Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SolutMar PDF
SolutMar PDF
Contents page
2 2 2 q 2
pk = k + p2 q 2 10 = (2)
2m 2m
At T = 0 (T TF ), as assumed implicitly in the exercise, the occupied states are
all those with energies smaller than F . The number of electrons in the pth band,
Np , is zero if p0 > F . In the opposite case:
k 2
2 2 kp
p
Np = L2 2k dk = L (3)
0 (2)2 2
where kp is the Fermi wave number of the pth band, i.e. the largest value of k of
occupied states in the pth band, as determined by
2 2 2mF F
pk = kp + p2 q 2 = F kp2 = p2 q 2 = q 2 p2 (4)
p 2m 2 10
k12 1
N = L2 d n = N1 = L2 k1 = 2d n = 1.22866 A (6)
2
Introducing this result in (3) we get the Fermi energy and the band width W of
the occupied states:
F = 1k = 10 (k1 /q)2 + 1 = 7.99 eV, W = F 10 = 5.75 eV (7)
1
which is in accordance with our starting assumption of F < 20 = 8.948 eV. These
results may be compared with that obtained for bulk Ag:
2 2 2/3
F (bulk) = W (bulk) = 3 n = 5.50 eV (8)
2m
3 Problems in Chapter 6 and 7 (electrons)
(b) In the case of d = 8.2 A, q = /d = 0.38312 A1 and 10 = 0.5592 eV. In order
to determine F in this case, we need to include more bands than the lowest one.
The number of bands turns out to be 3, and
2 F F F
N = N1 + N2 + N3 2d n = q 12 + 22 + 32 (9)
10 10 10
Solving this equation with respect to F /10 , we get F /10 = 11.523, which is
larger than 32 but smaller than 42 , in accordance with the assumption that all
electrons are found in the three lowest bands. Hence the results are:
F = 6.44 eV, W = F 10 = 5.89 eV (10)
20 p
2
16
Band energy (eV)
12 1
The two rst gures show the en-
F
8 ergy bands as functions of k in
the cases (a) and (b), where the
4 unit of k is the length of a recip-
rocal lattice vector 2/a [r.l.u.].
k1
0 The last gure shows the Fermi
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Wave number k [r.l.u.]
energy (and the band width) as a
function of the number of atomic
5 p
20 layers of Ag. The crystal struc-
4 ture of Ag is fcc with the lattice
16 parameter a = 4.09 A. This is
3
Band energy (eV)
k3 k2 k1
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Wave number k [r.l.u]
12
Fermi energy and band width (eV)
10 F
6
Bulk value
4 W
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Number of Ag layers (2d/a)
Condensed Matter Physics 2 4
2 k2
n = 1011 cm2 , = , m = 0.067me (1)
2m
The present situation corresponds to the case (a) of the previous problem 6.5 in
Marder, i.e. the gas is purely two-dimensional in the sense that only the (p = 1)
band
needs to be considered, and k is a two-dimensional vector with the length k =
kx + ky2 . The most important quantity is the Fermi energy, which is determined
2
The same result is obtained by using that, according to problem 6.4 or equation
(6.35), D() = m /2 in the two-dimensional case:
F m F n2
n= D() d = F = or kF = 2n (2b)
0 2 m
1
Introducing the numbers, and using that kF = 1 A corresponds to a Fermi energy
F = 3.81 eV when the mass is me , then we get
2
2 1 0.793 102
kF = 0.793 10 A , F = 3.81 eV = 3.58 meV (3)
0.067
This Fermi energy corresponds to a Fermi temperature TF = F /kB = 41.5 K.
1) T = 1 K is much smaller than the Fermi temperature and the heat capacity
may be determined by the leading order expression (6.77)
2 2 T 2 m kF2 kF2
cV = D(F )kB T = k k , as D(F ) = = = (4)
3 6 TF F B 2 2F 2kB TF
1
CV (el) = A cV = A (0.793106 cm1 )2 1.380661023 J/K = 1.1 1013 J/K
6 41.5
(5)
2 2
The explicit result is CV (el) = Am kB T /(3 ). Hence, the small value of CV is
not due to the low electron density n but to the two-dimensionality of the system
and the small eective mass.
2) In order to estimate the phonon contribution to the heat capacity we shall use
the Debye model (Section 13.3.2 in Marder). The Debye temperature of GaAs is
D = 344 K (which value is not changed much when some of the Ga ions are
replaced by Al ions). Using (13.70), (13.75) in Marder (2.Ed.) and
3
x4 ex 4 4 12 4 T
dx = cV = n k (T D ) (6)
0 (ex 1)2 15 5 A B D
According to Table 2.5 (page 27) in Marder, GaAs has the zincblende structure (
diamond structure) with the lattice parameter a = 5.63 A. In this structure there
are 8 atoms per unit cell, and the density of atoms is nA = 8/a3 = 4.48 1022 cm3 .
