventional shale gas wells from private and public water supplies.
In addition, owners of properties that worked out private solutions for
environmental problems with gas companies were only required to re-
port the issues to PA DEP after 2011. Furthermore, the DEP noticed in-
consistencies in how issues were handled prior to 2011 and a new
program to ensure consistency was implemented in late 2011. By Sep-
tember 2012 the PA DEP required for the rst time that PDLs be ap-
proved by central administration. Thus, while it is possible that the
peak in 2010 is related to changes on the part of PA DEP, it appears
more likely that the number of cases peaked in 2010 because the indus-
try improved its environmental record due to increases in local geolog-
ical experience, increased care in the face of increased media scrutiny, or
increased care due to tighter regulations.
145
Toxicological information for pure compounds Ecological information
Can cause skin disorder Slowly biodegradable
Eye, respiratory irritation
Carcinogenic; liver, heart damage Partially biodegradable
Birth defects Low sh toxicity
Eye, skin, respiratory irritation
May cause redness, pain, coughing Not determined
Carcinogenicity (may impact liver and kidney) Not determined
May cause nausea, headache
Eye, skin, respiratory irritation
Irritant, may cause redness, dermatitis Not determined
Carcinogenicity (may impact liver and kidney) Not determined
Eye, skin, respiratory irritation
Eye, skin, respiratory irritation Slowly biodegradable
Carcinogenicity
May be toxic to kidneys, liver, central nervous system Biodegradable
Eye, skin, respiratory irritation
4. Types of contamination
To understand the types of impacts, we separated the 161 PDLs be-
tween 2008 and 2012 into overlapping categories of contamination:
a) 56% (90 cases) reported contamination by natural gas (with or with-
out dissolved iron, manganese, aluminum, total dissolved solids (TDS),
or brine salts); b) 14% (23 cases) reported brine components such as so-
dium, barium, chloride, or total dissolved solids (this category included
8 cases where natural gas contamination also occurred); c) 14% report-
ed contamination by iron, manganese, and/or aluminum without brine
salt components or natural gas; d) 4% reported contamination by sedi-
ments, turbidity, and/or drill cutting contamination without brine salt
components or natural gas; and e) 15% reported no information about
the cause of disruption. A few cases reported diminishment of water
supply and one reported oil contamination from an older well.
Given that many PA residents worry that components used in hy-
draulic fracturing uids may enter drinking water by subsurface migra-
tion, it is notable that one of the 161 PDLs reported methane, brine
components, iron and other metals along with detectable toluene. The
toluene was present well below the maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Toluene
has been detected in some hydraulic fracturing uids and owback
(Hayes, 2009) but it can also enter water supplies from activities other
than oil and gas, such as leaking underground fuel storage tanks or
surface releases of fuels. In the PA case with toluene, the toluene was
not positively determined to be due to oil and gas activity.
In fact, only two incidents nationwide have been reported where
fracturing uids have allegedly entered groundwater or drinking
water through wells or geologic media in the subsurface (Vidic et al.,
2013). Neither of these disputed incidents (one in West Virginia
in 1987 and one in Pavillion, Wyoming) has been investigated in
the peer-reviewed literature. The U.S. EPA review in 1987 (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1987) indicated that hydraulic frac-
turing was responsible for groundwater contamination in Jackson
County, WV in 1982. Gelatinous material (fracturing uid) along with
white bers was found in the water sample from a well located
b1000 ft from a vertical gas well (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1987). However, some allege that the gel came from the ush
uid that was used to remove loose rock cuttings prior to cementing
the well and not from the hydraulic fracturing uid. Regardless, 4 aban-
doned gas wells drilled in the 1940s are present within 1700 ft of the
new gas well and may have served as conduits for contamination.
The other controversial example involves gas wells drilled in the
sandstone formation near Pavillion, WY (U.S.A.). Initial EPA ndings
(DiGiulio et al., 2011) suggested contamination in water wells. Two
146 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
Table 4
PA water impacts from oil/gas activity based on cases and positive determination letters
(PDLs)a.
Before 2008 (i.e. conventional oil/gas activity)
# cases that received 1 or more pos. determ. letters (PDLs) due to
oil and gas activity, 1987 to 9/2012b
# cases that received 1 or more PDLs, 20082012
# cases that received 1 or more PDLs before 2008 (=12883)
Number of PDL/case before 2008b
20082012 (conventional + unconventional gas activity)
# unconventional wells spudded
# of homes, farms, businesses, or churches sent letters by PA DEP
or named in a consent orderc,d
As of 9/2012, # of the 969 letters that indicated investigation
remained incomplete or unclear
As of 9/2012, # of investigations that concluded oil/gas activities
were not implicated
As of 9/2012, # of the 969 complaints that received PDLs (i.e., oil
and gas impacted the water supply)
As of 9/2012, # of the 969 complaints that received PDLs where
the company drilled unconv. wellsd
# of cases used to bin the 161 PDLs (20082012)
Average PDL/case (=161/83)
Largest reported number of water supplies impacted for one case
(Dimock, PA)b
# PDLs for contamination by natural gas + other issues
# PDLs for contamination by brine components + natural gas
# PDLs for contamination by brine components + natural gas
# PDLs for contamination by Fe + Mn + Al without gas or salt
# PDLs for contamination by sediment/turbidity/drill cuttings
without gas or salt
# PDLs without info about water impact problem
# PDLs that mentioned explosions
# cases receiving 1 or more PDLs for each year
2008
2009
2010
2011 (# affected water supplies reported as 27b or 32d)
2012 (# affected water supplies reported as 19b or 18d)
Rates
Cases/year that received 1 or more PDLs before 2008, i.e., for
conventional oil/gas activity (=45/21)
Properties/year that were impacted before 2008, i.e., by
conventional oil/gas activity (assuming 14 PDLs/case)
Properties per yr (20082012) where conv. or unconv. oil/gas
activity was implicated (=161/5)
Impact per well from 2008 to 2012
Minimum # unconv. wells that caused problems assuming each
problematic conv. gas well caused 1 PDL (=83(76/1))
Maximum # unconv. wells that caused problems, assuming each
problematic conv. well caused 4 PDLs (=83(76/4))
Estimated range in % of spudded unconventional gas wells that
caused problems (=7/6061 to 64/6061)
a
http://www.depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/Pages/
ReportViewer.aspx?/Oil_Gas/OG_Compliance; http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/gas-
drilling-complaints-map-1.1490926?parentPage=2.2127. The PA records include con-
ventional and unconventional oil/gas activity; unconventional activity began in 2008. A
PDL indicates oil/gas activities were implicated in water supply impact at 1 property.
b
Personal communication, K. Sunday (PA DEP).
c
Between 2008 and Sept 2012.
d
Personal communication, L. Legere.
deep monitoring wells were installed to ascertain groundwater quality.
