Diverse Careers in Community Psychology

Diverse Careers inCommunity
Psychology

Advances inCommunity PsychologySeries

The Book Series of the Society for Community Research andAction
Series Editors
Nicole E.Allen
BradleyOlson
AdvisoryBoard
Mona M.Amer
G. AnneBogat
MegBond
M. BrintonLykes
Ana MariCauce
Gary W.Harper
NikiHarr
James G.Kelly
BretKloos
Kenneth I.Maton
Roger Mitchell
Maritza Montero
Isaac Prilleltensky
Julian Rappaport
Irma Serrano-Garcia
MarybethShinn
ChristopherSonn
Cris Sullivan
Jacob K.Tebes
Roderick J.Watts
TomWolff
Books in theSeries
Principles of SocialChange
Leonard A.Jason
Community Psychology and Community Mental Health:Towards TransformativeChange
Edited by Geoffrey Nelson, Bret Kloos, and Jos Ornelas
Influencing Social Policy:Applied Psychology Serving the Public Interest
Kenneth I.Maton
Housing, Citizenship, and Communities for People with Serious Mental Illness:Theory, Research,
Practice, and Policy Perspectives
Edited by John Sylvestre, Geoffrey Nelson, and TimAubry
Diverse Careers in Community Psychology
Edited by Judah J. Viola and Olya Glantsman
Forthcoming Books in theSeries
The Return of the Sun:Suicide and Social Transformation among Inuit in ArcticCanada
Michael J.Kral
Community Power and Empowerment
Brian D. Christens
A Guidebook for Community Consultants
Susan M. Wolfe and Ann WebbPrice
Rethinking American Indian Mental Health:Perspectives from Community Psychology
Joseph P.Gone

Diverse Careers
inCommunity
Psychology
EDITED BY
J U D A H J. V I O L A
and
O LYA G L A N T S M A N
1
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the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
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Oxford University Press2017
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ISBN 9780190457938
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Printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada

For Donna and James, your unconditional love has freed me to pour my love into my
family, my work, and my communities. For Alina, Liya, and Ellie, your love
is what Icherish most in theworld.
~ JudahViola
To my family, Mike, Nicholas, and Katherinethank you for your endless

love and support.
~ Olya Glantsman

CONTENTS
Series Foreword by Bradley Olson and Nicole E. Allen xi

Foreword by Leonard A.Jason xiii
About the Editors xv
Contributors xvii
Introduction xxv
1. Answers to All Your Questions about Careers in Community

Psychology 1
J u d a h J. V i o l a , O lya G l a n t s m a n, A m b e r E . W i l l i a m s ,
and Cari Stevenson
2. Federal Careers for Applied Community Psychologists:Transitioning

into a Public Health Agency 20
Theresa L. Armstead
3. Federal Careers for Applied Community Psychologists:Pathways

and Roles 28
Richard A. Jenkins
4. Accidental Community Psychologist:From the Classroom

to the State Capitol 50
T e r e s a G a r at e
5. Community-Based Practice Mission:To Deliver Psychology

by Walking Around 61
A l l e n W. R at c l i f f e
vii

viii Contents
6. The World of Foundations:An Ideal Setting for a Community

Psychologist 69
JudithMeyers
7. Leading the Way:The Role of Community Psychology

in Nonprofits 78
Victoria Chien Scott and Greg Meissen
8. Supporting Community Agencies:The Non-Academic Side

of University Work 92
C r y s ta l R e i n h a r t
9. Putting Your Training to Work:Finding a PracticeJob 101

S h a r o n J o h n s o n -H a k i m a n d A s h l e y B o a l
10. Practicing Community Psychology in a Large Nonprofit Research

and Evaluation Organization 115
M a n o lya Ta n y u
11. Five Years as a Hired Gun:Working in For-Profit Evaluation

Consulting 129
A l i s o n J. M a r t i n
12. Practicing Community Psychology in a Small Evaluation and

Consulting Firm 147
Michelle Bloodworth
13. Nonprofit Support:Can You Profit from Working with

Nonprofits? 157
M a r c G o l d s t e i n a n d J o h n D av i au
14. Going Solo:Community Psychology as a Small Business 169

Susan M.Wolfe
15. A Crossroads of Disciplines:AFunny Thing Happened

on the Way to the Academy... 183
V i n c e n t T. F r a n c i s c o
16. Community Colleges:APlace for Community Psychology

in Action 189
John M.Majer

Contents ix
17. Roles Beyond Faculty in Academia 205

L u c i a n o B e r a r d i a n d L i n d s e y T. B a c k
18. Preparing and Applying for a Teaching-Focused Faculty

Position:Navigating the Road 216
G e r a l d i n e L . Pa l m e r
19. The Road to Scholarly Riches:Preparing and Applying for the

Academic Market 230
Christopher R . Beasley
20. Writing Grants to Fund Research and Programs 241

Fa b r i c i o E . B a l c a z a r a n d Yo l a n d a S ua r e z -B a l c a z a r
21. International Community Psychology Development:ACase Example

in Nigeria 258
M a r y G l o r i a C . N j o ku
22. Doing Community Psychology Internationally:Lessons Learned

in the Field 270
R o n a l d H a rv e y a n d N i k o l ay L . M i h ay l o v
23. From Preparation to Practice:How to Find Training in Community

Psychology 294
S y lv i e Tay l o r a n d G r e g o r V. S a r k i s i a n
Index 305

SERIES FOREWORD
The Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA), Division 27 of the
American Psychological Association, is an international and interdisciplinary
organization that supports the development of theory, research, and social action.
Members share a common interest in promoting empowerment, health, and well-
being, with special attention to multiple levels of analysis, including the individual,
group, organizational, community, cultural, and societal. Division members focus
on an array of pressing social issues within national and global contexts (such as
violence, mental health, HIV/AIDS, poverty, racism) and have developed effective
social interventions to address seemingly intractable issues using a continuum of
approaches from prevention to intervention to social change. These approaches to
change involve diverse strategies, including, for example, advocacy, citizen partici-
pation, collaboration, community organizing, economic development, prevention
education, self-help/mutual-help, sociopolitical development, social movements,
and policy change. These change strategies typically share the goal of challenging
and altering underlying power structures in the pursuit of social justice and com-
munity and individual well-being.
This book series, Advances in Community Psychology, is sponsored by SCRA
and aims to aid in the dissemination of theory, research, and social action as devel-
oped by SCRA members as well as nonmembers working in allied disciplines. The
overarching mission of the series is to create a publication venue that (a)highlights
the contributions of the fields of community psychology, and more generally, com-
munity action, research, and practice; (b)integrates current knowledge of pressing
topics and priorities for the field; and (c)offers the foundations for future directions.
Diverse Careers in Community Psychology, edited by Viola and Glantsman, pro-
vides expert models to explore the many career pathways that support the ability
to practice, conduct research, teach, consult, and bring about policy change. From
students (undergraduate or graduate) to advanced professionals who want to make
a shift, expand, or change their career (or to better mentor their own mentees), the
xi

xii Ser ie s Foreword
book offers guidance. Community psychology is a discipline that lies at the inter-
section of research, values, and social action. This volume is therefore relevant to
current and future social scientists and practitioners, including sociologists and
policymakers who want to engage in participatory-built interventions, or who are
hoping to conduct research to test these interventions, and clinical psychologists
and social workers who want to improve their use of tools on whole communities
or larger systems.
The book is designed to help readers better understand their options and deter-
mine the best career choices. The chapters advise on where to look for jobs, how to
best position oneself, and what to expect in each job sector and position. The book
provides details about each different type of career (e.g., tasks involved, benefits and
challenges, salary range, and so on) as well as the unique competencies needed to
succeed ineach.
There are over twenty chapters by authors who share their personal stories and
guidance on how to select, prepare for, find, and succeed in careers similar to theirs.
The content of several of these chapters is built upon a career survey of more than
400 respondents, providing quantitative information about the different types of
settings. Further interviews are used to illustrate the current state of career options
for the field, necessary training and skills required, as well as the pros and cons of
choosing a particular career path in government, health care, education, nonprofits,
and consulting.
This is an important resource to help people in these fields carry on their essen-
tial work through careers that provide them with stability and maximize their abili-
ties. This extensive survey of occupations will propel readers toward their life goals
and enable them to help others discover their own goals. We have no doubt that this
volume will impact and expand the social justice work of these fields for decades
tocome.
Bradley Olson and Nicole E.Allen

FOREWORD
I am delighted to write this foreword for Judah Viola and Olya Glantsmans Diverse
Careers in Community Psychology. This text illustrates how both students who are
training in community psychology (CP) and professionals in the field serve and col-
laborate in multiple settings and across diverse sectors to influence positive social
change. The contributors discuss a wide range of social problems and propose
unique perspectives for preventive and community-based change. With breadth
and depth, this book captures the full array of diverse careers available to individuals
with training in the field. The book will be essential reading for those with interests
in community psychology or related fields, including practitioners who consult and
conduct program evaluations for community and other organizations. Students,
professionals, and practitioners will benefit substantially from learning more about
the range of community-based opportunities.
There are a number of critical orienting principles for social change, including
(a)developing a clear vision of second-order change (changing systems that cre-
ate problems); (b)focusing interventions on those who perpetuate powerlessness,
poverty, and other forms of oppression; and (c)working with citizens and organi-
zations to create coalitions. Coalitions can additionally confront abuses of power
by (d)remaining persistent, patient, and willing to do what is necessary over the
long haul (i.e., maintaining a long-term commitment to change), and (e)continu-
ously evaluating and refining strategies and tactics to find the most effective means
of bringing about change ( Jason, 2013). The contributors in this book successfully
illustrate each of these principles; and by doing so, they indicate that community
psychologists are moving toward revolutionary ways of ameliorating our most
pressing social and community problems.
Themes that have emerged in the field of CP over time are also well repre-
sented. Prevention is emphasized over treatment, competencies over deficits, col-
laboration across disciplines and beyond silos, understanding people within their
xiii

xiv Fore word
environments, promoting diversity, and focusing on community building as a mode

of intervention (for more details, see Moritsugu, Vera, Wong, & Duffy,2013).
Diverse Careers in Community Psychology offers new ways of helping students and
practitioners think about how contextual factors are best approached through col-
laborative, community partnerships. This book provides various exemplars, show-
ing real-life applications of community psychology. The chapter authors tell stories
of specific careers and propose myriad ideas for enhancing, through participatory
methods, specific contexts in order to alleviate human suffering.
Within the social sciences, community psychology is arguably one of the
more complex fields, attempting to influence multiple levels of society ( Jason &
Glenwick, 2016; Tolan, Keys, Chertok, & Jason, 1990). The chapters invariably
describe dynamic systems that provide examples of how students can obtain careers
that allow them to collaborate with others to bring about positive forms of social
change. This orientation, at the core of our work, leads to many insights on how
to bring about higher order, structural change. These critical values are echoed
throughout thisbook.
In summary, this book has more breadth and depth than any other, and should
be required reading for any students or professionals in the CPfield.
Leonard A. Jason
November 2016
References
Jason, L. A. (2013). Principles of social change. NewYork, NY:Oxford UniversityPress.
Jason, L. A., & Glenwick, D. S. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of methodological approaches to
community-based research:Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed Methods. NewYork, NY:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Moritsugu, J., Vera, E. G., Wong, F.W., & Duffy, K.G. (2013). Community psychology (5th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ:Pearson.
Tolan, P., Keys, C., Chertok, F., & Jason, L. (Eds.). (1990). Researching community psychology:Issues
of theory and methods. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S
Judah J. Viola, PhD, is dean of the College of Professional Studies and Advancement
at National Louis University in Chicago. He earned a BA in psychology and his-
tory from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and an MA and PhD in commu-
nity psychology from DePaul University. Judahs research and advocacy interests
involve promoting healthy communities and increasing civic engagement and pro-
social behavior. Judah has written most extensively on evaluation research, includ-
ing his 2010 book, Consulting and Evaluation with Nonprofit and Community-Based
Organizations. He is active in the Society for Community Research and Action
(SCRA) and the Chicagoland Evaluation Association (CEA), a local affiliate of
the American Evaluation Association. Judah serves on the Executive Committee of
the Consortium to Lower Obesity in Chicago Children (CLOCC), a broad-based
network confronting the childhood obesity epidemic by promoting policies and
environmental changes that support healthy and active lifestyles. Judah also man-
ages an independent consulting practice specializing in needs assessment, program
evaluation, community building, and collaborative community research. Recent
clients have included public school systems, museums and art institutions, social
service and public health agencies, and community development organizations.
For more information, see Judahs webpage (http://works.bepress.com/judah_
viola/).
Olya Glantsman, PhD, earned a doctorate in community psychology and a

graduate certificate in womens and gender studies from DePaul University in
2013. She is currently the director/coordinator of their undergraduate concen-
tration in community psychology and a visiting professor in DePauls psychol-
ogy department. She is also a research associate for the Center for Community
Research studying Oxford House recovery homes. Dr.Glantsman has been active
in the Society for Community Research and Action (American Psychological
Association, Division 27)since 2002. She is a co-chair of the Practice Council, an
xv

xvi About the Editors
editor of the Community Psychologists The Community Practitioner column, one

of the regional coordinators for the Midwest, and a member of the Council on
Education. Her research interests include cultural diversity, improving academic
environments for students and faculty, community psychology values, and the
teaching of psychology.

CO N T R I B U TO R S
Theresa L. Armstead is a behavioral scientist in the Research and Evaluation

Branch, Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Control and
Prevention, CDC. Dr.Armstead is a member of the Intimate Partner Violence/
Teen Dating Violence team and serves as the scientific lead for the evaluation
of the DELTA FOCUS (Domestic Violence Prevention Enhancement and
Leadership Through Alliances, Focusing on Outcomes for Communities United
with States) program. She has nine years of program evaluation experience in the
public health areas of chronic disease prevention, violence prevention, HIV and
AIDS prevention, and emergency response.
Lindsey T. Back completed her PhD in community psychology from DePaul

in 2014. In her current role, she is a senior analyst in the office of Institutional
Research and Assessment at Northeastern Illinois University, using data to under-
stand and improve diverse students experiences and outcomes. Her research inter-
ests include access issues in higher education, empowerment of underrepresented
students in education, and promotion of academic achievement and retention.
Fabricio E. Balcazar, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Disability and

Human Development, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). Dr.Balcazars pri-
mary interest is in developing effective strategies for enhancing empowerment and
personal effectiveness among minority individuals and marginalized communities.
Dr.Balcazar has conducted research over the past 25years on several disability-
related areas and directs the Center on Capacity Building for Minorities with
Disabilities Research atUIC.
Christopher R. Beasley received his PhD in community psychology from DePaul

University in 2013. He is currently an assistant professor at Washington College.
Dr.Beasley examines ecological processes related to community engagement.
xvii

xviii Cont r ibutors
In particular, he has examined involvement in mutual-help addiction recovery

groups and ways in which members support these groups and organizations.
Dr.Beasley is also interested in engagement in environmental advocacy move-
ments and programs that promote higher education for incarcerated and formerly
incarcerated people.
Luciano Berardi holds a license in clinical psychology from Universidad de

Belgrano in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He also holds both an MA and PhD in com-
munity psychology from DePaul. He is currently the director for the McNair
Scholars, Arnold Mitchem Fellows, and CAA Research Lab programs at the
Center for Access and Attainment at DePaul University in Chicago, Illinois. Since
2006, he has worked on a number of research projects on issues regarding educa-
tional transition of underrepresented groups, mentoring in academia, and issues
of access and disparities in education at the Department of Psychology and the
Center for Access and Attainment at DePaul University.
Michelle Bloodworth is a community psychologist based in Albuquerque,

New Mexico. As a senior evaluation specialist at Apex Education since 2008,
she has worked with partners in early childhood, K12, and higher educa-
tion; in community schools; in teacher professional development; as well as in
school health. Michelle has planned and conducted large and small-scale evalu-
ations and provided organizational consulting and capacity-building support to
clients.
Ashley Boal is a research associate at WestEd in Los Alamitos, California. She

received her PhD in applied psychology, with an emphasis in applied social and
community psychology, from Portland State University in 2013. She is interested
in the application of research methodology and analysis techniques to evaluate
the impact of interventions related to diverse social issues. Dr.Boal has applied
her skills in research and evaluation to better understand numerous social issues
including intimate-partner violence interventions, school-wide interventions for
childhood obesity, posttraumatic stress disorder among military service members,
and smoking cessation interventions.
John Daviau, MACP, has over 25years of training, consulting, and manage-
ment experience in nonprofit organizations and schools focusing on substance
abuse and violence prevention and school-safety initiatives. He has signifi-
cant experience in supporting communities, organizations, and schools with
systems-change issues; utilizing the Strategic Prevention Framework as a
community-w ide prevention model; implementing best practices and evidence-
based programs; and problem solving issues and barriers to effective prevention
services.

Cont r ibutors xix
Vincent Francisco is a Kansas Health Foundation professor of community leader-

ship in the Department of Applied Behavioral Science and a senior scientist with
the Schieffelbusch Institute for Life Span Studies. He is co-director of the Work
Group for Community Health and Development, a WHO Collaborating Centre
at the University of Kansas. In his work, he uses behavioral science methods to
help understand and improve conditions that affect population health and health
equity. He is co-developer of the Community Tool Box, a widely used Internet-
based resource for promoting community health and development. Dr.Francisco
has experience in the research and evaluation of community-based intervention
programs focusing on adolescent development, reduction of risk for HIV/AIDS,
teen substance abuse, youth violence, teen parenthood, and chronic/cardiovascu-
lar diseases.
Teresa Garate, PhD, leads one of the largest nonprofit organizations in the
Chicago area serving people with disabilities. She is a recognized authority and
advocate in the fields of disability, education, human services, and public health,
and she has an extensive background in government, nonprofits, and the private
sector. She serves on the steering committee of the Kennedy Forum Illinois; the
boards of Health & Disability Advocates, and the Illinois Community College
Board; and she is co-chair of the state task force for Employment and Economic
Opportunities for People with Disabilities.
Marc Goldstein, PhD, is professor emeritus of psychology at Central Connecticut

State University where for 33years he taught courses in community, organiza-
tional, and environmental psychology and provided consultation services through
the Universitys Center for Public Policy and Social Research. He now works as
a private consultant and provides program evaluation and other services to coali-
tions, nonprofit, and municipal agencies.
Ronald Harvey earned his PhD in community psychology from DePaul

University in 2014. Atwo-time Fulbright Scholar in Bulgaria, he researches alter-
native settings for individuals recovering from substance use disorders in Bulgaria,
Southeastern and Eastern Europe, and the USA. His other work includes research
on community reintegration for justice-involved individuals, and international
development work to create substance abuse recovery settings worldwide. He is
currently an assistant professor of psychology at American University in Bulgaria.
He will be teaching the first full university course in Community Psychology in
Bulgaria in the spring 2017 semester atAUBG.
Richard A. Jenkins, PhD, is a health scientist administrator in the Prevention

Research Branch of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of
Health (NIH). Rich is a clinical-community psychologist whose current portfolio

xx Cont r ibutors
includes research and training related to HIV prevention, as well as develop-

ment of new methodologies for the design and analysis of prevention trials. He
is involved in crossNIH research networks and crossfederal agency working
groups related to HIV, mental health, and substanceuse.
Sharon Johnson-Hakim received her PhD in community psychology from

Wichita State University in 2013. She currently works as the manager for
Population Health Sciences at Atlantic Health System in Morristown, New Jersey.
Dr.Johnson-Hakim is interested in the relationship between the built environment
and individual health-related behaviors. As a practitioner, she is committed to col-
laborative, community-based processes aimed at creating healthier contexts.
John M. Majer, PhD, received his doctorate in clinical psychology (community

emphasis) at DePaul University. Presently, he is a professor of psychology at Harry
S.Truman College, one of the City Colleges of Chicago. Dr.Majers ongoing
consultation with the Center for Community Research was instrumental in the
awarding of a participatory action research grant by the Center on Minority Health
and Health Disparities. His areas of research involve persons with substance use
disorders (SUDs), 12-step involvement, persons with SUDs who have psychiatric
comorbidity, and the Oxford House model of residentialcare.
Alison J. Martin, PhD, was first exposed to community psychology as an

undergraduate at Michigan State University and completed her doctorate at the
University of Missouri-Kansas City. She has worked in the public and private sec-
tors including the U.S. Government Accountability Offices Applied Research and
Methods team, the Oregon Health Authoritys Maternal and Child Health sec-
tion, and RMC Research Corporation in Portland, Oregon. At RMC, her primary
responsibility was serving as RMCs Associate Project Director on the national
evaluation of Safe Schools/Healthy Students Initiative. Currently, she serves as the
Assessment and Evaluation Coordinator for the Oregon Center for Children and
Youth with Special Health Needs at Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU)
and is an Assistant Professor in the OHSU-Portland State University joint School
of Public Health. In addition, as a Collaborator in Community-Based Research &
Evaluation, Dr.Martin consults with nonprofit organizations providing program
evaluation technical assistance and capacity building services.
Greg Meissen is professor of psychology and coordinator of the community psy-

chology doctoral program at Wichita State University, where he teaches commu-
nity psychology, community leadership, and organizational development. In 1985
he founded the Self-Help Network, which has grown into the WSU Center for
Community Support & Research, where he served as director until 2008. Greg has
been involved in a number of Kansas Health Foundation and Kansas Leadership

Cont r ibutors xxi
Center initiatives, and he is a Kansas Health Foundation Leadership Fellow, which

included a number of leadership grants to build capacity of communities and
nonprofits.
Judith Meyers, a clinical and community psychologist, is the president and chief
executive officer of the Childrens Fund of Connecticut, a public charitable foun-
dation, and its subsidiary, the Child Health and Development Institute. For the
past 16 years she has led these organizations efforts to improve health, mental
health, and early-care systems for children in Connecticut. Meyers holds faculty
appointments at the University of Connecticut and Yale University Schools of
Medicine.
Nikolay L. Mihaylov is a doctoral candidate in community research and action

at Vanderbilt University. He has degrees in economics and clinical psychology,
and he spent a year in DePaul Universitys community psychology program as a
visiting Fulbright student. His work focuses on the exploration of the actions and
processes that bring people together for a common cause, including school com-
munities, social movements, and interactions of citizens with institutions. He is
currently teaching in Bulgaria and is a consultant to community and civic organiza-
tions working on grassroots democracy, environmental, and education issues.
Mary Gloria C. Njoku holds a PhD in clinical community psychology from

DePaul University in Chicago. She is currently working at Godfrey Okoye
University in Enugu, Nigeria, where she serves as the dean of the faculty of
Management and Social Sciences and a professor of psychology. Her special inter-
est is in understanding and developing interventions that promote overall quality
of life, spirituality and religion, invisible disability, coping behavior, peace, educa-
tion, mentoring and community-based studies.
Geraldine (Geri) L. Palmer, PhD, is a community psychologist, nonprofit devel-

opment consultant and former executive director of South Suburban PADS. She
holds a PhD in community psychology from National Louis University. Geri has
been instrumental in helping numerous community and faith-based organizations
in Chicagos inner city and south suburbs advance social justice for 22 years. She
is also an adjunct professor at Adler University in Chicago, teaching courses in
community and social psychology. Her research interests are in housing, housing
policy, homelessness, power disparities and issues that impact African American
social and economic well-being.
Allen W. Ratcliffe, PhD, has practiced clinical and community psychology in

TacomaPierce County, Washington, since 1975. Currently, he works on issues
primarily associated with homelessness and mental health, as an actively retired

xxii Cont r ibutors
volunteer consultant and advocate. He serves as chairperson of the Tacoma

Human Services Commission; a member of the regions Behavioral Health
Advisory Board; and a participant in community planning for the integration of
mental health, substance use/dependence, and primary physical health services.
Crystal Reinhart received her PhD from Wichita State University in 2010. She
is a research program coordinator with the Center for Prevention Research and
Development at the University of Illinois in UrbanaChampaign. Currently, her
work includes community-based program evaluation and research focusing on
teen substance use prevention, teen pregnancy/STI prevention, and early child-
hood initiatives.
Gregor V. Sarkisian, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology at Antioch

University, Los Angeles, where he teaches primarily in the Applied Community
Psychology Specialization of the Master of Arts in Psychology program. Sarkisian
worked as a child protective service worker for Los Angeles Countys Department
of Children and Family Services, prior to earning his PhD in community psy-
chology from the University of MissouriKansas City, where he also worked as
a program consultant for the Kansas City Metro, Child Traumatic Stress Center.
Sarkisians current interests include community psychology, social ecology, teach-
ing community psychology practice, qualitative methods, social power, commu-
nity change processes, social policy, and program evaluation.
Victoria Chien Scott is a community psychologist who has devoted her profes-
sional career to working with nonprofit organizations to optimize their perfor-
mance through consultation, training, research, and evaluation. She is especially
passionate about building the capacity of health-care systems and community
organizations through quality improvement and strength-based approaches.
Victoria holds an academic appointment at the University of North Carolina
Charlotte where she is an assistant professor of psychology. She also serves as
administrative director of the Society for Community Research and Action.
Cari Stevenson is a professor at Kankakee Community College and a community

psychology doctoral candidate at National Louis University. Prior to teaching, Cari
earned a masters degree in industrial/organizational psychology and worked in
human resources and management for 15years. Presently, Cari is working on aug-
menting support services for student veterans in community colleges to increase
completion and employment and enhance reintegration.
Yolanda Suarez-Balcazar, PhD, is professor and head of the department of occu-

pational therapy at the College of Applied Health Sciences; professor in the PhD
in the Department of Disability and Human Development; and affiliate faculty in

Cont r ibutors xxiii
the department of psychology at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Trained as

a community psychologist, Dr.Suarez-Balcazars research focuses on the nexus
between race, culture, and disability. She studies community-based organizations
capacity to evaluate service outcomes and provide culturally sensitive services to
Latinos and African Americans.
Manolya Tanyu, PhD, is a Senior Researcher at the American Institutes for

Research with expertise in evaluation of community-and school-based interven-
tions to prevent crime and promote youth development, mentoring, social emo-
tional learning, and school safety. Dr.Tanyu led and participated in numerous
federal, state, and local evaluations to investigate program implementation and
outcomes, systemic change, and performance measurement using qualitative and
quantitative methods. She earned her doctoral degree in Community Psychology
and Prevention Research from the University of Illinois at Chicago with a minor in
methods and statistics.
Sylvie Taylor, PhD, is the founding Director of the Applied Community

Psychology Specialization and Professor of Psychology in the MA Psychology
Program at Antioch UniversityLos Angeles, where she teaches and mentors
students preparing for careers in community psychology practice as well as licen-
sure as marriage and family therapists. Dr.Taylor is the recipient of the 2008
Outstanding Educator Award and the specialization she directs was named the
2010 Outstanding Education Program by the Council of Education Programs of
Society for Community Research and Action.
Amber E. Williams is a community psychologist and the director of Program

Evaluation at Beech Acres Parenting Center. Her work has focused on enhancing
the capacity of community-based nonprofit organizations through evaluation,
research, program development, health advocacy, and community engagement.
Amber completed her doctoral studies at National Louis University. Her career
goal is to utilize her training and experiences to provide support to those whose
voices go unheard.
Susan M. Wolfe is a community and developmental psychologist with over

30years of professional experience that includes research, evaluation, and man-
agement positions in education, government, health care, consulting, and mental
health service organizations. She is experienced in conducting basic research,
applied research, program evaluation, grant writing, strategic planning, and coali-
tion development. Dr.Wolfe is also a Change Intelligence certified facilitator (CQ)
and has substantial experience and training in change management. She managed
her own community psychologyoriented consulting firm from 2009 to2015.

INTRODUCTION
We, as faculty, are often asked, What can Ido with a degree in community psy-
chology? Little to date has been written to answer this question (see Ferrari &
ODonnell, 2000)on how to build a career or obtain relevant and meaningful forms
of employment, especially jobs outside of academia (Brown, Cardizone, Glantsman,
Johnson-Hakim, & Lemke, 2014). Thus, we wrote this book to help you, the reader,
understand three things:(1)the diversity of career options for someone with com-
munity psychology training; (2)details about the different types of careers (e.g.,
tasks involved, benefits and challenges, salary range, and the like); and (3)steps you
can take to develop skills and position yourself for such a career.
This text is designed for current and former graduate students in community psy-
chology and related fields, advanced undergraduates taking a course or majoring in
the fields, and professionals interested in expanding or changing their careers. This
book can be useful for faculty and advisors as they recruit new students and men-
tor and guide current and past students. It is worth noting that while this book is
decidedly US-centric, community psychology does have a rich history across the
globe and an established international presence (see Reich, Riemer, Prilleltensky, &
Montero, 2007). Moreover, while contexts differ, we hope and expect interna-
tional psychologists and practitioners will find ample useful information within
thesepages.
What is Community Psychology?

Various forms of community psychology emerged around the world at various
points in history (see Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010; Kloos etal., 2012; Fryer, 2008;
Levine, Perkins, & Perkins, 2005). Within the United States fifty years ago, com-
munity psychology (CP) emerged out of a crisis in the 1960s, a time of turmoil
for example, the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movementand a time of
excitement and revolution. In 1965, the attendees of the Boston Conference on the
xxv

xxvi Int roduc tion
Education of Psychologists for Community Mental Health (commonly known as

the Swampscott Conference) recognized the lack of adequate psychological ser-
vices for the most vulnerable and disenfranchised populations across the United
States. They argued that a more proactive, prevention-and strengths-oriented
approach was needed. The Swampscott Conference is now commonly considered
the genesis of the field of CP within the United States, and the first formal recogni-
tion here of the value of academic training programs in CP. Although CP began with
a focus on mental health services, it has since broadened its reach to a wide range of
contemporary issues while working to actively promote social change and holistic
forms of community wellness.
Community psychology seeks to promote wellness through building upon exist-
ing community assets and individual strengths. Through collaborative research and
action, community psychologists seek to understand and to enhance the quality
of life for individuals, communities, and society. The range of topics addressed is
quite broad, including but not limited to health care, housing, education, substance
abuse, violence, and mental health. The field spans across multiple settings, includ-
ing schools, neighborhoods, mental health clinics, nonprofits, and thelike.
CP is inherently interdisciplinary, borrowing useful methods from a variety of
sister fields such as social work, public health, community development, clinical
psychology, and more, allowing for a better understanding of social problems and
bringing about a more meaningful impact. The field additionally draws heavily upon
social psychological theories, research methodologies, and data analytic techniques.
In fact, the name of our main professional association, the Society for Community
Research and Action (SCRA), explicitly embraces the non-psychologist as a peer,
and many widely known community psychologists do not have a formal CP degree.
CP work is underscored by a call for social justice. CP practice and research
places a strong value on diversity and empowerment. It also focuses on prevention
and promotion on multiple ecological levels. As a field, our shared values include a
respect for human diversity, understanding the relevance of context, recognizing the
importance of collaboration, ecological perspective, social action, and an empirical
grounding (i.e., systemic data collecting and analysis to inform action and policy).
If you desire to build communities and use cycles of research and action to
understand and improve the well-being of individuals, families, and institutions,
then CP may be the field for you. CP can give you tools to accomplish thesegoals.
Book Overview
This book will help you understand the diverse career options available for people
who train in CP and how the CP competencies are put into practice across the full
spectrum of job titles and career paths that a community psychologist might follow.

Int roduc tion xxvii
We surveyed over 400 individuals in the field, and we are sharing here what we
learned from their responses. We also invited over 30 different community psy-
chologists with various backgrounds, interests, areas of expertiseacross multiple
generationsto provide examples of what it is like to work in their settings to pro-
mote collaboration and actively involve citizens as true partners. Throughout the
book, the contributors show us how we can reject simplistic linear cause-and-effect
ways of understanding social problems and instead adopt more challenging, com-
plex, and at times paradoxical, systems-based approaches that seek to understand
how individuals affect and are influenced by their social environments.
Through their personal career journeys, the contributing authors provide a vari-
ety of pathways from which you can choose to live out your passion for understand-
ing and supporting communities by examining context and person-environment fit.
Their narratives and journeys stir the imagination and enable you to chart a course
that can provide students and career-changers various pathways to careers that can
adopt structural, comprehensive, and effective solutions to our most pressing soci-
etal problems.
One draw of community psychology is that it is not a licensure-driven profes-
sion. Rather it is based on a core set of values and principles. Nevertheless, a recent
development in the field has been the creation of 18 widely agreed upon competen-
cies for training community psychologists (Dalton & Wolfe, 2012). These compe-
tencies are meant to provide a unique selling proposition and a loosely based common
core in CP training. There has been little written about how the competencies can be
utilized across different types of jobs. Thus, the current volume connects the stories
of individual career paths, survey results, and career guidance tied to the 18 compe-
tencies for community psychology practice.
Outline ofChapters
Below is a brief outline of the chapters:
The introductory chapters:

In Chapter1, Judah J.Viola, Olya Glantsman, Amber E.Williams, and Cari
Stevenson begin to answer some of the most frequently asked questions
about careers in community psychology, drawing on their personal experi-
ences as well as from the results of a survey of over 400 professionals who
work in community psychologyrelated fields.
Chapters24 feature examples of careers in government both at the federal
(Chapters3& 4)and state levels (Chapter4).
In Chapter2, Theresa L.Armstead describes her transition from academia
to a public health agency. She describes her current work at the CDC in
detail and emphasizes the day-to-day use of her community psychology

xxviii Int roduc tion
training and the practice competencies. Armstead also serves up great

advice for jobseekers looking to work in government.
In Chapter 3, Richard A. Jenkins discusses federal careers that provide
opportunities to shape policy, perform research, and evaluate program
practices. In his chapter, Jenkins shares his own career history and outlines
pathways to federal jobs and provides suggestions for successful federal
careers.
In Chapter4, Teresa Garate writes about her work in bringing about sys-
temic change in government as well as in the nonprofit sectors, with an
emphasis on empowerment. The chapter outlines her journey across sec-
tors, from K12 educator to researcher to administrator to state official,
and most recently, to CEO of a nonprofit. Garate explains how she has
been able to incorporate CP values and methods (e.g., participatory action
research and evaluation) into each position she has held across these
sectors.
Chapters58 provide an overview of how community psychology skills can be
applied in nongovernmental settings and how to gain entry into the NGO or non-
profit sector.
In Chapter 5, Allen W. Ratcliffe shares his experiences and offers several
strategies for building a community-based practice. Ratcliffe provides
examples from his experience to support how one might follow each of the
outlined principles.
In Chapter 6, Judith Meyers focuses on philanthropic work, includ-
ing some of the challenges and benefits of working at a foundation and
how community psychology skills can be utilized in a foundation setting.
Meyers offers an overview of the different types of foundations, shares her
path to foundations, and uses examplessuch as job postingsto illus-
trate the alignment between foundation work and community psychology.
In Chapter7, Victoria Chien Scott and Gregory Meissen discuss leader-
ship opportunities in the nonprofit sector. Scott and Meissen highlight
the need for effective leadership in the nonprofit sector. They stress the
importance of training in and later working within a community leadership
framework to achieve positive sustainable change in the nonprofit sector.
In Chapter8, Crystal Reinhart discusses how you can provide technical
assistance for nonprofits while working within a university-affiliated cen-
ter. Reinhart presents the skills and the knowledge she acquired during her
graduate training that she deems instrumental in helping her settle into her
job and what she continues to learn from her currentwork.
The focus of Chapters915 is on practice careers, such as research and external
consulting.
In Chapter 9, Sharon Johnson-Hakim and Ashley Boal present a guide
for finding practice-related jobs and how to apply ones training in this

Int roduc tion xxix
process. Johnson-Hakim and Boal share their experiences finding practice

jobs and offer practical advice about the things you need to know to effec-
tively break into the field, such as preparing your application materials and
translating your skills when interviewing.
In Chapter10, Manolya Tanyu writes about working as a researcher for
a large nonprofit organization with a focus on research and evaluation.
Tanyu highlights how her community psychology training serves her well
in her day-to-day activities. She also provides the reader with an inside per-
spective on what research and evaluation firms are looking for in potential
employees.
Chapter11 presents Alison Martins experience consulting in a for-profit
setting. Martin shares her experience as an applied researcher at a midsized
national technical assistance and evaluation consulting firm. She describes
a variety of roles within the business and delineates the essential skills for
working in this setting. Martin also provides a list of questions to ask when
pursuing employment in a for-profit evaluation consulting setting.
In Chapter12, Michelle Bloodworth recounts her experiences consulting
at a small national technical assistance and evaluation consulting firm. She
discusses the benefits and challenges of working in that setting as well as
what drew her to this work. Bloodworth also provides readers with insights
that will help them determine whether a small consulting firm would be a
good fit for them, as well as how to market themselves for that setting.
Marc Goldstein and John Daviau co-author Chapter 13, which focuses
on the challenges and benefits of working as independent consultants for
nonprofit organizations. The chapter also relates the authors transitions to
the nonprofit sector. Goldstein and Daviau cover the key skill sets needed
to do independent consulting most effectively and offer advice for how to
get started as an independent consultant.
In Chapter14, Susan Wolfe presents her extensive experience as an inde-
pendent consultant. From the multitude of challenges you may face run-
ning your own business to the advantages of being your own boss, Wolfe
outlines a roadmap for starting and maintaining a successful consulting
practice.
Chapters1519 highlight careers in academia and higher education.
In Chapter15, Vincent Francisco reflects on his unique path toward aca-
demia and many of his influences along the way. Francisco demonstrates
how an academic career can tie together ones scholarly research interests
and the desire to bring positive change to peopleslives.
In Chapter16, John Majer chronicles his experience entering the com-
munity college sector and discusses how this often overlooked setting can
be a good fit for someone with a community psychology mindset and
training.

xxx Int roduc tion
In Chapter17, Luciano Berardi and Lindsey Back discuss how CP training

can be utilized in administrative and staff positions in an academic setting.
Berardi and Back point to their own experiences working with the McNair
program to demonstrate how community psychologists can thrive as non-
faculty members at a university.
In Chapter18, Geri Palmer provides a guide for finding a teaching faculty
position. For those interested specifically in teaching, Palmer offers a list of
necessary tools and materials, such as having a curriculum vitae and pre-
paring a job talk, to help one find a faculty job at either a local or national
college or university.
In Chapter19, Christopher Beasley gives a step-by-step guide on how to
prepare, search, and apply for a faculty position within a research-oriented
institution.
Chapter20 provides a great introduction to grant writing.
Fabricio Balcazar and Yolanda Suarez-Balcazar stress the importance of
grant-writing skills across sectors. The authors also offer useful informa-
tion about finding and securing grants.
Chapters21 and 22 focus on internationalwork.
In Chapter21, Gloria Njoku writes about her international development
efforts in Nigeria. Njoku explains how she developed a variety of social
research and action projects both within the university setting and out in
the community. She also discusses her efforts to reform educational struc-
tures in Nigeria.
In Chapter22, Ronald Harvey and Nikolay Mihaylov discuss international
evaluation and research. The authors summarize interviews with five
researchers with extensive international experience. Harvey and Mihaylov
provide practical advice for anyone interested in doing international work
with a focus on evaluation and research, such as overcoming language bar-
riers and working with limited resources.
In Chapter23, faculty members Gregor Sarkisian and Sylvie Taylor dis-
cuss community psychology training with a specific focus on how to find
the best program depending on ones needs. Sarkesian and Taylor also
describe various types of preparation within degree programs that are
worth seeking out to achieve ones career goals. They provide suggestions
to support professional development based upon their own experiences
and their years of effective work with their students.
While we originally set out to answer the basic questions posed to us by our stu-
dents about career options for community psychologists, the scope of this work has
greatly expanded. With the vast experiences and prolific suggestions of the contrib-
uting authors, we believe this text will work for a large audience with a variety of

Int roduc tion xxxi
interests and career trajectories. We trust you will find this information interesting,
inspirational, and useful in your own career.
References
Brown, K. K., Cardizone, G., Glantsman, O., Johnson-Hakim, S., & Lemke, M. (2014). Examining
the guiding competencies in community psychology practice from students perspectives. The
Community Psychologist, 47(1),39.
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (2012). Education connection and the community practitioner. The
Ferrari, J. R., & ODonnell, C. R. (Eds.). (2000). Employment in community psychology:The diversity
of opportunity. NewYork, NY:HaworthPress.
Fryer, D. (2008). Some questions about the history of community psychology. Journal of Community
Psychology, 36(5), 572586.
Kloos, B., Hill, J., Thomas, E., Wandersman, A., Elias, M.J., & Dalton, J.H. (2012). Community psy-
chology:Linking individuals and communities (3rd ed., pp. 143144). Belmont, CA:Cengage.
Levine, M., Perkins, D.D., & Perkins, D.V. (2005). Principles of community psychology:Perspectives
and applications (3rd ed., pp. 6469). NewYork, NY:Oxford UniversityPress.
Nelson, G., & Prilleltensky, I. (2010). Community psychology:In pursuit of liberation and well-being
(2nd ed.). NewYork, NY:Palgrave McMillan.
Reich, S., Riemer, M., Prilleltensky, I., & Montero, M. (Eds.). (2007). International community psy-
chology:History and theories. NewYork, NY:Springer.