[The mean atomic mass (periodic table) is (69.72 + 74.92)/2 = 72.3 u, implying a
mass density = 5.38 g cm3 ]. Assuming V = 1 cm3 and T = 1 K, the phonon
contribution becomes
3
12 4 1
CV (ph) = 4.48 1022 1.38066 1023 J/K = 3.55 106 J/K (7)
5 344
which is much larger than the electronic contribution. Utilizing that CV (el) T
and CV (ph) T 3 , the temperature T0 at which the two contributions are equal,
is determined by (T0 in K)
(c) The primitive unit vectors of the body-centered cubic lattice are, (2.3):
a a a
a1 = (1, 1, 1), a2 = (1, 1, 1), a3 = (1, 1, 1) (7)
2 2 2
and the corresponding primitive vectors of the reciprocal lattice are
The shortest distance from the origin to the boundaries of the 1. Brillouin zone is
|bi | 2 4.4429
k2 = = = and k2 = kF when c = c2 = 0.48 (10)
2 a a
Once again, this is about the right Zn concentration at which the Cu-Zn alloy
system shows a change of crystal structure (from bcc to a complex structure).
If the atomic density is assumed to stay constant at the transition fcc bcc, the
Fermi wave vector is the same on each side of the phase line, but the lattice pa-
rameter a is changed, abcc = (1/2)1/3 afcc = 0.794 afcc . The cubic lattice parameter
a also changes (increases) gradually with the Zn concentration, in between the
phase lines, since nCu = 1.33 nZn , however, all the possible variations of a have
no inuence on the arguments above. -brass is the alloy with c = 0.5, and it
shows an order-disordered phase transition at about 470 C, which we are going
to discuss later on.
Citation from Kittel: Why is there a connection between the electron concentra-
tions at which a new phase appears and at which the Fermi surface makes contact
with the Brillouin zone? We recall that the energy bands split into two at the
region of contact on the zone boundary [Marder, Chapter 8, (8.24)]. If we add
more electrons to the alloy at this stage, they will have to be accommodated in
the upper band or in states of high energy near the zone corners of the lower band.
Both options are possible, and both involve an increase of energy. Therefore it
may be energetically favorable for the crystal structure to change to one which
can contain a Fermi surface of larger volume (more electrons) before contact is
made with the zone boundary. In this way H. Jones made plausible the sequence
of structures fcc, bcc, , hcp with increasing electron concentration.
Condensed Matter Physics 2 8
V V0 V
e = = (1)
3V0 3V0
2F
B=V = + 23 (3)
V 2
(when V V0 ). This result is also obtained from the bulk modulus in the cubic
case (12.19), B = [c11 + 2c12 ]/3, by replacing the elastic constants with the Lame
constants of the isotropic solid, c12 = , c44 = , and c11 = c12 + 2c44 = + 2.
(b) According to (12.31), or Fig. 12.2, Youngs modulus Y is dened to be Y =
zz /ezz , when applying a uniform stress zz in the z direction. In the cubic case,
the diagonal elements of stress and strain tensors are related by, (12.14)-(12.17),
xx exx c11 c12 c12
= ce , c = c12 c11 c12 (4)
yy yy
zz ezz c12 c12 c11
[In order to complete the cubic case, then Poissons ratio (12.34) is B/A or
c12
= , and the shear modulus is G = c44 ].
c11 + c12
9 Problems in Chapter 12 (elasticity)
(c) In the case of waves propagation along [100], the k-vector is k = (k, 0, 0) and
the matrix equation is diagonal:
c11 k2 2 u01 = 0, c44 k2 2 u02 = 0, c44 k2 2 u03 = 0 (7)
Introducing the solution = A + 2B in (10a), we get u01 = u02 = u03 or u0 k,
whereas the two other degenerate solutions = A B imply u01 + u02 + u03 = 0 or
u0 k = 0. Hence the sound velocities are
c11 + 2c12 + 4c44
cl = = = 9340 m/s , u0 k (longitudinal)
k 3
(12)
c11 c12 + c44
ct = = = 5080 m/s , u0 k (transverse)
k 3
17.4 AC conductivity
In the presence of a time-dependent (uniform) electrical eld
E eit
=E (1)
0
we may use the general solution of the Boltzmann equation given by (17.24), before
the integration with respect to t is performed:
t
g=f
0 e f (t )
dt e(t t)/ eit vk E (2)
Considering only eects which are linear in the applied eld (the linearized solution
of the Boltzmann equation), then vk = vk (t ) and f (t ) within the integral may be
replaced by their time-independent equilibrium values at zero eld, and the time
integration may be performed straightforwardly
e f eit = f e f
g=f vk E0 vk E (3)
1 i 1 i
Introducing this expression into (17.43)-(17.44) we get the frequency-dependent
0)
conductivity (valid in the limit of E0
f
() = e2 [dk] v v (4)
1 i
or in the case of a cubic or an isotropic (free electron) system:
ne2 ne2 1 + i
() = = (5)
m 1 i m 1 + ( )2
11 Problems in Chapter 17 (transport phenomena)
According to (17.60), (17.62), and (17.68) the electrical current, in the case of
G = 0, is
j = L12 T 1 1 2
, L12 = L(1) = (k T )2 (F ) (2)
T e e 3 B
2 2e2
() = e2 D()
() = D() + D
() (4)
3m 3m
This result is introduced in (2)
2 2 T
j = 1 (kB T )2 2e D(F ) 1 + F D (F ) (5)
e 3 3m D(F ) T
The Hall eect geometry: The applied eld E is along the x axis leading to a current j in
this direction, i.e. an electron (hole) current in the minus (plus) x direction. The magnetic
part of the Lorenz force F j B is in the minus y direction, when B is along z, leading
to opposite signs of the resulting charge distributions in the electron and hole cases.