However, subsequent water analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey
(Wright et al., 2012) failed to conrm these initial ndings. The EPA is
no longer conducting work on the Pavillion, WY case but state regula-
tors continue the investigation.
One reason it is difcult to ascertain whether deeply-emplaced
hydraulic fracturing uids have returned to a surcial aquifer is that de-
tection of organic compounds such as toluene or others used at low
128
83
45
A few
6061
969
66 (7%)
742 (77%)
161 (17%)
85
83
1.9 Fig. 3. Number of unconventional shale-gas wells spudded in PA per year (black squares,
18 plotted after division by 100) and number of major spills (N400 gal, see Table 5) reported
for PA associated with these shale gas activities (red circles). Blue triangles indicate the
90 (56%) number of cases reported by PA DEP per year where either unconventional or convention-
22 (14%) al oil or gas activity was implicated in the impact of one or more water supplies (see text).
8 (5%) Black triangles document the number of new producing wells (divided by 100) per year,
23 (14%) i.e., the number of wells completed by hydraulic fracturing and brought into production
6 (4%) per year. Data derive from PA DEP, U.S. EPA, and media reports as described in the text.
The number of new producing wells in 2010 was assessed by doubling the number of
21 (13%) new producing wells in the second half of 2010 (375) because data for the rst half of
1 the year were not available.
16
15
29 concentrations in hydrofracturing uids may be difcult to detect
18 when diluted into natural solutions that already contain natural organic
5
compounds. In fact, if hydrofracturing uids were to return upward to
contaminate shallow groundwater, they would most likely be accompa-
nied by brine from the subsurface. In turn, the brines have distinctive
2.1
chemical signatures (e.g., Fig. 4B, C). This means that, instead of organic
2.1 to 8.4 components, the most likely mode of detection of hydrofracturing uids
would be by analysis of inorganic components such as Na, Cl, Ba, Sr, or Br
32.2 (Vidic et al., 2013). In the 161 PDLs summarized in Table 4, the DEP con-
cluded that brine components present in 4 water supplies in McKean
County could have been due to inltration of hydraulic fracturing uids
(see Fig. 4A).
7
However, detection of salts is not a smoking gun for subsurface
64 transport of hydraulic fracturing uids. Salts can also derive from sur-
face discharges of waste, as noted by the DEP for another location in
0.12 to 1.1% McKean County, or from de-icing road salts. In addition, even at moder-
ate depths, PA groundwater is contaminated with natural brines that
have migrated upward over geological time from the deep Salina forma-
tion (Fig. 4D) (Poth, 1962; Rickard, 1989). Another source of brine in
drinking water is contamination by drill cuttings, i.e., fractured pieces
of drilled rock that can contain entrained salts. The DEP has documented
several water supplies that were contaminated by cuttings including at
least one in McKean County. Thus, although salt contamination might
be a useful indicator of deep subsurface contamination if it occurred,
proving that salts entered an aquifer at depth due to drilling/
hydrofracturing is difcult due to the multiplicity of salt sources.
5. Casing leaks, cementation problems, and well
construction problems
By analyzing PA DEP Marcellus Shale well records from 2005 to
March 2013, Vidic et al. (2013) concluded that 219 out of 6466 wells
received NOVs for well construction problems, including casing or
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156 147

Fig. 4. A. Location of the townships associated with the 22 determination letters from PA DEP for violations that reported brine components (NaCl, Ba, or TDS) in drinking water supplies
(some symbols overlap). Average concentrations reported in ShaleNetwork database (accessed through www.hydrodesktop.org) as of May 2013 for owback chemistry for unconven-
tional gas wells in each county of PA are shown in (B) for Cl and (C) for Ba. White indicates no data were available. (D) Depth to the Salina evaporate formation plotted based on well
information (dots) where data are available (Rickard, 1989). Contours are not plotted for the southern part of the state due to lack of data.

cementing issues. This rate of problems (3.4%) lies within the range (1
5%) of newly constructed shale wells that are estimated to require
workover for the surface string to pass pressure testing requirements
(King, 2012). In contrast to this relatively high rate of well issues,
between 2005 and March 2013 only 16 wells (0.24% of the total number
of spudded wells) received NOVs for methane migration into ground-
water. All 16 cases were in northern PA.
Well logging allows operators to interpret the geological subsurface
and then to design wells with sufciently deep casing and cement to
prevent methane migration. Many of the migration issues in PA have
been related to improper design and construction of wells for the local
geology. During installation, several sections (i.e. strings) of steel casing
are installed telescopically in boreholes (King, 2012) to various depths
depending upon the geology: 1) conductor casing, the largest casing
with largest diameter (~20 in.), is set through the overburden; 2) sur-
face casing (~16 in.) is installed through the groundwater zone, typical-
ly to 500 ft or more below grade; 3) coal protection casing (the same as
surface casing or smaller) is installed through coal seams; 4) intermedi-
ate casing (~9 in.) may be installed to seal off oil, gas, or brine-bearing
zones in the upper several thousand feet; 5) production casing
(~5.5 in.) is used to the bottom of the well.
The borehole diameter is typically several inches larger than the di-
ameter of the steel casing inside it; therefore, cement grout and/or other
sealants are installed around the outside of each casing string to seal the
annular gap between the pipe and the rock (King, 2012). Cement is
pumped down the center of the casing and pushed out the bottom
148 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156

and around the outside of the casing. This emplacement method maxi-
mizes the cement coverage and stops leakage of hydrocarbons or
brines; however, physical limitations in some cases result in only a
partial seal. It is critical to center the casing in the borehole so that the
cement is even in thickness. Irregularities in the wellbore can make
proper cement placement difcult.
A variety of mechanisms can cause oil and gas wells to develop gas
leaks along the casing and can lead to contamination of water resources
by hydrocarbons or brines: e.g., channeling, poor cake removal, shrinkage,
and high cement permeability (Dusseault et al., 2000). Cement bond logs
are a useful tool to verify that adequate volume of cement has been
installed within the desired intervals. If suspected zones of inadequate
cementing are identied then remedial measures can be applied, such
as injection of additional cement or other sealant into the zone of concern
(known as a squeeze job).
6. Geographic distribution of problems
Fig. 1C shows the % of wells in each county that received well
construction NOVs. The gure documents that a higher fraction of
wells received construction violations in the northeast and, especially,
the north central parts of the state as compared to the southwest. Like-
wise, PDLs from the PA DEP between 2008 and 2012 mostly reported
brine components (Fig. 4A) and methane (Fig. 5) contaminating water
supplies in the northern part of the state.
The uneven distribution of salt and methane contamination could be
due to differences in i) inspector numbers or practices among the DEP
inspection regions, ii) practices of companies in each county, or iii) geo-
logical conditions. Here we consider the possibility of geological effects.