Diverse Careers inCommunity

Psychology

Answers toAll Your Questions about

Careers inCommunity Psychology
Judah J. Viol a, Olya Gl antsman, Amber E. Williams,
and Cari Stevenson
A community psychologist might find herself or himself conducting research

in a mental health center on Monday, appearing as an expert witness in a
courtroom on Tuesday, evaluating a hospital program on Wednesday, imple-
menting a school-based program on Thursday, and organizing a community
board meeting on Friday.
Doug Perkins,2011
Our responses in this chapter to some of the most frequently asked questions come
from two sources:(1)our own work experiences prior to and subsequent to our
training in community psychology, and (2)a survey of 420 community psycholo-
gists. Judah Viola has held positions such as an investigator for a city agency, an
institutional researcher, an independent program evaluation consultant, a univer-
sity professor, and he is now an academic dean. Olya Glantsman has worked as an
academic staff member, a community psychology researcher, and a university pro-
fessor. Amber Williams has worked in nonprofit leadership and as the director of
program evaluation for multiple agencies. Cari Stevenson has worked as a commu-
nity college professor, an independent organizational development consultant, and
a human resources professional.
The Diverse Careers in Community Psychology Survey, the first of its kind, was
administered online to over 400 professionals in the field of community psychol-
ogy. The 35-item survey addresses multiple aspects of careers such as salaries, job
titles and sectors, graduate training, experience, community psychology competen-
cies, and methods of job obtainment. Lets get to the questions and the best answers
we couldgive.
2 Diverse Careers in Community Psychology
How do Iprepare myself tobe asinteresting and diversified

anapplicant aspossible tokeep my optionsopen?
Recent employment blogs, such as Guardian Careers, LinkedIn, Harvard Business
Review, and Devex, have entered into the generalist (keeping ones options open)
versus specialist (focusing on the development of particular skills)debate. The
best answer may lie in doing a little of both. For instance, you may concentrate on
expanding your skills and competencies while adding depth in a particular content
area of expertise or population of interest. See what additional educational oppor-
tunities are out there. Universities may offer courses for you to audit or certificates
to obtain. For instance, our second author, Olya Glantsman, was able to earn both
a degree in Womens/Gender Studies as well as a teaching certificate. Our third
author, Amber Williams, obtained a Health Disparities and Inequality certificate.
There are always workshops, lectures, conferences, professional development, and
online trainings that could expand your ability to fit into a new job niche. You can
work, intern, or volunteer in a diverse array of settings if you are willing to put in the
time that these extra efforts can take. There is little danger in becoming too broad
or appearing unfocused when considering traditional academic jobs; after all, you
have control over what you put into your cover letters and the variations of your
CV. Ideally, as you build your skills with different interventions, populations, and
settings, you can find a common thread that projects a consistent identity. Think of
how your current and new talents make up a trajectory to an ideal career.
How much should Ifocus my training onwhat Ilike

or am naturally skilled atversus what might strategically
serve my career (e.g., statistical analysis)?
One way to explore the range of options is to consider the CP practice competen-
cies used for each job, and then decide whether this is an appropriate fit for you. As
discussed in the Introduction, the community psychology practice competencies
have been under development since 2007, and the version of the competencies used
in the current survey was described in depth in a joint effort of the SCRA Council of
Education Programs and the Practice Council through multiple articles published
in The Community Psychologist (see Dalton & Wolfe, 2012; Wolfe & Dalton, 2011;
Wolfe & Dalton, 2010; Dalton, Elias, & Julian, 2007; Scott,2007).
Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3,, and Table 1.1 are helpful in understanding the quantity
as well as specific competencies used across each sector and jobtitle.
All respondents reported using between five and fourteen community psychol-
ogy practice competencies. Postdocs and clinicians/caseworkers/social workers
reported the lowest number of competencies used in their employment. By contrast,
individuals that worked as consultants, grant writers/administrators, CEO/VP/ED/
COO indicated, on average, using the most competencies in their work environment.

A nswers to Que stions about Caree rs in C P 3
Figure1.1 The 18 community psychology practice competencies.

Note: Adapted from Dalton & Wolfe (2012). Education Connection and The Community
Practitioner. The Community Psychologist, 45(4), 713, with permission from Society for Community
Research and Action.
Individuals who have a strength or passion for a particular competency can use
the following table to determine which sector most aligns with application of that
competency (see Table1.1).
You may do well to consider using these competencies to track your exposure
and think about how you may expand your skills. The role of a community psy-
chologist is tantamount to being comfortable applying different competencies
within the same job. Some competencies are a given. Critical for every community
psychologist is the ability to work with different cultures. Our survey respondents
endorsed social cross-cultural competency more than any other item. Other sets
of competencies may be combined to develop certain skill subsets. In addition,
consider your preferred sector and the needs required in that sector. If you have
an interest in leading community-based participatory research at a Research 1
institution, then research experience and perhaps advanced statistical skills may
be essential.

Consultant 14
Grants 14
CEO/VP/ED/CCO 14
Project Program Coordinator 12
Nonprofit Position 11
Evaluator 11
Researcher 10
Faculty 10
Government 10
Manager/Director/Supervisor 10
University Leadership/Administration 10
University Based Student Support/Affairs 7
Clinician/Caseworker/Social Worker 5
Postdoc 5
Figure1.2 Job category and average number of competencies among all respondents.
If a job requires experience, how do Iget

experience inthe firstplace?
The coursework in graduate programs will hopefully allow you to cultivate a vari-
ety of applicable skills. Fieldwork, internships, research assistantships, or even vol-
unteering can help you to hone these skills in practical application. Consider the
types of jobs you would like to pursue, and then engage in those projects that build
the right competencies. Talk to people currently in the positions you desire, and
you can learn more about competencies for specific jobs through the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT), a resource that organizations often use to develop job
descriptions.
Lets say you are interested in becoming the director of a community organiza-
tion. According to DOT, someone in this position likely organizes and develops
program planning to ascertain community requirements and problems in specific
fields of welfare work, and to determine agency responsibility for administering
programs; surveys functions of member agencies to avoid duplication of efforts;
and recommends curtailment, extension, modification, or initiation of services.
In the language of community psychology competencies, this translates into:needs

Sociocultural and Cross-Cultural 64%
Ecological 62%
Empowerment 61%
Community inclusion and Partnership 61%
Program Development 61%
Program Evaluation 61%
Ethical, Reflective Practice 56%
Consultation and Organizational Development 53%
Small and Large Group Processes 52%
Community Education 59%
Prevention and Health Promotion 48%
Participatory Community Research 45%
Collaboration and Coalition Development 44%
Resource Development 44%
Community Leadership 42%
Mentoring Leadership 41%
Public Policy Analysis 41%
Community Development 35%
Community Organizing 32%
Figure1.3 Endorsement by competency.
assessment, program development and implementation, and program evaluation. Use

the list of competencies as you pursue internships or develop projects as part of
your coursework, and even if your career shifts from sector to sector, remember that
employable skills are transferable.
How competitive is thejob market forpeople wanting towork

inan area related tocommunity psychology?
From our own experiences (as graduates of CP programs and faculty), there are
many community psychologyrelated jobs available for people looking for applied
or academic work. While the academic market is very competitive, our survey sug-
gests that the general employment outlook is strong. Only 2% of survey partici-
pants were looking for work, which is on par with the unemployment rate for PhDs
in psychology and the social sciences (National Science Foundation, 2014). Most
(76%) participants were in full-time positions in which they felt secure with plenty

Table1.1Sectors where competencies are most frequentlyused

Competency Sector
Ecological 1. Government
2. Education
3. International Nonprofit
Empowerment 1. Community Based For-Profit*
2. International Nonprofit*
3. National Nonprofit
4. Community Based Org./Local Nonprofit
Sociocultural and Cross-Cultural 1. International Nonprofit
3. Consulting Firm
Community Inclusion and Partnership 1. International Nonprofit
2. Community Based For-Profit
Ethical, Reflective Practice 1. Community Based For-Profit
2. ConsultingFirm
3. Government
Program Development 1. National Nonprofit
3. International Nonprofit
Prevention and Health Promotion 1. National Nonprofit
2. Government
3. Consulting
Note:* indicates tie across sectors
of room for upward mobility. An additional 7% reported working part time on top
of full-time positions, while 5% were working multiple part-time jobs, and another
5% had single part-time positions.
Some community psychologists like to do diverse types of work and others may
work part time to achieve a better balance between career and family. Often there is
a give and take between flexibility and predictability. Some people choose to work
from home as consultants because they have more control over their schedules.
Faculty positions vary in their demands but may also allow for more time at home
and setting ones own schedule. However, we have found that people who work full
time with more flexible schedules also tend to work more total, and less predictable,
hours. Government and health-care positions, by contrast, tend to be less flexible
but provide greater levels of consistency and predictability.

What may be most important in terms of quality of life is how much we get to
do what we love: community psychology. Of those currently working, 96% said
they were able to engage in CP practice at their primary job. Respondents reported
using, on average, 10 out of 18 community psychology competencies regularly at
work. About two-thirds (65%) of full-time employees felt secure in their current
job. Across both full-and part-time positions, respondents felt like they had good
opportunities for growth; 88% of full-time and 73% of part-time employees reported
being in positions with opportunities for advancement and upward mobility.
How much might you expect toearn atthese positions?

Of course earnings are variable and depend upon a host of factors related to supply
and demand, years of experience, macroeconomic stability, local economic forces,
and educational credentials. While we will discuss more about salaries per sector
later in the chapter, the range of salaries for full-time work within the field is rela-
tively restricted. Nonprofit positions ($43,550) have a tendency to pay the least,
and university leadership jobs had the highest average salary ($150,000). See Table
1.2 for more details on the median salaries by sector.
The salary of project or program coordinators (non-research) was closest to the
median income salary for all job categories. Figure 1.4 shows the median full-time
salaries reported for each of the job titles indicated in the survey. (Note that some
of the sample sizes are very small and may not represent the true median salary for
that job title.)
Whether you are looking for a new position or transitioning elsewhere, location
is often an important consideration. Many of us want to live by family and friends
or in a location that matches our personal identities, and in areas valued by a greater
number of candidates, competition can increase, although those locations may also
have more positions available.
CP-related jobs tend to cluster in larger metropolitan areas as well as at universi-
ties. While CP jobs are not geographically limited, some locations provide greater
opportunities (e.g., more academic positions in places with more CP programs,
such as Chicago, or more government positions in Washington, DC). The map of
survey respondents shown in Figure 1.5 is pretty representative of the geographic
distribution of people working in the CP field in the United States.
In the survey, 89% (307) of the participants were from the United States, 4%
(15) from Canada, 1% (5)from Portugal, and 5% (17) from the remaining 8 nations
(i.e., Australia, Egypt, Italy, England, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Puerto Rico,
Scotland, Spain, and the Bahamas). Although most (89%) respondents worked in
the United States, there are also opportunities for international work in the field
of community psychology (see Chapters21 and 22 for more about international
opportunities).

Table1.2Salaries and hours worked bysectortype
Sector Title Median Annual Reported Salary Reported Starting Reported Max Weekly Hours Mean Weekly
Salary Range Salary Salary Range Hours
Consulting (N=13) $90,066 $55,000$150,000 $93,250 $150,000 3060 45
Government (N=43) $81,500 $38,000$150,000 $65,578 $110,956 3060 44
Nonprofit (N=33) $92,000 $31,200$250,000 $65,149 $113,833 3565 45
Education (N=130) $75,000 $22,000$235,000 $64,174 $118,197 3090 49
Health Care (N=15) $75,000 $30,000$210,000 $69,545 $113,885 3860 45
For-Profit (N=9) $75,000 $40,000$200,000 $82,000 $150,286 4055 44

1. Volunteer/Intern (N = 3) $25,983
2. University Student Support (N = 4) $40,000
3. Nonprofit Position (N = 6) $43,550
4. Postdoctoral Position (N = 8) $46,000
5. Clinician/Caseworker/Social Worker (N = 16) $61,500
6. Project/Program Coordinator (Non-research) (N = 4) $62,000
7. Manager/Supervisor/Director (N = 19) $62,000
8. Grant Writing/Management (N = 4) $67,000
9. Faculty, All Levels (N = 129) $80,000
10. Program Evaluator (N = 17) $80,000
11. Researcher (N = 58) $80,500

12. Consultant (N = 10) $90,000
13. CEO/COO/VP/Director/ED (N = 21)
$97,000
14. Government Agency (N = 9)
$113,000
15. University Administration (N = 3)
$150,000
$20,000 $40,000 $60,000 $80,000 $100,000 $120,000 $140,000 $160,000
Figure1.4 Median salary by job type for full-time employees vs. overall median.
Survey Respondents
Number by State
1
2
37
813
1422
NA
Figure1.5 Survey respondents by USstate.

How do Ifind mentors and others who Ican learn from

and network withtoward mutual betterment?
Obtaining mentorship and networking are two of the most important activities you
could participate in. More than half (59%) of survey respondents reported that they
found out about their current jobs through networking. Start with who you already
know:classmates, co-workers, friends, family, faculty, and so on. Find people who
are doing the work youd liked to be involved with in the future. There are lots of
opportunities to do informational interviews to prepare yourself. At first you may
not feel comfortable approaching people at conferences and introducing yourself,
but it will grow easier if you persist.
Rather than just talking to people and exchanging business cards, networking
involves learning about what others are doing in the field and seeing what ideas or
values you might share. In other words, networking is about developing genuine
relationships. Make sure to connect either in person, by phone, or virtually (e.g.,
using Skype or Zoom). Email is a good approach to get the ball rolling, but to help
make a meaningful connection, communicate beyond email. Be honest about your
job search experience and interests. Once you have made a connection, make an
effort to follow up. Check in with your connections over time. You may partner on
a project with them, or an opportunity may arise when you can refer the person to
another colleague. Once you have built a trusting relationship, these contacts may
also refer people or job opportunities to you. If a potential employer does not have
an opening at the moment, checking in with them periodically will keep you on the
radar when positions doarise.
Getting back to those on-the-spot meetings at conferences, you may want to ask
a more senior person (e.g., an advanced undergraduate or graduate student, an early
career colleague, or an instructor or supervisor) to introduce you to others with
similar interests. In time, youll become more comfortable doing this on your own.
Professionals generally like talking about themselves and their interests, and they
can become excellent sources for available positions. If you know of a position of
interest, let people know you plan to apply. Others can serve as advocates and give
insights into therole.
This gets to the important challenge of finding mentors, whether in gradu-
ate school or in your first or fifth job. Getting support may feel daunting, though
opportunities abound. While in school, some programs offer matching services for
a thesis and/or dissertation chair, or for a menu of alumni willing to be contacted
to answer questions or serve as mentors. Seek out alumni from your program, even
if they do not have official mentoring programs. You can also connect with faculty
within your own program or academic units that are known among students for
being particularly supportive and helpful to students. If you take elective courses
outside your program or if you have the opportunity to get involved in research or
other activities that expose you to additional faculty, do not hesitate to reach out to

them for guidance and support. While some faculty members might be too busy
or focused on their work, the majority of professors value the opportunity to con-
nect with students outside of class and to offer career support. However, they often
depend on students to reach out to them and express an interest before they will
take on a mentoringrole.
Whether you are seeking an advisor or you are embarking on networking, your
focus should be on identifying people with similar interests and skill sets to which
you aspire. Incorporate networking into the activities you are already doing. Need
a paper for a class? Interview a professional whose work you admire. Want to learn
about a particular type of career? Suggest inviting a guest speaker to your class or
organize a digital meeting for your cohort of students or colleagues. Want to go to
a conference to meet some colleagues? Present your work there. Want to try work
in a particular setting, exercise particular skills, or connect to a particular group or
organization? Seek out these opportunities through fieldwork, practicum, or intern-
ship opportunities. Build relationships within the communities that you want to
work. And take every opportunity to practice your networking skills. Have an two
minute elevator speech prepared and practice it. Whether it is with colleagues,
friends, or in front of a mirror, get comfortable explaining to others what your inter-
ests are and what your career plans mightbe.
I wish Ihad a better sense ofthe jobs that may be available

tome. How can Ilearn aboutthem?
Most employment websites, online postings, networking resources, professional
associations, universities, and headhunting firms allow you to focus on particular
locations. Engaging in professional associations both locally and nationally can help
you tap into new networks, wherever you might try to relocate. One can also con-
nect with professional organizations specific to a particular job interest or sector.
Some organizations have job listings only available to members, which are posted
on websites or sent out through member email lists. You will hear over and over
throughout this book about the importance of networking. In many cases, potential
employers will work in collaboration with employees to create jobs that are specific
to a strong candidate who they have a personal connection to. It is important to
build relationships that may later lead to information about jobs or even turn into
a job opportunity. Reach out to other professionals in the field who are located in
your cities/counties of interest. Take the initiative to have a meeting or a phone
conference to learn about their work and the work of other locals in thefield.
Let us use data to describe some of the different sectors and job categories out
there. In conducting the survey we identified over 100 job titles and organized them
into 23 categories across six main sectors (see Figure 1.6 for the list of job sectors).
There are LOTS of options. One of the many pluses of training in the field
of community psychology is its versatility and relevance to a wide variety of job

Project/ Manager/
Program Supervisor
Coordinator 7%
(Non-research)
Program 1%
Evaluator
6%
Consultant
4%
Faculty All
Clinical
Levels
Caseworker/
47%
Social Worker
6%
CEO/COO/VP/
Director/ED
8%
Researcher
21%
Figure1.6 Type of full-time job category.
opportunities. Other than academic positions to teach CP courses, jobs for commu-
nity psychologists are rarely advertised as looking for a community psychologist.
Therefore, we recommend focusing on community psychology skills and not the
term community psychologist. Use the list of competencies for practice, your own set
skills, and the job description to determine if the position would allow you to make
the type of impact you would like and if it would provide the challenges you are
looking for. Remember that there is room togrow.
Many professionals report looking at posted positions for a sector or a specific
field that matched their job skills and then they presented themselves accordingly.
This books contributing authors also corroborate the notion that many community
psychologists find their positions through networking. Sector-specific strategies for
finding jobs are discussed in Chapters424.
Figure 1.6 shows the distribution of job-level categories in which survey respon-
dents work. Among full-time employees, faculty positions were most common
(47%), followed by researchers (21%). The third most common job category
included executive leadership positions (e.g., Eds., CEOs, COOs, and VPs). Other
full-time job categories included consultants, program evaluators, project directors,
program coordinators (non-research) managers, and supervisors. Approximately
half the full-time jobs involved working for colleges and universities as faculty,
researchers, executives, and administrators. The other half of the full-time positions
were spread between the government, health care, nonprofits, and consulting or
evaluationfirms.

If Iknow Iwant tofocus onacademia, Ishould know...

Academic jobs are currently an odd combination of the most competitive positions
(e.g., with the most applicants and lowest percentage of hires) and the perceived
simplest path. Because university systems are cultures that graduate students learn
to navigate and understand, they may feel safe and predictable. The number of full-
time faculty positions across the United States, however, particularly tenure-track
positions, are on the decline, with many schools shifting much of the teaching load
to part-time and full-time non-tenure track instructors. Currency for academic
positions continues to revolve around academic pedigree (i.e., where your PhD was
earned), publishing success, the ability to obtain grants, and demonstrated teaching
excellence. In Chapter17, Berardi and Back discuss doing community psychology
related work from the perspective of the student affairs division of a university;
Majer in Chapter16 covers the ins and outs of working as faculty at a community
college; in Chapter18, Palmer outlines the steps to finding a faculty position at a
teaching-focused school; see Beasleys Chapter19 if you are interested in strategies
for finding an academic faculty job with research expectations. Between the guid-
ance you will get from your own faculty mentors and each of these authors, you will
have few unanswered questions about preparing for the life of an academic.
Our survey revealed that the higher education arena is one of the hardest sectors
to gain employment in across all social science fields. Historically though, people
who obtain these positions were more likely to remain at their institution for a sub-
stantial amount of time and tend to feel a higher sense of job security. From our
sample, 63% of part-time and full-time participants that work in the education field
indicated that they felt secure or very secure with their current role. In comparison
to other sectors, it rated the second highest for a sense of security. Of those in aca-
demia, 59% obtained a PhD, although there are positions within academia that only
require masters and bachelors level training (e.g., research coordinator, undergrad
teaching positions, and academic support). The median salary earned for academics
was $70,000 annually. However, the projected top salary was $110,000.
When it comes to finding a job within an academic setting, over half (57%) of
the survey participants attributed their employment to networking. People learn of
these positions through Internet job advertisements (39%), and websites that post
university-level positions like the Chronicle of Higher Education, HigherED jobs,
or Academickeys.
If Iknow Iwant tofocus onhealth care, Ishould know...

Forty-nine of our survey respondents wrote about their experiences working in the
health-care sector (12% of the sample). The health sector seeks community psy-
chologists for program development and evaluation responsibilities. Other health
sector employees with community psychology backgrounds include researchers,

clinical caseworkers, social workers, and executive leader roles (i.e., CEOs/COOs/
VPs/Eds./Directors). Some participants described their roles as using their research
training:Designs, manages and conducts complex scientific research studies in a specific
public health area; whereas others used more of their organizational development
and leadership training through leading multiple change projects to improve health
care delivery and access. Still others used their clinical and managerial skills super-
vising and training clinical social workers and conducting individual and group psychoso-
cial assessments and counseling. Health-care setting examples include hospitals and
clinical or community health centers. Most jobs in health-care settings are at non-
profit organizations.
The health-care sector is quite different than academia. Credentials and licenses
for clinically oriented positions are essential here, though publishing is likely most
important if you hope to do health-related research or policy work. Health admin-
istration requires experience in health-care settings; management and evaluation
training (likely more helpful than clinical skills); teaching experience; or publica-
tion. Many community psychologists have been successful within city, state, or fed-
eral public health agencies as well as in the Veterans Administration (VA) system,
the latter of which typically qualifies as being in both government and health-care
sectors. VA positions tend to be more relevant for folks with clinical community
training and strong research skills; the job roles in these settings tend to provide
direct services, or involve supervision of such services, or potentially be in research.
Clinical psychology training is less important in the field of public health. Courses
in health psychology, epidemiology, community- based participatory research,
and program evaluation are all valuable for building valued public health skills.
Geographical Information Systems, social network analysis, and community asset
mapping skills would all carry high value within the field of public health.
Many other community psychologists have had success conducting behavioral
health (e.g., mental health and substance abuse) research in settings (both traditional
and alternative) that serve people with disabilities. Some community psychologists
have interests in successful aging, although few survey participants indicated that
they worked in nursing homes or other long-term care facilities. Given the aging
population of baby boomers, this is an area of potential growth.
Employees within the health-care and government sectors felt much more secure
in their job roles compared to those in the nonprofit and education sector. Typical
employment postings are found on job-posting websites. Of the surveyed commu-
nity psychologists of this type, 58% had earned a PhD. Many participants, however,
reported working as clinical caseworkers or social workers, thus having some form
of clinical/counseling training.
In this sector, community psychologists reported using an average of nine compe-
tencies in their job role. Fifty-seven percent used prevention and health promotion
as part of their roles. Empowerment and sociocultural and cross-cultural compe-
tencies were the second most prominent within this sector. The median income

reported for this group was $67,500, while there is quite a range, with supervisors
of course making more. Our particular respondents had five years of experience,
mostly in their current positions; they learned of their positions through their pro-
fessional networks, and many ended up creating a position for themselves.
If Iknow Iwant towork inthe government, Ishould know...

The government sector consists of local, state, and federal departments and agencies
providing an array of job opportunities. In comparison to other sectors, government
and health-care employees felt most secure in their job roles. Fifty-four participants
(13% of the total sample) worked within the government sector as community psy-
chologists. The most prevalent job category among community psychologists is in
government, and 74% of them hold doctoral degrees.
Research and evaluation skills in community psychology training are critical for
government sector jobs. In some instances, government opportunities provide the
flexibility to have joint appointments within the education sector. Some individuals
had joint appointments with a college or university, thus teaching was an additional
job responsibility. Government sector settings include the National Institutes of
Health, Veteran Affairs, US Department of Health and Human Services, and the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration (SAMHSA). You can
best locate federal jobs at USAjobs.gov website (https://www.usajobs.gov/). Each
state and most municipalities have their own job opportunitysites.
The median salary in the government sector was $78,000. However, participants
projected that the top salary for their position was $150,000, while the highest sal-
ary earned in the sample was $100,000. For those working in this sector, there is not
only the possibility of salary advancement, but also a level of optimism about future
earning potential.
It often takes longer to gain access to government agency jobs than to those in
any other sector. The application processes (typically entirely online; see USAjobs.
gov) tend to be highly structured with a series of additional hurdles such as extensive
background checks (and in some cases drug tests and fingerprinting). Internships
and fellowships provide insights behind the curtain of government agencies and
help build attractive resumes. Networking, as always, is vital to finding jobs in this
sector. Once employment was obtained, 65% of participants in this sector felt secure
at their job, with our sample having remained in their position for at least fouryears.
If Iknow Iwant towork ina nonprofit sector, Ishould know...

The prospect of alleviating distress within the community, addressing large-scale
social issues, supporting community well-being, and valuing diversity attract a
lot of people to the field of community psychologyand to the nonprofit sector
in particular. Community psychologists who work in the nonprofit sector often

started with a desire to work in an applied setting. Yet the individual missions
and the work of the various organizations in the nonprofit sector are distinctly
diverse. Of the 113 respondents (27% of the sample), more than half (55%) held
a doctorate, and 18% a masters degree. The training of community psycholo-
gists has great transferability to this sector, although sharing the content foci of
the organizationhealth, education, community engagement, green initiatives,
art, youth development, policy, and technologyis typically very important.
Graduate students in community psychology might generate a list of organiza-
tions that fit their areas of interest. Applicants should note in their cover letters and
resumes ways in which their graduate training (thesis and dissertation work) aligns
with the organizations mission.
Nonprofits typically post position vacancies on their own website or other
employment sites (http://www.npo.net, http://www.idealist.org, http://www.
indeed.com, http://www.simplyhired.com, and http://www.careerbuilder.
com). Community psychologists often told us they learned of their jobs through
networking referrals. Another common theme was the creating of ones own
position. One way to create a job in this sector is to collaborate with the orga-
nization on grant writing or in other capacities and include that position line
and salary within the grant proposal. In the nonprofit sector, most community
psychologists worked as researchers or in executive leader roles (CEOs/COOs/
VPs/Eds./Directors). The median salary reported was $61,900. Prior to working
in their current role, community psychologists had five years experience. The
most frequently listed community psychology competencies included empow-
erment, program development, program evaluation, community inclusion, and
partnership.
While stability varies considerably with the particular organization, the non-
profit sector reported the lowest level of job security. Only about half (48%) of
respondents felt secure/very secure in their roles. At the same time, 78% indicated
opportunities for advancement in their currentroles.
Nonprofit settings tend to value skills and experience over academic credentials.
Thus, gaining experiences in nonprofits while a graduate student (either as direct
service employee, intern, or volunteer) is a great idea. Such experiences help pro-
vide a sense of the type of nonprofit you would be interested in working for; these
organizations vary drastically in mission, culture, and size. Some are community-
based and focused; others have more of a national or international policy focus and
little to do with the neighborhood in which they are located. Nonprofits are often
looking for leaders who have a diverse skill set, from organizational development to
community organizing or grant writing and program evaluation. Taking courses in
these areas as part of your graduate training will put you ahead of the next applicant
with a passion for the cause. In Chapter7, Scott and Meissens discussion on lead-
ership and the support of nonprofits provides additional insight into community
psychologys value to the nonprofit sector.

How do Ishow a potential employer that Iam qualified

fora position?
Regardless of the sector, there are always ways to strengthen ones articulation of
qualifications for a position. Given that community psychology is not always directly
aligned with job titles, we see this as an opportunity rather than a challenge.
Therefore, we suggest a focus on job skills and competencies rather than job titles.
Oftentimes a functional resume can more effectively illustrate the experience you
have that is related to a job opening, so do not feel confined to a traditional chrono-
logical resume. Hiring managers typically spend less than a single minute review-
ing resumes. It is critical to highlight your own relevant skills and competencies as
clearly as possible.
You might be asking yourself, If different jobs require different competen-
cies, how do Icreate a resume that highlights relevant competencies for different
needs? The answer is simple (though it requires a bit more work)create different
resumes. Think of each application as a project proposal:conduct a needs assess-
ment, evaluate your relevant strengths, and then propose how your skills can meet
each individual potential employers needs, tailoring what you include to address
the needs of the organization to which you are applying.
What other life considerations and strategies should Ithink

about interms ofan overall career trajectory? Is it better tolook
fora perfect job or can Imake a good job better onceI have it?
Should Icontinually be thinking about transitions?
What is most important to find or create a position that is a good fit. While you
cannot know ahead of time how you will like a job, you can do lots of homework.
Start with the description of the position and what you would be expected to
do. Do the competencies they are looking for fit with your capabilities, experi-
ence, and passions? What is the opportunity for learning? For upward mobility?
Does the job include supervising or managing others? Is any direct service and
interaction with community members, clients, students, or other stakeholders
involved? How much writing or computer-based work is involved? Who would
you be working with? What is the culture of the organization? What is the mis-
sion? What is their reputation in the community and in the sector? To what
extent are they under-resourced (most organizations see themselves as under-
resourced to a certain extent)? Would you be working directly with clients/
students? Would you be completing work in teams or independently? Is travel
required? Are things fast-paced? Do other employees take their work home with
them? Is there an expectation of working in the evenings and/or weekends?
Who would you report to? Do they seem to be more hands-on or hands-off ?
What is their organizationalstyle?

The more you know what fits your personality, you skill set, and your life cir-
cumstances, the better you will know how to assess fit. We feel it is important to
emphasize choosing a good fit (interest, skill set, and goals) rather than having to
work hard to adjust to a position. This may not always be an option, however. Plus,
things change, including ones interests and skills, as well as the options at ones
workplace. An initial fit is crucial, but what that fit entails might vary from indi-
vidual to individuallocation, job description, department values, and the like.
Thus, it is more important to be open-minded and always look for opportunities for
growth and development, whether in the workplace or outside.
Moreover, you can also create your own job from the start. In fact, 13% of sur-
vey respondents either created their own position or their position was developed
for them. They first identified whether they wanted to work for themselves or for
an organization that was a good fit, and then they worked within the organization
to develop the job description and determine how the position would be funded
(often by writing a grant and/or consulting professionals in the field). If you dis-
cover your ideal sector early and want to remain within this sector, your transitions
may be easier. Again, though, your related competencies in community psychology
or related training are transferable. Yet given that potential employers outside of
community psychology may not know the field, it is all the more vital that you know
how to explain the field and its connection to the potential job. Make sure your CV
highlights skills that are sector-relevant; job recruiters focus on buzz words associ-
ated with the vacant position. When changing sectors convey why the skills you
have acquired are transferrable.
Participate in training opportunities (e.g., webinars, workshops, Coursera) to
develop and maintain and expand your skill set. At the same time, new roles can
offer an opportunity to learn on the job. However, be honest if there is an area that
you are not as familiar with. If an organization focuses on a content area that is more
one of interest than expertise, convey that to the potential employer. Be willing to
go the extra mile to know what the job and the organization are about. Do whatever
is possible to gain the knowledge and skill sets needed to complete the job. Connect
with professionals who have mastered the competencies. Seek their professional
feedback when needing additional assistance. Create a plan to tell potential employ-
ers how you will enhance your own abilities in areas that are not your strongest.
Chapter Summary
Training in community psychology can lead to various careers spanning multiple
sectors. Regardless of setting or context, there is always more community psychol-
ogy work to be done. Community psychologists describe themselves as working
more than 40 hours a week. We have yet to meet any community psychologists who

are not passionate about their work. Yet both some stress and fulfillment are pretty
much guaranteed.
Employment-Seeking Strategies:TakeAwayPoints
1. Identify and cultivate relationships with multiple mentors. However, limit the
number of mentors to a number you can manage to connect with consistently.
2. Build your network both within your field and across disciplines.
3. Join and engage actively with professional associations within your areas of
interest.
4. Be intentional about building skills and competencies relevant to the sector and
jobs in which you are most interested. Remember that you will continue to grow
in these areas beyond graduate training.
5. Align your CV (resume) to the skills and competencies needed for the specific
job(s) you seek, and practice an elevator speech that helps future employers see
how your experience, training, and competencies fit their contexts.
6. Use multiple search techniques when looking for employment (e.g., job post-
ings and organizational websites, networking, listservs).
7. Keep confident, consistent, get support, and recognize that part of your real-life
training and development as a community psychologist involves seeking new
positions.
References
Dalton, J., Elias, M., & Julian, D. (Eds.). (2007). Defining competencies for practicing community
psychology. The Community Psychologist, 40(2), 81105.
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (Eds.). (2012). Competencies for community psychology practice:Society
for community research and action draft August 15, 2012. The Community Psychologist,
45(4),814.
National Science Foundation (2014). Unemployment among Doctoral Scientists and Engineers
Increased but Remained Below the National Average. Retrieved from https://www.nsf.gov/sta-
tistics/infbrief/nsf14310/
Scott, R. L. (2007). Establishing core competencies for students in community psychology. The
Wolfe, S., & Dalton, J. (Eds.). (2010). Learning key competencies for community psychology
practice: Collaboration with citizens and communities, group processes. The Community
Psychologist, 43(2),911.
Wolfe, S., & Dalton, J. (Eds.). (2011). Learning key competencies for community psychology prac-
tice:Leadership, mentoring, and supervision. The Community Psychologist, 44(2),916.

Federal Careers forApplied Community

Psychologists
Transitioning into a Public HealthAgency
Theresa L. Armstead
I have heard of community psychology but Ido not know what it is as a discipline.
Afriend made this statement the morning Isat to draft this chapter. It is a state-
ment Ihave heard many times as a government employeeoften from people like
my friend who are interested in public health or evaluation careers and are gath-
ering information about doctoral programs that will train them to work in these
fields. Iam not known as a community psychologist because it is neither a part of
my job title nor job description. In fact, Iwas surprised to learn there were com-
munity psychologists working for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) when I started in 2011. Another trained community psychologist began
on the same team on the same day as me. Our team leader was a community psy-
chologist, and at least two other existing team members had community psychol-
ogy training. We are, in fact, everywhere across the agency, performing a myriad of
roles as researchers, program evaluators, project officers, contract specialists, spe-
cial assistants to agency leaders, and as experts in translating research into practice.
Before describing what I do, how community psychology training competencies
are reflected in my practice, the process of obtaining my position, and the advice
Iwould give for job seekers, Iwould like to share how Igot into public health and
program evaluation.
Backstory
My first job was a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Iowa in the College
of Public Health. Less than a year into my job, I applied for an open Assistant
Professor position in the Department of Community and Behavioral Health.
20

Fed eral Careers :P ublic Health A g e nc y 21
During this time, I also worked in the University of Iowa Prevention Research
Center (PRC):first in the postdoctoral role and then as the Assistant Director of
the PRC. Finally, Iserved as the PRC evaluator from 2006 until Ileft the univer-
sity in 2010. Community-based participatory research (W.K. Kellogg Foundation
Community Health Scholars Program, 2001)was a core function of the PRC and it
was my niche. Ioften describe the PRC as the place where my community psychol-
ogy background and public health role came together in practice. It was my experi-
ence in the role as the PRC evaluator, however, that helps explain how Ihave come
to do my current work atCDC.
In 2006, I attended my first American Evaluation Association (AEA) annual
evaluation conference. I attended AEA to learn about evaluation because I was
expected to perform as the PRC evaluator, despite not having taken a single pro-
gram evaluation course in my graduate program. Idiscovered that this was a similar
story for most program evaluatorswe learned evaluation while doing evaluation.
The AEA conference is a great source of evaluation training, and hosts a summer
institute every year in Atlanta, Georgia, that Iattended from 2006 to 2010. Ilearned
evaluation theory, design, and planning through the conference, institute, and web-
based trainings offered byAEA.
Several well-known and recognizable community psychologists were already
influential within AEA when Ifirst began attending the conference, and the pres-
ence of evaluators trained in community psychology has grown steadily over the
years. At the 2011 AEA evaluation conference, Ivolunteered to serve as co-chair of
the inaugural Community Psychology Topical Interest Group (CP TIG) during its
first business meeting. Iwas co-chair from 2012 to 2013 (lead co-chair in 2013)and
a member of the leadership council in 2014. Each year, the CP TIG grows in mem-
bership, receives increasing numbers of conference abstract submissions, and
strengthens ties with other TIGs through joint events. For a full week each year,
current members of the CP TIG write brief evaluation tips from the prospective
of our shared principles and values for AEAs blog, AEA365 (http://aea365.org/
blog/). Anyone can learn more about the CP TIG and its activities by visiting the
website (http://comm.eval.org/CommunityPsychology/Home/).
I left the University of Iowa in 2010. The primary motivation for the move from
academia to an applied setting was more personal than professional. Irespected
and enjoyed working with my peers in the Department of Community and
Behavioral Health. Ioften told them if Icould take all of them with me on my
professional journey, Iwould. They were truly collegial and collaborative. My pro-
fessional identity was not wedded to academia, although it was all Iknew. Iwent
straight from undergraduate school to graduate school and then became a pro-
fessor. Many of my classmates in graduate school had worked prior to pursuing
their doctorates. My desire was to gain experience outside of academia as Ididnt
feel Ihad work experience that could enrich my teaching. This is what prompted
mymove.