Condensed Matter Physics 2 12
in the case of electrons with charge e. Using B = (0, 0, B), then we get v B
=
(vy B, vx B, 0) and since the current, by geometry, is constrained to be along x,
the steady state is characterized by vx being constant and vy = 0. These conditions
imply
vx v
mvy = e Ey B 0 = 0 Ey = x B (2)
c c
(b) The current is j = (jx , 0, 0) with jx = nevx , and the Hall coecient is
Ey v 1 1
R= = xB = , Ey = RB jx (3)
B jx c B(nevx ) nec
k g = g f (2)
k
The semiclassical equation of motion is
+ 1 v B 1 k k
k = e E , vk = r = = (3)
c k k m
where the second equation expresses that the mass tensor is assumed to be isotropic
for simplicity. Like in Problem 17.4 we are only interested in the response (current)
which is linear in the electric eld. This means that g may be replaced by f in
products on the left hand side of (2) which already involve E. The linearized
version of the Boltzmann equation (2) is therefore
e f
E
e (g f ) = g f
vk B (4)
k c k
(a) The geometry is the same as applied in problem 17.8, hence we dene B =
(0, 0, B) and assume the resulting E = (Ex , Ey , 0) to be perpendicular to B. In
this geometry, we guess that the solution has the form
g = f + a kx + b ky (6)
e f eB a kx + b ky
Ex kx + Ey ky
a ky b kx = (7)
m m c
Since kx and ky are independent variables, this equation leads to two independent
conditions, which determine a and b to be
Ex c Ey e f Ey + c Ex e f
a= , b= (8)
1 + (c )2 m 1 + (c )2 m
eB
where we have introduced the cyclotron frequency c = .
m c
The component of the current density j is, according to Marders eq. (17.43),
j = e [dk] vk (gk fk ) = e [dk] vk a kx + b ky
(9)
em 2 2
= [dk] a vkx x + b vky y
where the last equality sign follows because the o-diagonal terms vanish, when
the mass tensor is assumed to be diagonal (isotropic). Using the same procedure
as in Marders eqs. (17.44)-(17.50), we have
em 2 e f 2 f ne2
[dk] vk = e2 [dk] vk = 0 (10)
m m
Ex c Ey Ey + c Ex
jx = , jy = (11)
1 + (c )2 0 1 + (c )2 0
1
c = RB0 , or R= (13)
nec
Condensed Matter Physics 2 14
= j, is the inverse of the
The resistivity tensor , dened by the relation E
conductivity tensor and is particularly simple
1 1 c 0 1 1 0 RB 0
1
= = c 1 0 = 0 RB 1 0 (14)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
which is in perfect agreement with the results derived from the Drude model (prob-
lem 17.8). The calculations in section 17.4.8 assume c
1, in which case the
diagonal elements of may be neglected in comparison with the o-diagonal ones,
xx = yy 0 and xy = yx (c )1 .
Introducing the polar angle in the (kx , ky )-coordinate system of the reciprocal
lattice, the dispersion relation may be written
1/2
2 2 2a b
k = k () = 1 + 2 (3 + cos 4) 1 (3)
b(3 + cos 4) a
In
the case of b a2 , the square root may be expanded, and to second order
( 1 + x = 1 + 12 x 18 x2 ) the result is
2 3b b2
k () 1 2 cos 4 (4)
a 4a 4a3
In the gure below (to the left) I show a constant energy contour, which diers
visible from a circle. It is obtained by a numerical evaluation of (3) (Mathematica
program) in the case of a = b = 1 and = 2 (assuming dimensionless quantities).
The thin line shows the average length of k(). The gure to the right show the
corresponding |k k | as a function of the angle . The gradient, and hence the
velocity vk = k k /, is perpendicular to the constant energy contour. Notice
that |v | is smallest along the 11 directions, where |k()| has its maxima.
k
15 Problems in Chapter 17 (transport phenomena)
dg g g g gf k g = g f
= + r +k = (5)
dt t r k k
when considering the steady state of a uniform system. The elds are assumed to
= (E, 0, 0) and B
be E = (0, 0, B), and the semiclassical equation of motion is
+ 1 v B 1 k
k = e E , vk = r = (6)
c k k
where
f f k f
= = vk (8)
k k
k
k
eE
vf e
vk B (g f ) = g f (9)
k
c k
k
e (g f )
Since (g f ) is going to scale with E, the term neglected, E , is of
k
second order in E. Inserting E = (E, 0, 0) and B = (0, 0, B) in (9), we nally get
f eB 1
evx E = v vx (g f ) (10)
c y kx ky
k
(g f ) (g f ) dF dF
vy vx = vy ky vx F vx ky
kx ky d kx d ky
(11)
dF dF
= vy ky v vx F vx ky v = vx F
d x d y
Condensed Matter Physics 2 16
e r
e E
r = r B r or
e = e E
r + + r B (1)
m c m m c m
The (applied) magnetic eld is assumed along z. The electrical eld vector, due
to an incident light wave, is assumed to be circular polarized in the plane perpen-
dicular to z
= (0, 0, B),
B =E
E = E0 (x iy) eit (2)
If the light wave propagates in the positive z direction, i.e. E ei(qzt) , then the
plus (minus) sign in (2) corresponds to the left (right) circular polarization. In the
case of the right circular polarization, the end point of the E-vector is making a
right-handed screw line in the direction of propagation at a certain time t (see for
instance Griths, Introduction to electrodynamics, p. 374).