Specically, we argue that the fractured rocks of the upper Devonian
Lock Haven and Catskill Formations in northern PA, perhaps inuenced

Fig. 5. Map showing all the known concentrations of methane measured in groundwater in NY, PA, WV, and MD that have been published to date with latitude and longitude information
(Appalachia Hydrogeologic and Environmental Consulting, 2012; Breen et al., 2007; Kappell and Nystrom, 2012; Moore and Buckwalter, 1996; Pham and Bolton, 2013; Sloto, 2013; White
and Mathes, 2006). Some of the blue symbols are data released by PA DEP for drinking waters supplies where oil/gas activities were not implicated by contamination: red symbols
represent gas contamination of water supplies where the DEP concluded that oil/gas activities were implicated.
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156 149

Fig. 6. A 3D LiDAR image of the site of a tracer test that was completed in Potter County (north central PA). A) Br was injected into the quarry oor and monitored at spring seeps, a
perennial spring and a southwest (SW) tributary. Samples were collected 1.3 km away at the spring seeps (625 msl) at ~12 h intervals for 5.5 weeks and analyzed for total Br via U.S.
EPA laboratory method MCAWW 300.0. Samples were collected over 12 h manually and with automatic samplers. B) Map-view of tracer study with superimposed joint orientations
measured at the quarry. C) Tracer breakthrough curve measured at spring seeps. No bromide was detected above 2.5 mg/L at the perennial spring and SW tributary.

by glaciation and subsequent isostatic rebound, facilitate fast migration
of groundwater and methane over long distances in the presence of nat-
ural or gas well-induced pressure gradients. For example, Fig. 6 illus-
trates the highly anisotropic and rapid transport of a tracer in a test
conducted at a bedrock quarry in the Huntley Mountain/Catskill Forma-
tions in Potter County in summer 2012. Bromide was used as a tracer
because it is chemically conservative and is present at low background
concentrations (b 2.5 g/L). The test was designed to assess potential
transport between the quarry bottom and spring seeps in an upland val-
ley 1.3 km away. The seeps plot along a line that is perpendicular to the
expected groundwater ow paths based on topography (Fig. 6). A solu-
tion with 9 kg of NaBr was injected into open vertical fractures outcrop-
ping in the quarry oor at an elevation of 695 m above sea level (msl).
An additional 6.8 kg was injected 2123 days later. The initial break-
through of tracer occurred 2 days later at the spring seeps and peaked
1015 days after injection. The second peak is due to the second tracer
application. In contrast, bromide was never detected in samples collect-
ed at a perennial spring and adjacent SW tributary (Fig. 6).
This example shows that a tracer migrated 1.3 km perpendicular
to the hillslope, i.e., perpendicular to the direction that most
hydrogeological models would predict for topographically-driven
groundwater ow in the area without prior knowledge of anisotropy of
joints. Near-vertical bedrock fractures (joints) measured at the quarry
(Fig. 6B) document two fracture orientations, one trending toward the
spring seeps and one coincident with adjacent valley orientations. Pre-
sumably most of the tracer moved along fractures coincident with the
valley alignment to the SE of the quarry because only a relatively small
amount of total tracer mass reached the spring seeps (0.250.5%) and
nothing was observed at the perennial spring nor the SW tributary. The
shortest ow-paths between quarry and spring seeps are consistent
with tracer transport rates of 7.5 103 m s1.
This tracer study exemplies potential contaminant migration path-
ways from gas drilling sites for a number of reasons: 1) the quarry loca-
tion on the hilltop is analogous to the topographic and hydrogeologic
position of most gas drilling sites in PA; 2) similar systematic bedrock
fractures (joints) are present throughout the Appalachian Plateau
(although shifting orientation clockwise from west to east across the
plateau); 3) gas-well pad construction often involves partial excavation
of bedrock which can expose fractures; and 4) pollution incidents at gas
well pads are not uncommon. Importantly, this study emphasizes that
surface leakage into bedrock fractures poses a high risk for contaminant
transport into groundwater indeed, this transport mechanism is
much more likely than upow from thousands of feet depth through
geological media.
In addition to the location and orientation of fractures, another key
issue that may vary geographically is the presence at shallow depths
of gas in excess of hydrostatic pressure. For example, such gas common-
ly exists at shallow depths in the north central part of the state: this
high pressure gas can make it difcult to seal cements in boreholes
(Vidic et al., 2013). Zones that have gas pressure higher than hydrostatic
pressure and are not adequately sealed can result in sustained gas
pressure against the casing and can result in gas migration upward.
7. Environmental impacts of methane migration in PA
Although incidents of methane migration due to shale gas activity
have been identied (Fig. 5), methane in PA groundwater is also present
naturally due to both high-temperature maturation of organic matter
150 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
at depth and low-temperature bacterial processes (Laughrey and
Baldassare, 1998; Whiticar, 1999). Both thermogenic and biogenic gas
move through faults upward from depth or laterally from swamps or
glacial till. Faults commonly channelize gas to valley oors where it
emits in seeps or in wells (Boyer et al., 2012; Llewellyn et al., 2013;
Molofsky et al., 2011; Warner et al., 2012). Methane can also derive
from anthropogenic sources unrelated to unconventional shale gas
such as gas storage elds, coal mines, landlls, gas pipelines and aban-
doned gas wells. If methane, known to have low solubility (26 mg/L at
1 atm and 20 C), enters water wells as a solute, it generally degasses.
Therefore, methane is not regulated as a health hazard in the U.S.A.
but high gas levels are problematic due to the potential for explosion.
Gas explosions were reported in PA long before Marcellus gas drilling
(Gough and Waite, 1990).
Most of the time, methane leakage from gas wells is minor and is
easily repaired. However, at least one case attributed to Marcellus
wells contaminated 18 water supplies: in that instance gas reportedly
caused an explosion of a private water well in the northeastern town
of Dimock PA (Table 4) (PA Dept of Enviro Protection, Notice of Violation
to Cabot Oil and Gas, Feb 27, 2009). A study of 60 groundwater wells in
that area, including wells in NY (Osborn et al., 2011), also showed that
the average (19.2 mg CH4/L) methane concentrations were higher
when sampled within 1 km of active Marcellus gas wells. However,
that study revealed that 85% of the sampled drinking-water wells had
detectable methane regardless of proximity to drilling. No pre-drilling
water quality data were available. An even larger study of N 1700 pre-
drilling water wells in the general area similarly showed that 78% of
wells contained detectable methane (Molofsky et al., 2011); however,
those researchers concluded that the topographic position (i.e. water
wells in valleys) was a better predictor of the presence of elevated
methane concentrations than the proximity of gas wells.
The study of wells near Dimock on the PANY border (Osborn et al.,
2011) found that when water wells were sampled within 1 km of active
drilling, the gas that was present had higher 13C concentrations as ex-
pected for thermogenic gas. The thermogenic signature was attribut-
ed to origin in the Marcellus Formation. However, using samples
collected by the PA DEP and Cabot Oil & Gas Corp., Molofsky et al.