Although Ileft the university, Ifound many similarities between academic and
applied public health settings. Hierarchies that structure and govern the work exist
in both settings. There is a dean of the college, department heads, tenured profes-
sors, assistant professors, committees, and councils at the university. There are divi-
sion directors, branch chiefs, team leads, committees, and work groups at CDC.
Faculty (in academic setting) and staff (in applied setting) work in topical areas,
have subject matter expertise by topic, and are expected to work collaboratively.
There is support and opportunities for staff to participate in professional develop-
ment training and to maintain professional standing by presenting at professional
conferences such as AEA in both settings. On the whole, the skills Iacquired as an
academic translate well to a career in the federal government.
What IDoNow
I am a behavioral scientist and the lead evaluator for a congressionally funded
domestic violence prevention program (DELTA FOCUS; see: http://www.cdc.
gov/violenceprevention/deltafocus/index.html). This major public health pro-
gram funds state domestic violence coalitions to implement and evaluate programs
to prevent intimate partner/domestic violence at the community and societal levels
of the social ecology. My duties in this position include working with funded grant-
ees, writing contracts and managing the work of contractors, and applying for and
supervising evaluation fellows and fellows who have come through other mecha-
nisms. Additional duties include writing information collection requests to the
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) for program evaluation data collections
(the OMB must approve all data collections by entities of the federal government),
developing web-based data collection systems, writing publications, and presenting
at conferences.
The work Ido with and for recipients of federal funding (grantees) is called tech-
nical assistance. For the DELTA FOCUS program (described in more detail below),
technical assistance consists of providing evaluation assistance and program imple-
mentation guidance, conducting trainings, and developing and distributing official
communications to maintain compliance with federal laws, policies, and regula-
tions regarding the use of programmatic funding. This technical assistance occurs
in person during site visits or reverse site visits (reverse meaning they come to CDC
instead of us going to their site), over the phone on site-specific or project-wide
conference calls, or through Internet-based webinars and online trainings. In addi-
tion to these more formal responsibilities, Iserve on committees, working groups,
expert panels, and objective review panels.
In addition to the responsibilities and duties listed above, Iam also required to
write scientific publications and develop dissemination products for the field. CDC
is the leading public health agency in the United States, and is highly regarded for its

science. Staff who frequently publish in peer-reviewed journals are as highly valued
within the federal government as they are in academia. Publishing is an annual per-
formance requirement for most behavioral scientists. As a lead evaluator for DELTA
FOCUS, Ioften meet this requirement through report writing and developing or
assisting in publications such as guidance documents. The performance require-
ment, however, can be met easily by peer-reviewed journal publications.
CP Training Competencies inPractice

As a practicing community psychologist, my approach to program evaluation is to
be in service to communities and the social changes they seek. Being in service to
communities means that evaluation goals are set to meet tangible social change.
Thus, this approach requires more than a summative program evaluation. It is more
than asking if it worked at the end of the program, it means collecting data to assess
if what you are doing and if what the grantees are doing is working through devel-
opmental (Patton, 2010), formative, or process evaluation.
In my view, we should honor social, historical, and cross-cultural identities of
communities by evaluating how a program or strategy is working in the specific con-
text in which it is being implemented. Itake this approach even when the evaluand
(the object of the evaluation) is an intervention supported by a strong evidence
base. Toward that end, while at the University of Iowa, Imade sure to return data
to communities in a timely manner so they could use them to make informed, mid-
course adjustments. In my current role at CDC and in our evaluation of the domes-
tic violence prevention program, I communicate this same value by sharing the
synthesized data and interpretations of findings back with the grantees.
The training I received as a community psychologist serves to remind me to
consider behavioral settings, social regularities, and the transaction of persons-in-
environments. Iam tempted to list mentors (especially the late Dr.Bob Newbrough),
but instead will note that Ireceived my training in Community Research and Action
from Peabody College, Vanderbilt University from 2001 to 2006. The training com-
petencies for community psychology practice (Dalton and Wolff, 2012, Figure1.1,
this volume) that are most present in my practice are too many to discuss here. Iwill
illustrate a few of them through a brief description of the evaluation framework for
the domestic violence prevention program I support, DELTA FOCUS (http://
www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/deltafocus/index.html). The acronym stands for
Domestic Violence Prevention Enhancements and Leadership Through Alliances,
Focusing on Outcomes for Communities United with States.
DELTA FOCUS follows 10years of previous programmatic work (i.e., DELTA)
building the capacity of state domestic violence coalitions to use the public health
approach to prevent violence against women. DELTA FOCUS, like the preceding
investment in DELTA, relies on empowerment evaluators (Cox, Craft, Keener,

Wandersman, & Woodard, 2009)to build the evaluation capacity of CDC-funded

state domestic violence coalitions and the DELTA FOCUSfunded member agen-
cies they support.
The DELTA FOCUS program extends the work of earlier iterations by requir-
ing grantees to plan, implement, and evaluate strategies that move beyond the indi-
vidual and relational level of the social ecology to better reach and impact broader
populations. The empowerment evaluators assist in planning and implementing the
evaluation of these strategies. Ifind the ability to consider and articulate multiple
perspectives of the social ecology (ecological perspectives), to articulate a collective
empowerment perspective (empowerment), and the ability to implement a preven-
tion perspective (prevention and health promotion) incredibly important compe-
tencies for thiswork.
At CDC, we provide direct support to the empowerment evaluators. We help
them operationalize the theories of change that have been developed by the state
domestic violence coalitions and their DELTA FOCUSfunded member agencies.
We process which outcomes will be in the theory of change, assist in operational-
izing terms, brainstorm appropriate data collection strategies and methods, and dis-
cuss how to report evaluation findings. We support the empowerment evaluators
efforts to connect with each other, which has fostered a self-directed community of
practice among them. Collaboration and coalition development and program eval-
uation are particularly salient competencies to being successful in providing these
types of support. Program evaluation, no matter how you acquire the training, is an
excellent and transferable competency and is extremely helpful when pursuing a
public health career.
Obtaining My Position
I currently serve on the Intimate Partner Violence and Teen Dating Violence preven-
tion team in the Research and Evaluation Branch. The branch is one of three in the
Division of Violence Prevention. The division is one of three in the National Center
for Injury Prevention and Control (Injury Center). The Injury Center is one of the
many Centers, Institutes, and Offices of CDC. There are multiple CDC campuses
in Atlanta, Georgia, and additional satellite offices across the United States and the
world. Many career opportunities and locations for employment exist within the
agency (https://jobs.cdc.gov/).
I started at CDC as an associate service fellow on the Research Synthesis and
Application Team in the Program Implementation and Dissemination Branch.
Iwas an associate service fellow for about two years, promoted to a senior service
fellow for a year, and Iam currently a Title 5 government employee. Service fellow
programs at CDC are covered by Title 42, the Public Health Services Act (PHSA,
1983). Service fellows can only be hired to fill scientific or medical roles and are not

Title 5 civil service employees. Service fellow positions may be contracted initially
for one to five years and can be renewed in one-to five-year increments. Service fel-
lows are not recruited through USAJobs.gov; instead, the positions are posted on
job boards and advertised through mailing lists of professional associations, such as
the Society for Community Research and Actions (SCRA) mailinglist.
I saw a CDC senior service fellow job opportunity through the SCRA mailing list
and applied for it as Iwas preparing for my departure from the University of Iowa.
Ihad a phone interview, which was followed by an in-person interview. During the
interviews, Iwas very clear about the type of work Iwanted to do and the impact
Iwanted to make. The alignment between my vision and the job opportunity was
not perfect, but the clarity of the vision meant that the perspective Icould bring to
the agency and the work was seen and valued.
My expertise is more functional than topical. Program evaluation and com-
munity participatory research are my areas of functional expertise. Ihave worked
across a myriad of public health topics (homelessness, childhood obesity, physi-
cal activity, adolescent alcohol use, youth violence, teen dating violence, intimate
partner violence, and HIV/AIDS prevention). Opportunities to work across these
public health topics have occurred inside academia and the federal agency where
Icurrentlywork.
Advice forJob Seekers

I experienced some apprehension leaving academia. All I knew was academia
because Ihad gone straight through from undergraduate education to a doctoral
program to a postdoctorate and then a university professorship. Isaw my move to
CDC and working for the government as starting my professional career over. It
turns out this was not completely true, and Icould have begun my academic jour-
ney with the very end of it in mindworking in federal government.
My career advice to community psychologists is to be open-minded, network,
and become a subject matter expert. Istepped out of my comfort zone completely
and found similarities that Idid not realize would exist between being a professor
in Community Behavioral Health and a Behavioral Scientist at CDC. Iappreciated
the opportunity to apply my skills, expertise, and values on a larger, national scale.
Iwelcomed the opportunities to learn new skills and to build my knowledge base. In
short, my advice is to be optimistic and open-minded to unimagined possibilities.
While at the University of Iowa and CDC, Ihave been in a position to directly
hire or influence the hiring of staff or fellows in training fellowships. In my experi-
ence, Ihave reviewed resumes from many people who appear to be able to perform
a job equally well, and it often comes down to the strength of the in-person inter-
view or professional networks. When Iam on the other side of the table from a job
seeker, Iwonder if the person is committed to the mission or organization, what are

their ambitions, can they hold a conversation, and would this person represent us
well at a professional meeting or conference. How a person performs in an interview
is one of those intangible factors that make a difference.
Networking is invaluable. Do not be afraid to seek people out for career advice.
Even if these people are not in the position to make hiring decisions, they may be
willing to mentor, provide career advice, or connect you to someone who is hiring.
Do you speak with people at conferences? Who are you publishing with? Who are
you otherwise connected with professionally? When Ishadowed community orga-
nizers and collected data for my dissertation research, people spoke to me because
of the credibility of the person introducing me to them. The same principle applies
when seeking a job in government or academia.
Subject matter expertise is highly valued in federal agencies. Subject matter
expertise can be developed informally through participation in content-specific
projects. Formally, CDC and other federal agencies offer other types of training
that are incredibly valuable. CDC and the United States Department of Health
and Human Services offer free courses on public health, evaluation, leadership
and management, and other topics. These courses can be onsite or web-based. In
contrast, there are mandatory trainings for every government employee on vari-
ous topics including professional ethics, security awareness, and records manage-
ment. An employee must complete forty hours of certification training every two
years to manage government-funded contracts. I have benefited from all these
training mechanisms and have embraced every opportunity to expand my skill and
knowledgebase.
Conclusion
Trained community psychologists are well positioned to influence the develop-
ment, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of projects in ways that
benefit communities, respect their voice, and manage expectations. We have experi-
ence or competencies that teach us that although collaborative, participatory, and
community-driven programs can take a long time to fully develop, they are well
worth pursuing to have meaningful and sustained public health benefits. When
Ileft academia for the federal government, Isaw an opportunity to bring this per-
spective to the important work ofCDC.
While community-driven work in the federal government faces distinctly dif-
ferent accountability pressures than in academia, it is exciting and rewarding work.
The government and funded granteeshealth departments, community-based
organizations, and academicsshare the common goal of preventing all forms of
violence in the United States. For this reason, Ifind my work rewarding and believe
Iam making an important contribution to the field of public health.

CDC Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the
author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.
References
Cox, P. J., Craft, C. A., Keener, D., Wandersman, A., & Woodard, T. L. (2009). Evaluation for
improvement: A seven-step empowerment evaluation approach for violence prevention organiza-
tions. Atlanta, GA:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Dalton, J. & Wolff, S. (2012). Joint column:Education connection and the community practitioner.
The Community Psychologist, 45(4),714.
Patton, M. Q. (2010). Developmental evaluation:Applying complexity concepts to enhance innovation
and use. NewYork, NY:GuilfordPress.
Public Health Service Act. 42 U.S.C. 209 (1983).
W.K. Kellogg Foundation Community Health Scholars Program. (2001). Stories of impact [bro-
chure]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, School of Public Health, Community Health
Scholars Program, National Program Office.

Federal Careers forApplied Community

Psychologists
Pathways andRoles
Richard A . Jenkins
The federal government provides a wide variety of career options for community
psychologists. These include research careers that can be similar or quite different
from those in academia and unique opportunities to shape policy, research, and pro-
gram practice. Many federal employees, including me, originally did not consider a
career in government, and my colleagues have come to the federal government from
a variety of settings including academia, private research organizations, community-
based organizations, nongovernmental organizations, state or local government,
professional organizations, and self-employment. The relative stability of govern-
ment employment often has created stereotypes and obscured the opportunities for
career growth and development. Changes in the federal retirement system during
the 1980s (Kerns, 1986) made it easier for people to enter government after many
years in other settings, and these changes also made it easier to leave government
without sacrificing many retirement benefits. As a result, federal service often repre-
sents an opportunity for new career directions, and the training opportunities avail-
able to federal employees enable further changes in role or content area during the
course of their careers. Entering federal employment has become simpler and more
transparent than in the past with straightforward web-based job descriptions and
application procedures.
I will use this chapter to describe potential roles for community psychologists
in the federal government. Many similar roles, particularly in policy, program pla-
nning, and administration, are possible in state and local government, which will be
covered in Chapter4. As in other settings, it is rare to see federal job announcements
that specifically mention community psychologists, but many opportunities
exist; these also attract people in fields such as applied sociology, applied anthro-
pology, public health behavioral science, social welfare, and health education, as
28

Fed eral Careers :Pathways and R ol e s 29
well as other applied subfields within psychology. The areas of overlap with other
fields provide opportunities to build interdisciplinary collaborations and linkages,
although some people feel isolated because their subfield may not be well repre-
sented and its particular contributions may seem unrecognized. This chapter begins
with a brief overview of my background, which Iwill use as a point of departure for
possible roles in the federal government. My career captures some common roles
and experiences better than others, but it provides an opportunity to see how com-
munity psychologists and people in related fields can build a variety of different
careers in the federal government.
My Own Career inthe Federal Government:ABrief

Case History
I came to the federal government by way of working for a research foundation which
had a cooperative agreement (a grant that permit substantial federal participation)
with the federal government. That position came after having had a clinical research
position in academia for two years (my background is clinical/community), a one-
year teaching position, and a postdoc. Working under a cooperative agreement
provided many opportunities to see the roles of people in government. I interacted
with people from several government research agencies, including those engaged
in foreign affairs, as well as with representatives of international agencies like the
World Health Organization and UNAIDS. I also had the opportunity to work
overseas, which began with brief consultations and eventually led to three years
in residence in Thailand. When I left Thailand, I began working at the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, which, ironically, led me back
to Thailand for a series of lengthy consultations that lasted until I left CDC for the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2006.
My work at CDC and beforehand focused on conducting research. This included
a variety of projects related to preparations for HIV vaccine trials in Thailand (rapid
community assessments, cohort studies, development of outreach activities and
participant counseling, mental health consultation), as well as stress and coping
research among people living with HIV/AIDS. My CDC work included research to
promote data use in HIV prevention planning ( Jenkins etal., 2005)and service on a
team that conducted an outbreak investigation which required an understanding of
systems, community, and clinical issues. Iwas a co-investigator on several projects
in Thailand including a methodological study of computerized self-report data col-
lection methods (van Griensven etal., 2006). Ialso was involved in the first system-
atic community research on HIV risk among gay men in Thailand (Mansergh etal.,
2006; van Griensven etal., 2005)and the first efforts to implement evidence-based
HIV prevention intervention with that population. Over time, Ibecame involved
in scientific review for CDC and also for NIH, and participated in working groups

to develop guidelines for public health practice. Ialso served on a working group
to promote behavioral and social research at CDC. All of this should highlight the
breadth of research as well as policy and practice opportunities that exist in the fed-
eral government.
My more recent work, at the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) at
NIH, has been more administrative, although Icontinue to be directly involved in
research projects, but without involvement in day-to-day operations such as partici-
pant recruitment and direct data collection. For example, Ihave served on multidis-
ciplinary protocol teams for large, multisite HIV prevention and implementation
studies with a variety of populations. In addition to administering a large portfolio
of grants, Ihave developed or co-led funding initiatives in HIV prevention and drug
abuse prevention research. This has involved successfully advocating for research
concepts, writing funding announcements for those concepts, providing technical
assistance to applicants, and developing funding plans after grant applications have
been reviewed. Topics for these initiatives have included promotion of community
and structural prevention interventions, integration of prevention into new settings,
and promotion of HIV prevention among African Americans and among persons
involved in the criminal justice system. Much of my work involves collaboration
with other institutes at NIH, as well as with other federal agencies. This includes
serving on steering committees that manage cross-NIH programs, participating in
protocol development, and helping to administer cross-NIH grants. Ialso review
grant applications for projects administered by other NIH institutes. I have par-
ticipated in the development of professional guidelines for HIV prevention prac-
tice, but Ihave less involvement in policy development than people at some other
agencies.
Federal employment does not preclude participation in outside organizations,
as long as there are no conflicts of interest resulting from overlap with ones federal
position. In the past, Iserved on the American Psychological Associations (APA)
Committee on Psychology and AIDS as well as various committees and working
groups related to SCRA. Ialso have served on conference planning committees for
organizations such as the Society for Prevention Research. Federal staff often are
involved in activities that academics and community practitioners routinely do.
Ihave guest lectured at Thai universities, and have taught community psychology
at a branch campus of the University of Maryland. Iam currently an editorial board
member for two journals, Ihave been a reviewer for numerous journals, and Ialso
have organized special issues of journals and newsletters. Federal employees rou-
tinely participate as presenters, discussants, and conveners at professional and sci-
entific meetings, as well as meetings organized by multilateral organizations like the
World Health Organization(WHO).
Federal employment often offers opportunities for become involved in teaching
and other types of training related to ones job duties; Iwas part of CDCs Epidemic
Intelligence Service (EIS) training program and have been a guest lecturer for the

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. Ialso have provided trainings to CDC-
funded prevention providers, international non-governmental organizations, and
foreign academic groups. Anumber of my CDC colleagues were heavily involved
in providing capacity building assistance and other kinds of technical assistance to
community-based organizations and health departments.
Pathways Into and Through theFederal Government

It should be evident that a federal career can take many directions, and entering into
federal employment can occur in many different ways. The most straightforward is
as a direct hire into a federal agency, which is how Icame into both of my federal
positions. Although Iwas familiar with the federal government from my previous
work, Iwas not familiar with the people at CDC who eventually hired me. Similarly,
Iwas not acquainted with anyone at NIDA, although Idid know people in other
NIH institutes. Other routes include federal agency training programs like EIS,
although these do not guarantee eventual employment by the sponsoring agen-
cies. There are other training programs which involve partnerships between federal
agencies and professional organizations, such as those sponsored by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and APA, and finally, certain
kinds of positions with organizations that work under federal contracts may provide
ways to work in the federal government.
Direct Hiring intothe Federal Government

Application for federal jobs through the USAJOBS website (http://www.
USAJOBS.gov) is the procedure used for almost all federal jobs. The job listings
here provide a way of understanding the kinds of jobs that are available in the federal
government. Applying for federal jobs used to be rather complicated, because every
agency hired separately and the procedures for informing applicants about the hir-
ing process greatly varied. Now all positions are posted on the USAJOBS website,
although internship/fellowship programs are not advertised this way and are man-
aged by their sponsoring federal agencies. Internship/fellowship programs usually
are publicized through professional newsletters, agency websites, and listservs, and
often receive secondary distribution through a professional organizations internet
channels. Applicants need to create an online resume (typically an adaptation of
ones vita) and summarize their qualifications in relation to a set of questions tai-
lored to each position. The laborious KSA (Knowledge, Skill, Abilities) writing
requirements are largely gone, although it is helpful to make sure that the online
resume relates to the online questions and addresses qualifications for a position.
The hiring process usually has two steps. First, all applications are screened by a
human resources generalist. Then, the most qualified candidates, based on criteria

listed in the announcement, are referred to the agency work unit that is offering the
position for further consideration. The second step, using the list of most qualified
candidates, proceeds much like most non-government hiring processes with inter-
views, checking of references, and so on. There typically is a limit on the number of
final candidates, with separate limits for internal (existing federal employees) and
external candidates. There are rare instances where positions are only open to exist-
ing federal employees or employees of the agency that is hiring, but these require-
ments are always clearly stated in the announcement and usually reflect the need
for specific agency knowledge or specialized expertise. The USAJOBS site provides
updates as one proceeds through the hiring process.
Training Programs inthe Federal Government

Some agencies have entry level training programs, which people often use as a step
toward federal employment. These do not guarantee future employment, but often
make it easier to understand how federal agencies work and demonstrate skills that
may help in the normal hiring process when positions become open. CDC has two
programs which may be of particular interest for community psychologists: EIS
(mentioned previously; http://www.cdc.gov/eis/), a postdoctoral program which
provides field epidemiology practice and research training through health depart-
ments and the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP; http://www.cdc.gov/
phap/), a post-masters degree program which has more emphasis on practice.
EIS draws people from medicine, public health, and a variety of social science
fields, including trainees from foreign countries. It began as a field epidemiol-
ogy program focusing on infectious diseases, but its scope now includes a variety
of conditions including intimate partner violence, birth defects, environmental
health, mental health, chronic disease risk, and a wide array of communicable dis-
eases like HIV that have behavioral and social risks. PHAP also draws from a variety
of disciplines. It is similar to EIS in that it involves working at CDC in Atlanta as
well as in state or local health departments, but emphasizes public health practice,
whereas EIS includes research training and experience. CDC also offers conven-
tional research postdocs under the ORISE program (http://orise.orau.gov/cdc/).
These vary in their offering and the same content areas are not necessarily offered
everyyear.
Fellowships withNon-Federal Partners

Some training opportunities in the federal government involve fellowships based
on partnerships with external scientific and professional organizations. Like inter-
nal internship and fellowship opportunities, these do not guarantee future employ-
ment, but they often make it easier to understand how federal agencies work and

demonstrate skills that may help in the normal hiring process when positions
become open. The best known of these fellowships are postdoctoral programs asso-
ciated with the AAAS. AAAS funds some programs directly (http://fellowships.
aaas.org/) and also works with other organizations that fund similar fellowships like
the American Psychological Association (APA; http://www.apa.org/about/gr/
fellows/index.aspx) and the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD;
http://www.srcd.org/policy-media/policy-fellowships/about-fellowships). APA
and SRCD fellows share common activities with AAAS fellows and this broadens
their contacts and exposure to the federal government.
AAAS-related fellowships include research or policy-oriented placements in
Executive Branch agencies like NIH, international affairs placements with the
Department of State, and policy-oriented fellowships with Congress. Congressional
placements can involve working for Senators or Representatives staffs or on
staffs of Congressional Committees; APAs fellowships are largely concentrated in
Congress. These AAAS and related programs primarily serve early career profes-
sionals, but also are open to persons who already are established in a career and
provide a mechanism for changing career course. There also are programs which
are similar but do not fall under the AAAS umbrella such as the Society for the
Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) James Marshall Fellowship (http://
www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=747) which makes
Congressional placements.
Community psychologists often have taken advantage of the APA Congressional
Fellowships. These positions commonly involve a topical portfolio, such as health,
education, or science, that draw on ones training and expertise and provide oppor-
tunities to contribute to the writing of legislation and oversight of existing federal
programs. Some people have gone on from these fellowships to work in policy
related positions in other parts for the federal government or in policy positions for
organizations likeAPA.
Working withFederal Contractors

Contractor positions are another way to enter federal employment. The most
straight forward way that this occurs is when contractors work within federal agen-
cies alongside civil servants, often in entry level positions or in highly specialized
technical areas. These positions are like fellowships in the sense that any movement
into federal employment involves the usual competitive process with no guarantee
of being hired. On the other hand, contractors may work for many years in a fed-
eral agency rather than in the short-term manner of a fellowship. Working within
an agency with civil service staff offers an opportunity for firsthand experience in
an agency. These positions are administered by third parties that include large corpo-
rations with varied federal contracting experience like Lockheed Martin or smaller,

more specialized firms that also have experience doing federal work. Positions tend
to be advertised in varied ways and job seekers may not always be aware from the
advertisements that these positions are in federal agencies. It becomes important to
learn about the organizations large and small that work with federal agencies. Some
of this can come from looking at technical reports and journal articles published by
agency staff (which will include the affiliations of contractors).
Contracting also may occur in ways where there is at least some separation from
federal staff. Universities and research organizations (for-profit and non-profit), of
various sizes, may provide services such as managing laboratories or data centers
for large federal projects or performing evaluations. Positions in these kinds of con-
tractor organizations provide less opportunity to learn about the day-to-day work-
ings of agencies, but do provide opportunities to work with federal staff and learn
about agency functions and climate. This can be a useful way to learn enough to
consider applying for federal employment. There usually is some reference to work-
ing on federal government projects when these positions are advertised, but one
needs to become familiar with organizations that often conduct these types of work.
Examples of larger organizations include RAND, WESTAT, Research Triangle
Institute, FHI360, and Batelle.
Other Steps towardFederal Employment

Federal agencies that administer programs or collect data on a national basis often
hire people who have worked for state or local agencies that conduct this work in
the field. Many of the people Iknew at CDC who worked in areas such as capacity
building, training, disease surveillance, and prevention program management had
come from state and local health departments or from community-based organiza-
tions funded to provide programs by CDC or other federal agencies. The expertise
that comes from running programs and collecting data locally is valuable to federal
agencies so that programs can be more responsive to communities and better take
into account local conditions.
I have worked with a number of academic researchers who left university posi-
tions and became involved in managing programs, conducting evaluation, or serving
as investigators on research in their content areas as employees of federal agen-
cies, such as CDC, NIH, or the Administration for Children and Families (ACF).
This sometimes occurs after serving an agency through an Interagency Personnel
Agreement (IPA; described in the next section), but it often occurs without a for-
mal segue such as this. Senior academic researchers sometimes are hired into the
government to begin new areas of research within agencies such as implementa-
tion research, or to administer broad areas of research such as social and behavioral
science or disease prevention. Junior faculty might be hired to conduct or oversee
research in more specific areas such as early childhood interventions.

Moving aroundthe Federal Government, and

Partnerships withUniversities and Non-Federal
Agencies
During ones career, it is often possible to work in an agency different from ones
home agency through IPAs (known as seconding or details when done within
the federal government). IPAs permit these temporary transfers between govern-
ment agencies, which can enable ways to change content areas or types of respon-
sibility (e.g., from research to policy or administration), as well as ways to consider
moving from one agency to another. Similarly, these kinds of agreements enable
agencies to obtain expertise on a short-term basis to meet special needs. IPAs also
enable federal employees to take temporary assignments teaching at universities,
or to work with state or local government agencies or with multilateral organiza-
tions such as those affiliated with the United Nations (e.g., WHO). The IPA mech-
anism is used by some agencies to invite academics to take short-term positions
within federal agencies, which can be part-time or full-time, for a specific period,
which usually involves a single year, often with options to continue further on the
samebasis.
Interagency assignments can take other forms. For example, CDC assigns some
staff to state and local health departments on an ongoing basis, especially when it is
funding multiple programs in those jurisdictions or because health departments are
seeking technical assistance to improve their programs. These placements may be
done to help with disease outbreaks, public health consequences of disasters, or to
deal with other locality-specific public health issues thatarise.
Besides different forms of assignment, the federal government has formal pro-
grams that enable federal employees to change their focus. Training programs to
promote leadership offered by many federal agencies are another option for working
toward new roles and responsibilities and these typically are offered to mid-career
and senior staff. In addition, there are opportunities for people to work outside their
home agency. For example, teaching by federal employees at universities often is
seen as a way to promote interest in federal employment and funding programs.
Agencies, Roles, and ContentAreas

It can be difficult to get beyond the size of the federal government and the alphabet
soup of federal agencies and their missions. Under most conditions, though, there
is likely to be a small number of agencies that have some connection to any one per-
sons interests and from there one can begin to explore how they might fit with spe-
cific needs. Persons interested in health-related issues should consider the various
missions of NIH, CDC, the Health Resources & Services Administration (HRSA),

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Agency for Healthcare Research
and Quality (AHRQ). Congress obviously has broad interest for everyone and there
are a number of agencies that have broad-ranging jurisdiction, like the Government
Accountability Office (GAO), which conducts evaluation research on behalf of
Congress. The White House includes a variety of offices and some of them such as
the Office of National Drug Control Policy may be of interest to community psy-
chologists. Federal agencies, large and small, and across different branches of the
government, all have websites that include descriptions of their missions, which are
a useful place to start in decoding the federal government.
For the purposes of this chapter, I have mixed levels and Branches of gov-
ernment and simply talked about agencies, but job seekers should have some
cognizance of how different agencies relate to each other and are organized.
Regulatory agencies like FDA are part of larger agencies that report to the White
House; FDA, along with CDC, NIH, SAMHSA, HRSA, and AHRQ fall under
the Department of Health Human Services (DHHS). The DHHS agencies have
distinct areas of mission (NIH funds hypothesis testing research; SAMHSA
and HRSA fund services), but there are some areas of overlap (e.g., NIH and
CDC both are involved in research related to the epidemiology and prevention
of infectious disease) but with differences in emphasis and partnerships (e.g.,
CDC works more with health departments, while NIH primarily funds aca-
demic researchers).
Community psychologists have worked for a variety of federal agencies includ-
ing Congress, CDC, NIH, GAO, ACF, State Department, Peace Corps, the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), the Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of
Labor, and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). These agencies should pro-
vide a useful set of starting places for identifying job openings, internships, and the
like. It is not difficult to think of other agencies that would fit community psycholo-
gists interests and values. There are a variety of agencies that fund health services
including SAMHSA, HRSA, and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services;
while issues related to justice and equality are concerns of the Department of Justice
and the Department of Labor; environmental interests are most identified with the
Department of Interior, although there also are significant portfolios at USDA, the
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health at CDC, and the National
Institute on Environmental Health at NIH. Large agencies, especially those with
important specialized functions like FAA (which includes, e.g., air traffic controllers)
have personnel and organizational operations that conduct research and practice.
There also are small specialized agencies, often semi-independent of the federal gov-
ernment, like the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) (formerly known as the
Institute of Medicine) which has employed community psychologists in the past.
The NAM conducts authoritative reviews which often drive policy across a variety

of concerns. It has a particular interest in children and youth and has produced
authoritative reports on subjects such as the effects of preventive interventions on
later mental health and substance use (National Research Council & Institute of
Medicine, 2009).
The missions of agencies can be surprising, and the discussion here is, at best,
a starting place. Core missions, such as health care or public health funding, often
have components such as capacity building, technical transfer, and program evalu-
ation. Most agencies with missions related to health or health care have some pre-
vention activities, and these may change in the future depending on continuation
of the Affordable Care Act and its specific provisions. Health care typically includes
behavioral (behavioral health, adherence to health care practices) and system (pol-
icy, implementation) components and recognition of chronic disease as a public
health priority has furthered interest in these areas. It is not unusual to find open-
ings for persons with social and behavioral research skills, such as survey design and
analysis, even in agencies not normally identified with social and behavioral sci-
ence. Regulatory agencies like FDA sometimes find themselves entering into areas
where behavior and social policy are more important than in their historic mission
areas. In the case of FDA, this includes policies to reduce or prevent smoking. Many
agencies appear domestic in their focus, but may have large international missions.
CDC has long had overseas programs conducting research and providing technical
assistance. USDA has international postings related to nutrition, food security, and
agricultural practices. In general, it should not be a surprise when positions become
available in agencies that are not on your radar screen. These positions may not be
a part of the traditional core mission of the agency (a factor that may limit long-term
mobility within an agency), but they may represent areas that do have long-term
potential for growth.
Besides looking at agency missions, it is helpful to look at agency organiza-
tions. These help in making the mission areas more real, although the amount of
information available on agency websites varies widely. Most websites will provide
examples of the work that organizational units within an agency perform. It will
become evident that similar kinds of work across agencies may have different names,
depending on the agency. The administration and funding of services (e.g., Head
Start, Ryan White HIV Care) may be straightforwardly described as services or
may be referred to as programs. Routine monitoring and evaluation functions may
be described as monitoring, or in health agencies as surveillance. Agencies often
have their own acronyms for particular programs and or for particular functions and
these may require some decoding of websites or other public information.
There have been a number of efforts to widen opportunities in the federal gov-
ernment for behavioral and social scientists. These received perhaps their greatest
initiative in the 1990s with particular attention to the agencies under DHHS (e.g.,
Holden, 1993; Snider & Satcher, 1997). Some agencies have offices or working

groups devoted to the promotion of social and behavioral science research. Some
of these, like NIHs Office for Behavioral and Social Science Research (OBSSR),
fund research, although in OBSSRs case, the actual administration of the research
is done by NIH institutes or centers. Offices or working groups in other agencies
may be more limited in their scope. For example, CDCs Behavioral and Social
Science Working Group (BSSWG) is a volunteer organization with limited funds.
When Iserved on the BSSWG Executive Committee, we organized colloquia for
behavioral and social scientists, conducted studies on behavioral and social sci-
ence research at CDC, and addressed ways to attract more scientists in these areas.
Agencies also may have similar units directed at womens health, ethnic/racial
minority health, disabilities, health disparities, or other concerns which may be of
interest. These kinds of working groups tend to vary greatly in their scale and func-
tions, but their activities may include research funding, policy, and/or promotion
of different areas ofwork.
Research inthe Federal Government

Research is a major function of many federal agencies; federally-sponsored research
usually is divided into intramural and extramural research. There can be some grey
areas as in the case of cooperative agreements, which are grants in which federal
scientists may play coordination, development, and oversight roles, whereas data
collection usually is done in the field by others. Intramural research may directly
support an agencys mission, as in the case of disease surveillance, evaluation of pro-
grams, or assessment of new needs. It can be much like academic investigational
research and may be funded through competitive processes which are subjected
to internal or external peer review. Extramural research consists of federal agencies
funding universities or other organizations with the capacity to perform research
through grants, contracts, or cooperative agreements. Federal agencies release
funding opportunity announcements (FOAs) to solicit applications and proposals
for this purpose. The FOAs may be standing announcements which do not have
dedicated funds but represent areas of general interest to an agency. Alternatively,
they may have dedicated funds (or set asides), and are presented as Requests for
Applications (RFAs) in the case of grants or cooperative agreements or Requests
for Proposals (RFPs) in the case of contracts. Agency websites usually provide links
to these FOAs and the NIH Guide (http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/) pro-
vides a rather comprehensive range of examples.
The most familiar forms of extramural research are investigational research
grants like those funded by NIH or the National Science Foundation, but extramu-
ral research also may support agency mission, as in the case of specialized disease
surveillance programs, policy evaluations, or specialized evaluations of an agencys

specific programs. Research training programs (including individual mentored

training awards) and research infrastructure development programs also use this
structure. Regardless of the funding stream or mechanism, responses to FOAs gen-
erally are subject to a peer review process and an administrative review by an agen-
cys staff and/or its external advisory council (bodies which consist of researchers
or policy people in the field covered by an agency).
My own federal career began with intramural research, although some work was
subcontracted and I oversaw these extramural activities. I was part of day-to-day
aspects of project planning, data collection, and data analysis, as well as oversee-
ing work that was contracted to academics, non-governmental organizations, and
consulting firms that produced media for research projects. Other federal research-
ers may conduct more narrowly programmatic research that focuses on a single
topic or type of research, such as development and management of periodic sur-
veys or monitoring and evaluation systems. Usually these are intrinsic to the core
mission of an agency as in the case of surveys like the Youth Risk Behavior Survey
conducted by CDC (http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm) or the
National Survey on Drug Use and Health (https://nsduhweb.rti.org/) conducted
by SAMHSA.
Extramural research is overseen by federal scientists who formulate the FOAs,
as well as oversee the progress made during the course of funding through peri-
odic progress reports, along with other mechanisms such as site visits and/or meet-
ings with collective thematic groups of grantees who are funded under the same
grant program or cooperative agreement. Much of my work at CDC, particularly
overseas, involved intramural research, wherein Iwas involved in day-to-day activi-
ties. I also had extramural projects where I oversaw cooperative agreements and
played roles in project development, coordination, and oversight. In all of these
cases, Ipublished in research journals and had collaborations with various settings
and colleagues from varied disciplines. My current work is largely extramural. In
my current position, Idevelop FOAs, help grantees develop their ideas and plans,
occasionally review applications (usually for other agencies) and oversee grants, but
Ido not get involved in the specific day-to-day operations of the research studies we
fund and do not publish fromthem.
Policy Work inthe Federal Government

The opportunity to work in policy areas often is a particular interest of people who
want to work in the federal government. There are opportunities to write or influ-
ence the writing of policy and many more opportunities to inform, implement or
evaluate policy. Policy can take the form of laws and legislation or regulations, as well
as policy guidelines to implement laws and regulations. It can take other forms such

as creating guidelines for program practice, which influence the delivery of service;
collecting official government data; or conducting program planning processes. A
number of years ago, I participated in developing guidelines for the compilation of
epidemiological profiles used in CDC HIV prevention and HRSA Ryan White HIV
treatment service planning. These profiles provide a framework for organizing plan-
ning groups and the range of data that they should use. Recommendations for pro-
fessional practice are common in agencies that deal with health or human services
and these often are more specific than guidelines. I recently participated in devel-
oping recommendations for HIV prevention with HIV-seropositive people which
were published by CDC (CDC, 2014). Those recommendations involved input
from a number of federal agencies and a variety of outside organizations including
community-based organizations, health departments, and professional organiza-
tions, and recommendations reflect specific aspects of clinical practice.
Laws, regulations, guidelines, and practice recommendations have different
ranges of scope and different kinds of influence over government programs and
their funding, as well as in their ultimate influence over systems of service delivery
in the community, overall social conditions, and individual behavior. Regulations
usually are formulated to implement laws. Guidelines and recommendations usu-
ally lack legal standing although they may be used to guide federal programs (e.g.,
recommending periodic testing for infectious diseases like HIV) and may be con-
ditions of federal grants to fund services or research. Policy formation tends to
occur in the Legislative Branch (i.e., Congress) or at upper levels of the Executive
Branch, and in Executive Branch agencies that have regulatory power like FDA.
Guidelines and recommendations typically are formulated at lower levels of fed-
eral agencies and often include active participation by outside advisors (e.g., aca-
demic researchers) and other federal agencies.
Day-to-day work in the federal government often has some impact on policy.
Federal agencies routinely respond to requests from Congress or senior levels of
the Executive Branch to prepare summaries of research findings or ongoing pro-
grams of research or service delivery which can inform development or revision
of policy. Agencies compile this kind of information for panels convened by the
National Academies of Science for authoritative reviews which often influence
policy. Some agencies choose to emphasize their core missions of implementing
services or research rather than strongly identifying with policy activities, even
though they may regularly be asked to provide information to policymakers. In
these cases, the core mission of the agency is defined in terms of professional activi-
ties such as providing services, with the professionalism of that work kept as far
from regulatory or political functions as possible. Some agencies try to provide this
kind of barrier by concentrating their policy functions in work units that involve
public affairs and liaison with Congress or other federal agencies. Community psy-
chologists who are interested in policy work always should investigate the status of

policy or policy-related activities in the missions of agencies and in particular units

within an agency when they are interviewing for employment.
Program Management and Administration

Program management and administration are major functions of the federal govern-
ment. The emphasis on management (hands-on oversight) versus administration
(overseeing work largely conducted by others) will vary by program and agency.
Either one will involve the funding and delivery of services or periodic collection of
observational data. Services may include programs known to almost everyone like
Head Start, or more specialized, less known programs like the National Runaway
Hotline. Services usually are delivered by state or local governments or private con-
tractors, which may include community-based organizations, federally qualified
health-care centers, or other nonprofit or for-profit entities. The delivery of services
is managed through grants, cooperative agreements or contracts. Although some
data collection may be linked to service delivery, there are purely data driven pro-
grams which usually involve social indicator data (e.g., jobs, income, crime) or sur-
veillance of behaviors or circumstances related to health and well-being (e.g., food
security, health risk factors, illicit drug use). These kinds of data collection may be
done directly by an agency or conducted through state or local governments, uni-
versities, or private contractors, using grants, cooperative agreements or contracts.
Program management and administration often straddles policy and research.
Grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts usually are written to require pro-
grams to incorporate regulations, guidelines, or professional recommendations.
These policies may have been formulated by the sponsoring agency, or perhaps
an agency with a related mission (e.g., health services may need to reflect guide-
lines and recommendations from CDC or regulatory considerations formulated by
FDA). Program management and administration often include evaluation compo-
nents that may be more or less prescribed by a federal agency and typically occur
as requirements of funding for services. There also may be mandated planning pro-
cesses that require participation of stakeholders and other community members.
Where the primary function of program management is data collection, the genera-
tion of periodic reports and special studies may be part of the program management
function.
Program management and administration usually include substantial amounts
of technical assistance, which can take the form of training and capacity building, as
well as program monitoring activities that include quality improvement. Technical
assistance and evaluation functions may be used to change program requirements or
signal the need for organizing new guidelines and recommendations for programs
in the field. Program management and administration can draw on competencies in

an array of areas such as community engagement, implementation science, evalu-

ation research, consultation, program practice, data collection methods, and data
analytic skills, along with skills needed for the formation and analysis policies,
guidelines, and recommendations.
Training and FederalRoles

The different roles for community psychologists in the federal government should
be helpful in considering what skills may be particularly important for successfully
competing for federal jobs. In contrast to traditional academic positions, there is not
a specific set of building blocks like teaching and scholarly research, and a variety
of skill sets may be beneficial. Community psychology training is highly relevant
for a wide range of positions. For example, program management and administra-
tion and policy work draw on skills in areas such as evaluation and program imple-
mentation. Research functions also draw on skills in these areas particularly where
the main tasks involve clinical trials or effectiveness research. Many community
psychologists have been hired into the federal government because of the strength
of their evaluation backgrounds. Both intramural research and the management of
extramural research draw on skills that are common to scholarly research conducted
in academic settings.
Being able to manage programs or evaluate their policy relevance requires basic
skills in research design and familiarity with a variety of methodological tools.
Qualitative and mixed-methods designs increasingly are common in many fields
and familiarity with these approaches is valuable along with emergent quantitative
approaches, such as adaptive or optimization trials and complex linear modeling
techniques. Being able to apply observational data, including surveys or disease sur-
veillance data, to program development and formative evaluation is important for
agencies that primarily administer services as well as for those that conduct or fund
and administer research.
Content area knowledge is often valuable for federal employment in research,
programs, and policy. Areas with long-term federal research, program, and policy
commitments, such as early childhood development, chronic disease prevention,
or criminal justice, are likely to have value, as well as areas where changes in policy
require knowledge of research. Recent efforts to begin regulation of tobacco by
FDA, for example, required broad knowledge of tobacco use behavior and interven-
tions designed to prevent or discontinue tobaccouse.
Experience with teaching or training experience may be beneficial for federal
careers. Some federal agencies such as CDC have formal training programs (e.g.,
EIS, described previously) where staff provide instruction of varying lengths and
intensity. Other agencies, such as NIH, offer courses for credit and staff serve as
teaching faculty. Federal staff may provide technical transfer or content-focused
instruction to grantees or other constituency groups. Federal positions that involve

supervision of other staff draw on skills in mentoring that may vary from career
management to transfer of highly technical expertise.
Federal Employment:Civil Service, Commissioned

Corps and Foreign Service
The vast majority of federal workers fall under the civilian civil service (Campbell,
Lubasik, & McGeary, 1993), which operates under a standard set of rules and pro-
cedures that evolved out of efforts to end political patronage and to professional-
ize public employment. Since 1949, civil service job classifications generally have
been organized along relatively standard pay grades (from 1 to 15) that have 10
steps within them with salaries adjusted to reflect local costs of living (http://www.
opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/salaries-wages/). The entry level posi-
tions for doctorally trained professionals are usually somewhere in Grades 11 to
13, depending on specific job responsibilities. Some positions enable one to enter
a new grade over time, but most often it is necessary to change to a new position,
usually one with more programmatic or supervisory responsibility in order to
enter a higher pay grade. Over time, a few agencies have modified this system or
have moved away from it entirely; however, it continues to provide the principal
organization of federal pay and serves as a point of departure for most alternative
systems. Movement through steps within a grade is based on tenure, although step
increases can be merit-based and determined by annual performance review crite-
ria. All federal employees are subject to periodic performance reviews, usually on
an annual or semi-annual basis, although the formats for these vary somewhat by
agency. Benefits such as sick leave, family leave, annual leave (aka vacation), and
health insurance are relatively standard across federal agencies, although there may
be some variations in their specifics.
Virtually all professional employment is on a salaried basis; only a few kinds
of positions offer overtime or are based on hourly pay rates. Senior scientists who
enter the federal government may qualify for a status that affords higher salaries
than civil service. This is known as the Senior Research Service, which provides
renewable contracts based on the employees performance in relation to periodic
research plans. The Senior Executive Service operates on a parallel basis for senior
management positions, with continued employment and salary based on periodic
review.
There has been a continuing lag in federal salaries, particularly in professional
and technical areas, in relation to the private sector salaries (Campbell etal., 1993),
despite efforts to equalize salaries over time. Benefits tend to be more generous
than in the non-federal sector, and there has been a relatively concerted effort to
make federal employment family friendly to accommodate child care and care for
other family members. Many agencies offer flexible work schedules and telework

often is encouraged. Federal contractors often try to provide comparable benefits

and similar, if not better, salaries for senior or highly technical positions; however,
the relative stability of federal employment and the identification with public serv-
ice missions tend to keep people in government despite these efforts. Contractor
employees often expect contract positions to have long-term stability like those in
the civil service but often this is not thecase.
Besides the civil service, there are other kinds of employment status that are
important to consider: the Commissioned Corps and the Foreign Service. The
US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (http://www.usphs.gov/abou-
tus/) is a separate career track that is available in the agencies associated with the
US Public Health Service (e.g., CDC, NIH, HRSA, SAMHSA). Historically, the
Commissioned Corps was largely medical but today it includes a wide variety of dis-
ciplines and is open to community psychologists. The Commissioned Corps make
up a minority of people working for public health service agencies but they often
have played particularly significant roles in the administration of some agencies like
CDC. The Commissioned Corps has a different salary and benefit structure from
the civil servicefor example, health-care coverage is based on the system used for
active duty military, and vacation time is defined differently. The Foreign Service
is divided into specialist and officer categories. Foreign Service officers, who are
considered to be part of the diplomatic corps, go through a selection process that
includes test-based criteria (just when you imagined that things like the GRE were
a memory). Foreign Service specialists are not considered part of the diplomatic
corps and include technical fields such as health-care delivery. Their selection pro-
cess is more similar to that in the civil service, but often with stricter security clear-
ance requirements. Alarge proportion of State Department employees are from the
Foreign Service, as well as smaller numbers in other agencies that have large foreign
missions such as USDA and the Department of Commerce. Foreign Service posi-
tions use a pay system that is slightly different from that found in the civil service,
but which operates in much the same way, with pay organized by classes instead of
grades, and the steps within the classes, as well as additional allowances, based on
geography and other local conditions.
Practical Matters inFederal Employment

Community psychologists who are considering federal employment should con-
sider how it may be similar or different from other kinds of employment. The fed-
eral government offers particularly unique opportunities in areas such as policy,
and federal researchers often have latitude to investigate topics not addressed in
the academic world. There also are opportunities to shape and manage services
that benefit the general public and serve the greater good. Federal agencies and the
specific work environments vary widely in their structure and organization. Some

agencies are quite small and some units within a large agency may have only a few
people. Iworked in two places with the title of Prevention Research Branch, one
at CDC and the other at NIDA. The CDC branch had over 30 professional staff,
including contractors, as well as support staff, interns, and postdocs. The NIDA
Branch has five professional staff and a larger budget. The functions are quite differ-
ent, because all of our research in the NIDA prevention program is extramural and
funded through grants, while CDC has many research functions that are conducted
in-house or are extramural but largely organized by CDC but conducted through
cooperative agreements or contracts.
Even in a small agency or a small working group, federal workplaces are
likely to be more structured and hierarchical than most academic environments.
Government work of any kind is associated with significant administrative burdens,
but people who have entered federal research agencies from academic careers often
remark that the burden is similar or less than what they encountered at universi-
ties. There tends to be more regulation of federal workplaces than in the academic
or private sectors, such as more detailed procedures for making travel plans (e.g.,
use of contract carriers for air travel, keeping within expense rates set by locality by
the federal government). Financial holdings and other potential financial conflicts
of interest are closely monitored and potential conflicts of interest that may occur
after leaving the government (e.g., working in a project previously administered as
a government employee). There also are restrictions on involvement in partisan
political activities, although this does not preclude activities such as contributing to
political campaigns, as outlined in the Hatch Act (https://osc.gov/pages/hatchact.
aspx). People considering federal or other public sector employment need to be
clear about how conflict of interest rules may apply to them and to activities they
consider important.
Private research organizations sometimes resemble federal agencies in their
organization, although many of these organizations routinely rotate staff among dif-
ferent projects and have less structured environments than federal agencies. Private
organizations engaged in policy work tend to function in much the same way. The
federal workplace generally is more stable than private sector workplaces, although
people no longer necessarily remain at the same agency or in the federal govern-
ment throughout their careers. The federal environments where Ihave worked have
enabled me to be involved in a wide variety of projects and tasks, but there also are
environments where the work is more programmatic and linear over time, resem-
bling an academic research environment, although sometimes with less autonomy
than one would have as a principal investigator in a university setting. My experi-
ence in the federal government has been one of working in multidisciplinary teams,
and although this is true of many agencies, there also are positions that draw from a
narrow range of disciplines and educational backgrounds.
Most federal employment relevant to community psychology is in the
Washington, DC, metropolitan area, although some agencies are headquartered

outside of the DC area or have substantial operations in other parts of the country.
For example, CDC is headquartered in Atlanta and has most of its operations there,
although it posts people in various state or local health departments, and some of its
units are based elsewhere (the National Center for Health Statistics is in Maryland
suburbs of DC; the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has
labs and offices in a number of locations, among the largest being Cincinnati and
Pittsburgh). Large agencies often have regional offices, typically in large cities that
serve as regional hubs for commerce and governmental functions (e.g., NewYork,
Chicago, San Francisco, Atlanta). Some agencies post people internationally; out-
side of the Foreign Service, this includesCDC.
Federal employment usually comes with many opportunities for continuing edu-
cation. These may be structured as in the case of various grand rounds series at NIH,
or periodic seminar series that might be offered to smaller audiences. Agencies may
offer semester-long courses on topics of broad interest or short courses on topics of
specific technical interest, such as software instruction, research ethics, or pharma-
cology, and support often is offered to take outside courses related to ones work.
For example, Ihave taken courses on statistics and statistical software on this basis.
Agencies often have regular seminar seriesfor example, the different divisions at
NIDA have weekly seminars that provide in-service education or presentations from
outside researchers. When Iworked at CDC, Iwas involved in organizing quarterly
seminars for behavioral and social scientists across the agency, which included pre-
sentations on community research approaches, quantitative longitudinal methods,
and network approaches to behavior change.
Concluding Comments
Hopefully, this chapter has provided a useful introduction to federal employment
and has demystified how one enters and moves through the federal government,
while offering directions to navigate and decode the large number of federal agen-
cies and their structures. Federal employment involves some constraints, as in the
case of conflict of interest rules, and the relationship to the overall management
of the federal government became apparent in the 2013 government shutdown.
On the other hand, working in the federal government provides relative stability
while also offering opportunities for changing ones roles, responsibilities, and con-
tent areas of interest over time. The federal government includes relatively unique
opportunities in areas like policy, as well as foundations for affecting human ser-
vices, research, and professional practice. Most feds never expected to work in the
federal government, but the opportunities this work provides has led to careers that
they have found distinctively rewarding.