(a) Introducing the expressions for the elds in (1), the equation may be solved,
with respect to r , by assuming
where c is the cyclotron frequency (section 21.2). The current density and the
conductivity tensor are determined from
j = ner ,
j = E (6)
A 0 ne2
= ne = , 0 = (7)
E0 1 i ic m
4ne2 40
p2 =
= (10)
m
The index of refraction, (20.18), is
p2 i
n = n + i = 1 2 1 c ,
p (11)
2
The Faraday rotation of the polarization vector per unit length along the sample
is then found to be
p2 p2 c
= n n+ = 2 2 c = (12)
2c 2c 2 2c 2
is along the
Notice, that the sign of is determined by the sign of c , or B, i.e. if B
negative z direction then is negative. If the active carriers are holes rather than
electrons, we may perform exactly the same calculation except that e is replaced
by e in all expressions (m is then the positive hole mass), hence the sign of ,
like the Hall voltage, depends on the kind of carriers.
Derivation of the expression for the Faraday rotation angle: Assuming the incident
light wave to be linearly polarized along the x axis at z = 0, then we want to nd
the angle of rotation of the polarization vector in the xy plane as a function of z.
1
E(z)/E0 = 2 (x + iy)e
i(q+ zt)
+ 12 (x iy)ei(q zt) (13)
Condensed Matter Physics 2 18
At z = 0, the polarization vector is parallel to x, E(0)/E it . Introducing
0 = xe
1 1
= 2 (q+ + q )z and = 2 (q+ q )z, or q+ z = + and q z = ,
then we get
E(z)/E0 =
1
2 (x + iy)ei + 12 (x iy)ei ei(t) (14)
This expression shows that the polarization vector at z is making the angle z =
= 12 (q+ q )z with the x axis. According to (20.18) q = n /c, and the
rotation angle per unit length, along the direction of light propagation, is
= 12 (q+ q ) = n n+ (15)
2c
In the case where the carriers are electrons, then > 0, which sign corresponds to
a counter-clockwise or left-handed rotation of the polarization vector along z.
We are going to utilize the solution of problem 22.2 in the following. Here is
dened by the vector relation j = E
in the xy plane, or
+
(Ex + iEy )
jx + ijy = (9)
xx Ex + xy Ey + i(xy Ex + xx Ey ) = (xx ixy )(Ex + iEy )
(c) The situation is exactly the one considered in problem 22.2, and the result
found there is [combining (8) and (9) in the solution of 22.2]
4i 0 p2
= 1 + =1+i
1 i ic 1 i ic
(12)
p2 1 p2 1 i
=1+ = 1 , = +
i1 c c
Condensed Matter Physics 2 20
or nally
p2 1 (c /) eB 40 4ne2
= 1 , c = , p2 = = (13)
1 (c /)2 m c m
which result agrees with the expression for xx = (+ + )/2 given by (23.82).
(d) The atomic density (front page) of aluminium metal is 6.02 1022 cm3 . Ac-
cording to Table 6.1, the number of conduction electrons per atom is 3, i.e. the
electron density in Al3+ -metal is n = 18.06 1022 cm3 . The cyclic plasma fre-
quency is p = 5.64(15) 1015 rad/s, when n = 1022 cm3 and m = m, see (23.3).
[Incidentally, the unit of a cyclic frequency is not Hz but rad/s or just s1 . The
unit Hz (hertz) is reserved for the case of cycles per second, = /(2).] In the
case of Al-metal,
p2 p2
= , c
1 (17)
( c + i ) ( c )
The helicon resonance is related to the Hall eect, and the result may be written
in a simple form in terms of the Hall coecient R = (nec)1 :
B|R|
= (ck)2 (cgs-Gaussian units) (19)
4
In the experiments of, for instance, R. Bowers, C. Legendy and F. Rose, Phys.
Rev. Lett. 7, 339 (1961), wavelengths of the order of 1 cm are considered. In the
case of Al-metal, = 1 cm corresponds to a helicon frequency of = 1.77 Hz at
B = 10 kG. In sodium (n = 2.54 1022 cm3 ) this frequency is 12.3 Hz. Bowers et
al. observed a standing wave resonance in a Na sample of length l = 4 mm at 32
Hz and 10 kG. The resonance condition is l = /2, and our simple model predicts
/2 to be about 3.1 mm at the same frequency and eld.
( , ), sublattice A
R
, R
(R ) = sublattice B
(2)
( , ), R
(a) In the mean-eld (MF) approximation we get, when inserting (2) in (1),
MF 1
E= R
J R + R
R
R
R
HB R
2
RR R
1
= J R
R
HB R
+ 2 N zJ
R (3)
R R
N/2
N/2
1
=
zJ + B H R zJ + B H R
+ 2 N zJ
RA
RB
Condensed Matter Physics 2 22
!