(2011) asserted that the isotopic signatures of thermogenic methane
reported by Osborn et al. (2011) are not consistent with gas from the
Marcellus but rather from less thermally mature gas from shallower
formations. Molofsky et al. state that a similar isotopic signature
could be created by a mixture of Marcellus Shale gas with methane
from other sources, but they argue that the location of gas-rich
water wells in valleys is not consistent with stray gas being caused
by Marcellus drilling.
Much discussion continues as to whether the stray methane gas
identied by Osborn et al. was caused by drilling or natural processes
(Davies, 2011; Jackson et al., 2013; Molofsky et al., 2011; Schon,
2011). For example, the average concentrations for the Osborn et al.
samples are similar to values from PA and WV groundwater sampled
by the U.S. Geological Survey before Marcellus hydrofracturing began,
or U.S.G.S. samples in NY where high-volume hydrofracturing of Devo-
nian shale is banned (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 shows all the known concentrations
of methane measured in groundwater in NY, PA, WV, and MD that have
been published to date with latitude and longitude information
(Appalachia Hydrogeologic and Environmental Consulting, 2012;
Breen et al., 2007; Kappell and Nystrom, 2012; Moore and Buckwalter,
1996; Pham and Bolton, 2013; Sloto, 2013; White and Mathes, 2006).
Data are also published for PA DEP measurements for cases that were
presumed due to oil and gas activity (red symbols, i.e. PDLs as described
in Table 4) or did not implicate oil/gas (blue). Methane measurements
reported without geographic locations are not included (Jackson et al.,
2013; Molofsky et al., 2011, 2013; Osborn et al., 2011; Warner et al.,
2012).
Although the methane sampled by Osborn et al. may or may not
have derived from the Marcellus, it is notable that the rate of detection
of methane in water wells in that area (8085% (Molofsky et al., 2011;
Osborn et al., 2011)) is higher than in a wider regional area that includes
southwestern PA (24% (Boyer et al., 2012)) where pre- and post-drilling
concentrations were statistically identical. Thus, the geological regime
in northern PA is conducive to stray gas migration (Llewellyn, in
review; Warner et al., 2012). Again, a possible explanation is that iso-
static rebound following glacial retreat could have re-opened ancient
tectonic fracture systems. With such enhanced permeability, gas and
uid migration may be more prevalent than in settings located beyond
the front of glacial advance.
In addition to these cases of methane seepage, several Marcellus
Shale wells have experienced blowouts during fracturing operations.
In such cases, mechanical failure or human error led to uncontrolled re-
lease of fracturing uids that required emergency response to shut the
well. The blowouts that have occurred over the last several years in
Cleareld, Tioga, and Bradford Counties in PA were widely reported
and resulted in signicant nes from PA DEP. Little data are available
to assess the long-term impacts of these events.
8. Orphaned or abandoned wells
Another type of incident occurs when a new shale gas well intercon-
nects with an orphaned gas or oil well that was never properly sealed.
PA DEP has estimated that approximately 350,000 oil and gas wells
have been drilled in Pennsylvania since the rst commercial oil well
(the Drake well) was drilled near Titusville in 1859, and that over
200,000 oil and gas wells were installed in PA before record keeping
was required in 1955. The locations of most of these unrecorded wells
are unknown. They were likely never properly sealed and therefore
may leak into the atmosphere or into ground- or surface waters. An ex-
ample of the danger of orphaned wells occurred in June 2012 when a
Marcellus operator drilling at the Guindon well pad in Union Township,
southeastern Tioga County, PA caused methane to discharge from a
nearby abandoned gas well (known as the Butters' Well), from a nearby
private water well, from French Lick Creek, and from a seismic borehole.
The methane discharge was large enough near a roadside that it was
reported in the media as a methane geyser reaching N9 m in the air.
The event resulted in temporary evacuation of several residents living
within a mile of the well.
While methane migration in Tioga county had been well known pre-
vious to the event rock formations beneath some parts of the county
have been used as storage for natural gas (Breen et al., 2007) this
event was unique. According to the DEP, the Butters well was drilled
in 1932 to a depth of 5392 ft but was never commercially productive.
The presence of the well, known to both the DEP and the operating com-
pany, was indicated in original records indicating the well was sealed
from 4033 to 5392 ft below grade. It is not known how methane migrat-
ed toward the wells, borehole, and surface water, but drilling operations
may have promoted migration along a fault. PA DEP worked with the
operator to are off nearby Marcellus wells to reduce subsurface gas
pressure. In addition, the Butters' well was sealed with cement and
packers by the operator to prevent additional releases. These efforts
reduced the Butters' well bore pressure readings from N 1000 psi to
b600 psi as of December 2012. The nearby Guindon wells are now
producing. Based on a review of PA DEP's database, no NOV was issued
for this event to date.
Such events are especially of concern as drilling progresses to
northwestern PA where the majority of older wells were drilled. In
many cases, no construction or location records are available. Old
wells can be difcult to detect when the steel casing has rusted
away, been removed for scrap, or used during the 1940s for war ef-
forts. Currently, operators are not required to locate abandoned or
orphaned wells prior to drilling although it is in the best interest
for operators to survey since they are responsible for environmental
damages.
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156 151

Table 5
Major spills to water bodies in Pennsylvania as of Sept 2013.

Date County Receiving water body Spilled material Volume (gallons)

2008 to 2013 (N400 gal)

Nov 23, 2009a Bradford Webier Creek Fracking and owback 4200 to 6300
Mar 19, 2011b Bradford Towanda Creek Produced water 4700
Dec 13, 2012c Butler Thorn Creek Drilling uids Unknown
May 24, 2010d Blair Bobs Creek Flowback Unknown
Jul 30, 2010e Cameron Unknown Drilling mud 1500
Oct 12, 2009e Cleareld Little Laurel Creek Flowback 7980
Mar 26, 2010f Clinton Queens Run Drilling mud 8000 to 12,000
Jan 29, 2011g Clinton headwaters of the South Renovo water supply Fracking 3400
Sep 10, 2012h Sullivan Mill Creek Sediment Unknown
Oct 15, 2012i Indiana Blacklick Creek Bentonite Unknown
Mar 13 & 14, 2010j Lycoming Pine Creek Airfoam 180 gal/min
Aug 12, 2010k Lycoming Big Run Hydrostatic testing water 25,200
Nov 16, 2010l (spilled over prev. 65 d) Lycoming Trib. to Sugar Run Flowback and produced 6300 to 57,373
Before Nov 22, 2010m Lycoming Trib. to Sugar Run Fracking ~13,000
Jan 6 & 15, 2012n Lycoming Pine Creek Brine 8200
Oct 9, 2012c Lycoming Trib. to Slack Run Sediment Unknown
Dec 27, 2012c Lycoming Brion Creek Hydrostatic test (water, sediment) 232,604
Nov 21, 2012o Lycoming Muncy Creek Fracking 4275
Aug 20, 2012p Sullivan Harts Run Bentonite ~10,000
Sep 4, 2012c Sullivan Black Water Run Turbid discharge Unknown
Dec 19, 2012c Sullivan Wellman's Creek, Salt Lick Creek Discharge Unknown
Jan 1, 2013g Sullivan Big Bottom Run Sediment Unknown
Sep 16 & 22, 2009q Susquehanna Stevens Creek Water/liquid gel mixture 8000
Jul 29, Aug 2 & 10, 2011r Susquehanna Laurel Lake Creek Drilling mud 1500
May 26, 2009s Washington Cross Creek Flowback and brine 4200
Oct 6, 2009t Washington Brush Run Flowback 10,500
Dec 4 & 5, 2009u Washington Dunkle Run Fracking uid Unknown
Jul 5, 2011e Washington Ten Mile Creek Drilling mud 2400
Oct 31, 2011v Washington Hopewell Township Flowback 16,800
Oct 30, 2009e Westmoreland Unknown Diesel 790
Mar 13, 2013w Wyoming Washington Township Fracking 227,000 (at rate of 800 gal/min)
April 30, 2013x Wyoming Washington Township Flowback ~9000
a
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=13249&typeid=1.