Useful Weblinks
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS fellowships):http://
fellowships.aaas.org/
American Psychological Association (APA) Congressional Fellowships: http://
www.apa.org/about/gr/fellows/index.aspx
CDC Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS):http://www.cdc.gov/eis/
CDC ORISE Postdoctoral Fellowships:http://orise.orau.gov/cdc/
CDC Public Health Associate Program (PHAP):http://www.cdc.gov/phap/
Congressional Black Caucus Foundation:http://www.cbcfinc.org/internships/
Congressional Hispanic Caucus Institute:http://www.chci.org/fellowships/
NIH Guide (listing funding opportunity announcements and other notices of
interest to the research community):http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/
Office of Personnel Management, Federal Pay Scales:http://www.opm.gov/policy-
data-oversight/pay-leave/salaries-wages/
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), James Marshall Fellowship:
http://www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=747
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) Fellowships: http://www.
srcd.org/policy-media/policy-fellowships/about-fellowships
US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps:http://www.usphs.gov/aboutus/
Website listing current job openings in the federal government: http://www.
USAJOBS.com
Glossary
Cooperative Agreement:Atype of grant (see definition) to fund research or services made by a
federal agency to an external organization (e.g., state/local government, academic institution,
nonprofit or for-profit research organization) that also includes substantial participation from
the federal agency and its staff, such as protocol development, study design, data analysis, or
technical assistance.
Contract:An agreement between a federal agency and an external organization (e.g., state/local
government, academic institution, nonprofit or for-profit research organization) to provide
deliverables (products of some type of work), such as the collection of data, data analysis, or
delivery of services (e.g., services to the agency like computer support or services to the general
public). Payment usually is tied to performance, which is judged in relation to the deliverables.
Executive Branch:The Branch of the government that ultimately reports to the President. Most
federal agencies familiar to the public are in the Executive Branch (e.g., NIH, CDC, USDA)
and fall under cabinet agencies such as the Department of Health and Human Services, whose
directors are appointed by the President. The Executive Branch contrasts with the Legislative
(Congress) and the Judiciary (courts) Branches.
Extramural Research: Research that is funded by a federal agency and carried out by an exter-
nal organization (e.g., state/local government, academic institution, nonprofit or for-profit
research organization); extramural research conducted under a grant or contract will be
administered by the federal agency but will not include direct federal staff participation as col-
laborators. Extramural research conducted under a cooperative agreement will have substantial

participation from a federal agency and its staff, such as protocol development, study design,
data analysis, or technical assistance.
Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA): A formal announcement published for public
distribution that indicates interest by a federal agency in seeking applications for grants, con-
tracts, or cooperative agreements to carry out particular kinds of research or services. Some
FOAs have formal commitments of funds (also known as set-asides) for these activities and
are known as Requests for Applications (RFAs, grants & cooperative agreements) or Requests for
Proposals (RFPs, contracts). Other FOAs usually are standing announcements of interest but
without specific set-asides.
Grant: A mechanism by which a federal agency provides funds to an eligible organization (e.g.,
state/local government, academic institution, nonprofit or for-profit research organization) to
carry out an approved project or activity, such as a research project, contingent on adequate
progress on the project as monitored by the federal agency. This is contrasted with contracts
that involve deliverables rather than activities, and cooperative agreements, which are a type
of grant wherein the federal government is an active participant in projects rather than only
providing monitoring and related technical assistance.
Interagency Personnel Agreement: A contract between federal agencies or between a federal
agency and an external organization (e.g., state/local government, academic institution) to
permit time-limited exchanges of personnel for specific purposes such as technical assistance,
training/teaching, program development or program management and administration.
Intramural Research:Research funded and carried out principally by a federal agency, using its
ownstaff.
Multilateral (Organization or Agreement): Multilateral refers the presence of multiple partners
who have agreed to work together on a particular project or through support of an organization
that they fund. International treaties and other binding agreements often are multilateral in
scope. The United Nations and its agencies, such as the World Health Organization, UNAIDS,
and UNICEF, are examples of multilateral organizations.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Harold Perl, Redonna Chandler, Mark Sweiter, and Jack
Stein who provided helpful editorial comments for this chapter.
Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily
represent those of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the National Institutes of
Health, the Department of Health and Human Services, or the US Government.
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163, 271278.

Accidental Community Psychologist

From the Classroom to the State Capitol
TeresaGarate
Community psychology was not my chosen career, but Ihave spent my entire pro-
fessional life grounded in some of the most basic principles of the field that have
enhanced everything Ihave done. My chosen field was education, specifically spe-
cial education, but early on in my career Iworked for two dedicated community
psychologists. Together we built a long-lasting center for the advocacy and empow-
erment for marginalized groups, taking the best of two distinct but related fields
special education and community psychology. Our history of collaborative work
is evident in many action research/evaluation and systems-change projects related
to disability. In addition, working within an academic department focused on dis-
ability studies provided us the perfect opportunity to combine these two fields
effectively to address broader issues of empowerment among specific groups of dis-
enfranchised communities.
In this chapter, I share my journey from being a young professional starting off
my career with an eagerness to make a great impact on social issues to achieving
this in leaps and bounds with the principles of community psychology interwoven
into everything I have done. In the evolution of my professional life over a 25-year
period, I have gone from being a project coordinator, to teaching in an inner city
neighborhood, to being a researcher and community organizer, to an administra-
tor in a large public school system, national and international speaker, a governors
appointee leading a large state agency, finally culminating in my current role as CEO
of a nonprofit organization. It is worth highlighting the role that community psy-
chologists can have in systems change, policy and legislation development, program
evaluation, and intervention design. As I review my accomplishments I will share
the importance of including the principles of community psychology to achieve
true change one community at a time.
50

Accidental Communit y Ps ychol og ist:Clas sroom to State Cap i tol 51
InitialYears
As Iapproached graduation for a BA, a professor referred me for a job as a pro-
gram coordinator working in what was then the University Affiliated Programs in
Developmental Disabilities for the state of Illinois, now the University Center for
Excellence. The position entailed working for two community psychologists who
were implementing two distinct programs:One was a statewide program for the
empowerment of self-advocates and their families to use policy and local elected
officials to change their communities; The other an intervention program for youth
with disabilities to teach them how to recruit mentors to set and attain personal
goals. The referral turned out to be a productive partnership that combined the
expertise of CP with my experience as a special education teacher. The two profes-
sors needed a strong educator to carry out their interventions and it was the start of
what would become a lifetime collaboration.
In these initial years Iwas introduced to the theoretical principles of CP and their
practical use to support policy change and individual empowerment. We used the
principles of education and CP to implement and achieve grant goals, such as work-
ing with federal and state agencies. The Partners-in-Policymaking training programs
allowed us to educate self-advocates and their families in order to make change in
their local communities (Balcazar, Keys, Bertram, & Rizzo, 1996). We worked to
empower individual participants and support their efforts in local communities
throughout an entire state. We achieved this through a delicate balance of educa-
tion, modeling, and support, and even now, 25years later, individuals who began as
program participants are still taking on leadership roles in the state to advocate for
the disability community.
The Back-to-School & Work program supported youth with disabilities who
dropped out of high school in finding mentors and setting and attaining their goals
(Taylor-Ritzler etal., 2001). This program also required the collaboration with state
vocational rehabilitation (VR) counselors to educate them about best practices and
change their every-day practice when working with youth of color with disabilities
to incorporate more culturally appropriate styles. The need was identified by both
the VR counselors themselves and also existing research on the limited linguistic
and cultural competence among service providers working directly with clients.
We used our understanding of the intersection of race, disability, and culture. We
developed the capacity of existing counselors and professionals to work with indi-
viduals from marginalized communities facing challenges of poverty, violence, and
language barriers. Including these community representatives further validated our
approach to being participatory and inclusive. In other words, it was much more
powerful to have professionals learn directly from the individuals they were serving
than from just us, another group of professionals.

In these early years, Ibecame enchanted by how well CP fit with education and
how much we were able to achieve together instead of in isolation. We achieved
true change by using participatory action research where we implemented the basic
principles of both fields, but also by listening and adapting as necessary, based on
the needs of our partners in the community. For example, working with drop-out
youth who mistrusted schools and teachers was challenging. Many of these young
people hated the adults in their schools, so gaining their trust became part of our
intervention with them; giving them a voice and an active role in working toward
their goals was powerful. The result was the start of their empowerment and devel-
opment toward becoming self-advocates.
MiddleYears
With a strong foundation in CP principles, Itransitioned out of the role of proj-
ect coordinator and moved on to full-time teaching as a special education teacher
in an inner city school. I continued to use my passion for CP, however, to work
with students and provide a process for empowering them and their families. While
Iwas a special education teacher, Irealized that Iwas doing things differently, and
it was having a positive effect on both my students and my schoolsfor example,
having individualized education plan (IEP) meetings where the students and their
families were actually engaged in the dialogue and the process of setting their goals.
These were, of course, the expectation for all IEP meetings, but at the time this out-
come was not a reality, often because the special educators in charge of the process
were not well prepared to teach parents and students how to be empowered and in
control. Iwas fortunate to have been introduced to a different a way of looking at
special education and my role as a teacher in this environment. Iunderstood that
by having greater participation, the chances of being more effective increased sig-
nificantly. Students and their limited family support started to come to meetings
with questions and slowly grew to have their own agendas for their meetings, tak-
ing on the role of facilitating their meetings and engaging in dialogue. These were
not techniques or values Ilearned in the College of Education, but rather through
my early professional experience. After six years in the classroom, Ireturned more
directly to academic life, and with my colleagues, focused for the next seven years
on building a center grounded in the principles of community inclusion, empower-
ment, research, and education.
Being the center director allowed me to have national exposure within federal
agencies mostly associated with a focus on education. We used the chemistry of
education and CP to grow through multiple federal grants, expanding our success
on a national level by chairing a national conference every year and teaching others
in the field of education how participatory action research enhanced our capacity to
meet the deliverables of each of our complex community-based programs. During

these years we implemented programs in educational settings, both K12 systems

and institutions of higher education. We worked to educate teachers, counselors,
and professors on how to support the effective transition of youth with disabilities
from K12 to adulthood. We also worked to change policy and practice, under-
standing that capacity-building only gets you so far without systems change.
The community partners, our schools, and institutions of higher education,
were hungry for our interventions, but they were at a loss for how to achieve pol-
icy changes. As the center director, I was able to use my credibility, as someone
who had also taught, to work with decision makers to identify pilot opportunities
for change. For example, in the implementation of the College Connection proj-
ect, we were able to have the community college system waive the testing place-
ment requirements in order to allow students to take specific occupational courses
with the support of our program staff onsite. From this policy and practice change,
all parties learned how to accommodate and modify to achieve better outcomes.
Our research further supported the need for greater policy changes. The partners
involved worked within their leadership structures to expand the implementation
of this one project to other schools and campuses. In the middle years of my career,
our center grew to support the institutions we had worked with and we were viewed
as trusted partners who were called on to help them achieve goals that they would
not be able to achieve on their ownsystems change.
From this experience came my departure into a public school system as a high-
level administrator in the third largest school district in the nation. Had it not been
for my work within CP, Iwould not have been recruited nor subsequently made
chief of staff of the largest instructional department in the district. Talk about hav-
ing an impactthis was the culmination of years of professional growth, combining
CP with education and practical experience.
Once in this new role, Ilatched onto my CP colleagues to bring a much-needed
program evaluation to the system of education. One of the first tasks Iled was the
closing of a historical school, opened in 1908, serving children with disabilities.
Iknew that Ihad to use my CP experience to both evaluate the closure, its chal-
lenges and successes, as well as involve the community to overcome the barriers of
resistance. The first step in this process was to work with a community already upset
by the decision to close their school. This community was scared, angry, and most
of all feeling that they were not a part of the process. Using my practical implemen-
tation of CP, Iinstituted regular community dialogue between the impacted fami-
lies, community stakeholders, and representatives from the disability community to
help deliver the message of inclusion.
My first lesson was understanding that while the district was promoting better
educational experiences for all the students, the families were weary and very vocal
about why now? For years they had been told their children could not attend
neighborhood schools or be included, and now here Iwas telling them it was a pos-
sibility. Ihad to gain their trust and my CP approach helped me do that. We worked

with them in a participatory way, not only by listening, but also by engaging them
as leaders to advise on the implementation of the closure and its evaluation. This
process was challenging but fruitful, and it continued long beyond the first year of
planning for the school closure. Ibrought in a comprehensive evaluation team led
by CP researchers to ensure that we would be able to measure both the formative
process of the closure as well as the long-term outcomes and the impact on the stu-
dents themselves. The decision to bring in an outside evaluation team gave cred-
ibility to our commitment to learn from the process and to inform future school
closures. The evaluation was used by departments across this large urban school
district in the years that followed when nonspecial education schools were closed
annually. Little did these educators know that the evaluation that was conducted
by a group of community psychologists was informing the dos and donts in future
school closures.
PresentYears
Once again an opportunity presented itself that Icould not pass upI was asked
to become a state officer in the fifth largest state in the nation and was appointed
by the governor to serve as the assistant director for the Illinois Department of
Public Health (IDPH). In this role, I was charged with the day-to-day manage-
ment of the agency, overseeing more than 1,000 employees and managing a budget
of over $200million with a scope and reach for the entire state. Ineeded my CP
background more than ever when working with the 96 local health departments
statewide, the general assembly, and countless constituents, all with different agen-
das and issues. My task was all encompassing and Ioversaw everything from health
promotion to health-care reform implementation, nursing home and hospital regu-
lation/oversight, and health protection. The most valuable CP principle Iused in
this role was the ability to work with community members to achieve changes in
legislation and policy, as well as in every day practices. Working on the revision of
the Nursing Home Care Act, we held on-going stakeholder meetings, giving various
groups the voice they needed to ensure that the final version of the legislation was
able to protect the residents of these facilities for years tocome.
As IDPH assistant director, Iwas also able to work with other state agencies on
multiple initiatives, but the largest was the health-care reform implementation pro-
cess and the managed care roll-out. As the state embarked on a large pilot for man-
aged care, Iled the development of a comprehensive evaluation of the initiative and,
once again, brought together an interdisciplinary team of researchers and evaluators
that included community psychologists to complete this task. Even after my depar-
ture from the state, this evaluation work continues and is also informing the future
roll-out of managedcare.

After almost three years of this work, I transitioned to my current role as CEO
of a nonprofit community-based agency providing inclusive services to adults with
disabilities. In this role, I am able to use my entire past experience to move this
agency from good to great. Every day I incorporate all the principles of CP to run
this organizationI ask the critical questions: How do we know we are being effec-
tive? Where is the voice of our clients? How are we working to change communities
through our services? How can we better empower our staff to support the clients?
These are all questions that guide me and my teams work every day. As CEO, I am
able to include these principles and begin to change the way our staff, of over 400,
see their work. Highlighting this to the board of directors during the recruitment
process made me standout from other candidates. Boards are charged with the
responsibility of finding the best leader for their nonprofit organizations and often
focus on seeking a candidate with management and leadership experience, along
with financial savvy. However, as a professional in CP you have a better advantage
demonstrating unique strengths for ensuring that all stakeholders voices are heard
to bring about long-term systemic change.
Selling YourselfW hy CP Makes You a More Valuable

Professional
Educator toResearcher
Making the transition from teacher to researcher/evaluator was inevitable. In the
classroom Iimpacted the lives of students and their parents. However, my desire
to have a greater impact was informed by my early mentors, and Iwanted to have
a broader reach than one classroom in one school. Ipositioned myself as a master
educator and partnered with a center that needed the expertise of an educator, also
intent on community change. Over the years Ihave mentored a number of young
professionals. The best advice Ican give is to find a nichewhat unique interest
or talent do you have that a research team may need? Identify that, and then work
to convince that team that having multidisciplinary perspectives enhances effective-
ness because it gives multiple lenses to an issue that needs resolution. If you want to
be a researcher, first figure out how evaluation fits into that work. Not everyone can
relate to research but evaluation is more concrete, and often desired and needed.
If you sell yourself as an evaluator of programs, services, and initiatives, who is
informed by the voice of the people within the evaluation, you will stand out. You
may design an evaluation, collect data, analyze and develop findingsbut as a CP,
you will do it all, and you will do it by involving stakeholder voices and accounting
for the entire community, be it an agency, a school, or a single classroom or home.
The idea is to define community in the way that makes most sense to evaluate the
unit of change.

Researcher toAdministrator
Many administrators land those roles because someone perceived that they were
very good at their content area. An architect may become a VP, not because she or
he took a course in administration or personnel management, but because of the
individuals effectiveness at completing projects or bringing in business. I became a
school district administrator, not because I took a course on leadership or manage-
ment, but because I was an excellent teacher and researcher who was also involved
in CP work. As a teacher and researcher, I began the process of tying my talents
to effect policy change. One example was my work on a local citywide task force
that resulted in new policies and programs. Aligning yourself to opportunities that
may not pay demonstrates your initiative and motivation to get involved and work
toward systems change. While you may feel that some of this work should be paid,
the relationship-building and networking will pay off in the long run. From this
work, I was uniquely positioned to bring change to a large district office hungry for
innovation. When new leadership came in, I was selected to lead a large division
with a broad reach.
From day one, be transparent and lead by principle. Teach your staff/team that
you incorporate accountability and share responsibility for outcomes. Lead and
manage from that perspective and you will position yourself for continued growth.
Respect is earned and does not come with a title. The more Ihave advanced in my
career, the more Iunderstand that every new role should teach you something new.
The only way to be a lifelong learner and leader is to engage with each new com-
munity from a new perspective. You cant change something that you arent a part of
and dont fully understand.
Administrator toState Officer

Politics are everywhere even if you dont want to recognize that. Yet being part of a
government administration is one of the most unique opportunities a community
psychologist could have. State officers are not necessarily selected for their content
area but rather for their ability to understand and work within the delicate balance
of the three branches of government. Astate officer appointment is time-limited,
similar to an elected term, therefore there is a sense of urgency to make a difference
and to achieve change. In my role as the assistant director of the state Department
of Public Health, Iused my CP background to work with multiple stakeholders in
numerous areas to achieve specific outcomes that could reach great numbers across
the state. Closing nursing homes, updating legislation and rules that were limiting
to individuals, commissioning holistic participatory evaluations to inform large-
scale change were all proud accomplishments. Using data and research validated
conversations with elected officials and their constituency groups and made it pos-
sible to make decisions in the best interest of state residents. If you are interested in
working in the political space, sell yourself as the person who truly understands why

decisions should be data driven. Some of the most well-intentioned initiatives can
fail miserably when based on outdated policies or legislation. As a leader you must
have the strength to lead change. Similarly, without strong data to support public
policy decisions, we run the risk of enacting conflicting mandates that result in regu-
lations that cannot be implemented or monitored. Just because its the law doesnt
mean it is implemented or implemented well. Using the five foundational principals
of CP will enhance your strengths as a leader (Dalton & Wolfe,2012).
State OfficertoCEO
Holding the position of state officer prepares one for almost any subsequent role.
The pure size of a state agency and its function of being reactive instead of proactive
makes one ready to handle a wide range of unexpected events. Moving from IDPH
to a social service nonprofit organization serving people with disabilities, Iwas able
to bring negotiating expertise to get stakeholders to buy in for change. As CEO, you
manage, motivate, and lead large teams to engage together to achieve long-lasting
change. Using research and evaluation to inform program development and imple-
mentation as well as accountability is a powerful but underutilized tool. The CEO is
the face and voice of an agency, but it can only be a strong voice if it is informed by
its stakeholdersboth staff and constituents. How does a CEO know she or he is
being effective? Effectiveness can only be defined by concrete measures of change.
Thus, research and evaluation are at the core of teaching people the difference
between process outputs and true outcomes. Nonprofit sector philanthropy is no
longer about giving to charitable causes. Foundations, donors, and investors want
to see the impact of their resources and are therefore demanding evidence of out-
comes, whether large or small. Show me the money is now Show me thedata.
Conclusion
Dalton and Wolfes (2012) comprehensive list of community psychology principles
for the field include five foundational principles and an additional four that focus
on unique community psychology areas of practice (see Figure1.1, this volume).
As Ireview the broad span of my career as an accidental community psychologist,
Irealize that Ihave used almost all the principles outlined. Using this long list of
principles or competencies has made me a strong leader and given me the capacity
to impact community change.
At the top of the list are (1)empowerment and (2)community inclusion and
partnership. Empowerment, defined as the ability to support marginalized groups
and give access to decision-making and resources (Dalton & Wolfe, 2012)has been
at the core of every position Ihave had from the start of my professional journey.
When students have asked about the qualities of a good leader, Ialways put passion
as the number one quality. Figuring out what you are passionate about early on will

allow you to approach every task with energy and conviction. For me, my guid-
ing principle has been the facilitation of empowering processes with the individuals
Iserve, from my students or project participants to the educators and schools in
inner city neighborhoods; and from beneficiaries of good public health policy to
the clients that Iserve within the nonprofit sector.
Along with empowerment comes community inclusion and partnership. Dalton &
Wolfe define this foundational principle by highlighting representation and respect
for all community members. Some concrete examples of this have included the
development of community forums to gain input from local stakeholders. When
Iled the closure of schools in a large urban school district, we developed a mecha-
nism for holding monthly discussions to listen to the issues, answer questions, and
also to receive feedback and input on the process, as well as the desired outcomes
for the students. Similarly at the state level, Iformed an advisory council that was
representative of the stakeholder groups, including people who were impacted by
state agency closures and moves, and Iincluded their family members as well as
professionals supporting and providing services to guide the development of the
comprehensive evaluation process. This diverse group of individuals gave input on
everything from how to collect data, what items to use in the data collection tools,
and how to present the findings.
Moving beyond the foundational principles, Ihave also been engaged in the fol-
lowing community psychology competencies:
program development, implementation and management;

community leadership and mentoring;
small and large group processes;
collaboration and coalition development;
public policy analysis, development and advocacy;
participatory community research;
program Evaluation.
Most recently, Icreated a new position in my agency to achieve program devel-

opment, innovation, and accountability. Idid this because Iunderstood that indi-
viduals, too focused on their areas of expertise, often fail to think about how to
expand into new areas using data to inform that process. Program development
issues impacted two of my past initiatives:the work at a large urban school dis-
trict creating and expanding classroom programs for students with low incidence
disabilities (US Department of Education, 2004), and my career in community
psychology within a university center. In both experiences, Iled the creation of
programs based on research about specific community needs and observable gaps
in services. The use of logic models to ensure that all factors associated with suc-
cessful program development helped us track measurable progress and revise as
needed. Using logic models with input from community members also allowed us

to educate individuals about the importance of sustainable program growth and

development.
The implementation of the Partners in Policymaking program was an ideal
example of building the capacity of an entire community of individuals so that they
could achieve self-empowerment and promote their own inclusion. It was a model
implementation that highlighted almost every competency related to community
and organizational capacity-building. It also was grounded in the foundational prin-
ciples identified earlierempowerment and inclusion. Iused components of this
model to promote small and large group process in the closure of a long-standing,
segregated, and specialized school for medically fragile students. Supporting the
process of consensus-building and giving individual family members an opportu-
nity to have their fears and wishes heard also allowed for their education about the
specific strategies and supports involved and about their right for their children to
be successful in inclusive environments.
Another example under this competency was work that Iled at the state when
running the Department of Public Health. Updating an antiquated piece of legisla-
tion was perceived as controversial and very challenging. We decided to include the
voice of as many perspectives as possible to ensure that all viewpoints were included
and especially those of marginalized individuals. To do so, Iled long and complex
discussions to review the goals of the initiative, from the start to the end, actually
working hand in hand with the general assembly to pass legislation, update policies,
and complete rule-making.
The work in the state capitol was also relevant to public policy analysis and advo-
cacy. All these group initiatives required collaboration and coalition building. Of
course, this doesnt mean we always agreed; in fact we rarely did. But by having an
open and transparent approach with a clearly outlined logic-model approach helped
us identify obstacles and get some very challenging things done:close schools in
highly emotional communities, pass landmark legislation, and educate an entire
group of advocates that are still at work over twenty yearslater.
Participatory action research and program evaluation are probably the two com-
petencies Ihave used the most throughout my career. Ican honestly say from start
to the present, these two have been my companions and have given me the power
to achieve change, promote accountability, gain credibility, and make a difference.
When Iled the closure of one large school, and then many others, Ibrought in par-
ticipatory action research and program evaluation to track our progress, both pos-
itive and negative. This resulted in findings that informed future closures. When
I served on a state steering committee for the rollout of managed care in a pilot
region, I developed an evaluation plan and brought in community psychologists
to complete the comprehensive evaluation that would inform the remainder of the
rollout statewide. Now that Iam in a large nonprofit, Ihave brought in university
partners to complete both community participatory action research and evaluation
across multiple programs to demonstrate to my teams the importance of data-driven

decision making. This will also help me change views and the way we do business
in the nonprofit sector.
Having outcomes is no longer just an option; it is a requirement to continue to
survive in a highly competitive philanthropic space. Many nonprofits dont have the
internal vision or capacity to understand how to collect and use empirical data to
demonstrate their critical role in community. As the CEO of a nonprofit, Ibring this
unique community psychology competency and principle to ensure that my non-
profit is able to overcome this limitation. It is also vital to build the internal capacity
of my team to embrace these principles. Itell them to embrace these principles and
use them every day to improve the quality of our work and the outcomes we expect
for our clientsthe people who make it possible for us to do what we do everyday.
References
Balcazar, F.E., Keys, C.B., Bertram, J.F., & Rizzo, T. (1996). Advocate development in the field
of developmental disabilities: A data-based conceptual model. Mental Retardation, 34(6),
341351.
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (2012). Education connection and the community practitioner. The
Taylor-Ritzler, T., Balcazar, F.E., Keys, C.B., Hayes, E., Garate-Serafini, T., & Espino, S.R. (2001).
Promoting attainment of transition-related goals among low-income ethnic minority students
with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 24(2). 147167.
US Department of Education (2004). Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004. http://idea.ed.gov/
explore/view/p/,root,statute,I,D,662,c,3.

Community-Based Practice Mission

To Deliver Psychology by WalkingAround
Allen W. Ratcliffe
I write this chapter toward the end of a long career in clinical and community psy-
chology that has afforded me a wide variety of interesting opportunities. Today,
I am actively retired. I do almost all of my work as a volunteer. I do not know
whether my particular experiences can be generalized to current community psy-
chology graduates, however, Iwill try to suggest principles and strategies that might
assist those graduates interested in building community based practices, and to give
examples of the different types of work they mightdo.
Background
I have always operated on the action side of the Society for Community Research
and Action, and almost always within (or in collaboration with) the relevant systems
rather than in an adversarial stance. I graduated from Louisiana State University
(LSU) with a PhD in clinical psychology in January of 1964. The words commu-
nity psychology were never spoken during my graduate training. Indeed, Irecall no
explicit references to understanding clients within their community context. While
at LSU, Ijoined the US Army to take advantage of its graduate psychology program.
I completed my clinical internship at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where
clinical training included a focus on restoring individuals to adequate levels of func-
tioning, rather than on rebuilding their personalities. In 1962, that was an unusual
focus in clinical training. Today we call that recovery orientation.
(Parenthetically, because Ihad both an Army salary and a working wife, Iwas
able to graduate debt-free. Idont think that is common today.)
After completing my final year at LSU while on active duty, I was assigned
to Madigan Army Medical Center outside Tacoma, Washington, late in 1963.
Sometime during that three-year tour of duty, I attended an APA Postdoctoral
61

Workshop on Consultation-Oriented Community Mental Health. It was taught

by two psychologists from Minnesota, Herb Dorken and Vince Mehmel. They
described two community mental health programs in Minnesota that were com-
mitted to delivering consultation and education to a wide range of community ser-
vice providers. This was an entirely new concept to me, and one that excited my
interest.
Principle:If it excites you, pursue opportunities to learneither academi-

cally or on-the-job.
Example:When Ireturned to Madigan, Isought and received permis-
sion to offer consultation to counselors in the schools serving children of
military families. They taught me a lot about school practicalities as we
considered possible solutions to the cases they presented for consultation.
As my five-year tour of duty ended in 1966, Iapplied for a job (and was hired)
with the Range Mental Health Center in Virginia, Minnesota, located on the Mesabi
Iron Range, approximately 70 miles north of Duluth. At that time it had a staff of five
mental health professionals. We traveled throughout a catchment area the size of
the state of Delaware, working with and through literally every kind of service pro-
vider. The strategy was to support their own efforts to keep working with their own
clients challenged by mental illness. Two days a week we remained in the centers
office doing evaluations, brief therapy, and administrative duties.
Those two sets of experience shaped my service delivery style in ways that laid
the groundwork for the rest of my career. Consultation, outreach, and flexibility
have been the community practice cornerstones for me ever since, as a clinician and
as a community psychologist.
Principle:Be curious and willing to risk change. Keep open to opportu-

nities outside of traditional psychology that build collaborations with
other persons and professions interested in service-and community sys-
tems improvement.
Example: While in northern Minnesota, I collaborated with the
local Office of Economic Opportunity and with members of Alcoholics
Anonymous to help them plan, fund, and open the first outpatient alcohol-
ism treatment program on the IronRange.
Example:Much later (1979), Icollaborated with local architects and
carried out a demographic study of Pierce County that was incorporated
into the Human Service Facility Needs section of the countys compre-
hensive land-useplan.
In 1969, I was hired as the director of the comprehensive mental health cen-
ter back in Tacoma, Washington. I learned several important administrative and

Communit y-B a s ed P rac tice Mis s ion :Delive r Ps ychol og y Wal k ing A round 63
organizational principles as Ientered that position and realized what Ihad gotten
myselfinto.
Principle: Learn something about business administration before you

become a business administrator. At some point in your career, you will
need business administration skills.
Example:Ireceived no training in business administration during my
graduate program. Istepped into the executive director position at Tacomas
comprehensive mental health center as a nave, well-meaning human ser-
vice provider. Ilearned quickly that Iwas in way over my head for three
reasons:a dysfunctional organizational history, my lack of business admin-
istration knowledge, and the pending bankruptcy of the organization.
During its three-year history, the center had not developed an effective central
governance or authority. It consisted of multiple organizations with their own gov-
ernance structures, some of whom were funded through a declining federal staffing
grant and some who were voluntary participants. One previous Center director had
come and gone. Iwas hired by the new nonprofit, Center Board, recently formed
to try to rescue the program. Declining federal funding was not offset by the fixed
amount of state grant-in-aid funding, so bankruptcy appeared inevitable.
Principle: Your community contains many different resources that may

not be obvious to you at first, or during crises.
Example: Because we could not afford to hire management consul-
tants, Isought free consultation from SCORE (Service Corps of Retired
Executives), presented the situation to their panel of retired corporate
executives, and listened to their advice:
1. Consolidate the two major governing boards.

2. Address the probable bankruptcy.
As rapidly as possible, Ifound and hired a business manager. Aset of tragic cir-
cumstances made it possible to accomplish a merger of the new Center board with
the funded outpatient clinicboard.
Principle: Sometimes one must take major risks, especially when doing
nothing will lead only to failure.
Example: At that time (19691970), Washington States Medicaid
program did not cover mental health services, and the state mental health
authority was unwilling to provide additional grant-in-aid funding. Most
of the people we served were on Medicaid. The centers declining federal
funding base would lead inevitably to bankruptcy. Ilearned, however, that

a recent federal audit of the states Medicaid program had determined it

to be out of compliance with federal regulations because it discriminated
against the mentally ill. Iarranged to obtain a copy of that audit finding
and began to submit bills to the Medicaid authority in Washington State.
The states medical director was not pleased, and he refused payment over
several months of billing. Throughout this process, we built documenta-
tion that would undergird a lawsuit against the state of Washington if that
became necessary, and we made certain the relevant state officials knew
that. Years later, Iwas told by a historian who had studied the evolution
of the states mental health program that the medical director and other
officials had written internal memos describing me as a greedy and unprin-
cipled person, because Iwas forcing them to change policy.
Principle:It is always a good idea to know a good corporate lawyer.

Example: On the advice of my board chairperson (an attorney), we
submitted a request to the Washington Attorney Generals office for a legal
opinion on the states Medicaid policy. Although the AG could not legally
provide an opinion to a community nonprofit organization, our well-
documented brief was reviewed internally. Within weeks, the grant-in-aid
funding was reallocated as Medicaid matching funds, and we became fis-
cally viable. All of the community mental health centers in the state ben-
efitted from this development.
Principle: Build collaborative relationships throughout your commu-
nity. It is important to become known and to be viewed as credible and as
something other than (or in addition to) a clinician. Apply your network-
ing skills to a wide range of community contacts.
Example:During the next several years, Iparticipated in a number of
community service consultations as part of my mental health center direc-
tor role. These included several planning committees on aging and senior
services, United Way, Model Cities, mental health, and manpower plan-
ning. My activities involved collaborations with civic leaders on those
boards, politicians and legislators, local Office of Economic Opportunity
officials, Black community leaders, welfare mothers, and a variety of
human service providers.
Example: Three times during my career, I encountered situations in
which it became necessary to help an organizations leaders accept the
fact that the organization was doomed by political factors, and it was in
their best interest to choose to die gracefully. Ialso helped bring organiza-
tions to life. For example, Iserved as consultant and first registered agent
to assist a group of women community volunteers to plan and establish a
local chapter of Planned Parenthood.

Example: The Port of Tacoma and a significant part of the City of

Tacoma sit on historic Puyallup Indian Reservation land. Because
I had contacts within the Puyallup Tribe in 1974, I was asked by the
Presbyterian Churchs regional executive to facilitate the return of a local
Presbyterian church building and its adjacent cemetery to tribal own-
ership. Collaboration with Tribal Council members accomplished the
peaceful transfer of the property, during a period when Native Americans
were protesting and taking actions to reclaim their legitimate treaty rights.
During that epoch, tribal members occupied the former Cushman Indian
Hospital next door to the church. Years earlier, in violation of their treaty,
the hospital had been taken over by the State and converted into a juve-
nile corrections facility. The tribe won that ensuing legal battle. Later, they
regained their treaty fishing rights and achieved a major settlement of their
land claims.
Example:In 1979, Iwas asked to serve as the part-time Interim Director
of Associated Ministries of Tacoma-Pierce Countythe ecumenical orga-
nization that brings churches together to address important human and
social needs in the community. Ihelped the Board clarify its own role and
the organizations mission, and Iparticipated in an advisory capacity while
they hired a very competent new director.
Example:One of the architects in my building was elected to Tacoma
City Council. After a time, he recommended my appointment to the
Tacoma Landmarks Commission. That work involved collaboration with
architects and historians. Eventually, it resulted in a volunteer opportunity
to lead the preservation of Tacomas historic Fireboat #1. That brought me
into contact with the maritime community around the Port of Tacoma:Port
officials, Propeller Club members, employee volunteers from Tacoma
Boatbuilding Company, Foss Tugboat Company, and Crowley Maritime
Corporation. The lead group in this preservation effort also included two
City Planning Department staff members, a wholesale beer distributor, a
retired fireboat captain, and the president of the Propeller Club. It took
two years, but Fireboat #1 was restored, placed in a display ashore, and
nominated to the National Register of Historic Placesthe first fireboat
in the country so nominated.
Principle: Watch for unexpected opportunities to stimulate positive

change, and pursuethem.
Example: I am particularly proud of an unexpected opportunity that
presented itself during 1974. I was called before the Tacoma Human
Rights Commission after being notified of a complaint that our mental
health center had laid off a pregnant social worker inappropriately (during

a reduction in force). We appeared before the Commission and accepted

full responsibility for reinstatement and restitution. Inoticed that another
item on the Commissions agenda that day was a review of the Tacoma
Antidiscrimination Ordinance. Because Iwas aware that the then-current
ordinance did not protect persons with disabilities/handicaps against
housing discrimination, I stayed and advocated successfully for inclu-
sion of that protection. The revised ordinance was the first in the State
of Washington to prohibit housing discrimination against persons with
disabilities.
Principle:Know when toleave.