Because of the MF-approximation, the total energy E = R ER
is the sum of the
individual contributions of each site, and the partition function of the total system
" "
E ER
Z= e = e = ZR
(4)
all E
R all ER
R
is reduced so to become the product of the partition functions ZR for the individual
belongs to the sublattice A
sites, see for instance (6.40). For the sites, where R
(), we get, when omitting the constant energy term 12 zJ ,
Z = e [(zJ +B H)] = e (zJ +B H ) = 2 cosh zJ + B H (5)
=1 =1
Notice that the omission of a constant energy term does not aect the calculation
of a thermal expectation value. Z and are determined equivalently
Z = 2 cosh zJ + B H , = tanh (zJ + B H) (7)
N
F= kB T ln Z + ln Z + N 12 zJ =
2
N # $ N
kB T ln 2 cosh (zJ + B H) + ln 2 cosh (zJ + B H) + zJ
2 2
(8)
The constant energy term neglecting in the partition functions adds to F.
(b) The self-consistent equations determining and are derived above.
(c) In the paramagnetic phase, T > TN , and vanish in the limit H 0.
Expanding tanh to leading order, tanh x x, we get from (6) and (7)
= tanh (zJ + B H) (zJ + B H)
B H
= = (9)
1 zJ
= tanh (zJ + B H) (zJ + B H)
The expectation values and are equal and are proportional to the eld. The
magnetization is M = (N/V )B ( + )/2 and the susceptibility is dened as
= M/H in the limit of zero eld, and we nd
N 2B N 2B z|J |
= , = = TN (10)
V kB T zJ V kB (T ) kB
(d) The Neel temperature is the temperature below which the self-consistent equa-
tions for and have a non-zero solution at zero eld. The solution is obtained
by assuming = , and H = 0, in which case we get
= tanh (z|J |)( ) = tanh(z|J | ) = tanh( ) (11)
This equation is the same as considered in the case of the ferromagnet, (24.56), and
it has a non-zero solution, when the coecient 1. The Neel temperature TN
is the temperature at which = z|J | = 1, or TN = z|J |/kB . The paramagnetic
susceptibility, which diverges at the transition, is obtained by applying a eld with
the same symmetry as the ordered phase. The application of a staggered eld,
where HR = +H at the A sites and H at the B sites determines straightforwardly
(using = ) the staggered susceptibility to be
N B ( ) N 2B
stag = = (12)
V 2H V kB (T TN )
which diverges at TN .
(e) Spin-ip transition: In the ordered phase, the application of a small eld along
z, in the up direction, does not change = 1 or = 1. However, if the eld
becomes suciently large, the spins antiparallel to the eld are going to ip so to
become parallel to the eld. This rst-order spin-ip transition happens, when the
Zeeman-energy gain is able to compensate for the loss of exchange energy.
Introducing dimensionless quantities, then
+ h
+ h B H T
= tanh , = tanh , h= , t= (13)
t t z|J | TN
(
F t + h + h
f= = ln 2 cosh + ln 2 cosh 12
N z|J | 2 t t
) )(
t + h )) + h )) 1 12 , 0<h<1
+) ) 2 =
2 t t h + 12 , h>1
(14)
Hence, the free energies of the antiferromagnetic phase f = 1/2 and of the spin-
ipped phase f = h + 1/2 are equal at the transition at h = 1. At a nite
temperature the spin-ip transition is smeared out due to thermal eects. The
gure below shows the numerical calculated magnetization, ( + )/2, as a
function of the eld h at various values of temperature t.
Condensed Matter Physics 2 24
1.2
t
1.0 0
0.2
0.4
0.8 0.6
Averaged spin
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Magnetic field (h)
24.6 Superlattices
We are going to use the same choice as Marder, that R = 1 or 1 signies a site
occupied by, respectively, a B or an A atom. With this choice, the eective energy
parameters are those given by (24.67 ) above. In the mean-eld approximation
MF
H = J R
R + R
R
R
R
B H R
= HR
(2)
R
R
R
R
25 Problems in Chapter 24 (ordering)
where
1
R
R +R
R
= R
R + R
R
= R
R
2 (nn)
R
R RR R R
N 3N
= 12 A
B + A
8 A
+ 4 B
s s s s s
s
B s
A
(3)
Here N is the number of unit cells (or Bs sites), and R
= As s
(B
), if R = As
s ) is the position of an As (Bs ) site. The (grand) partition function of the total
(B
system is the product of the individual partition functions for each site, because
!
H= R HR , and in the case of an As site (omitting the constant energy term)
[J (8 +4 )+B H ]
As Bs
ZAs = e (4)
=1
implying that
1 [J (8 +4 )+B H ]
=
A e As Bs
s ZAs =1 (5)
# $
= tanh 8 J A
+ 4 J B
+ B H
s s
and equivalently # $
B
= tanh 12 J A
+ B H (6)
s s
(b) R
= +1 for the B atoms and the number of these atoms is equal the number
of unit cells N , whereas the number of A atoms is 3N . These conditions imply
N 3N = 2N
3N B
= = 2 3 A
R N
s = N B
s + 3N A
s
s s
Bs + A
R
s
B s
A
(7)
(c) The chemical potential, or eectively B H, has to be adjusted so that the two
equations (5) and (6) are in accordance with the relation B s = 2 3 A
s .