b
http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2012/07/05/4700-gallons-of-acid-spill-at-bradford-county-drilling-site/.
c
http://www.depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/Pages/ReportViewer.aspx?/Oil_Gas/OG_Compliance.
d
Email exchange with PA DEP.
e
Considine et al. (2012) http://www.scribd.com/doc/131524517/UBSRSI-Environmental-Impacts-Marcellus.
f
http://www.lockhaven.com/page/content.detail/id/517447.html.
g
http://www.lhup.edu/rmyers3/marcellus.htm.
h
Discharge reported to be enough to completely discolor creek. http://www.lhup.edu/rmyers3/marcellus.htm.
i
Volz et al. (2011) reported that Blacklick creek was monitored and wastewater efuent was found entering this creek (http://catskillcitizens.org/learnmore/
josephine_execsumm_2011chec.pdf); Wilson and VanBriesen (2012) (http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8789213); other details de-
scribed here: (http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/les/documents/hf-report20121214.pdf).
j
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=16152&typeid=1.
k
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=15849&typeid=1.
l
http://www2.epa.gov/enforcement/xto-energy-inc-settlement;
http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/dd0d219e038a8d4885257bac006b398c%21OpenDocument.
m
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=15315&typeid=1.
n
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=19945&typeid=1.
o
http://www.sungazette.com/page/content.detail/id/557661/Cleanup-continues-at-Penn-Township-spill-site.html?nav=5011.
p
http://www.lhup.edu/rmyers3/marcellus.htm.
q
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=2399&typeid=1.
r
http://www.pressconnects.com/article/20110810/NEWS01/108100412/1-500-gallons-drilling-mud-spills-into-Pa-waterways?odyssey=
tab%7Ctopnews%7Ctext%7CFRONTPAGE&gcheck=1.
s
http://www.marcellus-shale.us/pdf/CC-Spill_DEP-Insp-Rpt.pdf.
t
http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/newsroom/14287?id=11412&typeid=1.
u
DEP ned Atlas Resources LLC $97,350. The spill contaminated a high-quality watershed in Hopewell Township. http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/
newsroom/14287?id=13595&typeid=1.
v
http://www.marcellus-shale.us/seeps_leaks_spills.htm#WASHINGTON_COUNTY7; http://marcelluseffect.blogspot.com/2011/11/halloween-trick-wastewater-spill-
in.html; http://www.texassharon.com/2011/11/01/photos-range-fracking-spill-three-strikes-and-youre-out/.
w
http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/wyoming-county-well-malfunction-causes-spill-evacuation-1.1458575; http://www.dailykos.com/story/2013/04/11/1200893/-
Fracking-Resumes-Less-Than-a-Month-After-200-000-Gallon-Spill.
x
http://wnep.com/2013/04/30/spill-on-wyoming-county-road.

9. Spills and leaks of contaminants other than methane
Fuels, fracturing chemicals, produced uids, hydrostatic test water,
sediments, and drill cuttings or muds have been released into PA waters
due to trucking accidents, well blowouts, or leaking tanks, valves, or
pipes (Table 5, Fig. 3). These releases generally result in localized im-
pacts to soil, surface or groundwater that require remediation and mon-
itoring. In addition, a few centralized impoundments have failed or
leaked because of construction problems related to soil compaction or
liner failure.
To quantify these spills we assessed records kept since 2005 by the
PA DEP. Spills of drilling muds, owback/production water/brine,
hydrofracturing uid, drilling components (such as Airfoam), or natu-
ral sediments recorded by the PA DEP are posted online (http://www.
depreportingservices.state.pa.us/ReportServer/Pages/ReportViewer.
aspx?/Oil_Gas/OG_Compliance). However the PA DEP often does not
152 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
give as much information as presented in the media, making spill
assessments difcult at best. Reports from DEP and the media were
often difcult to reconcile at least in part because DEP records are
generally terse with respect to the extent of impact. Table 5 presents
an assessment of the largest spills between 5/2005 and 6/2013 based
on the online database, our eld observations, reports in PA DEP ofces,
and multiple media sources.
To date, at least 32 spills N400 gal occurred (Table 5). Of
spills N 400 gal, 9 were brine (e.g. owback and/or produced waters),
9 were drilling muds/uids, 7 were gel or fracking uids, 5 were hydro-
static test waters or sediments, 2 were unknown in nature, and 1 was
diesel fuel. The number of large spills per year has increased since
2008, with a dip in 2011. The number of spills reported through June
in 2013 likely does not include all relevant spills because a time lag al-
ways occurs between incident date and NOV posting date. As shown
by Fig. 3, the spills per year are increasing even though the new wells
spudded per year and contamination cases per year have been decreas-
ing since the 20102011 period. Given the volumes of uid involved in
hydrofracturing to bring a spudded well into production, spills per year
could be increasing because the number of completions of wells per
year is still increasing (Fig. 3).
Based on Table 5 and Fig. 3, the probabilities of large leakage events
are low (32 large spills for more than 7000 wells spudded or 4000 wells
completed); nonetheless, the public is concerned because some spilled
constituents are toxic (Table 3). In the Appalachian basin, the most con-
centrated constituents of the owback/production uids are Na and Cl
(Barbot et al., 2013; Blauch et al., 2009; Haluszczak et al., 2013;
Warner et al., 2012). Therefore, the most likely contaminants to be de-
tected are these ions. Other major ions present at high concentrations
include Mg and Ca. Some of these waters were originally discharged
through either municipal or centralized industrial wastewater treat-
ment plants, providing partial treatment prior to discharge into PA
streams. However, concern about impacts on surface waters led the
state to discourage this disposal practice in May 2011 (Maloney and
Yoxtheimer, 2012; States et al., 2013; Wilson and VanBriesen, 2012).