Example:Istayed a year too long (six years) at the mental health center
and burned out as a result. When another Federal grant expired, Ichose to
lay myself off, along with 12 other staff, having put a succession plan into
place with the support of myBoard.
Current Example:Ihave been actively involved in the SCRA Practice
Councils early development of the Community Psychology Value
Proposition and of the Competencies list. Over a period of four years the
Competencies issue has built a vigorous life of its own. It is time to leave
further development of the list and associated changes in training for prac-
tice to a younger generation.
During the two years that followed my departure from the mental health cen-
ter, Ifound consulting work as a lobbyist, a grant writer, and as a program evalu-
ator for Region X, NIMH (National Institute of Mental Health). Itaught a class
on parish planning to pastors enrolled in a local Doctor of Ministries program for
San Francisco Theological Seminary, and Iconsulted with a womens prison staff
to design an alcohol-drug treatment program. Iwrote two comprehensive mental
health center staffing grant proposals for organizations in Oregon, one of which was
funded. Iconsulted with a group that was preparing to write a staffing grant applica-
tion for the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in Alaska. Even in those days, inde-
pendent consultants had to hustle and apply their skills flexibly.
Principle:Watch for trends and try to build sensible solutions.

Example:In 1975, Iopened a solo clinical practice in Tacoma. Irented
an office in an historic residence owned by a group of architects. Iserved
as my own administrative assistant. Iworked primarily with adults, doing
evaluation and brief therapy. Ijoke that one morning while doing strate-
gic planning in the shower, Iconcluded that before too many years, health
insurance companies would begin paying social workers and registered
counselors for mental health treatment. As a result, there would proba-
bly be a surplus of mental health service providersa commodity mar-
ket would emerge. Administratively, therefore, Iwould need to keep my

overhead and prices low, quality of service high, and volume high. Idid not
anticipate the emergence of managed care, but my forecast did come true,
and my practice survived quite nicely in the new competitive and managed
care environments.
Example:From 1978 to 2003, Idelivered Employee Assistance Services
to four local companies, and for several nationwide employee assistance
program providers. Imay have been the first EAP provider in the Puget
SoundBasin.
In 1977, Iwas hired by the Joint Commission on Hospital Accreditation as an

intermittent (once monthly) Behavioral Health Surveyor. During my subsequent
30year career, Isurveyed (evaluated) approximately 300 mental health and alcohol-
drug treatment organizations that requested Joint Commission accreditation across
the nation. The survey required a systems approach to understanding each orga-
nization and its compliance with Joint Commission behavioral health standards.
The process was evaluative, consultative, and educational in nature; all intended to
improve quality ofcare.
I closed my professional office in August of 2003. Ihave delivered all subsequent
clinical services in natural community settings:Hospitality Kitchen (serving home-
less people), Pierce County AIDS Foundation office, Northwest Justice Project
office, Pierce County Sheriff Department offices, Tacoma Police Department office,
Southwest Washington Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Church in America office,
client residences, and on the street.
Today, I serve as a member and former chairperson of the Tacoma Human
Services Commission, helping to screen applications for City funding from non-
profit human services providers and offering policy advice when requested. Iam
a member and former chairperson of the mental health advisory board of the for-
profit corporation that administers this countys community mental health ser-
vices. Iparticipate in two community coalitions:The Pierce County Coalition to
End Homelessness and the Human Service Providers Coalition. Recently, the State
of Washington has initiated a multi-year effort to integrate delivery of behavioral
health, chemical dependence, and physical health care to persons enrolled in the
Medicaid program. Iam participating in the planning group for Pierce County inte-
gration. One metaphor I use to describe my current activities is knitting. I try to
stimulate and support collaborations among providers in different servicesilos.
Discussion
Basic Principle:Collaboration Is a Fundamental Skill
forSuccess inCommunity Psychology Practice
Notice that Ihave included a large number of collaboration examples throughout
this chapter, because Ibelieve strongly in their importance, and because that is how

Ihave practiced. If you want to help bring change to a community, neighborhood,

or organization, you must be well-prepared to know and to collaborate with (and
learn from) the people involvedthose within the entity and those impacted by
its activities.
Community psychology training can provide that preparation, but recent sur-
veys of graduate CP programs suggest that we can do better. Iencourage practice-
oriented CP students to ask their faculties for learning experiences that involve
collaboration with professional disciplines and citizens outside of psychology and
outside of academia. Take initiatives to seek out graduate students and faculty in
other community-focused disciplines; get to know how our profession can overlap
and add value to theirs, and theirs to ours. Contact local leaders and ask for oppor-
tunities to conduct informational interviews with them. Invite them into your class-
rooms; better yet, have the class go to their work settings to talk with them about
their values andwork.
Look for internships and employment in settings where your community psy-
chology skills add value to the enterprise, whether or not the job you do is listed as
community psychologist. Ultimately, your skills count more than your jobtitle.
I hope Ihave encouraged you to recognize that there are many domains where
you might find employment that fits your own skill set. If you are competent, curi-
ous, and open to a wider range of collaborations, you will be accepted and will pros-
per. While you are at it, try walking around.

The World ofFoundations

An Ideal Setting for a Community Psychologist
JudithMeyer s
In the time since I earned my doctorate in clinical and community psychology from
the University of Colorado-Boulder over thirty years ago, I have worked in a variety
of sectors including federal, state, and local government; clinical; academic; inde-
pendent consulting; and philanthropy. I sometimes describe myself as a walking
compendium of careers in community psychology. Although none of my positions
explicitly called for a community psychologist, each has been a match for the values,
skills, and knowledge inherent in the practice of community psychologynone
more so than my fifteen years working at a foundation. I served as a Senior Associate
at the Annie E. Casey Foundation for three years in the 1990s and for the past 16
years have been the President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Childrens
Fund of Connecticut.
Foundations101
Foundations come in many shapes and sizes but at their core they are about using
resources to promote the public good and improve social or human conditions.
Afoundation is defined as an entity that is established as a nonprofit corporation
or charitable trust, with the principal purpose of making monetary awards, known
as grants, to unrelated organizations, institutions, or individuals for scientific, edu-
cational, religious, or other charitable purposes (Foundation Center, 2014). That
being said, it is commonly observed that if you have seen one foundation, you have
seen one foundation. There are some commonalities, however, that are useful to
know when considering a foundation as a place to work (Foundation Center,2013).
Size and scope. Foundations vary from large national organizations to small local
ones. In 2011, there were 81,777 foundations in the United States with $662 bil-
lion in assets and $49 billion in annual giving.
69

Types. There are two main types of grant-making foundations, largely based on
federal tax requirements:
(1) The largest group are private foundations that include independent (some-
times referred to as family) and corporate foundations. Independent
foundations established by donors or their families account for 90% of all
foundations and 82% of assets. Gates, Ford, Rockefeller, and the Robert
Wood Johnson Foundations are familiar large national independent foun-
dations, as is the Annie E. Casey Foundation. Private foundations are
required by the tax code to distribute 5% of their assets for charitable pur-
poses annually.
(2) Public foundations, sometimes referred to as public charities, receive funds
from diverse sources including individuals, other foundations or gov-
ernment agencies. Community foundations that usually serve a defined
geographic area are a subset of public charities. The Childrens Fund of
Connecticut, where I currently work, is classified as a public charitable
foundation.
Focus. Foundations can determine the purpose and focus of their giving, but the
highest proportion of grant making is in health (28%), education (20%), and
human services (14%), and the largest target populations include economically
disadvantaged (35%) and children (22%), all clearly concerns of high interest to
community psychologists.
My Path tothe FoundationWorld

Public or private, large or small, single-issue focused or broad, serving specific com-
munities, the state, or the nation, foundations have the potential to be powerful
agents of change for system transformation, which is what drew me to them as a
place to work. Because of their resources and their flexibility in how these resources
can be used, they have the ability to drive change in public systems, where most
of the resources reside. They can provide support for activities such as strategic
planning, training, technical assistance, and evaluation activities that are critical to
major systems reform efforts, as well as provide support over a longer time than
government funding usually provides.
My own route to working in philanthropy was a bit circuitous but in the end, it
has been a natural home for me. Iwas originally drawn to the field of community
psychology as an undergraduate psychology major at the University of Michigan
because of my interest in primary prevention and social change. Though Idid not
have a label for it at the time, Icame to recognize early in my career that Iam a sys-
tems thinker. Community psychology, different from clinical training, is based on
an understanding of systems, recognizing the complex relationships and intercon-
nectedness among the various dimensions of our lives from biological to ecological,

Foundations :Id eal Setting for Communi t y Ps ychol og i st 71
and combining an understanding of the individual, the organization, and societal

behavior. Jim Kelly, a faculty member and one of the pioneers in the field, was a
major influence on this choice for me and on my decision to seek a graduate pro-
gram that combined both a clinical and community emphasis; there were few if any
freestanding community psychology programs at thetime.
My experience working in clinical settings only reinforced my belief. Ilearned
that while we could assist people by relieving their systems or helping them to
adjust to difficult conditions, we were doing little to pave the way for productive
participation in the economic and social aspects of their communities. Ialso came
to understand that public policy, to which Ihad had no exposure in my years of
training, was a powerful force in shaping the conditions of peoples lives. Iwrote
the following describing my professional journey that took me from working in the
psychiatric unit of a general hospital to the halls of Congress (Meyers,2006).
I observed that conditions such as neighborhood efforts to prevent zoning

for halfway houses, rejection of applications for Social Security Disability
Income, and lack of job training and supported employment were much
more powerful in keeping people out of a community than any of the ther-
apeutic approaches we were providing to keep them in the community. At
best we were helping people adjust to bad situations over which they had
little control. The combination of my roots in community psychology,...
experience in clinical settings, and exposure to systems thinking led me
to depart from the traditional role of a psychologist to seek preparation
to engage at a broader level with the issues Isaw as much more determi-
nant in affecting the lives of people with serious mental health problems
(p.212).
With a newfound interest in public policy as a key determinant driving larger

systemic conditions and as a focus for change, Iset about on three years of post-
doctoral training to enhance my knowledge and skills in this sector. This included
two years in a program in Mental Health Services Research and Evaluation,
housed within the Institute for Social and Policy Studies at Yale University, and a
year as a Congressional Science Fellow sponsored by the American Psychological
Association, working in the United States House of Representatives. During that
time Iacquired knowledge and skills that were not part of my graduate training in
community psychology but that have served me well since. Specific topics of study
included macro-and microeconomics, political science, public policy and policy
analysis, epidemiology, and public health.
Since then Ihave worked in various settings with a policy focus including gov-
ernment and academia, but Ihave found the most fulfilling work in two foundations
that have been major agents for change, one at the national level and the other at a
statelevel.

My Experience inthe FoundationWorld

Annie E.Casey Foundation
I was a Senior Associate for Mental Health for the Annie E. Casey Foundation
(AECF), an independent foundation, in the early 1990s. AECF was founded in 1948
by Jim Casey, one of the founders of the United Parcel Service, and his siblings. At
the time Iwas there, it was the nations largest philanthropy dedicated exclusively to
reforming public policies and improving the effectiveness of the major institutions
serving children and their families. The foundation supported efforts to transform
community environments through comprehensive reform initiatives that worked
to create the fiscal, organizational, and policy environments at the state and local
levels in which effective programs that were preventive and community-based could
flourish (Meyers & Davis, 1997). Twenty years later, AECF continues to be among
the largest private foundations in the United States with assets of about $2.7 bil-
lion and continues its mission to foster public policies, human service reforms and
community supports that more effectively meet the needs of todays vulnerable
children and families (http://www.aecf.org/AboutUS/MissionandHistory.aspx).
I became familiar with the work of AECF as a grantee while working in state
government in Iowa, where Ioversaw the child welfare and childrens mental health
system as Administrator of the Department of Children and Families. Ifirst worked
with the Foundation as a consultant, helping in the development of an initiative to
reform the foster care system. When a job opened up working in childrens mental
health, Icame on board as a full-time senior associate to oversee the Mental Health
Initiative for Urban Children, the goal of which was to improve outcomes for chil-
dren and their families in high-poverty urban neighborhoods (Meyers & Davis,
1997). The initiative focused on five high-need urban neighborhoods. Designed
to engage not only the local site but the city and state, the expectation was that
together they would reform policies and practices in support of a neighborhood-
based approach to delivering an integrated, family-centered, culturally competent
approach to service delivery to meet the mental health needs of children and fami-
lies in these communities.
My responsibilities encompassed a range of activities that can be seen to clearly fall
under the purview of the skills of a community psychologist. They included the devel-
opment of the initiative, monitoring the progress of the state grantees, coordinating
communication among the grantees, working with the evaluation team, and coordi-
nating capacity building at the state, community, and neighborhood level. Ateam of
consultants provided technical assistance to grantees about designing service systems,
restructuring financial practice, developing management information systems, involv-
ing families in a meaningful way, and measuring and evaluating outcomes. The work
involved a fair amount of travel as Iwas regularly on site in the five states, cities, and
neighborhoods (Boston, Denver, Houston, Miami, and Richmond).

Childrens Fund ofConnecticut

The past 16 years I have served as the President and CEO for the Childrens Fund
of Connecticut, a public charitable foundation dedicated to ensuring that children
in Connecticut have access to and benefit from a comprehensive, community-based
health care and mental health care system. The Funds mission is to advance and
inform improvements in primary and preventive pediatric health care and mental
health care programs, practices, and policy with particular focus on disadvantaged
or underserved children and their families.
I was hired in 1999 as the first executive director of the Child Health and
Development Institute of Connecticut (CHDI), which was created and supported
by the Childrens Fund as a free standing nonprofit organization to help carry out
the Funds agenda. I learned of the CHDI job through an advertisement in the
Chronicle of Philanthropy, a biweekly newspaper and excellent source of listings
for Foundation and other nonprofit jobs (now mostly listed on line) and was drawn
to the position as its first director because of the content of the work, the opportu-
nity to build a new organization, and my long-term interest in bridging the worlds of
research and policy. CHDIs link to a foundation was also a draw as it provided sta-
ble funding for the first five years. After three years, a decision was made for CHDI
to become a subsidiary of the Childrens Fund, and Ibecame President and CEO of
both organizations. One could say that Icame upon my second job in philanthropy
by being in the right place at the righttime.
Together, the Childrens Fund and CHDI support or conduct research and eval-
uation, technical assistance and training, demonstration projects, facilitation and
convening, and advocacy. The work is research-based and devoted to identifying,
supporting, evaluating, and disseminating evidence-based interventions to pro-
mote effective health care and mental health care practices, recognizing that it is
necessary to reform the systems and policies needed to sustain practice change over
time. We work closely with the leading academic institutions in Connecticut (Yale
and the University of Connecticut), the Connecticut Childrens Medical Center, all
key state agencies serving children and families, local communities, and agencies
that deliver services to children and families to influence the standard of care for
health and mental health for children and families in a statewide system. Although
my position may be somewhat unique, directing both a Foundation and a nonprofit
institute, many foundations go far beyond traditional grant making, incorporating
similar activities as those under CHDIs umbrella as part of their portfolio.
Alignment withCommunity Psychology

As CEO of a foundation, I have had to acquire an additional set of skills related
to the legal and financial aspects of running a public charitable foundation with a

17-member board of directors and a $32million endowment. Nonprofit and foun-

dation management are taught in certain graduate programs but not those in com-
munity psychology as far as Iknow.
Aside from my management responsibilities, Ispend much of my time in work
that would be of interest to community psychologists. As examples, some of the
initiatives in which Iam involved are:(1)assisting with the design of Connecticuts
approach to pediatric medical homes as part of the states reform of its Medicaid
program in light of health care reform; (2)facilitating the development of a state
plan for childrens mental health services for all children in the state; (3)working
with an array of communities to assure a broad developmental approach (physi-
cal, social/emotional, cognitive) in their comprehensive plans to assure children
are ready for school; (4)developing an initiative on obesity prevention for young
children; and (5) enhancing the ability of primary care providers to address the
mental health concerns of children and their families.
Several of the other staff at CHDI are graduates of doctoral programs in com-
munity psychology. CHDI is a training site for and pre-and postdoctoral trainees at
The Consultation Center at Yale, and several of these interns and fellows have gone
on to become members of our professional staff. Adescription of our current train-
ing opportunities for these interns further illustrates the alignment of our work with
community psychology:
Provide training for, implement, and evaluate an innovative, evidence-and

trauma-informed model promoting collaboration between families, law enforce-
ment, emergency mobile crisis clinicians, and child welfare staff to support chil-
dren during and following the arrest of a caregiver.
Work with state agencies and a network of community-based providers to
provide quality improvement, consultation, and evaluation research that pro-
mote service quality and outcomes for children and families for Connecticuts
Emergency Mobile Psychiatric Services, a statewide crisis response service for
children and families and an important element of Connecticuts comprehensive
servicearray.
Work on the statewide dissemination of Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral
Therapy (TF-CBT) to providers using implementation science and a learning
collaborative approach for the implementation of evidence-based practices;
provide technical assistance and consultation to state and community agencies
involved with TF-CBT implementation, and using data for quality improvement
purposes during implementation and for sustaining evidence-based practice.
The goal of the training experience is to hone the following skills:
Provide quality improvement, consultation, and evaluation research services to

state agencies and community-based providers to impact changes that affect the
standard of mental health care for children and families;

Apply mixed-method approaches to research, evaluation, and consultation;

Translate research and evaluation into effective consultation with direct applica-
tions to policy development in a statewide system ofcare;
Understand the structure and financing of a statewide system of health care for
children, youth, and their families.
This set of skills would be of value to anyone interested in working at a founda-

tion, as funders are increasingly interested in broader systems reform and paying
more attention to accountability for results. Abackground in research, evaluation,
policy, and systems are very attractive, even if these foundations do not know or
appreciate that these are the very skills possessed by many community psycholo-
gists. That suggests that community psychologists who are seeking employment in a
foundation clearly communicate in their cover letters that accompany a job applica-
tion, or in job interviews, the nature of their education and training, the skills they
have acquired, and how these fit with the job specification, rather than relying on
a potential employer knowing what a doctorate in community psychologymeans.
A job posting for a Senior Associate position at AECF clearly illustrates this point
(Annie E.Casey Foundation, 2014), and in my experience, this could be generalized
to program officer or research and evaluation positions in many foundations. Ten of
the essential skills and abilities listed for the job sound tailor-made for a community
psychologist and are very much in keeping with the Practice Competencies devel-
oped for the Society for Community Research and Action (Dalton & Wolfe,2012):
1.Experience working with data systems and knowledge of mixed-method data

collection and evaluation processes.
2. Knowledge of federal policies in the human services, workforce, and
educationareas.
3.Demonstrated track record of direct technical assistance to practitioners in
order to strengthen their stakeholder collaborations, program implementation,
and strategy development;
4.Experience in strategic and program planning, organizational development and
management, continuous quality improvement techniques, market research,
and business planning.
5.Thorough knowledge and grasp of the levers of systems change (both public
and private).
6.Ability to develop policy and practice recommendations for new strategies and
programs based on research of effective models for hard to serve populations.
7.Excellent writing, editing, analytical, and oral communication skills, including
the ability to collect, review, synthesize, and present information and findings.
8.Results-oriented and comfortable moving internal and external stakeholders
towards evidence-based practices and data-driven outcomes.
9. Ability to translate raw data into meaningful management information.
10. Commitment to improving outcomes for disadvantaged children and families.

Resources fora Foundation JobSearch

There are easily accessible resources for information about careers or jobs in the
philanthropic sector, though one should not expect that a degree in community
psychology would be listed as a qualification. The main sites include the following:
The Chronicle of Philanthropy (https://www.philanthropy.com)

The Council on Foundations (http://www.cof.org)
The Foundation Center (http://foundationcenter.org)
Regional Associations of Grantmakers. These are membership associations of
grant makers at the regional, state, or local level that often have job postings
on their websites. Alisting of these organizations is available at the Council on
Foundations Philanthropic Support Network (http://www.cof.org/about/
colleagues)
The Joys and theChallenges ofa FoundationCareer

Having had experiences in a variety of settings, working in a foundation would be
my number one choice. Nevertheless, it is important to keep my earlier admoni-
tion in mind:not all foundations are the same. In seeking out a foundation job it
is important to research the type of foundation, size of endowment, level of grant
making, geographic focus, priorities for funding, type of staff, and the nature of the
work conducted by staff. Afoundation that is strategic in its grant making, is active
in designing its initiatives, works in partnership with grantees, and is interested
in and invests in public policy and advocacy, is one that would be most appealing
to a community psychologist. Iwould not have enjoyed working in a foundation
that was more passive in its approach, giving out money in response to solicited
grants without an agenda to drive system and policy reform. There are, however, an
increasing number of foundations that are seeking the best return on their invest-
ments and they have come to realize that a broader systems approach, regardless of
the content area, is the best way to achieve results.
The opportunity to engage in being a catalyst for change, with the resources to do
the work, is the joy of working in philanthropy. One has access to funds to mobilize
change and to take risks in trying out new ideas. The challenge is not in finding the
resources, as it is in most nonprofits, but in using resources responsibly. At the same
time, it is important to keep in mind that while foundations can be the impetus for
reform and the catalysts for change, they cannot be the sole actors. Their resources
and expertise only go so far, and they cannot make change directly, but rather they
influence and leverage change in the larger institutions that control and direct so
much more. That is often the reason that, unlike in academia, where the reward sys-
tem honors individual achievements, foundation work is highly collaborative. One

usually works as part of a team within the organization as well as in partnership with
many others external to the organization, including government agencies, advo-
cates, and other funders.
I find that people are often daunted by the foundation world. It has an aura of
being somewhat exclusive, hard to break into, inaccessible. My experience is quite
the opposite. There are thousands of foundations and even though fewer than a
third have paid staff, that still leaves thousands of staff positions (approximately
20,000 according to the Foundation Center). Askilled community psychologist is
an asset to any foundation, which by definition is about improving social or human
conditions. By educating oneself about the foundation world, adding it to the list of
possibilities for a career, and finding out about and connecting to colleagues who
work in such settings, a community psychologist will have ample opportunities to
have a most exciting and dynamic career applying his or her values, knowledge, and
skills in an environment where they can make a real difference.
Note
1. Small segments of this chapter appeared previously in Meyers (2011). Column:Acommunity
psychologist in the world of philanthropy. The Community Psychologist, 44(3),1011.
References
Annie E.Casey Foundation. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.aecf.org/AboutUs/Careers.aspx
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (2012). Joint column:Education connection and the community practitio-
ner. The Community Psychologist, 45(4),714.
Foundation Center. (2013). Key facts on US foundations. Retrieved from http://foundationcenter.
org/gainknowledge/research/keyfacts2013/foundation-focus.html
Foundation Center. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.grantspace.org/Tools/Knowledge-Base/
Funding-Resources/Foundations/W hat-is-a-foundation
Meyers, J. (2006). Pathways to reforming childrens mental health service systems:Public and per-
sonal. In A. Lightburn & P. Sessions (Eds.), Handbook of community-based clinical practice (pp.
204220). Cary, NC:Oxford UniversityPress.
Meyers, J. (2011). Column:Acommunity psychologist in the world of philanthropy. The Community
Psychologist, 44(3),1011.
Meyers, J., & Davis, K. (1997). State and foundation partnerships to promote mental health systems
reform for children and families. In C. Nixon & D. Northrup (Eds.), Evaluating mental health
services:How do programs for children work in the real world (pp. 95116). Thousand Oaks,
CA:Sage Publications.

Leading theWay
The Role of Community Psychology in Nonprofits
Victoria Chien Scott and Greg Meissen
There are numerous leadership opportunities and a great need for more effective
leadership in the nonprofit sector. While community leadership is one of the 18
community psychology competencies, it is rarely addressed by community psy-
chologists or taught in community psychology graduate education programs. Not
surprisingly, those community psychologists who do find themselves in nonprofit
leadership positions typically do not have formal education or practical experience
in the community and organizational capacity-building domain of the community
psychology competencies upon entry into these positions. Those community psy-
chologists who are involved in community-based research with nonprofits or those
who are consultants also often do not have the background to share community
leadership concepts and skills. At the same time, many community psychology stu-
dents are motivated to work in the nonprofit sector because they care deeply about
social justice and health issues addressed by these organizations, but it is difficult
for the academic settings to naturally encourage careers and future leaders in the
nonprofit sector.
Community psychology graduate students have always and will always worry
about getting a job. Amajor leadership transition of founders and long-term direc-
tors of nonprofits has begun, so the nonprofit sector would welcome our graduates
(Adams, 2010). While developing practica with nonprofits is routine in graduate
education, those experiences are typically designed to practice skills such as pro-
gram development and particularly program evaluation, but they are rarely focused
on the actual organizational and leadership issues within nonprofits. Intentionally
providing nonprofit leadership skills within a community leadership framework
based on the values and competencies of community psychology would prepare
both masters and doctoral community psychologists for the nonprofit sector.
While there are a number of reasons for this lack of education in community lead-
ership as a competency within community psychology as a field, one fundamental
78

Leading the Way :Communit y Ps ychol og y in Nonp ro f i t s 79
explanation is a lack of understanding and appreciation among university faculty

of community leadership and its potential particularly for empowerment and posi-
tive organizational impact (Meissen, Greenleaf, & Hakim, 2011). The definition of
community leadership being used for this chapter was established by the Society
for Community Research and Action (SCRA) as one of the 18 competencies of
community psychology:The ability to enhance the capacity of individuals and groups
to lead effectively, through a collaborative process of engaging, energizing and mobiliz-
ing those individuals and groups regarding an issue of shared importance (Dalton &
Wolfe,2012).
When the word leader or leadership is mentioned among community psy-
chologists, the reaction is often cautious, suspicious, or even negative (Meissen,
Greenleaf, & Hakim, 2011). The default thinking is that by leaders we mean those
in formal positions of authority in government, business, and large organizations
(Crislip & OMalley, 2013). It is important for community psychologists to make
the distinction between those in positions of authority and those engaged in true
acts of leadership. Community leadership is about behavioracts of leadership that
engender others to become invested in the common good. Often community psy-
chologists blame and complain about ineffective leaders in positions of authority,
rightfully so, as these so-called leaders do not engage in acts of leadership. Just as
often, we announce that a person in one of those positions is a great leader when
they are involved in engaging, energizing, and mobilizing those individuals and groups
regarding an issue of shared importance (Dalton & Wolfe, 2012). From a community
leadership perspective, anyone can lead, any time, any place (Crislip & OMalley,
2013; Green & McBride, 2015). An important first step toward the usefulness of
community leadership for community psychologists is to redefine leadership from
a noun to a verb, and to move away from the disempowering, traditional great
person and individualistic trait theories of leadership to more contemporary
community-leadership theories and skills, consistent with the values of community
psychology (Meissen, Greenleaf, & Hakim,2011).
Community Leadership asEmpowerment:AFramework

forNonprofits
Nonprofits do the bulk of the direct service work and are the primary organizations
involved in advocacy, environmental issues, nutrition, the arts, and community
development. They also contribute to the economy much more than professionals
and the public realize. The collective global nonprofit budget would equal the 16th
largest economy in the world, and nonprofits contributes nearly $9 billion yearly
to the US economy (McKeever & Pettijohn, 2014). While community psycholo-
gists have often been useful to the bottom line of nonprofits through grant writing,
they rarely impact nonprofits overall capacity to serve through staff development
or organizational capacity-building. Many nonprofits struggle with funding, low

wages, long hours for staff, stressful working conditions, high staff turnover, and low
morale, and those managing nonprofits find themselves attempting internal culture
change to address these adaptive challenges, often without positive results (Adams,
2010). A positive approach to internal organization development, especially for
community psychologists, is through a leadership development framework. Rather
than a focus on low moral or a dysfunctional organizational culture, helping staff to
understand leadership and to learn leadership skills that produce higher levels of
impact and self-care does much more to enhance culture and productivity.
Using a leadership framework within nonprofits translates to those individuals
being served and to partner organizations. Working collaboratively to build the lead-
ership skills of everyone involved has great potential for sustained positive change
(Baker, 2014). Community leadership is not about positional leadership but rather
leaderful behavior that facilitates positive change (Crislip & OMalley, 2013). In a
comprehensive analysis of leadership, Crawford, Brungardt, and Maughan (2005)
concluded that there are several practical leadership behaviors (e.g., collaboration,
empowerment, servant leadership) that naturally and logically relate to commu-
nity psychology. If more people become skilled and confident in their community
leadership abilities, they will be more effective on those issues about which they
care deeply, making our communities better. Mental health consumer-run organi-
zations (CROs) are informative examples of how a leadership framework can pro-
vide opportunities and roles for those previously prohibited from leadership and
enhance individual, organizational, and community outcomes (Brown, Shepherd,
Merkle, Wituk, & Meissen, 2008; Shagott, Vu, Reinhart Wituk, & Meissen,2009).
A foundation of community psychology is working collaboratively with dis-
empowered groups and communities while successfully refusing to operate from
a deficient model but instead from an approach that capitalizes on strengths and
assets. Community psychologists, using a community leadership framework with
nonprofits and those groups nonprofits serve, can be more powerful and have more
sustainable impact (Figure 7.1, Meissen, Greenleaf & Hakim, 2011). All community
psychology research and practice should have empowerment as an outcome, and a
community leadership framework virtually ensures that. A community leadership
framework gives voice to the concerns of many, especially the historically marginal-
ized and oppressed, allowing nonprofit and citizen leaders to transcend traditional
positional power roles and focus on community strengths to solve adaptive chal-
lenges. Anyone can lead, anytime, anyplace (Crislip & OMalley, 2013; Green &
McBride,2015).
Using a community leadership framework takes the kind of leadership skills
cited by the Center for Creative Leadership (2006), including interpersonal open-
ness, building relationships, commitment, and the ability to persuade many oth-
ers to get involved. Shankman and Allen (2008) assert that community leadership
deals with systems and settings with a focus on the social capital mobilized for the
common good within nonprofits and our communities. Adaptive work involves
proactively engaging the hard work of innovation, experimentation, and cultural

Community Psychology
Practice
Shared Leadership
Community Psychologists
Community Members
Empowerment Change Creation

Advocacy
Culture Creation
Issue Research
Training and Role Assignment
Community Organizing
Collaboration Servant Leadership

Vision and Mission Creation
Strategic Planning Individual Development
Partnership Creation Capacity Building
Figure7.1 Community leadership framework.

Note: Reprinted from Meissen, G. J., Greenleaf, J., & Hakim, S. (2011). Leadership as a framework for
community psychology practice, The Community Psychologist, 44, 1012, with permission from Society
for Community Research and Action.
change (Heifetz, 2003). Acommunity leadership framework as practiced by non-

profits empower staff and partners to seek innovative solutions to adaptive chal-
lenges to create thriving nonprofits (Adams, 2010). As thinking begins to shift to a
community leadership framework, leadership will increasingly be viewed as a proc-
ess shared among multiple people within nonprofits and their partners. In their
emotional-intelligence perspective on leadership, Shankman and Allen (2008)
assert that nonprofit staff increasingly realize that they are all active participants as
leaders without a title. This way of thinking about community leadership is familiar
to community psychologists, and within most communities in the United States
there are community leadership programs available to everyone (e.g., Association
of Leadership Programs; https://alpleaders.org). Most universities also have lead-
ership programs, minors, or certificate programs available to take as electives. We
encourage community psychology students to take the leadership courses offered,
particularly in the community-based leadership programs, and to participate in ini-
tiatives to enhance knowledge and skills alongside nonprofit and business leaders
and, particularly, young professionals who are often the primary participants.
Community leadership grounded in a community psychology perspective
emphasizes a cycle that leads from personal development to staff participation to
staff empowerment to the organizational mechanisms that empower those that
nonprofits serve (Strickland, 1998). Focusing on leadership strengths more eas-
ily allows positive, innovative, experimental solutions to organizational issues that
will be empowering, engaging, and sustainable. Empowering staff within nonprofits
through the enhanced leadership skills moves away from a solitary position into a
transformational process, internally and externally (Adam,2010).

As early as the 1930s, Kurt Lewin (Lewin, Lippit, & White, 1939)found that
participative leadership was more effective than other approaches, but only in
this century has community leadership emerged with a vision that everyone
can be a leader with an emphasis on collaboration, facilitation, inclusion, use of
group process around a shared vision, grassroots advocacy, and empowerment
(Crislip & OMalley, 2013). While community psychologists embrace this same
vision, we have not discovered contemporary community leadership as evi-
denced in the lack of information in our text books, journals, or graduate educa-
tion (Ayon & Lee, 2009). It is understandable that community psychologists did
not embrace the traditional leadership theory and research that emerged from
social psychology, as that work focused more on a few unique individuals (i.e.,
great man theory) who had traits deemed necessary for leadership, while most
people did not (Segal, 2000). The work of Robert Greenleaf around the concept
of servant leadership also has not resonated with community psychologists, in
part due to the negative connotation of the term servant (Meissen, Greenleaf, &
Hakim, 2011). Nor did community psychology embrace the management-
oriented leadership theories that emerged primarily from business in the 80s
and 90s, with their emphasis on maximizing personal effectiveness and com-
pany profits (Covey,1990).
The primary venues for the application of community leadership are national,
state, and local community leadership development programs, which operate on
the philosophy that if more well-meaning people can become involved in the issues
that impact their local communities with a higher level of skill taught in those
programs, positive impacts are likely (Putnam, Feldstein, & Cohen, 2004; Wituk,
Ealey, Clark, Heiny, & Meissen, 2005). As keynote speakers at that the 1999 SCRA
Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Lappe and Dubois
(1997) argued the following.
The biggest problems facing Americans are not those issues that bombard
us daily, from homelessness and failing schools to environmental devasta-
tion and the federal deficit... The crisis is that we as a people dont know
how to come together to solve these problems. We lack the capacities to
address the issues or remove the obstacles that stand in the way of public
deliberation. Too many Americans feel powerless.(p.7)
This keynote by nationally recognized community leadership experts empha-

sized the need for easier ways for everyday citizens to get involved which they
argued would make our communities better places to live. While Lappe and Dubois
were well received, the practice of community leadership they promoted has not
been embraced within the field of community psychology until recently with the
growth of community psychology practice and the adoption of the 18 competen-
cies, which includes the community leadership competency.

A community leadership approach for a community psychologist goes beyond

a strengths perspective with its explicit focus on leadership development to build
leadership skills and confidence. Approaching nonprofit staff and community part-
ners with an opening framework of strengthening our collaborative leadership
abilities for the common good and as part of our work together honors them and
provides a hopeful context. Anumber of other useful things begin to emerge includ-
ing that some of these leaders become recognized as experts on the issues involved
(instead of staff or concerned citizens). For community psychology students, the
first step would be to take a community-based or university course in leadership.
A component of most community-based programs includes opportunities to
become involved in leadership roles in a variety of settings. Most community psy-
chology students are already community-engaged, which will allow the use of these
skills. They will have the chance to understand that the work done by those most
involved and impacted by the issues they care about becomes less about money and
government and more about people coming together around causes that are impor-
tant to their community. Contemporary community leadership is skills-based,
which leaves those involved more equipped to continue their involvement leading
to greater sustainability and a larger leadership pool for ongoing leadership tran-
sition within nonprofits (Crislip & OMalley, 2013). In the book Better Together,
Putnam, Feldstein, and Cohen (2004) provide a number of case studies that pro-
vide community psychologists with examples of what could happen using a com-
munity leadership framework designed to intentionally build the social capital of
skilled and confident leaders.
Community Psychology Guiding Principles

and Nonprofit Organizations
We suggest that gaining a deep awareness of our own guiding principles is so impor-
tant because it shapes the way in which we live and lead our nonprofit organizations.
Community psychology provides an array of guiding principles that are especially
salient to nonprofit leaders. In the following we highlight those community psy-
chology principles that will serve you particularly well in the role of a nonprofit
leader.
A strengths-based approach to realizing your organizational mission: As nonprofit

leaders, our experience has been that much more can be gained by focusing on
the question of what is working well? rather than what is not going well?
Focusing on the strengths of our team energizes the team to build on existing
successes. This line of inquiry is an example of using a strengths-based approach
designed to identify existing assets, resources, and successes. According to
strengths-based practitioners, when members of an organization understand
and value the most favorable elements of the organization, outcomes are inclined

to be generative (i.e., leading to new ideas and new action) and improvements
more rapid (Bushe & Fraser,2007).
Fostering learning organizations through empowerment, democratic participation,
collaboration, and respect for diversity:The principle of empowerment prizes indi-
vidual experience and volition. It is rooted in the belief that systems (e.g., fami-
lies, organizations, communities) excel when individuals are empowered to be
agents of the change process. Democratic participation underscores the impor-
tance of deliberation and authentic collaboration as a critical process for maxi-
mizing outcomes, and emphasizes the role of fairness and due process (Kloos
et al., 2012). The principle of collaboration speaks to the interdependence of
individuals, and highlights the importance of relationships in workplace expe-
riences (and beyond!). Respect for diversity, as a principle, honors the unique
set of experiences and qualities that members bring to an experience. Together,
these community psychology principles are some of the core ingredients for fos-
tering an organizational learning environment within your nonprofit. Learning
organizations are organizations where people continually expand their capac-
ity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns
of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where
people are continually learning to see the whole together (Senge, 1990, p.3).
Underpinning the concept of a learning organization is that ongoing learning is
essential for improvement and sustained effectiveness. Further, learning, across
all levels of an organization can be enhanced when appropriate structures and
processes are put in place. The community psychology principles of empower-
ment, democratic participation, collaboration, and respect for diversity promote
an environment where leaders exist at all levels of the organization (from front-
line to middle management to the executive level) because decision-making
and innovative ideas are encouraged to blossom throughout (versus mostly top-
down). The benefits of learning organizations over more traditional command-
and-control formats have been described in organizational literature (Kerfoot,
2005; Austin,2008).
Sustaining individual and organizational wellness through an ecological perspec-
tive: Viewing issues through an ecological perspective enables leaders to gain
an understanding of how behavior within the workplace relates to the organi-
zational context and broader. This guiding principle shifts our focus beyond the
individual level and encourages leaders to explore the multifaceted dimensions
of an issue. It is well established that our environments are significant drivers of
human behavior and that we are often unaware of the influence of these driv-
ers on our decisions and actions (context minimization error). Being able to
attend to issues across ecological levels (e.g., individual, microsystem, organ-
ization, localities, macrosystem) may not come naturally and takes practice to
do efficiently. It is a skill to be developed, which can help leaders better sur-
vey the pulse of their workplace. Additionally, the ability to assess issues and

their interplay across ecological levels can help nonprofit leaders anticipate and
understand the influence of macrosystem factors (e.g., policy, economics, mass
media) on the organization and members within the organization. In essence, an
ecological lens better prepares leaders to anticipate and respond to the short-and
long-term demands of the nonprofitworld.
Driving continuous quality improvement through data and data-informed decisions:
For nonprofit leaders, it is often obvious when something is not working well
or is in need of improvement. However, the specifics contributing to the inef-
fectiveness is typically multifactorial and not as clear. This is one place where the
metrics, or performance indicators, of your organization can be especially useful.
Organizations in which leaders routinely monitor the metrics of their organiza-
tion outperform those who minimally attend to such data. The logic behind this
is fairly intuitive:monitoring performance metrics gives us a sense of how we are
doing and the specific areas needing improvement; additionally, the mere task of
routinely reviewing performance metrics stimulates reflection, which facilitates
progress.
The principle of making data-informed decisions can also facilitate improve-
ment efforts by enhancing buy-in to those efforts. Research shows that employ-
ees are more inclined to engage in improvement activities when organizational
decisions are perceived to be objective and data-informed, as opposed to sub-
jective opinion. However, the availability of empirical data is only one step in
the direction of making continuous quality improvements. Change management
leaders, Heath and Heath (2010) remind us that the data are necessary, but not
sufficient. As leaders, we must know how to convey the data in such a way that
appeals to the heart and soul (emotions and motivations) of our team members.
Conveying the data in meaningful and compelling ways is just as important as
having the data available.
It is helpful to note that all of us carry our own personal set of guiding principles
too, and that those will vary to the extent in which they overlap with the principles
of the nonprofit organizations that we lead. Adiscrepancy between ones personal
and professional set of guiding principles is not a bad thing. The key is to be aware
of where those discrepancies rest and to exercise practical wisdom (more on this
concept follows) as your decisions and behaviors are led by the guiding principles
you seek to uphold.
In our experience, we have found that accompanying each guiding principle
with a behavioral description can facilitate a shared understanding among non-
profit team members. You can also help team members become aware of the prin-
ciples that inform their actions by organizing an activity that encourages members
to reflect on their personal principles and then assessing the extent to which there
is a correspondence between the personal and organizational principles. Activities
like this promote awareness, dialogue, and understanding. We find that the more we

are in tune with the principles by which we operate, the better positioned we are to
work together as a team and to navigate through challenges.
Competencies and Qualities ofEffective Leadership

Often times, we think of leadership based on the title that one assumes (e.g., chief
executive officer/executive director, chief operating officer/administrative director,
chief financial officer, chief information officer). While titles lend a unique set of
powers and privileges to persons bearing those titles, one certainly does not have to
be in the C-suite to be an effective leader. Regardless of whether you are a member
of the C-suite or in another position within the nonprofit organization, the follow-
ing competencies can help you lead effectively.
Making the mission a living, breathing reality: Most people choose to work in
the nonprofit arena because they are interested in improving human and social
conditions. However, it is easy to get distracted and immersed in the day-to-day
demands of the workplace and to lose sight of the why behind the work that we
do. One skill of an effective leader is being able to keep the team connected to
the why. This means staying tapped into the emotions and passions of your team
members. It means keeping the purpose and importance of your nonprofit orga-
nization alive. Retreats, personal stories from the field, and sharing team mem-
ber experiences are some ways to breathe life into the organizations mission.
In a health-care setting that I(Victoria) used to work in, one way that leader-
ship helped team members remember the importance of their roles was to have
hospital patients front-and-center-stage during each annual all-team assembly,
which involved every hospital employee. The patients shared their stories about
visiting our hospital and the difference (positive and negative) that it made in
their lives. The stories were so powerful that they often evoked tears, both happy
and sad ones. Seeing and hearing the patients reminded us of why each of our
roles in the hospital was so important to the outcome of our patients. This mes-
sage could have been delivered to us in a multitude of other ways; for example,
leadership could have simply sent a memo thanking all employees and stating
that they are valuable to the hospitals mission. This latter approach would cer-
tainly be easier and quicker to implement. The impact would beless.
Exercising Practical Wisdom: A millennia ago, the classic philosopher Aristotle
identified the importance of phronesis, or practical wisdom, to leading satisfy-
ing lives, and modern day scientific research proves it to be true (Schwartz &
Sharpe, 2010). Practical wisdom involves figuring out the right way to do the
right thing in a particular circumstance, with a particular person, at a particular
time (pp.56). While rules (policies and procedures) are necessary elements
of an organization, their ability to guide employee decisions and behaviors
bear limits. Rules do not tell employees how to interpret and balance everyday

demands, especially when issues are complex and not so cut and dry. Leading
with practical wisdom means thinking critically and making decisions based on
the particular circumstances of a particular situation. It does not mean ignoring
the rules or making up your own. It means taking the particulars of a situation
into account instead of reflexively making rule-based decisions in the absence
of context and presenting conditions. Being able to exercise practical wisdom
and think critically through situations will increase your probability of success
as a nonprofit leader. Practical Wisdom:The Right Way to Do the Right Things by
Schwartz and Sharpe (2010) provides a wonderful, in-depth description of this
skill, along with informative research findings and examples.
Being Agile with Purpose:Aterm used to by the military, and now in the business
arena, to describe the general conditions of the world we live in is VUCA. This
is an acronym for volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. As you well
know, the world of nonprofits is constantly changing. Changes are often diffi-
cult to anticipate and present circumstances are often hazy, with many known
unknowns and unknown unknowns. The interdependencies of our organizations
with multiple forces across the ecological levels add to this challenge. We have
found that the reality of VUCA plays a huge part in what makes our work so chal-
lenging, as well as so much fun! Agood friend and mentor of mine (Victoria),
Dr.Moss Blachman at the University of South Carolina, bestowed upon me the
wisdom that as a leader we must be agile with purpose because shift happens
constantly. In other words, we can lead effectively in a world that is characterized
by VUCA by acknowledging that those conditions are constantly at play, holding
steadfast to the organizations mission, and always being ready to re-strategize.
Caring and Managing Inward:We are only so good as we are well. In other words,
we can only lead as effectively as our mind, body, and spirits are vibrant and
well. While foundational, a competency that often gets less attention is caring
and managing inward. This means caring and managing yourself by doing the
things you need to do to be well. Anational study of emerging nonprofit leaders
reported rising rates of burnout (Cornelius, Corvington, & Ruesga, 2008). This
is no surprise given that we live and work in an age where workplace changes
take place faster than ever before as a result of technology, the Internet, and other
innovations. As a society, it also seems like we are busier than we have ever been
before, taking on bigger workloads, multiple jobs and roles, and working longer
hours. Apart of the American culture celebrates this busy mentality, and thus,
corporations like Cadillac successfully use advertisements that boast having only
two-week holidays a year (while European countries have at least one month).
Astrong work ethic is something to celebrate, but taking good care of the self
is essential to our success as leaders. This competency generalizes to our team
members. As a nonprofit leader, regardless of your rank in the organization, tak-
ing care of your team members ultimately contributes to the wellness capacity of
yourteam.