The eective Zeeman term may be eliminated:
tanh1 A 1
tanh B
= 8 J A
+ 4 J B
+ B H
s s s
s (8)
12 J A
+ B H = 4J B
A
= 8J 1 + 2A
s s s s
In the disordered phase both the As and the Bs sites are occupied by an A atom
with the probability 34 or A
s = B
3 1 1
s = (1) 4 + (+1) 4 = 2 . This result is in
accordance with (7) and Q = 1 2A = 0. In the completely ordered phase at
s
Condensed Matter Physics 2 26
zero temperature, all A (B) atoms are placed on the As (Bs ) sites implying that
= 1 and B
A = 1 and hence Q = 1.
s s
only contributes
(b) In the presence of a time-independent electromagnetic eld, E
to the potential energy as determined by the scalar potential. The magnetic eld
only aects the velocities of the particles via the vector potential A
B = A(
r ),
where B = A. For the ith particle with mass mi and charge qi , the canonical
impulse is
2
q 1 q
pi = mir i + i A Ti = 12 mi (r i )2 = pi i A (2)
c 2mi c
[The magnetic eld needs not to be uniform in space, but only to be constant in
time the case of a spatial uniform eld is discussed in the next problem 25.4].
27 Problems in Chapter 25 and 26 (magnetism)
(c) The canonical impulse pi appears in the Hamiltonian only via the kinetic energy
Ti . Assuming H in (1) to be the Hamiltonian function of the system, when the
magnetic eld is zero (but including the potential energy contributions of the
electric eld), then the introduction of the magnetic eld implies that
q1 q
H(r1 ,p1 , ,rn ,pn ) H r1 ,p1 A(r1 ), ,rn ,pn n A(
rn ) (3)
c c
The partition function Z in the presence of the magnetic eld is then
q
1 H r1 ,p1 c1 A(
r ),,r ,p qn A(
r )
=
Z(B) d
r d
p
1 1 dr d
n n p e 1 n n c n
hn
(4)
1
= n dr1 dp1 drn dpn e H(r1 ,p1 ,,rn ,pn ) = Z(0)
h
The integration with respect to the canonical impulse pi may be performed before
the ri -integrations. Introducing the following change of variables pi = pi ci A(
q
ri ),
then dpi = dpi , since A(ri ) is independent of pi . This transformation of variables
therefore leads to the same integral as in (1). The elimination of B in the partition
function means, for instance, that the magnetic susceptibility of a classical equilib-
rium system is zero. This result is called the Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem. Notice,
that it is important for the argumentation that the system is in equilibrium (the
basis for the use of the partition function).
where
eB ky 2 kz2
c = , x0 = , z = (7)
mc mc 2m
Equation (6) is the eigenvalue equation for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator,
displaced to be centered around x = x0 and shifted in energy by the constant (with
respect to x) energy z . Hence, the nal eigenstates are classied by (ky , kz ) and
the occupation number , and the energy eigenvalues are
2 kz2
1
,ky ,kz = + 2 c + , = 0, 1, 2, (8)
2m
This is the result (25.48) utilized in the analysis of the Landau diamagnetism.
[Slx , Sl y ] = i ll Slz , [Sly , Sl z ] = i ll Slx , [Slz , Sl x ] = i ll Sly (2)
(a) Dening the following operator: Sz = Slz (3)
l
S
then the commutator of this operator with a single term S in (1) is
l l
[ Sz , S
S ] = [ S , S
l l z l
+ S [ S , S
]S
l l z
]
l
= [Slz , Slx ] Sl x + [Slz , Sly ] Sl y + Slx [Sl z , Sl x ] + Sly [Sl z , Sl y ] (4)
= i Sly Sl x i Slx Sl y + i Slx Sl y i Sly Sl x = 0
(b) Dening S = S
+S and using S2 = (S
+S )2 = S
2 + S
2 + 2S
S
R R
R
R
R R R R
S
Max{|S |} = 1 [2S(2S + 1) 2S(S + 1)] = S 2 (7)
R
R 2
29 Problems in Chapter 25 and 26 (magnetism)
(c) The eigenvalue of H in (5) for the fully polarized states requires that each pair
of operators in (1) contributes by their maximum. Hence, if all exchange constants
Jll 0, then the eigenvalue in (5) is the lowest possible value, i.e. the two fully
polarized states are the two degenerate ground states.
The lowest exited states are linear combination of the states, where all ml = S
except that ml = S 1 for one particular site. Naming the product of these states
for |l, where l is the site at which ml = S 1, then it is straightforward to show
that the eigenstates of H constructed from these states are the Fourier transforms
of |l. These excited states are characterized by the wave vector k of the Fourier
transformation, and the energy dierence between one excited k-state and the
ground state is the spin wave energy, S[J (0) J (k)]. Hence, these lowest excited
states, the one-magnon states, are exact solutions to the Heisenberg Hamiltonian
but this is no longer the case if proceeding to the two-magnon states, where the
eigenvalue of Sz is N S 2.