The industry now increasingly recycles brines for new hydrofracturing.
Based on PA DEP records, ~87% of owback and produced uids were
recycled in 2012 (Maloney and Yoxtheimer, 2012) and has continued
through June 2013.
Although present at lower concentrations, Ba, Sr, and Br are com-
monly found in distinctive concentrations or ratios in brines associated
with unconventional gas wells. Ba is typically present in Marcellus
owback/produced waters in the range of 2000 to 8000 mg/L
(Hayes, 2009) (data accessible through ShaleNetwork on www.
hydrodeskstop.org). The Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for public
drinking water systems as regulated by the U.S. EPA under the Safe
Drinking Water Act for Ba is 2 mg/L. Barium can potentially cause gas-
trointestinal disturbances and muscular weakness upon exposure to
levels above the EPA drinking water standards. Sr is typically present
in owback/production waters in the range of 10007000 mg/L
(Hayes, 2009); however, the EPA has not published a drinking water
standard for Sr.
It is difcult to document impacts from historic records of concentra-
tions in PA surface waters from the U.S.G.S. for Ba and Sr over the last
few years when discharge of brines was occurring via municipal and in-
dustrial treatment plants in certain watersheds or when spills may have
occurred (Vidic et al., 2013). Vidic et al. (2013) reported that concentra-
tions for a wide dataset of Ba and Sr in Pennsylvania river waters sam-
pled before 2003 in areas of unconventional shale-gas production
averaged 27 32 and 550 620 g/L (detection limits = 10
and 10100 g/L respectively). Impacts are hard to assess because back-
ground data tend to be sparse for any given waterway, many PA rivers
have other sources of contamination, and few headwater sites have
been monitored where effects of shale gas activity are likely to be
most impactful. Even when headwaters have been monitored,
samples often have not been analyzed for the suite of elements deemed
most likely to detect Marcellus-related impacts (e.g. Na, Ca, Cl, Sr, Ba,
Br).
Another contaminant of interest which acts chemically like Ba is the
radioactive element radium. Ra is found in relatively high concentra-
tions in Appalachian basin brines (Rowan et al., 2011). While most Ra
is removed during treatment of brines with sodium sulfate before dis-
charge, some radium is discharged when oil/gas brines are released
into streams and the Ra is in turn precipitated in stream sediments
(Warner et al., 2013). Warner et al. document Ra-containing sediments
in Blacklick Creek, a stream that has long received oil/gas brine
discharge in western PA.
10. Bromide
One of the signature solutes for Marcellus, bromide (Br), is typically
present in owback water between 2 and 15 mmol/L (Barbot et al., 2013;
Haluszczak et al., 2013; Hayes, 2009). These values are much higher than
levels in PA waterways: before 2003, Br in surface waters in PA counties
with shale-gas development averaged 0.90 1.0 mol/L (Vidic et al.,
2013). However, after 2010, many waters in shale-gas development
areas were reported with Br concentrations more than 3 standard devia-
tions above this average (Vidic et al., 2013). However, the data reported
by Vidic et al. before and after 2003 generally derive from different
waterways, making it difcult to compare water chemistry impacts
from shale-gas development.
The possibility that Br concentrations have increased in PA water-
ways is important with respect to human health (Ferrar et al., 2013;
States et al., 2013; Wilson and VanBriesen, 2012). Concentrations of
bromide above 100 g/L (1.25 mol/L) in source waters for publicly
owned treatment works can lead to formation of bromine where free
chlorine is used as a disinfectant (Ferrar et al., 2013). Bromine can sub-
sequently react with organic matter to form brominated trihalometh-
anes (THMs). In turn, THMs have been associated with increased risk
of cancers and other maladies. Therefore, the concentrations of total
THMs permissible in drinking water are regulated under the federal
Safe Drinking Water Act. Brominated THMs are more harmful than chlo-
rinated THM species. Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) and in-
dustrial wastewater treatment plants (IWTPs) may be permitted in PA
to treat and discharge wastewater from conventional oil and gas opera-
tions and efuent from coal mines (Warner et al., 2013). Until May 2011
in PA, shale gas operators were permitted to discharge shale gas-
produced brines to POTWs and IWTPs for treatment and discharge to
surface waters.
In 2010, the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority (PWSA) ob-
served that the concentration of total THMs and the relative fraction
of brominated THMs increased in its nished water. States et al.
(2013) concluded that the increase was due to elevated Br in the
Allegheny river source waters, and that most of the Br in the river de-
rived from IWTPs that were permitted to release wastewaters from
Marcellus Shale and conventional oil and gas wells. Coal-burning
power plants were also observed to sometimes release bromides to
the river. Several research groups have looked at these data (States
et al., 2013; Wilson and VanBriesen, 2012). The data show that 1) bro-
mide concentrations at the PWSA Allegheny river intake are elevated
compared with bromide concentrations in the less impacted uppermost
locations in the Allegheny River; 2) bromide concentrations generally
increase as water moves through the Allegheny River system due to in-
puts from IWTPs and, to a lesser extent, due to discharges from coal-
red power plants; 3) bromide concentrations were especially high
during periods of low ow in the river; 4) higher Br concentrations in
Allegheny river water correlate with higher brominated THMs in n-
ished water from the PWSA. These observations led the PA DEP to im-
pose a voluntary ban in April 2011 on discharge of unconventional
shale gas brine through POTWs and IWTPs into streams.
Even after the ban in 2011, however, Br concentrations in the Allegheny
river have not decreased signicantly (see data in ShaleNetwork through
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
www.hydrodesktop.org). One possible explanation is that discharges of
Marcellus brines continued after May 2011 by several IWTPs despite the
ban (States et al., 2013). In addition, States et al. proposed that high concen-
trations of bromide observed in the Clarion River after May 2011 may doc-
ument illegal dumping into that upstream tributary of the Allegheny River,
perhaps because the voluntary ban had taken away other avenues of dis-
posal. Regardless, some of the IWTPs were still legally releasing Br-
containing wastewaters from conventional oil and gas into the Allegheny
River through 2013. Although such conventional-waste discharges are not
likely to explain why bromide jumped in concentration in 2010, such dis-
charges can contribute high bromide concentrations that could lead to
health risks. Three of the brine plants received notices from the U.S. EPA
in May 2013 concerning violations of their permits (States et al., 2013).
11. Case examples of spills
If a spill occurs, contaminants are likely to increase concentrations
above background. However, background concentrations in PA rivers
are highly variable because of impacts from acid mine drainage
(AMD), agriculture, road salt, or municipal waste. In addition, the abun-
dant precipitation generally dilutes concentrations of many elements,
making background concentrations highly variable. Given these charac-
teristics, long-term datasets of water quality are needed if contamina-
tion is to be identied. However, long-term datasets are rare for both
the large rivers and the small upland streams where most shale gas
well pads are located (Vidic et al., 2013).