The Joys and Challenges ofLeading a Nonprofit Organization

Being the leader of a nonprofit organization is a tremendous responsibility. It can be
painfully challenging and simultaneously so rewarding. For us, one of the greatest
and recurrent challenges is leading our organization in such a way that keeps it at the
head of the comet. This is about staying apace with transformative industry and mac-
roeconomic trends. We find that this really requires being able to think and work
across ecological levels. It also requires good people skills and a sound understand-
ing of change management. Another element of our role that is a continuous chal-
lenge is keeping our team actively engaged. Team-member engagement is important
regardless of whether individuals are paid or are volunteer staff. However, the issue
of engagement can seem much more challenging in nonprofit organizations that are
chiefly volunteer-run (where >90% of staff are volunteers). In such organizational
structures, leaders face additional challenges associated with turnover, absenteeism,
quality control, and retention of institutional memory.
On the flip side, one of the most meaningful aspects of leading a nonprofit orga-
nization is being at the fulcrum of positive change and having the opportunity to
bring ones experiences, talents, creativity and ideas to the change process. We find
it remarkably energizing and empowering to be a change agent and to see good
things come from our leadership. We also really enjoy taking part in the personal
and professional development of our team members. For us there is a sense of deep
fulfillment that comes from being able to give away what others have shared with
us. On a related note, we find that we are constantly stretching and growing with
members of our team. It is the aspect of working with a team of individuals who
journey together, through the challenges and successes, toward a shared vision that
is the most rewarding aspect of our work. Truly, leading a nonprofit organization as
a community psychologist is the adventure of a lifetime!
Curriculum Development and Career Opportunities

In community psychology graduate programs, education and careers in nonprofits
is generally not a focus, especially in doctoral programs. At the same time, many
community psychology graduates find themselves working within or with nonprof-
its immediately, or over time, due to their community psychology skills and values.
Unfortunately, they are often ill-equipped for those leadership roles, much less for
how to use a community leadership framework to deepen and sustain theirwork.
Community psychology education focuses on the foundational principles of
community psychology, prevention, and community research. There is much less
emphasis on the community psychology competencies around community and
organizational capacity-building, which includes community leadership, small-and
large-group process, resource development, and consultation and organizational
development (see Figure1.1, this volume)the skills most immediately useful to

community psychologists in nonprofit settings. For example, the community psy-

chology doctoral program at Wichita State University recently finished a curriculum-
mapping process based on addressing the 18 community psychology competencies
that was student-driven with much input from our community (Sarkisian & Taylor,
2013). The results showed strength in the foundational principles, community pro-
gram development, and the community research domains of the competencies, but
there were deficiencies in community and organizational capacity-building and the
community and social change domains. The curriculum was changed with the addi-
tion of seminars in community leadership and in advocacy and social policy, along
with a commitment to a community leadership framework generally, and particu-
larly in the practicum.
Conclusion
Leadership has been a critical part of humanity since the beginning. Leadership
behaviors are old but there is growing emphasis on both empowering and nudg-
ing individuals, organizations and communities into more positive behavior
(Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). Successful nonprofits are deeply involved in their larger
community, beyond the direct work with those they serve. Community psycholo-
gists can be even more involved in their communities by intentionally approaching
that involvement from a community leadership framework. That leadership expe-
rience and practice could also be part of graduate education. Faculty encourage-
ment to work in nonprofits and with local community nonprofit mentors would be
beneficial to all involved and would lead to local and national career opportunities.
If more people become skilled and confident in their community leadership abili-
ties they will be more effective on those issues in which they care deeply, making
our communities better. There is a need for intentional and deliberate leadership
development at the individual level; for developing the leadership of others; and for
leading efforts of nonprofits and as a means for career development.
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Supporting Community Agencies

The Non-A cademic Side of UniversityWork
Crystal Reinhart
How IDecided toPursue a Community

PsychologyDegree
As an undergraduate student I started out with psychology and sociology as my
majors. Ialways had an interest in research and loved the anticipation of discover-
ing the results at the end of the study. Ioften thought and worried about where
Iwould go with a bachelors in psychology, and knew that the field of psychology
was incredibly diverse in terms of specializations to pursue. Ihad several jobs as an
undergraduate that provided opportunities to explore areas that I enjoyed in my
studies. Ihad a work-study position as a statistics tutor and worked at the psychol-
ogy office, which gave me ample time to converse with the professors in the depart-
ment. Off campus, Iworked for a community action agency that housed a homeless
shelter for women and children. The shelter was a two-story neighborhood house
with 610 tenants at a given time. The shelter was more than just a place to live,
as it was designed to provide opportunities for the tenants to increase their capac-
ity while living there. As a case manager, Iwas responsible for safety and enforc-
ing house rules, but through many conversations with the tenants Istarted making
some organizational changes (with the support of my supervisor). For instance,
I developed a new intake procedure for safety that included background checks,
and Iencouraged a former methamphetamine addict to share her story with service
providers in the area, which served to educate them about drug testing, treatment
options, and the personal struggles an addict can face. In conversing with one of my
professors during my work-study job, she asked, Have you ever heard of commu-
nity psychology? Based on your work at the shelter Ithink you would be interested.
I will never forget that, because it turned out to be a very pivotal statement. Ihad
not heard of community psychology, so with some tips from my professor, Istarted
looking into the field. It was not long after that Iknew it was for me. Iliked that the
92

Suppor ting Communit y A g encie s :Non -A cad e mi c S id e o f Unive rs i t y 93
field of community psychology offered the opportunity to work at an organizational

rather than an individual level, and Iloved the idea of training agencies and using
research to improve services in the community.
My Graduate School Experience

I wanted to pursue a community psychology degree, and after looking into a few
programs and applying, I chose (and was accepted to) Wichita State University.
Iwas drawn to this institution because of the research and work the professors were
doing with community agencies related to various topics, from working with the
Humane Society, nursing home residents, or self-help groups, to addressing health
disparities, organizational capacity-building, and mental illness. In addition, there
was an agency housed on campus called the Self-Help Network that often worked
with nonprofit agencies around the state of Kansas. The doctorate programs in the
psychology department at Wichita State University included both Human Factors
and Clinical/Community Psychology, the latter of which eventually split to become
two separate programs.
I initially completed courses that were in four core areas of study:social/devel-
opmental, cognition/learning, personality/individual differences, and biological
bases of behavior. Ifound these core areas gave me a solid background in theory and
research. Other classes helped to hone my skills in research methodology, survey/
questionnaire development, and prevention research.
In addition to coursework, Ichose to work with Dr.Greg Meissen as my advisor
at the Self-Help Network. Ibecame interested in the topic of mental health, and my
masters thesis and dissertation involved conducting research on the scope, organi-
zational climate, and effectiveness of consumer-run organizations or CROs. CROs
are nonprofits run by people diagnosed with severe and persistent mental illness.
These organizations provide group opportunities, such as self-help groups, book
clubs, cooking classes, fishing clubs, and other skill-or activity-based groups. They
also provide employment and skill-building opportunities, in addition to a welcom-
ing place run by and for mental health consumers as opposed to a more treatment-
centered operation.
During my time in graduate school, the Self-Help Network became the Center
for Community Support and Research (CCSR), and it acquired new and continu-
ing grants on various topics. While my primary work was with CROs, Ialso worked
on other projects at the Center. Ilearned about and developed skills in several areas
as a result. As a student, Ifound that my course material was often interwoven with
my work at the Center. For example, when learning about survey-question develop-
ment in class, Iwas able to apply that knowledge to develop an actual survey used
for a local nonprofit agency, including the pros and cons of wording, length, and
type of distribution (mail, email, and so on). It was very powerful to see that what

Iwas learning applied to real world situations and Ifelt this increased my learning
and retention of information overtime.
A Description ofTwo University Centers

The Center forCommunity Support and Research
atWichita State University
The Self-Help Network changed its name to CCSR because the staff felt that the
scope of the Centers work went above and beyond involvement with self-help
groups. While the work with self-help groups continues to this day, CCSR also col-
laborates with nonprofit agencies in multiple areas (domestic violence, leadership,
health, and more) and conducts research from federally-funded NIH grants to city-
based local studies. CCSR is a training and technical assistance provider as well as a
research organization.
CCSR provides training and technical assistance to nonprofit organizations
around the state of Kansas, including capacity-building workshops. Ioften assisted
in developing and delivering these workshops, which addressed topics such as
applying for 501(c)(3) nonprofit status with the IRS; leadership sustainability;
developing, collecting, and using satisfaction surveys to improve service delivery;
and strategic planning. These workshops afforded me a wealth of knowledge about
organizational structure, challenges, and climate when working in a grant-funded
and/or nonprofit organization. I was fortunate as a graduate student to develop
leadership skills as well as methods of training nonprofit organizations on various
processes that could make their work more effective.
Through the research aspect of the grant-funded projects, CCSR developed and
tested best practices for projects and used this knowledge when training nonprofit
organizations. It was a cyclical process that encouraged continuous quality improve-
ment and evidence-based work over time. For some projects, CCSR was developing
new programs and then testing the pros and cons of each approach. For example,
during my time with the agency we developed a class to train mental health consum-
ers to become certified peer specialists, which is similar to a peer counselor. Through
the course of developing and delivering the program, we conducted pre/post sur-
veys and reported on, for example, the employability, job satisfaction, and workplace
integration experienced by the participants. As is the case with most students in a
doctoral program, we were often writing publications on this work. It helped me real-
ize the importance of disseminating the results in the community. Publications were
also beneficial for CCSR as a business. Disseminating our work often brought in new
jobs, such as training others how to replicate successful programs.
As a grant-funded agency, I was often involved in proposal writing at CCSR.
CCSR generally took a team approach to grant writing, which Ifound to be highly
beneficial, as it maximized the skills of each individual through a collective process.

For instance, we often had several content writers for the narrative, a financial writer
for the budget, and a grant-writing specialist who would ensure we were meeting
the formatting and other requirements. Through regular meetings, the team would
collectively pull together a full proposal. As a graduate student, Ihad the opportu-
nity to practice the grant-writing skills learned in my classes by consulting with each
expert individually and at the teamlevel.
The Center forPrevention Research and Development

atthe University ofIllinois atUrbana-Champaign
My first job after graduate school, and where I still work, is at the Center for
Prevention Research and Development (CPRD) at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign as a research program coordinator. Idiscovered that CPRD has
as many similarities as differences when compared with CCSR in Kansas. One dif-
ference is that all of the programs at CPRD are prevention-focused, whereas CCSR
had a variety of approaches (i.e., support groups). As a result, many of CPRDs pro-
grams target youth instead of adults. Asimilarity is that they both work on a variety
of topics, CPRD addresses topics such as prevention of substance use, teen preg-
nancy and STI/HIV prevention, early childhood development, and building youth
leadership skills. CPRD is often a subcontracted partner with state-level agencies
such as the Illinois Department of Human Services (IDHS).
CPRD has a program-evaluation focus, and a separate agency named Prevention
First provides both the training and the technical assistance necessary for imple-
menting programs to state-funded agencies, as opposed to a single agency providing
both. Prevention First trains agencies on processes that are often required for state-
funding with IDHS, such as developing a coalition in their community and con-
ducting strategic planning consisting of five steps (needs and resources assessment,
planning, capacity building, implementation, and evaluation). By contrast, CPRD
often provides training directly related to the evaluation of the program, such as
data collecting and reporting.
CPRD works to gather data from multiple agencies around the state of Illinois
and reports this information to both the state and federal funders of various proj-
ects. The data are used to monitor and track the performance of programs and to
provide technical assistance and training referrals to Prevention First, as well as
to evaluate outcomes/impacts of the program over time. Often, CPRD develops
online reporting systems to collect data from agencies around the state and aggre-
gate those data for reporting. CPRD is responsible for training agencies about the
evaluation of the funded programs, including reporting requirements, how to use
online data collection systems, and how to use the data for program planning and
continuous quality improvement.
As the evaluator for several youth-oriented programs, CPRD has a focus on data
collected from youth. One of the projects at CPRD is the Illinois Youth Survey,

which is collected from youth in schools. The Illinois Youth Survey assesses behav-
ioral health topics like bullying, nutrition, and substance use. This survey was
developed, tested, and improved through years of surveying, and it continues to
be improved over time. For instance, as prescription drug misuse has become more
widespread, questions about prescription drug use and perceptions have been
added. CPRD develops, distributes, analyzes, and reports the Illinois Youth Survey
statewide every other year. Since funding for community-based agencies usually
includes a need to have local data, these agencies work to recruit schools to partici-
pate in the Illinois Youth Survey. To assist with this, CPRD provides several train-
ings around recruitment tips, the benefits of the data to the community, and how
to administer the survey. So, as you can see, even though CPRD is not necessarily
a training and technical assistance agency, there is still a need to have skills related
to developing and implementing trainings when working in community practice.
Another aspect that is usually included in a practice career is working with
data. CPRD conducts all analyses and develops reports for the Illinois Youth
Survey, including a statewide report from a random sample of schools, Chicago
Community Area reports, county, district, and school-level reports. The Illinois
Youth Survey serves multiple purposes at the community-level. One benefit of hav-
ing local data is the extent to which this data can bring more funding (and therefore,
more programs and services) to a community. The data can be used to target areas
with high need by funders and then track the success of the programs implemented
over time. An example would be tracking the 30day use rate for underage drinking
before and after implementing evidence-based strategies targeting alcohol use in
teens. Communities can use the data to compare their rates with surrounding areas
and the state as well for planning and continuous quality improvement. Without
using a data-driven approach to implementing community programs, many agen-
cies would not be able to demonstrate their need for interventions or success over
time to future potential funding agencies.
A third aspect that is usually involved in community practice work is disseminat-
ing information. In community psychology, we are often taught about giving away
community psychology to those we work with in communities as well as our col-
leagues. Ilearned about this concept in the first classItook in graduate school. Ihave
the opportunity to network and share ideas on behalf of CPRD by regularly attend-
ing professional development conferences (such as the Society for Community
Research and Action) to present our work and the associated results; by attending
project-specific conferences to network with other states who are funded under the
same national initiative; and to continually try to publish and disseminate any sig-
nificant findings from the programs we evaluate.
I have some freedom to choose my role with existing projects in my current posi-
tion as a research program coordinator. Sometimes, Ilead projects by coordinating
staff, data collection and analysis, and being responsible for reports and dissemi-
nation. Ialso play a smaller role in other projects by participating in project team
meetings and assisting the coordinator with various aspects of the project, such as

data analysis and reporting. In the future, Iwill work toward becoming a principal
investigator (PI) on a grant. Being a PI on a grant is a role that many PhDs in practice
hold, as well as professors in academia. API is the responsible party for the entire
grant project, and it is a role that only someone with a doctorate degree canhold.
The Pros and Cons ofWorking withCommunity

Agencies and Coalitions
I find my work with community agencies and coalitions to be very rewarding. I
strongly believe in the concept of giving away community psychology. I practice giv-
ing away my knowledge on a daily basis when I teach agencies about the benefits
of using data-driven approaches, evidence-based programs, and working toward
sustainability over time. It is imperative to teach others these concepts to utilize
resources in the best way possible and to provide positive outcomes for as many
as we can. By training agencies to use data, we are helping to develop and sustain
evidence-based programs over time.
Some of the challenges of working with community agencies and coalitions
are related to the training and technical assistance we provide around data-driven
approaches. For instance, some people see collecting data as extra work and less
important than providing services in their community. We often deal with diffi-
culties trying to change long-standing beliefs and attitudes that differ from what
research has proven to be effective. Finally, we are moving toward a more paper-
less system, and there have been multiple challenges keeping up with new technol-
ogy while also accommodating older technologies in agencies where funding is not
always readily available for upgrades.
Is This Community Psychology?

I often question whether Iwould categorize my work as the work of a community
psychologist. When applying for my job with CPRD, the job posting mentioned com-
munity psychology as one of the degrees that would be considered. However, Iam
the only community psychologist at CPRD. The employees have a wide variety of
backgrounds such as public health, social work, social psychology, health geography,
political science, and community health, to name a few. When Iaccepted the position,
Iasked my director about his familiarity with my field and he knew of it because of
the program that exists at the University of Illinois, which may be one of the benefits
of looking into a university-based center. If Icompare my position with the 18 core
competencies (http://www.scra27.org/what-we-do/practice/18-competencies-
community-psychology-practice/), I believe that I address nearly all the compe-
tencies in my work. Therefore, Ifeel my position closely aligns with what would be
described as community psychology practice. Ive provided examples in Table8.1.

Table8.1Linkages betweencommunity psychology core competencies and how

they are addressed inmy currentrole
Community Psychology Core How it is Addressed in My Current Role
Competencies
Ecological Perspectives Addressed through working in multiple
communities
Empowerment Addressed through training agencies/
coalitions
Sociocultural and Cross-Cultural Addressed through every aspect of working
Competence with diverse communities
Community Inclusion and Partnership Community coalitions Iwork with include
many partnerships
Ethical, Reflective Practice This is part of my daily work and includes
regular trainings throughout the year
Program Development, Implementation This is the work being carried out by
and Management agencies/coalitions that Itrain and assist
Prevention and Health Promotion Addressed in every project Iwork on
Community Leadership and Mentoring Addressed through my work with
community coalitions
Small & Large Group Processes Addressed through training agencies/
coalitions
Resource Development Addressed through training agencies/
coalitions
Consultation and Organizational Addressed through training of staff at
Development agencies
Collaboration & Coalition Development Requirement of funding for agencies Iwork
with, all of my projects use coalitions
Community Development This is a coalition initiative for agencies
Iwork with
Community Organizing and Community This is a coalition initiative for agencies
Advocacy Iwork with
Policy Analysis/Development This is a coalition initiative for agencies
Iwork with
Community Education, Information Ongoing through my work with coalitions,
Dissemination, and Building Public attending conferences and publications
Awareness
Participatory Community Research Addressed through training and technical
assistance with agencies
Program Evaluation Addressed in every project Iwork on

Valuable Things IDid inGraduate School and What

IWish IHad Learned
Overall, Ifelt that my graduate school training prepared me for a career in com-
munity psychology very well. Some of the most valuable aspects of graduate school
were working in a live agency, working with multiple nonprofit agencies in the com-
munity, and learning about survey research methods in community-based settings.
Without that experience, Ithink Iwould have missed out on addressing many of
the competencies of community psychology. While most elements were addressed
through coursework and completing a dissertation, Ifelt that it was very important
to my future success to be able to experience the climate and be immersed in the
functioning of an actual community research center. My experiences conducting
survey research in class and at CCSR were also incredibly valuable. Many times in
behavioral health research (public health, prevention, and so on), survey research
is used to assess the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of consumers. Finally, writing
grants for CCSR and in class, writing actual state and federal reports at CCSR, and
writing publications through my thesis and work at CCSR were absolutely essential.
Ibelieve that disseminating (giving away) information about our work is a key trait
of any community psychologist.
While my graduate experience was very successful in preparing me for a career,
there were some things missing when Ijoined the workforce. As technology pro-
gresses rapidly, the need for skills related to database development, online reporting
systems, and effective and efficient ways to collect and evaluate data over time has
become very important in community-based work. During my first year on the job,
and in all subsequent years, the ability to develop clear, concise, and comprehensive
ways of collecting information online from agencies has been a consistent part of
my regularwork.
The second thing that Iwas missing when Ientered the workforce was an under-
standing of the role that politics can play in federal and state funded research. Ithink
the most prominent example that comes to mind is the difference between teen
pregnancy prevention programs under the Bush administration versus the Obama
administration. Under the Bush administration, primarily abstinence-only pro-
grams were funded, whereas more recently programs will only be funded if they
include both abstinence and contraception information. However, this type of
information may be something that is learned with experience overtime.
Advice forSomeone Who Wants a CP PracticeJob

As someone who has been out of graduate school for several years, Iwas thinking
of advice Iwould give to someone in graduate school who, like me, wants to pursue

working in practice rather than academia. My experience in trying to find a job after
graduate school was an interesting one. Ifelt like Ialmost needed practice in that
area before Istarted finding positions that fit what Iwanted to do. Imost commonly
used the American Evaluation Associations website which contains several job list-
ings. Ialso tried Idealist.org, USAJOBS.com, and Indeed.com. Iused several dif-
ferent search terms, including program evaluation, community evaluation, program
manager, psychology research, community research, and other variations. Sometimes
Ifound it easier to search for locations where Imight want to work and then see if
they had openings. Since Ihad experience with a university-based center, Iwould
often see if the universities Iwas familiar with had a community psychology pro-
gram or university-based research center.
I think one thing that really helped me obtain my first job was that Icould offer
examples of the experience Ihad. Employers are often hesitant about hiring some-
one directly out of school, but when Iwas interviewing Icould honestly say that
Ihad experience working with agencies, writing grants and reports, and working on
a project team. Even if you dont have the opportunity to work in a center that has
actual grant-funded programs, students often get experience in these areas through
working on their thesis or dissertation with their advisor and/or practicum work.
I felt like my qualifications were good, but emphasizing my experience was the
sellingpoint.
I will end my chapter by saying that regardless of the position after graduate
school, community psychology has benefits for multiple sectors of the working
world. The competencies developed through graduate training address topics that
are important to any social service agency, social service research center, program
manager, or government position. The flexibility and diversity of community psy-
chology allows the freedom for those in this profession to apply their skills in a
variety of settings, which provides ample opportunities in the workingworld.

Putting Your Training toWork

Finding a PracticeJob
Sharon Johnson-H akim and AshleyBoal
The search for a community practice-oriented job can be at once exciting and
overwhelming, especially if it is your first job out of graduate school. Because the
skill set and perspective of a community psychologist can be applied in a growing
number of applied settings, the largest challenge is not finding job opportunities
outside of academia, but rather selling yourself in a noncommunity psychology
world. Creativity and flexibility during the job search will prove to be valuable in
identifying organizations and positions with roles that can be filled successfully by
community psychologists. After identifying organizations and positions that align
with your interests, it is vital to translate your competencies, experience, and values
to match the job description and organization, and to demonstrate your ability to
work with colleagues from different backgrounds. This chapter highlights aspects of
the job search that are unique for practice (in contrast to academic) jobs, with the
goal of serving as a resource for individuals as they begin to think about potential
careers in community psychology practice.
Who AreWe?
Before we lead you through the nuanced journey of finding, applying for, and
landing a practice job within the field of community psychology, we (the chapter
authors) would like to introduce ourselves. We hope that sharing our backgrounds
will help in describing our unique perspectives and aid in your understanding of
how our experiences as community psychology practitioners in an applied job mar-
ket shape our advice.
Sharon Johnson-Hakim (PhD in Community Psychology, 2013). To understand
my job search, it is important to first understand how Ifound the field of community
psychology. Although Iwas a psychology major as an undergraduate student, Iwas
101

not introduced to community psychology. Instead, Ifound the field quite serendipi-
tously. After graduation with my bachelors degree, Ijoined the Peace Corps, and, as
a volunteer in the Republic of Moldova, Istumbled upon a few web-based articles on
community mapping, asset development, and empowerment approaches to youth
development that Iused in my community-based work. Curious as to where these
resources were coming from, Idiscovered the Society for Community Research and
Action (SCRA; Division 27 of the American Psychological Association, and the
home for community psychology).
Because Ifound community psychology while Iwas practicing, Ialways knew
Iwould return to the community-based work. After all, thats the reason Iwent
back to get my PhDto enhance my ability to be an asset to communities as they
address issues of shared concern. After the completion of my Peace Corps service,
Iapplied to graduate schools in community psychology and decided on the PhD
program at Wichita State University because of its emphasis on community-based
experiences and applied research, as well as its track record for having graduates
placed in practice jobs and its positive connections with community organizations
in thecity.
At Wichita State, through my practicum experience with the Wichita Health and
Wellness Coalition, Ideveloped an interest in community health, specifically the
impact of place, through tenants of the built environment and established behavior
settings, on individual health behaviorsfor better or for worse. My skill set grew
as Idove into this work, including my ability to collect community or systems-level
data (e.g., conducting a community food assessment), and translate that into usable
information for decision makers who were not themselves researchers. My dis-
sertation research combined community psychology with principles of judgment
and decision-making (borrowed from my cognitive psychology counterparts) to
help design a school cafeteria setting that would make the healthy choice, the easy
choice, for the hundreds of kids eating inside its walls everyday.
I started my job search while completing data analysis for my dissertation (about
nine months before graduating). Luckily (and unluckily) Iwas wide open to both
the type and geographic location of my employment after graduation. Without
any real limits, my job search took me all over the country, and my imagination ran
wildI could see myself doing a wide variety of things, for a lot of different orga-
nizations, and being happy. Unlike Ashley who was interested in the application
of specific skills, and whose journey you will read about next, Iwas committed to
working on a specific issue:community health and wellness. My biggest challenge,
however, was timing the search. Often Iwould discover an organization whose mis-
sion Isupported, with a work plan that complemented my dissertation research, but
that was either not hiring or else needed someone immediately. Iwas determined
to work for an organization that would value me as a community psychologist. The
only other condition Ihad was that Iwanted a job that would allow me to spend
a certain portion of my time in the community. My main resources for locating a

P utting Your Training to Work :Finding a P rac ti c e Job 103
practice job were USAJOBS (http://www.usajobs.gov), Idealist (http://www.ide-

alist.org), and various listservs and professional websites.
I ended up accepting a postdoctoral position at Atlantic Health System in
Morristown, New Jersey. It was a unique situation, since Atlantic Health is an orga-
nization that Ihad worked for before as a practicum student, and my direct boss
there identifies as a community psychologist. As a health system, Atlantic Health
has a progressive view of health, recognizing it as more than the absence of illness
and injury, and sees health care as more than what happens inside their walls. This is
reflected in their vision statement, empowering our communities to be the healthi-
est in the nation. My current position is a one-year training position dedicated to
leadership development and expanding my ability to apply community psychology
competencies in a real-world setting. My responsibilities include working with the
hospital-based community health staff in designing and implementing evidence-
based health promotion and prevention programs, helping the hospital carry out its
community-needs assessment requirements, and conducting applied research that
contributes to the organizations vision.
Ashley Boal (PhD in Applied Psychology, 2013). My interest in the world of
community psychology began late in my undergraduate career as Iwas researching
graduate programs in various areas of psychology. While my undergraduate train-
ing did not formally include community psychology, the research team Itook part
in was heavily focused on addressing systemic and relational problems for margin-
alized populations. As Ireviewed potential programs, Iwas surprised to find that
many doctoral programs in psychology did not focus on training students to col-
lect data in the real world to address real-world, systemic problems. Ibegan to seek
out graduate programs that focused on research conducted in communities to serve
communities. This led me to discovering the field of community psychology, and
then applying to various graduate programs across the country, and ultimately join-
ing the Applied Social and Community Psychology track of the Applied Psychology
doctoral program at Portland State University.
Early in my graduate career, I became interested in utilizing my training in a
practice-based setting rather than an academic venue. This seemed like a natural
choice given my long-standing interest in staying connected to the individuals and
communities taking part in research, as well as my budding interest in the inter-
section of research and policy. While academia would allow me to pursue these
interests, it seemed a practice career would provide greater opportunities to be
responsive to the needs of the community and explore more varied content areas.
In order to explore the diverse options available in the practice world, Icompleted
three practice-oriented internships during my tenure as a graduate student.
The internships I took on during graduate school spanned diverse settings
including a for-profit evaluation firm, a nonprofit think tank and research organ-
ization, and the policy division at a professional organization for psychologists.
First, Iworked as a research associate intern at RMC Research Corporation which

provided exposure to the field of evaluation, allowed the opportunity to acquire

new analysis and writing skills, and introduced me to mentors in the fields of evalua-
tion and community psychology. Second, Iworked as a summer associate, and sub-
sequently an adjunct researcher, at RAND Corporation, which allowed me to apply
advanced statistical techniques learned through coursework to real-world data.
Additionally, this internship program provided professional development oppor-
tunities and access to leaders in diverse fields. Finally, Iworked as a public inter-
est government relations intern at the American Psychological Association (APA).
This internship allowed me to move away from my previous focus on research meth-
odology and analysis and instead become more acquainted with the intersection
of psychology and public policy. These internships were hugely influential in help-
ing me recognize my interest in varied content areas, explore different settings and
organizational climates, and solidify and expand my knowledge of research meth-
odology and analysisan area of interest that has persisted and became a priority
when searching for jobs. Perhaps most importantly, these internships provided me
with mentorship and career development from individuals who were well versed in
conducting community-based research.
The culmination of these experiences positioned me to seek a career that incor-
porated my skills in evaluation, research methodology, and analysis, and that had
direct implications for practice and policy; it also left me with a well-established
professional network. While Isought a position that would utilize these skills, Iwas
less concerned about finding a position that focused on any specific content area.
My academic and internship experiences had spanned diverse content areas includ-
ing intimate partner violence intervention, school-wide interventions for child-
hood obesity, posttraumatic stress disorder among military service members, and
smoking cessation. Thus, as the search for a permanent position began, Ifocused on
the types of tasks that Iwould like to do in my job rather than the specific content
area that would be the focus of the work. While this was the case, Isought a position
that would allow me to continue conducting research that was intended to impact
systems and improve communities.
During my final year of graduate school, I was working on my dissertation
remotely while completing an internship. This created a unique situation where
I had some flexibility when I was able to begin a permanent position given that
Iwas already away from school. Iwas willing to begin working prior to complet-
ing my degree or wait until after my dissertation was completed, depending on the
opportunities available. Ibegan searching for a job approximately six months before
my earliest possible defense date. Over the course of those six months, Iapplied for
nearly 20 full-time positions in four states. These positions spanned diverse content
areas and settings, including federal government, county government, nonprofit
evaluation companies, for-profit evaluation companies, and research centers at aca-
demic institutions.

Ultimately, I was offered three positions and selected the position that best
suited my personal and career objectives. Currently, Iam a research associate in the
evaluation research program at WestEd, a nonprofit education evaluation organi-
zation that seeks to improve education and promote the success of learners. In this
position Iam able to contribute to projects related to diverse topics and apply my
expertise to varied aspects of the research process. This includes study design and
data collection, though much of my work focuses on applying diverse methodolog-
ical and analysis techniques to better understand the impact of various education
interventions. This position began one month prior to the completion of my doc-
toral degree and the organization allowed me to work part time until my disserta-
tion defense was complete.
Learning From Experience

As you can see, while we were both interested in community psychology practice
positions, our approach to identifying the right job was somewhat different. Sharon
focused on identifying organizations and positions with a strong connection to her
content area of interest, community health. This led her to a postdoctoral position at
an organization with an explicit value for the field of community psychology. Ashley
sought a position that allowed her to focus on the research process, especially in the
areas of research methodology and analysis, and was less concerned about the con-
tent area of the organization as long as there was a strong focus on serving the needs
of the community in which it was situated. This led her to a nonprofit organization
that seeks to improve education for all learners and a position that allows her to
participate in diverse projects completing varied tasks. While there are differences
in our experiences, there are also similarities.
Our knowledge of the application process is based on applying for our first
full-time community psychology practice positions outside of graduate school.
Additionally, we were both willing to relocate for the right position, which intro-
duced greater flexibility in our search. With these backgrounds, we aim to share the
knowledge we gained while going through the job application process for a com-
munity psychology Practice position in hopes that these tips and experiences will
make the process smoother for others seeking a practice career.
What Is a Community Psychology PracticeJob?

One of the wonderful aspects of electing to have a career in community psychology
practice is that there are many possible work settings open to you; on the other hand,
one of the most challenging aspects of electing to have a practice career is that, more
often than not, you will not find job advertisements stating Wanted:Community

Psychology Practitioner. Choosing to have a practice job will often mean choosing
not to lead with the title community psychologist, but instead lead with the skills,
competencies, and perspectives you can offer a potential employer.
Community psychologists can practice in nonprofit organizations, community-
based agencies, research organizations, hospitals, think tanks, local and national
government, foundations, for-profit companies, or as consultants. These organiza-
tions can be large or small, and your job will likely look very different depending
on the characteristics of your employer. What makes a job a practice job then, is
not who the employer is or what the work setting looks like, but rather your use of
the community psychology competencies for practice in your everyday work, toward
an organizational goal that is in alignment with the fields mission and vision. The
eighteen competencies for community psychology practice (Dalton & Wolff,
2012)provide a useful framework for understanding what practicing community
psychology lookslike.
Not every job will require you to utilize all of the 18 competencies, of course, and
these competencies will likely look different when applied in different situations to
different issues. For example, cultural competence will look quite different if your job
allows you to work in the community, directly and with a wide and diverse range of
community stakeholders, versus a job which has you housed inside a larger organi-
zation, doing indirect work influencing the policies and the procedures of the orga-
nization as it relates to consumers of different ethnic and language backgrounds. As
long as both jobs value your ability to act in a way that is culturally competent, they
are both community psychology practice jobs, even though on the surface, they
look very different.
In determining if a job is a practice job, it is important to identify concrete skills
necessary to complete the job, as well as the mission of the employer as a whole.
Begin by looking at the skills necessary, including specific methodological and ana-
lytic skills, data management skills, familiarity with statistical programs, evaluation
competencies, project management techniques, a focus on prevention and inter-
vention, as well as an emphasis on systems level change and an awareness of how
individuals function as part of systems. Another good place to start would be to
compare the 18 competencies for practice with the job description and see if they
match up. However, in determining whether a job deserves the label of commu-
nity psychology practice job, it is also important to go beyond the concrete skills,
competencies, and experiences required, and determine whether your perspectives
and values as a community psychologist will be welcome, and will help advance the
mission of the organization. Agood way to do this is to look at the organizations
mission and vision, read reviews of their work, and if possible, look at the back-
grounds of others you will be working with; is the mission and vision something
you would be happy to support as a community psychologist? If so, youve likely
found a practicejob.