1 1 +
h = H + N z|J |S 2 = 2a ak + a+ a+ + ak ak cos(k )
2z|J |S 2z k k k
k
(1)
1
= a+ ak + 1
2 a+ a+ + ak ak Bk , Bk = cos(k )
k k k z
k
The operators are dened by (26.51) in terms of al and its hermitean conjugate
a+
l , which are the annihilation and creation operators, also named Bose operators,
of a harmonic oscillator at the site l. These operators obey the Bose commutator
relations [al , a+ + +
l ] = ll and [al , al ] = [al , al ] = 0, which imply
which are diagonal with respect to the wave vector index (notice that the wave
vector k is assumed to be a discrete variable). The Hamiltonian (1) is not diag-
onal in the number representations of the harmonic oscillators, since it involves
a+ a+ + ak ak . One way to solve an eigenvalue problem is to make a canonical
k k
transformation of the Hamiltonian to one for which the eigenvalue equations have
been solved. In the present case, we want to nd a new Bose operator , in
k
terms of which h only depends on the number operators + , in which case h is
k k
diagonal. This procedure is called the Bogoliubov transformation:
The last equation indicates that uk and vk are assumed to be real functions. This
is a valid simplication in the present case, but it is not a general requirement.
The demand that the new operators should also be Bose operators implies
[ak , a+ ] = [uk k + vk + , uk + + vk k ] = uk uk kk vk vk kk = kk (5)
k k k
In order to diagonalize this Hamiltonian we have to search for values of uk and
vk , where the last term in (8) vanishes and the requirements of (6) are fullled.
In order to simplify the search, we make the ansatz u = u , which is consistent
k k
with the dierent conditions only if vk = vk . In this case the equations are
2uk vk = Bk u2k + vk2 , u2k vk2 = 1 (9)
Introducing v2 = u2 1 in the squared version of the rst equation, we get an
k k
equation of second degree in u2k . Determining the solution of this equation subject
to the condition v2 > 0 or u2 > 1, we get
k k
1 + 1 B
u2k = k
, vk2 = k
, 2uk vk = k
, k = 1 B2 (10)
2 2 k
k k k
The antiferromagnetic Neel state, where the spins of the two sublattices are either
+S or S is not an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian. The second term of H, dis-
cussed by Marder, shows that the ground state energy is smaller than that derived
from the Neel state. Additionally, the magnitude |Sz (l)| is smaller than S at
zero temperature. This zero-point reduction of the antiferromagnetic moment
is determined by the site average of |0|Sz (l)|0| = S 0|a+
l al |0, where |0 is the
product ground state of the N independent harmonic oscillators, k |0 = 0,
1 1
S = 0|a+
l al |0 = 0|a+ ak |0 =
N l N k
k
(13)
1 + )) ) ,
) 1 2 1 1 k
0) uk + + vk k uk k + vk + )0 = vk =
N k k N N 2k
k k k
which number is calculated [P.W. Anderson, Phys. Rev. 86, 694 (1952)] to be 0.078
in the case of a simple cubic lattice (z = 6).
"
N
Z= Zl = Z N , Zl = Z = ei = e + 1 + e (1)
l=1 i
F 1 Z
S= = N kB ln Z + N kB T
T Z T
1 Z 1 Z 1 i (3)
U = F + T S = N kB T 2 = N =N e
Z T Z Z i i
Introducing the population factor for the ith level (the probability that this level
is occupied):
ei e e
pi U =N i pi = N (4)
Z i
e + 1 + e
!
Notice, that i pi = 1. In terms of the population factors, the thermal expectation
!
value of any single site operator A is A = i i|A|ipi , and the entropy is S =
!
N kB i pi ln pi .
Condensed Matter Physics 2 32
F 1 Z 2N
= N kB T = N kB T (p1 + 0 p2 p3 ) = N (p3 p1 ) (7)
Z 3kB T
The last equality is most simply obtained from F derived in (5). In the presence of
a magnetic eld H, applied along the z axis, the Hamiltonian is specied in terms
of the Zeeman interaction
H= Hl = gB H Slz , S=1 (8)
l l
The Hamiltonian of one of the sites is diagonal in the Sz -representation and the
eigenenergies are
|Sz = 1 i = gB H = (i = 3)
|S = 0 i = 0 (i = 2) (9)
z
|Sz = 1 i = gB H = (i = 1)
Hence the Hamiltonian (8) leads to the case considered when gB H = , and the
derivative of F with respect to is proportional to the magnetization, or
)
1 F (gB ) F N 2 (gB )2 M )) N 2 (gB )2
M = = H, = =
V H V V 3kB T H )H0 V 3kB T
(10)
The susceptibility is calculated in the limit of H or 0, hence the expression
derived is valid at all T . Notice, that M may also be obtained from
M V = gB Slz = N gB i|Sz |i pi = N gB (p1 p3 ) (11)
l i
The result for in (10) is Curies law in the case of S = 1, see (25.31)-(25.32).