Instead of using concentration to document spills, a better route may
be analysis of ratios of indicator elements since ratios stay constant
despite dilution. For the Marcellus brines, ratios of indicator elements
such as Ba, Cl, Br, Sr, and SO4 could be useful. For example, the Ba/Cl
and Br/SO24 ratios may help ngerprint water types as shown in
Fig. 7. Oil/gas brines tend to be lower in sulfate and higher in Ba and
Br: the higher the Br/sulfate ratio, the more likely that brine inputs are
indicated. In contrast, AMD is high in sulfate and variable in Ba and Cl:
the lower the Br/sulfate ratio, the more likely the AMD input. Nonethe-
less, some brines have signicant sulfate, driving Ba to lower levels as
barite (BaSO4) precipitates (Blauch et al., 2009). Likewise, waters that
are both brine- and AMD-impacted such as the blue up-triangles on
Fig. 7 can overlap with non-impacted streams. The blue triangles de-
rive from Blacklick Creek, a heavily AMD-impacted stream that also
has been receiving permitted discharge of brines. These brines derive
from conventional oil/gas activity and, before 2011, from unconvention-
al gas activities (Warner et al., 2013; Wilson and VanBriesen, 2012).
Fig. 7. Ratios of Ba, Cl, SO4, and Br may be useful to distinguish rivers with impacts from
acid mine drainage (AMD) versus oil and gas brines or shallow brines. Blacklick Creek
(blue triangles) is contaminated with both AMD and permitted oil and gas brine discharge.
153
As shown on the gure, even pristine waters contain the indicator
elements: the ngerprinting is not unambiguous.
Given such issues, it is difcult to nd examples of analyses that doc-
ument spills for Pennsylvania waters. For example, data recovered with
HydroDesktop (www.hydrodesktop.org) from U.S.G.S. NWIS, EPA, and
Shale Network for the Pennsylvania area did not reveal unambiguous
evidence for any of the large spills in Table 5. Difculty in documenting
spills in published datasets likely occurs because i) high rates of precip-
itation and water ow generally dilute contamination quickly; ii) the
sensor and sampling network is not very dense nor located very strate-
gically compared to sites of shale gas activity which are generally locat-
ed in uplands; iii) many rivers in PA are already contaminated making it
difcult to see new pollution events; iv) few background data are avail-
able in many areas for all appropriate analytes; v) contamination events
have been relatively rare; vi) it is difcult to determine the locations,
timing, volume, and nature of pollution events.
As an example of the difculties in documenting spills into surface
waters with public data, Fig. 8 is presented for one spill. The spill, into
Bobs Creek near PA Route 164, occurred approximately on May 24
2010. Bobs Creek is a Class A trout stream in Juniata Township, Blair
County. Drilling at a ridgetop above the creek was accompanied by a
spill of owback water that ran off the pad into a containment pit, and
likely into the stream. The PA DEP sampled the creek on June 7 2010
up- and downstream from the spill because of the reported spill. Sr,
Ba, and Cl concentrations in the stream at Pavia, PA are plotted versus
time in Fig. 8AC. Both Sr and Ba showed measureable increases in con-
centration downstream of the spill site immediately after the spill. How-
ever, the dataset for Ba is very short-term and highly variable, making it
impossible to assess if Ba documented the spill. In contrast, Sr shows a
clear spike after the spill which then returns to background. The longest
duration data set is available for Cl (data from Weyandt and
Reynoldsdale PA are also plotted before 1993 to assess a longer term
baseline for Cl): since the 1990s, the concentration only increased
above 322 mol/L (i.e. the mean + 3 for data before 2008) ve
times. These Cl spikes were in February when road salt is often used, ex-
cept for the spike on 6-7-2010 in the sample downstream from the spill
(Fig. 8C). Bobs Creek is also monitored by the Susquehanna River Basin
Commission (SRBC) remote water quality network which includes a
conductivity sensor (Fig. 8D). However, few data are available prior to
the spill.
12. Sediment discharges
Several researchers have demonstrated that increased land distur-
bance because of well pads and pipeline construction could increase
the discharge of sediments into streams, raising total suspended
solids concentrations (Drohan and Brittingham; Entrekin et al., 2011;
Olmstead et al., 2013). Propagation of accidental sediment discharges
through the receiving water streams may have both short- and long-
term environmental impacts. As mentioned above, drilling muds and
cuttings retain many trace components present in the black shale or
brines, including metals such as barium and strontium, naturally occur-
ring radioactive material (NORM) and pyrite. While some of these ma-
terials are toxic in themselves, pyrite can also oxidize and form
sulfuric acid thereby potentially impacting water quality by decreasing
pH and releasing metals. In addition, removing vegetation for drilling
sites can cause excess runoff and sedimentation which are harmful to
river ecosystems, especially in sensitive headwater streams. Human
error, unexpected geological conditions, storms and ooding are addi-
tional causes of surface water contamination by drilling wastes.
Lack of controls for erosion of drilling sites has led to many NOVs
concerning sediments and erosion (Tables 1, 2) but the relative fraction
of NOVs due to these issues has decreased with time (Fig. 2). To date,
however, no estimate of sediment discharge volumes has been complet-
ed for PA. Several large releases of drilling mud uids (Table 5) have
been reported in the range of 103 to 104 gal. As one example, Larrys
154 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156

Fig. 8. Data available to assess a possible owback spill into the Class A trout stream, Bobs Creek. Spill was discovered running off a pad site, leaking out of a containment pit on May 24,
2010 (red line). Data derived from U.S. Geological Survey, Susquehanna River Basin Commission (SRBC), and PA DEP, all accessed in the Shale Network database (www.hydrodesktop.org).
PA DEP samples from upstream and downstream of the spill location are indicated.

Creek comprises a small watershed (89.1 mile2) that empties into the 13. Water quantity issues
West Branch of the Susquehanna River. The watershed was adversely
affected by coal and iron mine activities in the 19th century but water Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing of shales for natural gas
quality has been considered good since 2006 (Entz-Rine, 2011) and require larger amounts of water than vertical wells because of the larger
the watershed supports public water supplies that utilize 4 groundwa- volume of shale that is stimulated. The shale properties and the lengths
ter and 2 surface water locations. Some of the water is sold to the indus- of the lateral boreholes strongly impact the quantity of water used in
try for fracturing operations (Fig. 1D). According to the SRBC, only
1.9 miles remain impaired by acid mine drainage out of 48.5. As of
2013, 15 natural gas drilling pads lie within the watershed. No oil or
gas industrial discharge is permitted.