Where toFindJobs
The field of community psychology is uniquely positioned to be both useful and rel-
evant in addressing social problems across diverse settings and content areas. Given
the versatility of a background in community psychology, searching for a job can
become quite complex. In contrast to professions that have standardized titles for
the skills required by the position (e.g., clinical psychologist or English teacher),
the skills and knowledge that community psychologists encompass may be compat-
ible with many types of positions labeled differently across fields and organizations.
Thus, it is important to have an open mind when initiating a search for a practice
job in community psychology. Positions that would be well-suited for a commu-
nity psychologist may not be immediately apparent with a simple job search for
community psychology. Instead, applying creativity to the job search will boost
the number of potential jobs identified and ensure the positions are suited for the
background of a community psychologist. Several tips for identifying applied posi-
tions related to community psychology follow.
Cast a Broad Net; Search Multiple Disciplines

When searching for jobs it is important to be open to positions located within
diverse fields. While positions explicitly seeking a community psychologist do
exist, exclusively searching for jobs situated in the field of community psychology
will be limiting. Some fields that may be valuable to explore include public health
(e.g., local, state, or federal public health agency; for-profit or nonprofit public
health research company), education (e.g., public school system), criminal justice
(e.g., corrections agency), evaluation (e.g., social serviceoriented research firms),
social services (e.g., nonprofits and service delivery organizations), and mental
health (e.g., advocacy or direct service agency). Universities are an additional place
to look that might not be obvious to those interested in applied jobs. Many universi-
ties have research or content specific centers that function as would a non-academic
organization. Additionally, some postdoctoral fellowships are intended to provide
preparation for applied careers. Thus, just because a position is located in an unfa-
miliar field or an academic setting, do not discount its potential.
Use Online Resources:Job Posting Boards and Listservs

The easiest way to begin the search for a community psychology practice position
is to utilize career resources offered by organizations that have some overlap with
the field of Community Psychology. Job positing boards hosted by professional
organizations such as the American Psychological Association (APA), American
Evaluation Association (AEA), and the American Public Health Association

(APHA) are valuable resources that have job listings across the United States and
internationally. Similarly, many local divisions of these professional organizations
have job posting resources relevant to specific geographic areas. Listservs hosted
by APA divisions (including the Society for Community Research and Action),
Community- Based Participatory Research Jobs (hosted by the University of
Washington), and local or university organizations can also provide connections
to current job opportunities. Additionally, job search sites such as Idealist (http://
www.idealist.org) and USAJOBS (http://www.usajobs.gov) are useful when can-
vassing a wide array of organizations for open positions.
Keep anOpen Mind:Job Titles and Required Education

When looking for jobs across diverse fields and organizations, job titles will vary.
Job titles that often correspond to careers suited for a community psychology prac-
titioner include research analyst, research associate, program manager, project man-
ager, director, and evaluation specialist, though many other titles could be used.
Given the variation in position titles, be sure to review job descriptions in detail
to gauge fit rather than relying on the title as the primary indicator of fit. When
determining fit, it is likely that individuals with PhDs may find interesting positions
that only require a masters degree, and individuals with a masters degree may find
interesting positions that only require a bachelors degree. Many organizations list
the lowest level of education required and are open to or actively seeking applicants
with education beyond what is listed. Further, those early in their careers may ben-
efit from having received education beyond what is required in order to counteract
relatively limited work experience.
Identify Organizations First, Specific PositionsSecond

While identifying open positions using job ads is an important first step in finding
potential positions, other avenues may lead to job opportunities that are not posted
on typical job ad resources. One way to identify potential positions is to locate organ-
izations first and positions second. When beginning the job search, brainstorm organ-
izations that work in areas of interest, even if they do not have a focus that directly
aligns with your area of expertise. It is possible that while the overall organizational
focus differs from what would provide good fit, some portions of the organization
may be better aligned. For example, some organizations that focus primarily on advo-
cacy, policy, or direct service also have a research and evaluation division, or staff
members dedicated to research and evaluation tasks, and vice versa. It is worthwhile
to explore organizations of interest to determine whether there may be a potential
position somewhere in the organization. An additional tactic for identifying organi-
zations that may be a good fit is to look in places related to your dissertation, thesis,
or other research. For instance, if your thesis or dissertation focused on a community

psychology construct in the context of public schools, it may be valuable to explore

career options in the context of the public school system.
Cultivate and Utilize Professional Networks

These job search strategies are useful in identifying interesting organizations and
the breadth of available positions, but perhaps the most useful job search strategy
is networking and talking to veteran practitioners in the field. The entrepreneurial
and business aspects of practice careers make connecting to the right people and
enabling them to vouch for your skills and expertise immensely valuable. In order
to develop a professional network to draw on during the job search, it is important
that time and effort to build relationships is undertaken early on. This can be done
in many different ways but some options include taking on internships throughout
graduate school to gain exposure to different non-academic settings and to individ-
uals who work in those settings, setting up informational interviews to learn more
about various organizations, and talking with graduate advisors to learn more about
who they are connected with in the applied world that might be able to give advice.
Another valuable tool is for students who want to be community psychology prac-
titioners to make at least one connection with a well-established practitioner who
can serve as a mentor for your job search. Building these relationships throughout
graduate school will provide a rich network of mentors that can provide guidance
and serve as references of personal capabilities in a practice setting. Additionally,
building these networks may provide insight into job opportunities that are in
development.
Timing ofJobSearch
Fortunately or unfortunately, the timing of the practice job search is different than
the timing of a traditional academic job search. This difference is especially salient
as you are looking for your first job out of graduate school; classmates pursuing an
academic career will be perusing and applying to numerous job openings posted
as early as September of the year before you graduate. While the academic mar-
ket is on a fairly fixed schedule for advertising, interviewing, and hiring candidates,
applied jobs can open up at any time. The organizations that usually employ com-
munity psychology practitioners will only post jobs when they have an immediate
hiring need. Organizations will also vary greatly on the amount of time that their
interviewing and hiring process takes; some may be willing and ready to hire a can-
didate within weeks of posting a job, others may require a lengthy interview process
and/or extensive background checks.
In general this means that if you are interested in applying to a practice job, it is
wise to wait until you are closer to graduating (one to three months away) before

applying, a delay that can oftentimes be nerve-racking. However, there are things
you can do beforehand that will streamline your application process when the time
is right. These include creating a list of organizations with which you would like
to work and preparing examples of your work to share (e.g., reports, articles, suc-
cessful projects, a list of references, and so on). Spend time on your references, as
the role they will have to play in your job application process, including serving as
a phone reference or writing a letter of recommendation, will likely look different
than it would if they were recommending you for an academic job. Different skills
and attributes will need to be stressed and conveyed. Because the community psy-
chology practitioner community is rather small and tight-knit, it is worthwhile to do
a series of informational interviews to understand other practitioners career paths
and what their daily lives looklike.
Depending on where you are in your degree completion timeline, a company
or organization may be willing to hire you before you finish your degree as long
as there is a clear point for completion (as was the situation with Ashley, one of
the chapter authors). Often this claim can be substantiated by a letter from your
advisor or department chair; however, beware, as the applied world might not place
as much importance on your degree conferment as the academic world. It is not
uncommon for all but dissertation students who take applied jobs to never return
to complete their degrees. If you see an opening for a job that seems to fit your
interests and qualifications, however, even if the timing isnt ideal, it may be worth
an email or phone call of inquiry to the organization.
There are, however, important outliers to the general timing of a practice job
search. These include government and overseas positions. While applied organi-
zations tend to have a relatively quick hiring timeline, government, especially the
federal government, can move slowly. It is not uncommon for it to take months
in between application submission and final decisions. If you are interested in a
government job, it is wise to apply months in advance of when you would like to
start. Overseas organizations, such as foundations, aid organizations, or the United
Nations often require extensive background checks, and they build in time for
potential employees to complete their business in the United States and attend one
or more training or cultural immersion classes, before relocating abroad.
Getting theJob
After identifying potential job opportunities, the next step is demonstrating you
have the skills and expertise necessary to be successful in the position at hand.
This is typically done through application materials, which may include a resume,
curriculum vitae, cover letter, and professional references. As a job applicant it is
important to showcase your ability to acquire and apply skills in the real world. One
task that is often associated with getting the job is explaining exactly what a degree

in community psychology entails. Oftentimes the lack of a brand identity in the

field forces community psychologists, and practitioners especially, to be chameleons,
borrowing others identities both in the job search and once youve landed a job. In
general, this strategy has its benefits as well as its drawbacks. Showing your simi-
larities with other fields, such as nonprofit management or public health, can help
potential employers understand how your background, skills, and experience fits
with their company. Having the opportunity to translate the skills and expertise of
a community psychologist may be a valuable undertaking as descriptions of your
training and expertise can be adapted to suit the position at hand, making it easier to
demonstrate how the background of a community psychologist is directly relevant
to the needs of the organization. Conversely, general lack of knowledge may pres-
ent challenges in ensuring a potential employer understands the distinctive value of
a community psychologist. Further, equating your skills and expertise to those of
other fields can backfire, not only for you, but for the field in general as it propagates
the invisibility of the field, and might limit the tools that an employer expects you
touse.
Translating Skills tothe RealWorld

To convey the breadth and depth of training as a new community psychologist,
numerous steps can be taken. First, because a vast amount of training and experi-
ence is likely from graduate school, the ability to translate experiences in graduate
school into concrete skills and competencies that are desired in the workplace is
vital. Focus on identifying skills obtained in school and describing how those skills
have or can be extended to the real world. Highlight the skills required for the job
and how the training you have received has provided preparation to be successful in
acquiring and applying those skills. For example, graduate school may have devel-
oped your ability to think critically, write for diverse audiences, understand the con-
textual nature of varied issues, assess the validity of research, and so on. These global
skills may have concrete applications to the demands of a given job. When possible,
provide specific references to organizations where you have gained real-world expe-
rience in order to highlight your ability to apply knowledge outside of an academic
setting. These real-world experiences may include projects completed as part of a
course requiring interaction with the community, internships, specialized trainings,
or volunteer experiences. Doing this demonstrates your experience moving beyond
a theoretical understanding of an issue and your ability to overcome the challenges
of conducting research or advocacy work in real-world settings.
In addition to discussing how skills acquired in graduate school relate to the real
world, it is also valuable to highlight the transferability of your expertise. Identify
connections between the work you have completed and the requirements of the
position. Concepts in community psychology can be utilized across many topic
areas to address diverse questions. For example, constructs such as empowerment,

prevention, systems change, and social justice can be applied broadly. Thus, empha-
size ways in which your expertise in community psychology connects to the current
position.
Preparing Application Materials

After reflecting on your academic training, real-world experiences, and areas of
transferability that could be highlighted in your application materials, the prepa-
ration of different types of materials may be necessary. While an academic posi-
tion likely requires a curriculum vitae (CV), practice jobs may request a resume,
a CV, or both. While CVs tend to be very similar for academic and practice posi-
tions, as they list a breadth of experiences, resumes are quite different. Resumes
should be a brief and targeted depiction of your most relevant experiences that
demonstrate your qualifications for the position. While there is no universal rule
regarding the length of a resume, most sources recommend a resume be limited
to one to two pages in length. Because a resume should be brief and targeted, it
must be adapted for each specific position. It can be difficult to develop a resume,
especially when there are numerous relevant experiences to showcase to potential
employers. One suggestion for developing a resume is to use the following itera-
tive approach.
1. Develop a Curriculum Vitae(CV).

Prior to developing a resume, it is helpful to create a CV. ACV is a
comprehensive account of every relevant training and expertise-building
experience. If a CV is not already developed, it would be wise to develop
one and have it on file to guide the development of subsequent resumes.
The CV should include all academic experiences, practice experiences,
volunteer experiences, awards and honors, publications, non-academic
reports, conference presentations, non-academic presentations, and any
other experiences that describe the depth and breadth of your training
and work experiences. From the CV, a tailored resume can more easily be
developed.
2. Identify experiences that are highly relevant to the job description.
Pinpoint experiences that utilized identical skills, those that took place with
the same population, or those that focused on the same content area as the
position at hand. This will narrow down the potential experiences to include
in the resume.
3. Identify experiences that may be viewed as prestigious by the potential employer.
Determine whether any experiences in your CV can be viewed as significant
and esteemed. These may include obtaining a competitive internship or
having acquired funding for a project. Retain these on the list of potential
components of the resume as they demonstrate work that has been regarded
highly by others.

4. Remove duplicative experiences.

Because a resume is concise, it is wise to remove duplicative experiences in
order to allow space to showcase all relevant skills and areas of expertise.
For instance, if several projects were completed within the same population
it may be wise to select the most extensive project or to collapse the
description of these projects into one section and describe it as a multi-
project area of expertise.
This process should aid in developing a comprehensive CV and tailoring it to

a targeted, position-specific resume. The final resume should describe highly rel-
evant experiences for the job at hand, while also highlighting accomplishments and
removing redundancies. The resume should be recreated for each job application as
the area of focus will likelyvary.
In addition to having a tailored resume and well-thought-out cover letter, strong
references are imperative to a competitive application. While those who apply to
academic jobs tend to be focused on a very specific area of study and will likely apply
to academic positions that focus on that area of study, those who apply to practice
jobs may apply to diverse positions at diverse organizations. Given this, it is very
important that references are provided with information about your skills and goals
in relation to each position for which references are requested. When alerting refer-
ences about the recommendation, take time to share any connections between the
position and your prior experiences or areas of expertise that make the position and
organization a potential good fit. Explicitly highlighting these connections will help
your references understand how the position and your previous experiences relate
and make it easier to provide a strong recommendation. Across organizations and
positions, the type of references required will vary. References may be requested
as letters of recommendation or as recommendations over the phone. Some posi-
tions will ask for references in the initial application, while others will only request
references as the application process progresses. Thus, be sure to review the require-
ments of the application to determine the type and timing of required references.
AcceptingaJob
Given the diverse positions in diverse organizations that can be viable careers for
community psychologists, selecting and ultimately accepting a job requires some
evaluation of what different options might entail. Several areas of thought may be
helpful when determining whether a job that has been offered is a good fit, such as
reflecting on the structure of the organization and how the position would function
within the organization.
1. Balance need for academic independence versus company focus. Some positions
may grant a great deal of academic independence, understood as the ability

to manage ones own time, commitments, and research interests, as is typical

with academic positions, while other positions may focus on projects that are
selected by the organization. It is important to identify the extent to which you
desire independence in the projects taken and ensure the job is aligned with
those preferences.
2. Evaluate desire for role flexibility versus stability. Some positions require that staff
follow a project from start to finish with responsibility diffused through each
aspect of the project. Other positions are more task-specific and focus on apply-
ing specialized skills to one particular segment of projects. For example, a proj-
ect manager position may provide oversight throughout a project while a data
analyst position may focus exclusively on data-related tasks. It is useful to know
whether you prefer a specialized or more general role in regards to the research
process and to make sure that the position aligns with those expectations.
Similarly, depending on the organizations structure, the number of projects an
individual is expected to work on may vary substantially. In some organizations
staff will focus on a small number of large projects at any given time, while other
organizations expect that staff will contribute to multiple projects simultane-
ously. Determining whether intensive involvement with a limited number of
projects or lesser involvement with numerous projects is preferred may be help-
ful in determining if the position is a goodfit.
3 . Gain information about common career trajectories. Consider the expected career
trajectory and the experience that will be gained in the particular position and in
the organization. While academic positions tend to have a well-defined system
for career growth, the trajectory of applied positions may not be as easily identi-
fied. Organization size may impact how experience is gained and promotions
attained. For instance, larger organizations may have room for upward growth
over time and more systematic processes for progressing within the organiza-
tion while smaller companies may be more inclined to allow relatively junior
staff to take on increased responsibilities at an earlier stage. Getting a sense of
how the position could evolve over time will aid in determining whether the
anticipated trajectory matches personalgoals.
4 . Strive to stay connected to the field of community psychology wherever your career
choice takes you. Regardless of the position that is ultimately accepted, staying
connected to the field of community psychology will provides the ability to
stay current on trends in the field, maintain and develop relationships with like-
minded colleagues, and provide mentorship to those entering the field so that
they are aware of the applied careers available tothem.

10
Practicing Community Psychology ina

Large Nonprofit Research and
Evaluation Organization
ManolyaTanyu
This chapter describes work life in a large nonprofit research organization and the
competencies and skills that are valued in this type of environment. The first part of
the chapter reflects on how a training in community psychology influences the day-
to-day work in a nonprofit, a mission-driven organization whose work is to provide
service to the public. The nonprofit setting described in this chapter is a large orga-
nization that conducts research and evaluation at the individual, organizational, and
community levels, and provides technical assistance to support practice and policy
in a number of diverse areas to improve the lives of those that are disadvantaged
(i.e., social development, health, education, and the workforce). The second part
of the chapter characterizes the structures (i.e., projects, funding sources, staffing)
and resources (i.e., infrastructural supports, professional development) in a large
nonprofit organization. With more than 1,700 employees in 15 domestic and 10
international locations, the organization described in this chapter brings together
individuals from diverse backgrounds and cultures and whose training encom-
passes education, psychology, economics, psychometrics, statistics, public health,
child welfare, software design, usability engineering, mental health, and commu-
nications. This environment helps one to learn new skills and perspectives through
colleagues while also allowing the application of skills as a community psychologist.
The final section of the chapter is a discussion of the content and training that schol-
ars who are looking to work in a nonprofit organization might consider.
Thinking Like a Community Psychologist

How does a training in community psychology serve the tasks carried out every day
in a large research and evaluation organization?
115

Knowledge ofContent and Methods

My graduate coursework, practicum, and experiences as a research assistant in
graduate school have prepared me for my current position. Istill rely on content
knowledge and research and evaluation methods learned during my undergraduate
and graduate training. Even though the internet provides easy access to informa-
tion, Itend to go back to my course notes and books (yes, Istill keep some of them
after all of these years) as a first step to refresh my knowledge of the literature or a
research design or evaluation theory that is relevant to my projectwork.
Here is an example: Recently, I worked on small project funded by a philan-
thropic foundation that aims to implement a community-based initiative on youth
voice and leadership. The starting point for the project was a literature review to
provide background in youth development and key components of effective youth
leadership initiatives. As the team member supporting the literature review, my
first resort was reading materials from a youth development course Icompleted in
graduate school. The training Ireceived in evaluation methods and practicum expe-
rience built the foundation in understanding the multiple aspects of the evaluation
projects Icurrently work on and what is needed to carry them out effectively:An
evaluator must learn to choose the best methods to address a clients questions and
needs while also considering available resources such as human and financial capac-
ity. Aclient may have ambitious goals for an evaluation but if the available resources
to implement an evaluation are not considered adequately in its planning stage, it
will likely go over budget or lack the intendedrigor.
Working in a large research organization also means there are going to be a vari-
ety of evaluation skills needed, such as those required to conduct qualitative and
quantitative analyses. In a team-oriented work environment, research tasks are allo-
cated based on skills and experience levels. While it is always important to build
on new skills and experiences for career growth, demonstrating strong competence
in one area can help you become sought after in projects that demand these skills.
A strong undergraduate and graduate education in community psychology will
provide the foundation for these competencies. For example, my training in youth
development and an array of evaluation methods has provided me with the skills
and tools that Idirectly use in my projects.
The Concept ofDiversity

A degree program in community psychology should expose students to a wide
variety of social issues that influence our communities and the society in which
we live. These programs train students to understand how individuals can become
marginalized and discover ways to empower them toward achieving social justice.
Students are also trained to understand and value diversity that may come through
cultural, linguistic, and economic differences. These competencies stayed with me

P rac ticing CP in a Larg e Nonpro fit R e s earch O rgani z ati on 117
as a community psychologist in my professional and everyday life and are reflected

in the work Ido as Itry to understand communities, schools, organizations, and
systems. It is also reflected in my thinking as Iexamine my own individual assump-
tions against those Ihope to serve through mywork.
The Ecological Paradigm and Systems Perspective

Understanding the interconnectedness between groups, communities, and organi-
zations is emphasized in community psychology. Students are trained to understand
the multiple layers of a system and what is needed to change a person, a setting, or
a policy. Much of the work of a community psychologist is focused at the systems
level and aims to inform leadership decision-making and policies. While this under-
standing provides a strong foundation for a community psychologist, what one
experiences and learns is that creating change at a systems level is multifaceted and
depends on interpersonal power dynamics, leadership, human capacity, financial
resources, and the zeitgeist or spirit of the times. For example, a multimillion dollar
project may be evaluated and fail to show the intended impacts simply because of
leadership mismanagement or poor implementation at the program level, without
providing a true test of effectiveness of a new model or approach that policymakers
want to understand. See Appendix 10.1 for an additional overview of how my work
aligns with the Competencies identified for community psychologists.
Work ina Large Nonproft Organization

What is a nonprofit organization? The most basic definition is that it is a corpora-
tion that does not operate for profit. In other words, all the work is deeply grounded
in a commitment to serve the public interest. The public service provided by a non-
profit organization is (a)guided by its mission, vision, and values set by a board
of advisors or directors; (b)driven by client needs; and (c)highly dependent on
resource development and marketing (e.g., communications, relationship develop-
ment, dissemination of its services and products).
The work in my organization is carried out through projects of varying sizes
funded by clients in the government, nonprofit, and foundation sectors. Projects
can include research studies, evaluations of programs and initiatives, and training
and technical assistance. Within these projects a variety of different tasks may need
to be completed, such as needs assessment, secondary data analysis, or tool/instru-
ment development. Topics can range from reforming child welfare and juvenile
justice systems to improving school climate for children and expanding access and
reducing disparities in the provision of health care. Given the diverse foci of content,
our clients vary from federal agencies such as the US Department of Education or
Department of Justice, to states and territories, school districts, individual schools,

foundations, community agencies, as well as international funding entities such as

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) or United National
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Nonprofits seek funding opportunities in different ways. Much of my work
is funded through contracts. We obtain contracts in a variety of ways. Often by
responding to Requests for Proposals (RFP) that are publicly announced competi-
tions for a winning proposal to do requested work. When an RFP is issued, a team
of staff reviews the opportunity to decide if we should invest the time in writing a
proposal. We consider whether the RFP aligns with the mission of our organiza-
tion, our chance of winning, and whether we are able to write a winning proposal
in the amount of time available. Most proposals have relatively large budgets (over
$100,000). In addition, partnering with other institutions (e.g., universities, other
research institutes, expert individuals) is highly valued as these organizations bring
in different competencies and resources that enhance the quality and scope of the
work proposed. Another line of work may come through clients who have worked
with us in the past and who come back to us with new requests. Yet, other business
opportunities are shaped through networking of staff with contacts they have in
their fields of expertise. Thus, as in any setting, learning to be resourceful for raising
funds is a competence.
ProjectWork
In the large nonprofit setting where Iwork, a researchers time is usually divided
across multiple projects that can differ in scope and size. Projects may last from a
couple of months to multiple years. Simply put, this is a fast-paced environment.
This requires dividing ones attention and time across projects that might be very
different. It also means that while using research and evaluation skills (e.g., theory,
design, methods, analysis) and content knowledge to perform project tasks, one is
also working with different team members located in multiple offices, with multiple
partners, and a variety of clients across the country. For example, consider a feder-
ally funded randomized control trial of a youth mentoring program operating in
32 sites across the country over three years. Data from multiple respondents are col-
lected on an ongoing basis from these community programs as families enroll their
children to be mentored. This is a practitioner-oriented study where the project
team works collaboratively with community programs and their staff who collect
data for the study. The primary emphasis of the research team is to train and support
program staff to ensure the data quality and high survey response rates so that our
findings will be reliable. There will be an additional two years of analysis and report
writing once all data collection is complete.
Consider another example, which is a three-year exploratory study on social
emotional learning of students in eight school districts. In contrast to the earlier
example of a community-based study, this is a school-based study, which means

data collection only takes place during the academic year and most heavily in April
through June with only a short period available for analysis and report writing so
that results are available to school administrators for their planning of the next year.
The timelines, key stakeholders, and priorities in these two projects are barely simi-
lar. The study design and teaming structures are also very different. The common
aspects across these two projects are the large teams, coordination of data collec-
tion, and extensive communication and coordination that needs to take place with
data collection sites and within the evaluation team. The team members of these
projects need to juggle the tasks for each project in a timely and efficient manner to
deliver the high level of quality expected of us. These expectations are not unique to
these projects and, in fact, characterize our organizational culture.
Team Structure and Responsibilities

In a large research nonprofit, the distribution of project roles and responsibilities
are defined by the expertise level of staff, who play a key role in managing proj-
ects effectively. Think of a complex organism with many organs that needs to run in
sync. In a large institution many things are happening at once, with several layers of
hierarchy running projects, managing teams, and carrying out organizational tasks.
While each staff contributes to different pieces of work, the tasks differ at eachlevel.
An entry-level researcher, a research assistant/associate, is responsible for activi-
ties such as looking for research articles, conducting the first steps of literature
reviews, assisting with report writing and presentations, and coordinating proposal
writing. Staff in these positions typically have a bachelors degree with some level of
experience, as they are expected to be familiar with different types of research activi-
ties, but they carry out these tasks under supervision of an experienced researcher.
Alternatively, staff with more skills delivering program services might be responsi-
ble for providing training and technical assistance to community service-providers.
For example, staff may provide online training or webinars on youth development
to after-school program coordinators. This level may require a considerable amount
of travel for data collection if a project has sites in different locations of the country
or overseas.
At the next level up from a research assistant/associate comes a researcher who
may perform similar activities but is also considered ready to lead small projects or
manage specific tasks within larger projects with minimal supervision. Aresearcher
typically has a doctoral degree or masters degree with three-to-five years of work
experience. Typical responsibilities may include leading a data analysis team with
responsibilities to manage the completion of these tasks within a given time frame
and budget. Outside of project work, a typical staff person in this role may also lead
parts of a proposal (RFP) process.
The next level up from being a researcher is when the person starts taking a greater
leadership role supporting the organizations future and financial stability. Asenior

Experience
Education
CEO
Vision Development
(organizational) Vice president
Business Development Managing Researcher

(e.g., client development,
proposal writing) Principal Researcher
Project Management Senior Researcher
Project Activities Researcher

(e.g., literature review, data
collection, analysis, report writing)
Research Associate
Research Assistant
Figure10.1 Organizational staffing structure.
researcher (this is my current level) has at least five years of experience and has proven
competencies in technical aspects (research and content knowledge) and leadership
(managing teams effectively), contributes to organizational well-being (business
development), and supervises junior staff. This is a mid-level position in a large orga-
nization, where management and leadership skills are tested and strengthened.
The fourth level of the team structure is the principal researcher, who is expected
to secure the financial stability of a department or group, guide decision-making,
monitor and mentor staff, ensure work quality, and promote the institutions mis-
sion. At this level, staff are engaged in some degree of data collection and analysis
but are primarily responsible for setting the research agenda, writing funding pro-
posals, designing research studies, reviewing findings, synthesizing what we learn,
and disseminating the findings to clients. This level may also require a great deal
of travel to disseminate findings, build client relationships, and attend high-stakes
meetings that can impact the organizations future. The higher levels in this organi-
zational structure (e.g., managing researcher, vice president, chief executive officer
[CEO]) are primarily responsible for contributing to organizational growth and
maintaining its stability and security as a large organization. Figure 10.1 is intended
to visualize the organizational structure for staffing.
Organizational Resources and Challenges

The large number of projects that comprise the work in a large nonprofit research
organization requires the generation of financial resources (overhead) to provide
infrastructure and operational supports for staff to carry out these projects.

IT Support
A large IT department employs a team of full-time technicians and systems engi-
neers who are readily available to address technical problems of our 1,700 employ-
ees in multiple offices and countries. As a matter of fact, the multimedia work
environment necessitates IT support to facilitate virtual meetings with clients,
online trainings, a number of formats for data collection, statistical software, and
necessary hardware (e.g., Wi-Fi cards). The IT department is also responsible for
ensuring the security of our computer and communication systems, and protecting
project and client data stored on our servers.
Assistance inProposal and Technical Writing

Working in a large research organization can also mean there is support available
for proposal and technical writing. For example, when a proposal opportunity is
identified, researchers can receive help from a team of business development per-
sonnel who assist with putting together proposal templates, budget drafts, and
coordinating activities. The organizational expectation for high-quality work is also
supported through a team of editors who review and improve the proposal before it
is submitted (e.g., reports, publications, social media communications).
Professional Development
Opportunities for staff to continue their development include attending Brownbags,
informal meetings over lunch facilitated by colleagues or by invited guest speakers
who share their experiences and techniques for conducting analysis using qualita-
tive analysis software (e.g., NVivo), regression modeling (quantitative data), new
findings from evaluation projects on topics such as violence prevention, or even
sharing an experience using a participatory action research approach, working in
partnership with communities. Other opportunities staff can take advantage of
include attending and presenting at national conferences or attending multi-day
workshops that the company pays for, such as how to use big data or learning how
to be an effective grant writer to enhance business development skills. While these
opportunities are available and participation is encouraged, we all must decide
whats best for our professional growth and make time in a busy work day to make
use of it. There have been many times when Ihave been to annual conferences while
working on project tasks at night in my hotelroom.
Competitive Salary and Benefits

The large number of projects funded at any given time and a steady stream of work
support the sustainability and job security in a large organization. The volume of
projects allows for competitive salaries and benefits in the market to attract talented
and well-educated employees who will provide high-quality work. On the other

hand, embedded in our organizational culture is the expectation for staff at all levels
to perform well in a fast-paced, multitasking environment with a number of com-
peting deadlines coming due often at the sametime.
Bureaucracy and Paperwork

A challenge in a large organization running many projects at the same time is the
bureaucracy that is created to support and monitor all activities. There is a great deal
of paperwork that comes with this management structure to maintain accountabil-
ity to funders and, ultimately, taxpayers who support the federal and state govern-
ment agencies with whom we work. There are many processes that Ihad to learn,
such as the steps for creating a proposal writing team, procedures for starting a proj-
ect, or the protocols for paying subcontractors or getting paid by clients. Going back
to the organism analogy, an organization of this size is like an organism with many
organs that must work in conjunction with each other in order to keep the system
growing and developing in a coordinated direction.
Competencies Needed toExcel within a Large

Research-Focused Nonprofit
TechnicalSkills
As in every career-oriented job, having the technical skills (e.g., research methods,
analytical approaches, quantitative and qualitative analysis, analytic software) is one
key to success. Consider that in this type of organization, the projects (and clients)
are very diverse, ranging from technical assistance provided to a school district to
large-scale randomized control trials funded by the government. Therefore, starting
your job with good research and evaluation skills and adequate non-academic expe-
riences is an asset. However, building on these competencies and getting known for
certain skills (e.g., qualitative analysis, hierarchical linear modeling) is also impor-
tant for bringing in new business to the organization and career advancement.
PresentationSkills
Project-based work demands strong presentation skills, both oral and in writing.
We write proposals for business development about how we will approach a cli-
ent need and address it. We write about the research processes and the projects
findings. We share research and technical assistance experiences to help develop
our fields of study. We present recommendations to influence decision-making and
shape policies. Thus, at every point, oral and written presentation skills are criti-
cal to our success as professionals. In addition, even though it takes more time and
effort, those individuals who are innovative and creative in their presentations have
an advantage. Iam pleasantly surprised to see in recent conferences the number of
sessions that discuss using creative ways to present information.

Teamwork
In my perspective, teamwork is one of the most important aspects of working in
a large nonprofit, because the work environment involves working with others of
different ages, different educational levels and experience, carrying out tasks in a
determined time frame, and working within a hierarchical decision making struc-
ture. Agood team can produce winning proposals for new work as well as make a
project go smoothly. Apoor team can lead to lost proposals or make a project feel
chaotic and produce negative results. Thus, an individual who would rather work in
isolation might struggle in this team-based environment.
ManagementSkills
As in every work setting, project leaders make a significant difference in shaping
the climate and motivation in a project, and therefore influence the efficiency of a
project. While the organization where Iwork values strong content and technical
expertise and prefers graduate training in hiring new staff, project management is a
skill set we develop through experience and professional development opportuni-
ties available inside the organization and offered elsewhere. Ihave come to realize
that this is a skill that many social science researchers do not develop while in school
and need to learn through on-the-job experience. As content and team experience
increases, individuals are organically raised into management positions. Acontent
expert and a superb evaluator, however, does not equal a good manager. It takes
motivation to learn management skills and effort in applying these in a team setting
to be a good project manager.
Closing theCircle:Training Students Immersed

inPracticalLife
I find myself fortunate to be on a career path where Ibenefit greatly from the content
and tools Ilearned in my community psychology training. Given the work structure
in a nonprofit organization and project-based work, there are a few aspects of my
work that Ifind the most challenging while at the same time the most rewarding as
Igrow stronger in them. Irecommend students and young scholars in community
psychology consider these areas during their academic training as they prepare for
the workforce.
Project Management
As an applied social science researcher working in a nonprofit setting, Iam con-
vinced that project management is a critical aspect of our work. Many community
psychologists (including myself) find themselves in leadership roles as they have

strong content and methodological expertise, and they are expected to lead projects
and other staff. Project management involves understanding project budgeting, cli-
ent relationships, and team management to increase the efficiency within which a
project is performed, which can be the most rewarding or challenging piece of my
work. However, these are not tasks Ilearned in my degree program, and it is my
experience that few students in community psychology training programs graduate
with these skills, unless they work as part of a team in a large-scale research project
and get mentored into this management role by their advisors. Thus, community
psychology students would benefit from learning these management skills while
still in school, which would be an added benefit when looking for employment.
Knowledge ofSoftware and Changing Technology

We live in a time of technology and need to embrace it to collect data, to analyze
data, and to share what we learn in more effective ways. Knowing different programs
to conduct quantitative analysis (e.g., SPSS, Stata, R, Lisrel, HLM) or qualitative
analysis (e.g., NVivo, Atlas.ti) are desirable competencies for research and/or evalu-
ation projects. However, simply knowing a number of programs does not suffice
and one must learn to keep up with new developments in the field. For example,
data visualization, infographics, and using technology to support dissemination of
findings was not an area of importance in my degree program but should be rec-
ognized as essential tools for effective communication of research and evaluation
results.
Networking
The social science field is interconnected, and connections with colleagues in the
field lead to many different career opportunities including collaborations on proj-
ects, knowledge dissemination, and new business. It is important for professional
and personal growth to connect with new and old colleagues and experts to learn
from their growing experiences. While some of us might have an innate compe-
tence to network, others learn it over time. I fall into the second group and it is
a social skill that Icontinue to develop for business development, continued pro-
fessional learning, and receive support from the wealth of experienced researchers
in my network, and advance my career. To this day, Ihave kept in touch with my
graduate school advisors who Istill turn to for advise and for contacts in the field.
They are well-established and have years of experience in the same path that Iam
trying to take. Another opportunity for networking are the interest groups in pro-
fessional associations. For example, my membership in different Topical interest
groups in the American Evaluation Association helped me get to know a number
of colleagues who Icollaborated with on presentations and looked for each other
for advice. The many blogs that are available through professional associations also

help with networking and keeping up to date with developments in the field. Taking
advantage of these opportunities are typically encouraged by individual faculty/
advisors in degree programs, which Iwish would be the expectation in all degree
programs for all students.
Let me end with a final bit of advice to readers who are seeking employment
in a large nonprofit organization. Since many hiring managers would not be famil-
iar with the foundations and competencies of community psychology, it would be
important to demonstrate in a curriculum vitae and/or during an interview how
your training and any practical experience has given you the technical and soft skills
described in this chapter and needed to work in a diverse, fast-paced, team-based
work environment. Readers might also consider looking at the list of interview
questions in Appendix 10.2 for a reference.

Appendix 10.1 Community Psychology Competencies Utilized ina Large Nonprofit
Community Psychology Core If/How It Is Addressed in My Current Role
Competencies
Foundational Principles 1. Ecological Theory, Analyses, Explicit or implicit in all projects we work on to address community and
and Perspective organizational issues.
2. Empowerment This is addressed through collaborative relationships with the communities and
organizations we work with and partnerships we build to serve and/or address the
needs of marginalized groups.
3. Sociocultural and This is a continuously growing competence working in a large organization that is
Cross-Cultural Competence culturally and ethnically diverse. It is also integral to my work conducting evaluation
projects nationally and internationally in very different communities.
4. Community Inclusion and This is addressed through engaging stakeholders in communities and organizations
Partnership to design contextually relevant evaluations and increase the use of findings.
5. Ethical and Reflective Practice This is addressed internally in my organization through Institutional Board Reviews
and quality assurance reviews.
Community Program 6. Program Development, This is an integral part of my work addressed through projects that Iwork on to serve
Development and Implementation, and the needs of our clients.
Management Management
7. Prevention and Health Preventing risky behaviors and promoting healthy development is a focus of the
Promotion communities and institutions within which Iprovide services.
8. Community Leadership Identifying the leaders in a setting where Iwill work and establishing trust is an important
and Mentoring tool to ensure the projects are implemented effectively and the findings are utilized.

9. Small and Large Group Teamwork and management is a key aspect of my project-based work. This also
Processes addressed in the trainings we provide to program staff who collaborate with us in
evaluation projects.
10. Resource Development This is integral task of my work in the form of grant writing, building new clients,
and maintaining our relationship and reputation with existing clients.
11. Consultation and This is addressed through client-based work as part of the research, evaluation, and
Organizational Development technical assistance projects that Iwork on.
Community and Social 12. Collaboration and Partnerships with other organizations to perform the work with us and developing
Change Coalition Development collaborations with the community members and stakeholders is an important part
of my project-based work.
13. Community Development This is not a direct focus of my work, but it is an implicit outcome that the
communities hope to achieve as a result of the evaluations Isupport.
14. Community Organizing and This is not a focus area for my organization, but the research we produce can be used
Community Advocacy by external groups to advocate for systems change.
15. Public Policy Analysis, Although not specifically a part of my work, this is a focus in my organization with
Development, and Advocacy experts working in this area.
16. Community Education, This is an ongoing aspect of my work in the form of reports and presentations to the
Information, Dissemination, client, conference presentations, and publications.
and Building Public Awareness
Community Research 17. Participatory Community Addressed through working with clients whose evaluation and research projects
Research have a participatory research design.
18. Program Evaluation This is the most integral aspect of my work and expertise on a daily basis.
Adapted from Dalton & Wolfe (2012). Education Connection and the Community Practitioner. The Community Psychologist, 45(4),713.

Appendix 10.2 Potential Questions toAsk ofLarge

Nonprofit Organizations During anInterview
Question Rationale
Can you give me some examples of projects Responses to these questions will
that Imight be working on? indicate the type of work you will be
expected to do.
How does a typical day look like for Responses to this question will
someone in this position? demonstrate the nature of the work and
work climate.
What is the career path for someone who It may be important for you to know
gets this position? the process for moving up in the
What is required for promotion? organization and what professional
milestones must be demonstrated for
promotion to occur.
What opportunities for professional Professional development opportunities
development exist? might range from online webinars to
What support, if any, exists for my internal workshops or participation in
participation in professional training institutes. Responses to these
organizations that Iam a memberof? questions might help you understand the
Does the office pay any professional resources available and the expectations
memberships? for continued professional learning.
What are the expectations of this position Responses to these questions will help
for bringing in new work? you understand your role in business
What is the organizations approach to development, how business development
business development? works in this firm, and how the firm
How, if at all, does the firm mentor staff in develops these skills in its professionals.
developing business skills?
In the last five years, how many staff Responses to these questions will
members have left the organization? provide you with an indication of the
How many staff members have joined? stability of the organization.

11
Five Years asa HiredGun

Working in For-P rofit Evaluation Consulting
Alison J.Martin
I studied community psychology in a freestanding community psychology doc-

toral program. Iloved the applied research process and did not want to work in an
academic setting. Consulting firms are one of many settings in which an applied
researcher can find employment. These firms often are for-profit, which means that
the cost of the work will include a fee that generates profit for the firm. The size
of these firms can range from a handful to hundreds of employees. My perspec-
tive on evaluation consulting firm employment comes from working in a mid-sized
evaluation firm (about 120 employees) with several offices located around the
country. The firms headquarters were located in the Northeast, and I worked in
its Pacific Northwest office, which consisted of about 40 employees. Each of the
offices operated somewhat independently of each other in that an overall adminis-
trative structure (e.g., employee policies, benefits, leave) was shared, but each office
was responsible for securing its own projects; staff infrequently worked on cross-
office projects. The firm is best known for its work providing technical assistance on
education related issues; the office Iworked in was known for conducting program
evaluation primarily of federal programs in the fields of education and behavioral
health.
The goal of this chapter is to share my experience of working in a for-profit
consulting firm. The previous paragraph describes the setting in which I worked
and, thus, the context for my experience. Others experiences will vary somewhat
based on the clientele, locale, size of, and tenure at their firms. In determining what
information to share, Iimagined what my undergraduate and graduate student self
would have wanted to understand about being employed by these types of firms.
Therefore, Ibegin with an overview of the firms organizational structure and con-
tinue with discussion of business development processes. Ialso summarize educa-
tion and skills that are necessary for this work. I reflect on the fit of community
psychology competencies and values with this employment setting and conclude
129

with the benefits and challenges of working in this setting. An appendix lists ques-
tions one might ask when interviewing for a position in a private consultingfirm.
Firm Organization:How ItWorks

Consulting firms appear to have about five levels within their organizational hierar-
chy:executive (e.g., presidents, vice presidents), senior associate, associate, assistant,
administrative, and support staff. Large firms can have multiple levels within their
senior and associate levels (e.g., research associate I, research associate II) depend-
ing on experience and responsibilities. My offices organizational structure seemed
comparatively flat, consisting of an office vice president,1 an office manager, senior
associates, research associates, a research assistant, and 13 administrative and sup-
port staff.2 In very broad terms, executive level positions have responsibility for
business development, office operations and management, and project design and
management. Senior associates are responsible for business development, project
design and management, and office management. Associates are responsible for
project implementation, design, and sometimes project management. Finally, sup-
port staff provide assistance to project implementation and office operations. Table
11.1 lists examples of the activities included in these responsibilities.
Table11.1Examples ofStaff Responsibilities

Staff Level Responsibilities
Vice President Communicating and making company-wide decisions with
firm leadership (presidents and other vice presidents), leading
office management team, ensuring new business development,
maintaining client and partner relationships, addressing personnel
issues (including approving hiring and firing decisions), approving
and signing contracts, reviewing and signing timesheets,
supervising senior associates, serving as project directors.
Office Manager Overseeing day-to-day office operations, developing budgets for
new project proposals, managing administrative and support staff,
serving as the offices human resources contact (e.g., handling the
logistics of hiring and bringing new staff on board, coordinating
staff annual performance reviews, addressing benefits questions),
liaising with client contract offices, maintaining the relationship
with our office buildings leasing office, serving on the office
leadership team.
(continued)

Table11.1(continued)
Staff Level Responsibilities

Senior Associate Serving as project directors,a securing new work, maintaining
client relationships, leading proposal development teams,
supervising and mentoring associates (including leading annual
performance reviews, monitoring supervisees workload, and
ensuring adequate project coverage), providing feedback on staff
as requested for annual performance reviews, leading or serving on
office committees.
Associate Contributing to new business development, maintaining client
relationships, participating in the design and scoping of projects,
leading or participating in development or refinement of data
collection instruments, developing data collection methods and
procedures, monitoring data collection, collecting data, leading
or participating in the development of analysis plans, analyzing
data, leading or participating in the interpretation of results
and preparing report products or other deliverables, leading
or contributing to the development of deliverable timelines,
providing feedback on staff as requested for annual performance
reviews, serving on office committees. Serving as project directors
on small projects.
Assistant Contributing to data collection methods and procedures,
collecting data, contributing to data analysis, maintaining client
relationships.
Administrative and This group includes a range of professionals, such as accountants,
Support Staff editors, project support, and technology specialists. Project
support staff helps with activities like obtaining journal articles and
books from libraries, mailing and monitoring administration of
survey data collections, securing contractors to transcribe recorded
interviews, and formatting final products to ensure the products
look visually appealing and professional and are consistent across
projects. All of these staff are vital to completing work expediently
and professionally.
Note. This table contains examples of responsibilities; it is not a comprehensive listing of every
responsibility.
a
The responsibilities of a project director are described in the project management section.