4) Dening x = the heat capacity derived from U in (4) is
U U 2 ex ex 2 ex + ex + 4
C= = = N =N
T kB T 2 x kB T 2 x ex + 1 + ex kB T 2 (ex + 1 + ex )2
2 e + e + 4 2 /(kB T )
=N N e for T 0
kB T 2 (e + 1 + e )2 kB T 2
(12)
33 Problems in Chapter 27 (superconductivity)
The gure to the left shows the reduced heat capacity c = C/(N kB ) as a function
of the reduced temperature t = kB T / the thin lines are the results for c(t) in
the high- and low-temperature limits, (6) and (12). This characteristic behaviour
of the heat capacity is called a Schottky anomaly. The number of levels involved in
the anomaly for an arbitrary value of S is (2S + 1), i.e. 3 levels in the present case
of S = 1. This number may be determined from a heat capacity experiment by
evaluating the entropy in the high temperature limit, since S = N kB ln(2S + 1)
for a general value of S. A measurement of C = T ( S/T ) determines S, and
T
C S c
S= dT s = = dt = ln(2S + 1) (13)
0 T N kB 0 t
t t
1 2 3 1 2 3 4
i = H
B i + 4 M
= 0 = 1 H
M (1)
4 i
Assuming the sample to be a thin needle along the direction of the applied magnetic
eld H (along z), the demagnetization eld H = N M 0. In this case,
0 d z
the magnetic eld within the sample is H =H and the magnetization is M =
i 0
H /(4). According to eq. (2.6) in the note Magnetic energy and domains, the
0
magnetic energy density is then,
H 2
1 dr = 1
H 0
= H0
dH
F = GM = M 0 H 0 0 (2)
V M sample V 4 0 8
Hc2
G = GS + GM , GS = (3)
8
Condensed Matter Physics 2 34
If the sample has instead the shape of a sphere, then (1) and (3) still apply, but
N M Nz 1
=H
H i
+H
0
=H
d 0 z
=H
+ DH
0
,
i D = (sphere) (4)
4 3
implying
H 0 Hc2 H02
i =
H , G = GS + GM = + (5)
1D 8 8(1 D)
The internal eld Hi is larger than the applied eld and becomes equal the critical
one, when the applied eld is H0 = (1 D)Hc = 23 Hc . This condition is not
necessarily critical, since the
global free energy of the superconducting sphere is still
negative (as long as H0 < 1 D Hc ). A detail discussion of the intermediate state
of the superconductor, when (1 D)Hc < H0 < Hc , may be found in Landau and
Lifshits, Electrodynamics of continuous media (Volume 8, 2nd Edition, page 189).
In the intermediate range of the applied eld, local thermodynamic instabilities
are going to destroy superconductivity in parts of the sphere such that the eective
D is reduced suciently to sustain superconductivity in the remaining parts. The
assumption that the superconducting domain takes the form of a prolate ellipsoid
with radius a < R and constant height 2R (the largest volume for a certain value of
D) is the most obvious one, but this conguration turns out to be thermodynamical
unstable (the eld in the normal part of the sphere is smaller than Hc near the
end points of the ellipsoid). Nevertheless, domains of superconductivity are going
to be present as long as H0 < Hc .
Here 20 = / is the equilibrium value at large x, and the change in energy per
unit area, in comparison with the homogeneous case, is
2
LF = 20 dx ( 1) + 2 1 2
2 0 (
4
1) + ( )2 (3)
0 2m
which energy per unit area is positive and in agreement with (27.52) [G = F
= 0].
since B
(b) Next we consider the opposite limit of L , in which case (x) 0 and
the gradient may be neglected. In this case the free energy density is
dr B2 4e2 dr A2
F = FS + FM , FM = + A2 20 = 2
B + 2 (6)
V 8 2m c2 8V L
where the rst term is the zero-eld contribution of the homogeneous supercon-
ductor, (2) when = 0, and FM is the magnetic energy density in (27.27), when
2L = m c2 /(16e2 20 ), (27.32), is inserted. The applied eld is assumed to be
parallel to the interface, i.e. along z, and B =H in the normal metal [this con-
0
guration leads to the largest possible energy gain]. Assuming A to be along the
y direction, A = (0, A(x), 0), then B = A = (0, 0, A (x)) for x > 0. According
to (27.9), Bz = B(0) ex/L for x > 0, where B(0) = H0 . Hence
introducing this in (6), we get (for the eld energy within the superconductor)
L
2B 2 (x) H02 2x/L H2
L FM = dx = dx e = 0 L (8)
0 8 0 4 8
The magnetic free energy may also be calculated in a direct fashion
1 dr = 1 dx H0
x/L H02 L
FM = B
H He dH = (9)
4 V 4 0 L 0 8 L
= (0, x H, 0),
A A
= (0, 0, H) = B,
A
=0 (1)
The current density in the y direction between the two superconductors, (27.68a),
is independent of z (when staying within the cross-section of the normal metal):
2
2e = j sin + 4 Hd x
j(x) = j0 sin 2 1 + ds A 0 2 1 (3)
c 1 0 y
(c) At zero voltage the phases of the wave functions in the superconductors 1 and
2, 1 and 2 , are constant in time. The result (5) clearly shows that the maximum
current at a certain eld and zero voltage is
) )
) 2 ))
Jmax = J0 0 ))sin (6)
2 0 )