On October 19, 2011, a pipeline that was being bored under a
streambed fractured, discharging bentonite and other mud to the
creek. Fig. 9 shows turbidity in Larrys Creek (near Salladsburg, PA,
data from ShaleNetwork accessed through HydroDesktop (www.
hydrodesktop.org)) measured by the SRBC turbidity sensor, plotted
along with precipitation (near Williamsport, PA) for a ve-month peri-
od around the date of the sediment discharge. As shown on the gure
throughout the period before the spill, turbidity varied little except dur-
ing large precipitation events. However, between 10/19/11 and late
November, turbidity increases occurred even without precipitation in-
creases, and for an extended period the sensor registered above back-
ground either due to sediment or to a problem with the sensor
(arrow). Unlike solutes, sediments released in accidents such as this
one can remain in riverbeds for long periods of time, creating long-
term impact. Such impacts can be assessed using one-, two- and
Fig. 9. Data accessible from Shale Network through HydroDesktop showing turbidity
three-dimensional models of hydrodynamics, sediment transport, and measured before and after a mud spill by a SRBC turbidity sensor in Larrys Creek, and
bed morphology to predict changes in physical parameters like temper- precipitation at a nearby rain station. The spill occurred on Oct 19, 2011 (dashed line). Sen-
ature, density, and chemical activity (e.g. Motta et al., 2010). sor response to the sediment (which may indicate fouling) is indicated by the arrow.
 S.L. Brantley et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 126 (2014) 140156
fracturing. On average, it takes about 400,000 gal of water to fracture
each 500 ft of well bore for the Marcellus Shale. Water consumption
typically ranges from 4 to 5 million gal of water per well ranging over
a 25 day period with about 10% of this water returning as owback.
Throughout the northeast, water for drilling and fracturing activities
is mainly supplied from surface waters including lakes and streams, but
it can also be extracted from groundwater, private or municipal sources,
or from reused produced water. Throughout the Susquehanna River
Basin (SRB), both surface and groundwaters are permitted for with-
drawal by oil and gas companies (Fig. 1D). Only 13% of water used be-
tween 2008 and 2011 in the SRB for hydrofracturing the Marcellus
Shale was derived from recycled owback or production waters
(U.S. EPA, 2012), but as of 2012, PA DEP records show that 87% of
owback was recycled.
Water withdrawals by the gas industry may impact long-term eco-
logical health in some settings (Soeder and Kappell, 2009; Weltman-
Fahs and Taylor, 2013). Changing the ow of streams can result in
changes in water temperature, sediment transport, and channel
shape, all of which can adversely affect river biota (Poff et al., 1997;
Weltman-Fahs and Taylor, 2013). To assess changes on ecosystems,
metrics such as uvial biomass, diversity and population of aquatic spe-
cies must be assessed. In general in PA, fresh water withdrawal from
water bodies is likely to produce only temporary, local impacts since
the water usage for gas-production activities represents 0.06% of the
total water usage in the Marcellus region (Arthur et al., 2010; Moniz
et al., 2011). However, extraction of the same volume of water during
low streamow periods has a larger impact than extraction during a pe-
riod of higher stream ow. Low streamows can affect municipal water
supplies, industrial water needs (e.g. power generation), recreation,
and health of aquatic life (Arthur et al., 2010). Best Management
Practices include limiting withdrawals to periods of high streamow,
or emphasizing withdrawals from multiple sources (Soeder and
Kappell, 2009).
The SRBC regulates withdrawals and pass-by ow on a monthly
basis for most waterways in the center of the state (Fig. 1D). Water ex-
traction sites in the SRB are limited roughly to the region of drilling. The
most sensitive parts of a river to high-volume water withdrawal are
headwaters where the overall volume of ow is low. Many of the with-
drawals in the SRB occur near the drilling sites which are largely located
on ridgetops in the sensitive upland reaches (Fig. 1). Extensive water
withdrawals from headwaters as well as illegal water withdrawals
from sensitive watersheds are of concern (Dunlap, 2011). According to
Dunlap, for example, water withdrawals from Horton Run, classied
as an exceptional value trout stream, almost resulted in dewatering.
Also, dewatering of Cross and Sugarcamp Creeks in Washington County
resulted in sh kills. Illegal extractions of 3.5 and 2.2 million gal
occurred from a tributary of Larrys Creek and from Big Sandy Run
respectively. Water withdrawals have also purportedly damaged
Meshoppen, Pine and Sugar Creeks in Pennsylvania. No summary of
these water withdrawal impacts has appeared in the peer-reviewed
literature.
14. Conclusions: the Pennsylvania experience
Between 2008 and 2012 in Pennsylvania, ~ 1000 complaints were
delivered to the state regulators about impacts to water supplies in
areas of oil/gas development. Only about 17% of the complaints
led the regulators to implicate either unconventional or conventional
oil/gas development. Publicly available surface and groundwater data-
bases in PA show only rare evidence of contamination that could be at-
tributed to shale-gas development. This could be interpreted to mean
that shale-gas incidents that impact PA waters have been relatively
rare and that contaminants are quickly diluted. However, rm conclu-
sions are hampered by i) the lack of information about location and
timing of incidents; ii) the tendency to not release water quality data re-
lated to specic incidents due to liability or condentiality agreements;
155
iii) the sparseness of sample and sensor data for the analytes of interest;
iv) the presence of pre-existing water impairments that makes it dif-
cult to determine potential impacts from shale-gas activity; and v) the
fact that sensors can malfunction or drift. Although some waterways
throughout the state are now monitored, drilling and hydraulic fractur-
ing of the Marcellus has proceeded so rapidly that the sampling and
monitoring density is not sufcient to document impacts over either
the long term or short term, especially in headwater streams near
many well pads.
If state regulator data are used to assess impact, the conclusion that
emerges for PA is that signicant environmental water resource prob-
lems are occurring at a low rate per well: ~ 20 unconventional gas
wells were implicated unambiguously in contamination of water sup-
plies and ~ 30 large spills were reported during the period when
N6000 unconventional gas wells were drilled and N 4000 completed.
In addition, the water supply contamination cases per year for both con-
ventional and unconventional energy companies decreased since 2010.
On the other hand, although the number of large spills per year associ-
ated with unconventional wells was small, it increased through 2012. In
addition, almost 20% of shale-gas wells in PA have received Notices of
Violations, documenting that the frequency of small incidents is high.
Overall, the development of Marcellus Shale gas in PA was accompa-
nied by increasing regulations, intense media attention, and unease on
the part of some members of the public. Maintaining the so-called social
license for shale gas development into the future depends upon public
acceptance of the activity. More data must be shared publicly and
more investigations of impacts on watersheds and water supplies
must be completed transparently for a complete analysis of impacts.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.12.017.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by a grant from the National Science
Foundation to SLB (RCN-SEES funding, OCE-11-40159). J. Pollak cites
support from the National Science Foundation for the Consortium for
Universities for the Advancement of Hydrologic Sciences, Inc.
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