Project Management
A project director led each project. The staff member identified as project director
usually had a lead role in bringing the project into the office, thus their designation.
On some occasions, however, the vice president or leadership team selected a staff
member to serve as project director based on the individuals substantive expertise,
schedule availability, or ability to manage projects. Occasions that would warrant
such selections included changes in office staffing or lack of availability in the sched-
ule of the individual who had a lead role in securing thework.
The project director is responsible for managing the technical (methodological)
and business aspects of the project. The technical aspects included the evaluation
design and sampling, data collection and analysis approaches, and reporting. The
business aspects included monitoring the projects budget, ensuring appropriate
and adequate staffing, collaborating and communicating with the client, developing
feasible timelines that meet client need, and ensuring deliverables (i.e., the products
the firm agreed to produce for the client) are of high quality and delivered ontime.
Project directors often identified staff to lead various project tasks, such as a Data
Collection Lead or Lead Qualitative Analyst. This project organization is typically
specified in the project management sections of proposals (which is discussed in a
subsequent section of this chapter). During my tenure, the office began to encour-
age the assignment of an associate project director on projects involving more than
five or six staff. This enabled qualified associates to build their project management
expertise; having such expertise is important to presenting a competitive business
proposal.
Office Governance
A leadership team managed the office. This team consisted of the vice president, four
senior associates, and the office manager. The primary responsibilities of the leader-
ship team were to ensure that each staff member had enough work to cover her time
and each project had adequate staffing; monitor business development activities;
and establish and monitor office policies. The typical staffing approach used by my
office was to assign each staff person to multiple projects. The logic underlying this
approach was that if a projects funding was lost, other projects could support the
staff until new projects were obtained. Further, because the staff skills needed by
projects vary over time, a staff members time on a project can fluctuate. Therefore,
at the start of a project and at regular intervals through its duration, project directors
were asked to estimate hours needed per month for each staff person. The leadership
team reviewed these hour estimates to ensure that each staff member had enough
(not too little or too much) work, redistribute tasks and hours when needed, and
anticipate when a need for new projects would arise. Because a multitude of factors
can affect how a project unfolds (e.g., typical project changes, client uncertainties,

For -P ro fit Evaluation C onsulting 133
revisions to scope resulting from the demands, needs, or requirements of the fund-
ing agency), Iobserved the monitoring of staff time to be an art more than a science,
and Iappreciated the attention that the office paid to this criticaltask.
Funding and ProjectTypes

For-profit consulting firms rely on soft money, meaning that the firms funding is not
established or derived from an identified or guaranteed source. The firms staff is
responsible for securing projects that will support its staff and organization. Because
of their reliance on soft money, employment in consulting firms is perceived as more
tenuous than academic, foundation, or government institutions.3
While I worked in this office, the funding sources included contracts or sub-
contracts for federal and state government agencies and grants from foundations.
Contracts differ from grants in that contracts are a funding vehicle to obtain par-
ticular services or goods (Danya International, 2002) whereas grants are a fund-
ing vehicle for scientific inquiry generated by the researcher (Danya International,
2002)or for demonstration projects (NewYork State Department of Health, 2012).
In providing a service such as program evaluation to a funding agency or client, a
contractor may partner with another consulting firm through a subcontract to ful-
fill the contract requirements. In this situation the firm that contracts directly with
the funding agency is identified as the prime contractor, and the partnering firm is
identified as the subcontractor. Although the fruits of the subcontractors labor ulti-
mately benefit the funding agency, the prime contractor is the subcontractors direct
client. Funding agencies, or clients, can include government agencies at any level,
foundations, nonprofit organizations, or other consulting firms (when working as a
subcontractor on a project). Firms often will seek diversity in their client and proj-
ect portfolio; this helps to ensure the health of the firm when a funding stream dries
up or if a relationshipsours.
ProjectSize
The firm I worked for had projects ranging in size from very small to large. The
amount of a very small project would be about $5,000 per year. The responsibilities
for such a project likely would be limited to meeting the project funders perfor-
mance reporting requirements (i.e., collecting data using a required instrument or
tool, analyzing the data, and reporting the results in the required reporting format).
The amount of a large project would range between $500,000 and $1 million per year
and typically last for multiple years. The responsibilities would include evaluation
design, data collection methods development with most time spent on data collec-
tion, analysis, and reporting. Large projects typically involve more team members,
for example, eight to 12 staff compared to one or two for a very small project. These
project teams often have a core set of members that are involved in most aspects

of the project. Other staff members participate in the project for specific activities,
like data collection. Firms with more employees and a more complex infrastructure
require a greater number of larger projects to sustain their organization.
Project Duration and Activities

Program evaluation projects that last for a longer period of time, such as a multi-
year federal outcome evaluation contract, require more data collection, analysis,
and reporting skills than design skills. The evaluation design for such projects will
be established at the outset of the contract, and in subsequent years data will be col-
lected and analyzed to examine changes in outcomes over time. In an ideal world,
few changes (if any) would be made to the evaluation design as the project unfolds.
Methodological changes limit the conclusions that can be drawn from the results,
especially when change in outcome over time is examined in the evaluation. Any
changes made to the evaluation approach have to fit with resources available.
Subcontracting Projects
Projects for which a firm is a subcontractor often focus on an area of specialty that
complements the capacity of the prime contractor. For example, a subcontrac-
tor may be sought to provide specialty analysis (e.g., econometric analyses, more
advanced statistical analyses), lead technical assistance provided to grantees, or to
develop and manage a complex project database. A subcontracting role also can
involve a heavy data collection role, which may not be intellectually satisfying to all
team members. Leadership within each of the firms (prime contractor and subcon-
tractor) needs to clarify roles for each of the firms in negotiating the subcontract.
Business Development:Getting theWork

The ability of a for-profit consulting firm to keep its doors open is largely dependent
on its success at securing new business and maintaining positive professional rela-
tionships. This means that even when work is plentiful, organizations and staff still
must create time to monitor and seek newwork.
Announcements forFunding
Business opportunities can be announced in several ways: government agencies
or foundations may announce Requests for Applications or Requests for Proposals.
Requests for Applications (RFA) are announcements for grant applications that
address a defined research topic (National Institutes of Health [NIH], National
Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [NINDS], 2013). A Request for
Proposals (RFP) is a process used by public agencies or private companies to obtain

bids for work by an external contractor and funding is awarded through contracts
(NewYork State Department of Health, 2012). Both RFAs and RFPs will contain
the following elements:description of the scope of work to be completed, applica-
tion requirements, the manner in which bidders must submit their proposals, the
review criteria on which proposals will be evaluated (NINDS, 2013), and a sense of
the funds available to support the project. Requests for Applications typically pro-
vide a ceiling amount, that is, the amount over which a firm cannot bid. Requests for
Proposals more often specify a level of effort, or the number of person hours, that
the funder expects to be dedicated to the work. Any firm meeting the application
requirements of the RFA/RFP can respond to these announcements. Government
agencies also issue Program Announcements, which solicit applications from eligible
organizations to address a particular scientific area (NIH, National Institute on Drug
Abuse, 2011)or program areas of interest (US Department of Health & Human
Services, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality [AHRQ], 2014). Funds are
made available through grants or cooperative agreements (AHRQ,2014).
Federal and state government agencies also have preferred vendor lists, which are
lists of contractors who have been approved by the government to provide specific
services. One example of a federal preferred vendor list is the Indefinite Delivery,
Indefinite Quality (IDIQ). The IDIQ lists streamline the contract process and
expedite service delivery (US General Services Administration, 2013). Consulting
firms prepare comprehensive applications demonstrating their capability to meet
the IDIQ list service purpose. Alimited number of vendors are selected for each
IDIQ. Often consulting firms partner to present a more competitive application
for the types of services desired. Thus agencies applying for preferred vendor lists
might ask other firms to join their IDIQ team, and partner firms capabilities and
experience are included in the IDIQ application. To my knowledge, partnering
firms only join one primary firms IDIQ team; therefore, firms must consider a vari-
ety of factors in choosing a team to join, such as the primary firms track record,
the ability of the two firms to collaborate well, and the degree to which the firms
strengths complement each other. States also have preferred vendor distribution
lists. My sense is that joining state distribution lists is less burdensome than federal
preferred vendorlists.
IDIQ funding announcements for services are called Requests for Task Order
Proposals (RFTOPs or roof tops) and are announced periodically to the firms
selected for IDIQ listing. These announcements are then passed on from the pri-
mary firm to their partnering organizations. Once IDIQ teams are approved by
the federal agency, the agency releases a forecast of probable IDIQ RFTOPs to
be announced in the coming fiscal year. This practice allows IDIQ teams to begin
to strategize the best combination of partners for a given RFTOP and to begin to
gather intelligence on existing work done in the substantive areas. The forecasts,
however, are not a guarantee of available funding. Rather, the agency notes that the
RFTOPs are likely assuming funding becomes available.

Individual Responsibility forBusiness Development

Hopefully you discerned from the previous descriptions that working at higher lev-
els in the organizational structure of a for-profit consulting firm demands greater
responsibility for securing new work. Being able to secure new work entails that
an individual monitors issue areas, builds and maintains partner relationships, and
participates in the preparation of business proposals. Abrief discussion of monitor-
ing and relationship-building follows. Proposal development is covered in the next
section.
Monitoring IssueAreas
An individual conducts monitoring activities to watch for actual funding announce-
ments (i.e., RFAs, RFPs, program announcements) and emerging or current
trends that may portend the direction of future funding announcements. Funding
announcements often require proposals to be submitted within a few weeks of the
announcement. Because a firms current work does not halt when a proposal needs
to be prepared, it is beneficial to have as much lead time as possible to prepare a pro-
posal. Moreover, program announcements often award program implementation
grants to nonprofit or government entities but require an evaluation. When evalu-
ation firms identify program announcements, their staff might reach out to previ-
ous clients to explore their interest in collaborating on a proposal for the funding
and subsequent project work if the grant is awarded. Similarly, monitoring trends in
issue areas or with funding agencies allows a firm to plan for how it might respond to
new funding directions. An individual can keep abreast of funding announcements
and agency trends by reviewing funding agency or institutions websites, signing
up for and reading agency listservs or electronic bulletins, or read news articles.
Individuals must carve out some time on a regular basis for these activities, which
can be challenging depending on project demands at a given point intime.
Building and Maintaining Relationships

Relationship building can happen within an existing project or at professional ven-
ues, such as conferences. Like any relationship, professional relationships are estab-
lished over time and built on trust and reliability. Having a reputation for producing
quality work that is responsive to client need is critical for ensuring that others will
want to work with you in the future (e.g., calling up a former client to suggest part-
nering on a recently released program announcement) and will speak positively
about your work when talking with peers (the power of word of mouth should not
be underestimated). In addition, professional contacts can be an important source
of insight into political or other contextual issues that will influence the direction
of future funding. Senior staff can advise a new hire about how to represent ones
firm and current projects in professional settings. It is important to know the type

of information about current projects that is permissible to share with colleagues

outside of the firm without violating client confidentiality.
Maintaining relationships with funding agency staff also can be an important
source of insight into issue area trends. Senior staff at the consulting firm often made
it a priority to maintain contact with funding agency staff to understand generally
the agencys priorities and interests and how both may change over time. Keeping in
touch with funding agency staff throughout the year, as opposed to only during typ-
ical funding cycles, would make it seem less like one was pushing for information.
Proposal Development
A proposal is a firms response to a funding announcement. The exact content of a
proposal will be guided by the requirements of the announcement, but typically
consists of a technical section and a budget section. The technical section includes
an understanding the problem section, the proposed design and plan for execut-
ing and managing the work, and an explanation of the firms capacity and experi-
ence to complete the work. The understanding the problem section helps funders
assess firms grasp of the issue area generally, beyond what could be communicated
in an evaluation design. Afirm with a strong understanding of the issue presumably
could be more responsive to interim evaluation findings, recognizing their signifi-
cance in relation to the broader issue area. The budget section contains projected
project costs broken down into specifics for each year of the project. The vita of staff
who will work on the project typically are included as attachments.
Developing proposals require staff time that cannot be charged to current proj-
ects. Staff time spent on proposal development thus comes out of a firms busi-
ness development funds and an individuals own time. The previously mentioned
fee, which for-profit firms usually include on contracts, supports these funds.
Depending on the size of the contract, my firms leadership team determined a cer-
tain number of hours per person working on the proposal. If proposal preparation
required time beyond the allotted hours, staff members were expected to make up
the difference on their own, non-work hours. A very general estimate would be that
about half of my total time for a proposal came out of my own, non-work time. The
hours required for proposal development, however, vary depending on ones role on
the proposal development team. For example, if one is leading the proposal, one can
expect to spend a substantial amount of time on its development (especially the first
time!). Proposal development typically will occur rapidly within a short timeframe.
Firms approaches to proposal development vary. Some have very structured
approaches to sequencing the development and its reviewfor example, having a
generic template that lists steps for proposal completion, timeframes in which pieces
of the proposal are completed, and the staff roles needed, the specifics of which are
filled out for each proposal. Others have a process that is understood based on past
experience, and roles and tasks are assigned more informally. All firms, however,

will seek to assemble the most competitive proposal based on experience, substan-
tive knowledge, and skill set. This will entail discussions about expected costs (if
a contract award amount is not specified in the announcement), competing firms
likely to bid, political (meant in the non-partisan sense) context for the work and
its purpose, and the characteristics of the team and its plan that will be highlighted
as selling points for the firm. These discussions and related documents are highly
confidential. Ihave participated on proposals that include partner firms where final
documents (usually budget but sometimes technical sections) were not shared
among partners.
Education and Skills:What You Need

toBe AbletoDo
Individuals working in for-profit consulting firms typically need at least a masters
degree to work at the level of research associate or higher. That said, I know of a
small number of extraordinarily talented individuals with bachelors degrees who
worked their way up from research associate to senior associate and from research
assistant to research associate. In my experience this is rare, and it requires one to
demonstrate exceptional skill in relationship-building with clients and partners,
and to consistently produce high quality work, for many years at the same firm.
Challenges for the individual arise if she or he needs to leave the firm; the indi-
vidual is unlikely to move laterally to another firm with the same salary level (or
even the same position level if a firm has educational requirements for its staffing
levels). It also seems that clients expect at least a masters degree from project team
members who will hold leadership roles within projects, which can limit how a
staff member is presented in a proposal or staffed to a project. Having at least a
masters degree will enhance ones competitiveness in the program evaluation con-
sulting job market.
Possessing a solid understanding of applied research and evaluation design, data
collection methods and procedures, and analysis approaches is necessary. Also
inherent to working as an applied researcher is being creative and flexible to deter-
mine design options that will fit within setting and resource constraints. As men-
tioned previously, staff members that work on multi-year projects will utilize more
of their analysis, interpretation, and reporting skills. Individuals who seek to work
in for-profit evaluation consulting firms will be more competitive job candidates if
they have a solid understanding of quantitative and qualitative analysis methods.4 In
addition, having experience communicating evaluation findings in innovative ways
that are more readily consumable than final evaluation reports has become increas-
ingly important. These communication mechanisms allow clients to disseminate
findings more readilyfor example, to community stakeholderswhich may aid
in building community support for intervention approaches.

Equally important to ones methodological skills are ones interpersonal skills.

Work is almost always conducted within teams and, as mentioned previously, client-
driven. Working within a team of educated researchers affords team members the
benefit of learning from one another and collective problem-solving; however, there
is also the potential of having too many cooks in the kitchen. The ability to listen, to
communicate openly, to work flexibly, and to have patience for the group process
while continuing to move forward, leaving ones ego at the door, are all invaluable
interpersonal skills for working successfully within a team. Working with clients
who might lack research or evaluation expertise requires the same skills in addi-
tion to being able to communicate research concepts and findings in ways that are
consumable to lay audiences, share the trade-offs and limitations of method choices
and their implications for results, and gently ground clients in the evaluation goals
and questions when new contextual issues arise.5,6
Finally, it is critical for an individual to be able to estimate how long various eval-
uation and research tasks take to complete. This information is essential for devel-
oping timelines for project deliverables, and submitting high-quality deliverables on
time is fundamental to maintaining a positive relationship with ones client and in
generating a positive reputation. Isupervised an intern and shared this suggestion
with her; she consistently met deadlines that she establishedoften with greater
reliability than staff senior to her! This factored into the many reasons our firm hired
her for a permanent position after approximately four months of interning and two-
and-a-half years working as a part-timestaff.
For those considering working in a for-profit evaluation firm, it is not necessary
to have a substantive focus area. Although Itypically work on youth-focused proj-
ects, Ido not have a substantive area of focus, and this has not hampered my career
path. Some firms seek individuals with technical research skills and substantive
knowledge, and others will not. Consulting firms must be nimble in their ability
to respond to new issue areas, because funding foci change over time. Therefore,
being too wedded to working in one particular issue area can be a hindrance to an
individuals consulting career.
Community Psychology Values and Evaluator Identity

I think of myself as an applied researcher and program evaluator first and a com-
munity psychologist (a very close) second. For me, my research and interper-
sonal skills are the skills that have been most integral to my professional success.
Community psychology values and perspectives, however, have shaped who I am
as a researcher and my evaluation philosophy. For example, I engage clients as
partners in the evaluation process. I respect client expertise in the setting, inter-
vention, and substantive area and view their expertise as necessary to project suc-
cess. Such a perspective engenders trust and serves as a positive foundation on

which to build a professional relationship. Further, I follow a stakeholder-driven

evaluation approach because findings gleaned from the evaluation research must
meet the stakeholders needs. The context and manner in which an intervention
is implemented influences the outcomes that the intervention is able to achieve
and thus are important factors to measure when conducting outcome evaluations
(Durlak & DuPre, 2008). Thinking of programs in this way is consistent with
my education in viewing social issues and interventions through a socioecologi-
cal lens, conceptualizing variables at a higher level of analysis than the individual
(e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Seidman, 1988), and recognizing that context matters
(Cooksy & Mark, 2012; Levine & Perkins, 1987). Because I know that context
matters, I adhere to Pattons (2008) suggested gold standard for evaluation, which
is methodological appropriateness, or choosing the most rigorous evaluation design
given the evaluation questions to be answered, the resources available, and the
uses for evaluation results. Finally, I seek to transfer knowledge to build the clients
internal capacity for evaluation; in so doing, this lessens the dependency on exter-
nal expertise, hopefully increasing the likelihood that the evaluation practices will
become institutionalized and sustained beyond the current project, and creating a
setting in which the organizations staff can empower themselves to become more
critical participants in evaluation (Labin, Duffy, Meyers, Wandersman, & Lesesne,
2012).
Developing and Selling YourSkills

Working on research projects as an undergraduate and graduate student was invalu-
able to my professional development and securing my position with a for-profit
evaluation consulting firm. By the time Icompleted my PhD, Ihad worked on 12
research and evaluation projects that arose out of graduate assistantships and fel-
lowships, independent study, and practica, in addition to my thesis and dissertation
research. Iwas fortunate to work on projects that exposed me to a range of research
purposes (e.g., evaluability assessment, process and outcome evaluation, research
to inform school policy development), data collection methods (e.g., use of archi-
val/secondary data, focus groups, in-person interviews, surveys), and diverse stake-
holder groups (e.g., school professionals, various social service agencies, students,
community members). Iencourage any student considering work in a consulting
setting to participate on multiple research teams, to talk with research project direc-
tors and advisors about how to gain experience in leadership roles within research
teams and in interacting with clients, and to develop research or evaluation-focused
practica. If an appropriate setting is available, internships at consulting firms also
can be beneficial.
In the process of preparing this chapter, the editors asked me how commun-
ity psychology students would market their skills to a for-profit consulting firm.

Iinterpreted this question as how to sell yourself to a firm when applying for a job,
because when my firm needed to hire a research associate or assistant position, it
was posted to the website (no one canvassed resume websites). Acomprehensive
discussion of the job application process is beyond the scope of this chapter, but the
following are a few key thoughts:
Prepare your cover letter carefully. Awell-written cover letter is essential for any
job application; it is your first opportunity to sell yourself, and a poorly writ-
ten letter is off-putting. Demonstrate in the cover letter how your experiences
and skills match the requirements of the position by including examples from
your research projects. Discuss how your experience and substantive knowledge
match with the position orfirm.
Use a full academic curriculum vitae (rather than a resume) that lists each of the
research projects you participated on and your responsibilities on the project,
your presentations and publications, awards, professional memberships, and the
like. Having experience across the range of research activities is helpful.
Prepare for an interview by being able to speak succinctly about commu-
nity psychology (because someone always asks about the field) and knowl-
edgeably about the projects you participated onthe activities that you
specifically conducted, findings from the studies, and how the clients used
the findings (if applicable and if you know). My values as a community psy-
chologist are what set me apart from other psychologists working in program
evaluation.
Attending toProfessional Development:The Balls

inYourCourt
As a doctoral student Ihad some responsibility for my professional development
but the setting also was charged with preparing me to become a community psy-
chologist by virtue of the courses, practicum, and projects required for degree
completion. Ialso was fortunate to have advisors and mentors who took an interest
in my professional development. Following graduate school, however, it increas-
ingly became my responsibility to attend to and advocate for my professional
development. At a minimum, annual performance reviews are an opportunity to
reflect on ones future career path (I like to think in five-year increments) and the
competencies one would like to build. I also view these reviews as an opportu-
nity to communicate about ones trajectory within the firm. By that Imean, if you
would eventually like to be promoted, communicate that to your supervisor and
be sure to include the information in your written self-assessment (if your firm
requiresone).

When working in a for-profit consulting firm, all of ones time has to be able to
be charged to a project code. Resources are sometimes available for professional
development opportunities, but more often they must be built into project work.
This is something to consider when preparing a proposal; however, the professional
development opportunity has to be compelling to justify the cost that may be added
to the proposal. Publications and conference presentations might not be important
to the firm or to the client, and thus it will be harder to make a case for these activi-
ties. Unless the client supports these activities, an individual likely will be doing
this work on her own time. In addition, the client must approve publications and
conference presentations. Long-term or repeat clients often learn and experience
benefits from greater visibility of their programmatic efforts through presentations
and publications. Consistent with my values as a community psychologist, clients
are often included as co-authors or co-presenters.
Conclusion:Benefits and Challenges

This chapter has overviewed the organizational structure and responsibilities of
staff working in for-profit consulting firms, described key aspects of the business
development process, and described essential skills for those seeking to work in
consulting firms. The chapter also has suggested how someone working in a for-
profit firm might attend to their professional development. In closing Iwould like to
share some benefits and challenges of for-profit consulting.
I experienced a number of benefits in this setting. This work exposed me to sev-
eral substantive issues within education and behavioral health that Ipreviously was
unfamiliar with. Ialso gained a different perspective on federal government opera-
tions working as a subcontractor for an executive branch federal agency.7 Iobtained
insight into funding processes, which truly is essential as an applied researcher
(regardless of the setting). Working in teams of highly educated and skilled col-
leagues also provided me with an opportunity to learn from them. In addition,
working in a setting with fewer hierarchical layers meant that administrative respon-
sibilities (e.g., hiring a temporary staff person for data entry) and deliverable pro-
duction processes (e.g., reviews of final reports) were expedited. Lastly, Iwas well
compensated for my effort.8
All work settings have their challenges, and this one is no exception. First, your
paycheck is dependent on how satisfied the client is with your work; it is for this
reason that I(tongue in cheek) referred to myself as a Hired Gun in the chapter
title. Pleasing the client can mean that the evaluation approach used is not what
would have been done if Ior my team had the final say in how to proceed. It was
very important for me to have a sense of on which issues I needed to hold firm

to my methodological position and on which Icould compromise. To me this is

a key challenge for community psychologists because the field is ideological and
value-laden. Ihave heard inspiring conference presentations from fellow commu-
nity psychologists working in academic settings and whose work Ihave tremendous
respect for. They are able to take positions with their research partnerssuch as the
amount of time they spend understanding the context or lines they are willing to
draw when community partners are not helping to advance the workthat are very
challenging to take when ones only source of income (and the only source of ones
colleagues income) is consulting.
A second challenge, depending on the location of ones firm, is that it can be
difficult to establish relationships with federal clients and have a sense of the fed-
eral undercurrents when working from a location outside of the Washington, DC
metro area. This challenge makes establishing trusting relationships with partner
evaluation firms very important. Athird challenge can be developing professional
relationships. Developing strategic relationships is key to business development;
however, Iam not one to seek disingenuous relationships. It sometimes felt awk-
ward discerning how to establish a genuine and mutually beneficial professional
relationship. Having an experienced mentor within the firm to discuss these types
of issues with was invaluable.
In sum, for-profit evaluation consulting firms present one of several types of
applied research employment for community psychologists. Firms of varying size
can be found across the United States, and although the specific organization and
policies of each firm varies, similar positions and responsibilities exist. In addition, a
commonality across all firms is the necessity of securing new business to sustain the
firm and its staff. Developing ones ability to contribute to business development is
essential to promotion in this setting. Community psychology students who have at
least a masters degree and are well grounded in research and evaluation principles
and approaches; who have applied research experience; and who have strong inter-
personal skills will be competitive applicants for positions with for-profit consulting
firms. Talking with community psychologists working at consulting firms can be
instrumental for determining if the career path is right for you. In addition, if you
decide to pursue such a job, Appendix 11.1 contains a list of some questions you
might ask when interviewing with a for-profit consultingfirm.
AuthorNote
I am truly grateful for the insightful and thoughtful review comments and sugges-
tions from Judah Viola, PhD, Olya Glantsman, PhD, Roy M. Gabriel, PhD, Ms.
Marilyn Hartzell, MEd, and Mrs. Sharon Martin.

Appendix 11.1 Potential Questions toAsk ofFor-Profit

Consulting Firms During anInterview
Question Rationale
For how long is this positions funding The firm Iworked for would not hire a staff
guaranteed? member without ensuring it had at least
What are the sources of funding for one year of funding to support the position.
this position? Because firms work on soft money, it is
important to know when your position
could be lost.
How do you see this position fitting Responses to this question might provide
into the office long-term or beyond you with a sense of how the firm plans
this project? to incorporate this position into its
organizational structure.
What are the expectations of this Responses to these questions will help
position for bringing in new you understand your role in business
work? development, how business development
What are the firms general works in this firm, and how the firm
expectations of staff for bringing in develops these skills in its professionals.
newwork?
What is the firms approach to business
development?
How, if at all, does the firm mentor
staff in developing business skills?
In the last five years, how many Responses to these questions will provide
staff members have left the you with an indication of the stability of the
organization? organization.
How many staff members have
joined?
Does the firm primarily lead projects Responses to these questions will indicate
or primarily subcontract to other the type of work you might often being
consulting firms? What are project doing.
examples?
How often do promotion It is important for you to know the
opportunities come about? process for moving up in the organization
What is required for promotion? and what professional milestones must
be demonstrated for promotion
to occur.

Question Rationale
What opportunities for professional Professional development activities can
development exist? range from substantive webinars for
(If this is true) Iam a member of several grantees sponsored by a funding agency
professional associations, such as the to special courses. If it is important to you,
Society for Community Research then you should know what resources
and Action. It is important for me to are available to support your professional
participate in their biennial conferences. growth. (Interview candidates commonly
What support, if any, exists for my ask questions like these.)
participation? Does the office pay any
professional memberships?
How does your staff access Having access to published journal articles
professional journal articles or other is important to executing this work.
literature?
Notes
1. Apresident and an executive vice president (co-owners) led the firm and were located in the
firms headquarters. Each of the firms offices had a vice president. The exact number of staff
varied over the course of my tenure.
2. The ratio of senior associates to associates changed during my tenure from about 1:5 to 1:1 in
preparation for a wave of retirements. The only challenge Iexperienced related to a flat struc-
ture was when my firm partnered with other consulting firms having more elaborate structures.
The partner firms staff may have held titles that implied they were senior to or more experi-
enced than me when that was not the case; the optics of this concerned me when we worked
with federal clients, as job titles and hierarchy matter when working in Washington,DC.
3. Academic, foundation, and government institutions often have identified funding sources,
such as state and Federal budgets or donors. Despite these identified funding sources, these
settings also face budget challenges, and my contrasting of for-profit firm funding with the
funding streams of these settings should not be interpreted as minimizing challenges faced by
academic, foundation, and government institutions.
4. Reviewing the job announcements for consulting firms is a beneficial exercise for under-
standing the requirements of for-profit consulting positions. The American Evaluation
Associations (AEA) website (http://www.eval.org) is a wonderful resource for locating these
job announcements.
5. As funders have increased performance reporting and evaluation requirements, the staff at
organizations and agencies seem to have increased knowledge of and experience with evalua-
tion concepts.
6. In her presidential address to AEA, Cooksy synthesized across several sources the competen-
cies identified as important to program evaluators (Cooksy & Mark, 2012). Although these
competencies apply to evaluators across settings, the article is a useful resource for those con-
sidering working in a for-profit evaluationfirm.
7. Prior to working in a for-profit consulting setting, I worked for a federal legislative branch
agency.

8. Salary ranges are not consistently posted for positions with for-profit firms. Ihave searched
the Internet to find salary ranges in various localities. For example, searching with the term
program evaluator salaries, I found the Glass Door website (http://www.glassdoor.com/).
Other resources include reports on salaries by AEA (Greenlaw, Brown-Welty, & Fetterman,
2006) and the American Psychological Association (Finno, Michalski, Hart, Wicherski, &
Kohut,2010).
References
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, MA:Harvard UniversityPress.
Cooksy, L.J., & Mark, M.M. (2012). Influences on evaluation quality. American Journal of Evaluation,
33(1),7987.
Danya International. (2002). Resources for behavioral science researchers:Grants, contracts, RFAs, and
RFPs. Retrieved from www.theresearchassistant.com/funding/fund-1.asp
Durlak, J.A., & DuPre, E.P. (2008). Implementation matters:Areview of research on the influence
of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 327350.
Finno, A.A., Michalski, D., Hart, B., Wicherski, M., & Kohut, J.L. (2010). 2009:Report of the APA
salary survey. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/09-salaries/index.
aspx
Greenlaw, C., Brown-Welty, S., & Fetterman, D. (2006). AEA employment survey:Areport on the
results for 2006. Retrieved from http://comm.eval.org/needs_assessment/Resources/
ViewDocument/?DocumentKey=a5289a48-685c-45b8-aa6e-ae0db0b59f79
Labin, S.N., Duffy, J.L., Meyers, D.C., Wandersman, A., & Lesesne, C.A. (2012). A research synthe-
sis of evaluation capacity building literature. American Journal of Evaluation, 33(3), 307338.
Levine, M., & Perkins, D. V. (1987). Principles of community psychology: Perspectives and applications.
New York: Oxford University Press.
National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2011). Frequently asked questions,
revised December 2011. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/funding/grant-contract-
application-process/frequently-asked-questions#differences
National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2013).
NINDS funding opportunities:Know the differences. Retrieved from http://www.ninds.nih.gov/
funding/funding_announcements/differences.htm
NewYork State Department of Health. (2012). Locating and applying for health promotion funds.
Retrieved from http://www.health.ny.gov/publications/4146
Patton, M. Q. (2008). Sup wit eval ext? In M. T. Braverman, M. Engle, M. E. Arnold, & R. A.
Rennekamp (Eds.), Program evaluation in a complex organizational system: Lessons from
Cooperative Extension. New Directions for Evaluation, 120, 101115.
Seidman, E. (1988). Back to the future, Community Psychology: Unfolding a theory of social inter-
vention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 321.
US Department of Health & Human Services, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2014).
Funding announcements, program announcements. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/fund-
ing/fund-opps/index.html
US General Services Administration. (2013). Indefinite delivery, indefinite quantity contracts.
Retrieved from http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/103926

12
Practicing Community Psychology ina

Small Evaluation and ConsultingFirm
Michelle Bloodworth
Practicing community psychology in a small evaluation firm can offer a lot of flex-
ibility and autonomy, without some of the challenges of being an independent con-
sultant. In this chapter, Italk about aspects of being an evaluator and how Ihave
increasingly brought my community psychology competencies and values into my
work as an evaluator. Iidentify some of the benefits and challenges of being part
of a private evaluation firm and address some aspects of working in the setting of a
small firm. Idiscuss who might be attracted to such a position and the preparation
that would be useful. First, Iwill share a bit about how Icame to be in my current
position.
I moved to Albuquerque from Chicago while Iwas writing my dissertation for
my PhD in community psychology. At the time, Iwas more than a little concerned
about my job prospects. Most of the community psychologists I knew lived and
worked in bigger cities. I also had a hard time imagining the types of potential
employers in my new setting who would be looking for the skills of a community
psychologist. Isensed that a subset of my skills, those associated with program eval-
uation, might be easier to market.
During graduate school, I had taken a course in program evaluation and had
become involved in the American Evaluation Association (AEA) so this was an ave-
nue Ihad to begin networking in my new locale. Ijoined the board of the local AEA
affiliate and started meeting people connected to program evaluation. This proved a
fruitful approach as shortly after defending my dissertation, Isecured a position as
an evaluator as the result of meeting someone through that local AEA affiliate. The
position Isecured was as a program evaluator at Apex and Iam at the same job now,
over eight yearslater.
147

Evaluation
Program evaluation is a diverse field both with regard to content areas and types of
approaches. There is program evaluation related to health interventions, programs
in developing parts of the world, the environment, incarcerated populations, educa-
tion, and many others. There are large evaluations aimed at giving us an objective
assessment as to whether an established program is effective and produces out-
comes that warrant ongoing investment of resources. There are also evaluations that
are developmental in nature (Patton, 2010), working closely as part of a program
team to provide ongoing data and evaluative thinking to inform further improve-
ments and development. There are many other variations of evaluation with regard
to size, overall purpose, and timeframe.
I have evolved my approach to evaluation as a result of both successes and fail-
ures that Ihave experienced in my work, my continued learning and development,
and my confidence in bringing community psychology competencies and values
into my work. My approach has also evolved along with the continued development
of Apexs clarity about what is required in the real world to help support clients to be
successful. Some of the important aspects that are integral to our approach to evalu-
ation is a systems lens that helps us not pretend that projects and initiatives operate
separate from the context where they are being implemented or from the capacity
of the organization. This includes an appreciation that the path to desired outcomes
can rarely, if ever, be fully known from the beginning. The projects Iam fortunate to
be part of are working to address complex social problems, and the solutions must
be context driven, connected to the desires and strengths of the community, and
adaptive. It is for these reasons that the potential contribution of evaluation is great.
To do this effectively, project staff and community members need the right kind of
information and they need it at the right times to guide their thinking and efforts.
Realizing this potential for evaluation, we seek opportunities to work closely with
organizations, program staff, and community members, to share ideas, learn about
needs, design changes to address the needs, assess how the changes are working,
and then feed that information back into the system to help it work better.
Potential clients often do not realize that evaluation can support them and their
projects in these ways. The foot-in-the-door often happens as a result of many grants
requiring projects and initiatives to have an external evaluator. It is in part for this
reason that their conception of evaluation is often limited to collecting data to
report back to the funder. It is seen as a requirement that is meant to serve someone
elses needs rather than their own. So, although having the title of evaluator can be
the way Icome to be part of a project, my initial work is to help share my vision for
the potential of evaluation to primarily serve the goals of the project, community,
staff, and organization. For me, the potential for evaluation to make a difference is
not just about having evaluation findings used after the project is completed but

P rac ticing CP in a Smal l Evaluation and C onsulting Fir m 149
rather to strive to increase its likelihood of success by being integral throughout

the whole process, from needs assessment, project design, implementation, and
improvement. For these reasons, my strong preference is to be part of a project from
the very beginning.
While skills and experience in evaluation are clearly important for doing the
work Ijust described, Ihope it is clear how community psychology competencies
are indispensable. Some of the competencies that Ihave found especially impor-
tant include an ecological perspective; community inclusion and partnership; ethi-
cal reflective practice; program development, implementation, and management;
small and large group processes; consultation and organizational development; and
collaboration and coalition development.
WhereIWork
When Istarted at Apex in 2008, there were two other full-time evaluators, two sup-
port staff, and a software developer. Alittle over eight years later, we have five senior
evaluators, three evaluation associates, an operations manager, an information tech-
nology specialist, a software developer, and four support staff. It has been a busy
time indeed.
The five evaluators at Apex have diverse training backgrounds. The founder and
president has an MBA, and the other four evaluators have PhDs in public health,
anthropology, sociology, and community psychology (me). Given these different
training backgrounds and types of previous project experience, we each have our
unique areas of strength and expertise. Some projects are large enough where more
than one of us collaborate, but even when that is not the case, Iknow Ihave a num-
ber of talented people available to ask a question or bounce off anidea.
A model we have been developing over the past couple years, to expand our
capacity and allow senior evaluators to lead more projects, has been to have a senior
evaluator and an evaluation associate to partner on a project. With this model, the
senior evaluator takes the lead for most of the client development, program con-
ceptualization, and evaluation design, with the evaluation associate supporting this
work as well as data collection, analysis, and writing. Our evaluation associates are
mostly graduate students or recent masters degree graduates in areas like public
health, education, and business. Like the senior evaluators, evaluation associates
continue to develop their own unique talents that enhance our organizations capac-
ity, such as in graphic design and technology deployment. This means that Ihave all
of these talents and capacities available to support me in my work and this improves
what Ican deliver to my clients.
Most of our clients are local school districts; state education and health agen-
cies; foundations; and nonprofits. We come to support our clients by different
means. Sometimes we, or our clients, identify a funding opportunity like a request

for proposals (RFP) for a grant and we decide to collaborate on writing a proposal,
sometimes with us taking the lead and designing the project and writing the pro-
posal. Other times we simply consult on the evaluation section of the proposal. In
other situations, a client might have already received a grant before seeking out our
services. We also have clients and projects that are not grant-related but rather we
are long-term consultants and evaluators of ongoing programs or systems. Many
of our projects are related to out-of-school time, community schools, school-based
health care, and educator professional development.
Upsides ofBeing Part ofa (Small) EvaluationFirm

I have not personally worked at a large evaluation firm so my observations are based
on my experiences in a small firm, as well as those of friends and colleagues who
have worked in large evaluationfirms.
Small Can Be JustRight

One of the aspects that Ivalue of being part of a small firm is the impact Ican have
on the organization itself. Over the past six years, my colleagues and Ihave been
able to make significant contributions to the culture, focus, evolution, and processes
of the place where we spend a great deal of our time and life energy. This has helped
me to feel a greater sense of engagement and investment. Having been a part of deep
and ongoing work around vision and mission, my colleagues and Ican see ourselves
reflected in how the organization is evolving.
The following upsides are not all exclusive to a small firm, and can be found in
some larger firms as well. Like most things, it just depends.
Support fromColleagues
I have already alluded to one of the biggest advantages to being part of a small firm
compared to being an independent consultant, collaboration with and support of
my colleagues. Even with our work focused mostly on education and student health,
the breadth of content that our projects touch can be overwhelming. It reduces my
anxiety considerably knowing that I have colleagues with additional experience
and expertise that Ican tap into. This also extends to the many ways the talents of
evaluation associates and support staff add to my capacity to serve my clients. This
includes things like being able to develop an iPad application to collect surveys from
students, designing beautiful and user-friendly reports, managing large databases,
and tracking down participants in a longitudinal evaluation.
Being part of a firm, even a small one, also means you dont have to go it
alone. Most evaluation consultants I know have multiple projects happening

simultaneously, all starting and ending at different times. This can make maintain-
ing an ideal amount of work a challenge. This is true of an independent consultant
or one who is part of a firm. When an opportunity arises it can be hard to pass up,
even if it means you or the organization will be a little overloaded for a while. As a
business, the risk lies in the possibility of there not being a plethora of opportuni-
ties down the road when you really need one. As part of a firm, it can be easier to
go after an opportunity when it arises because the overall workload can be shared
somewhat. This may mean that a new project is assigned to a colleague who cur-
rently has a lighter load, or when multiple deadlines coalesce, others in the firm
step up to help support getting the projects done in a timely fashion, without the
need for too many concurrent all-nighters.
Another valuable aspect of not having to go it alone is apparent when handling
challenging projects or clients. Having a colleague you can problem-solve with, or
who can at least confirm you are not crazy, is a huge advantage.
Predictability and Security

Being employed by a firm versus being an independent practitioner means that
there is a certain amount of predictability and security, like a regular paycheck and
a certain amount of benefits.
Additionally, such positions can also pay well. Pay varies by education level and
geographic area, but overall, working for an evaluation firm often pays more than
comparable positions within school districts, state agencies, or other public sec-
tors. Some firms also have structures in place to allow associates to reap some of the
financial benefit when they are responsible for bringing new work into the organiza-
tion. Being part of a group or firm also means that associates get access to additional
contacts and projects they might not have had access to on theirown.
Pursuing Areas ofInterest

When Ifirst started at Apex, Iwas relatively new to Albuquerque and did not have
clients or projects of my own. Iwas given a set of projects to work on; some of the
projects focus areas overlapped with my existing areas of interest and some were
completely new to me. In addition to working on these projects, a certain portion
of my time was and still is devoted to opportunity development. This simply means
that in order to sustain our business and remain connected to the community, we
all spend a portion of our time networking, attending community meetings, and
volunteering on committees. Through this part of my job, Ihave been able to spend
time hanging out in settings that connect me to efforts related to my areas of inter-
est. For instance, my dissertation was about community schools and so Istarted
attending a monthly meeting of a group trying to advance the model of commun-
ity schools in Albuquerque. After a little over a year, this group received a grant to

support their efforts, and they contracted with me to be part of the project. As a
result of my efforts to become connected to initiatives related to my areas of interest,
more and more of my work is related to theseareas.
Always Learning
As an evaluator, Ineed to keep learning and adapting or risk becoming obsolete.
For me, this is an aspect of my work that keeps it alive and exciting. On one hand,
there is the ever-evolving world of program evaluation that Istrive to keep abreast
of through everything from concise and very useful daily blog posts from AEA
(AEA365) to attending their annual conference. (I have not missed one since first
attending as a graduate student in 2003.) In addition to keeping up with the field of
evaluation, Ialso strive to remain involved and engaged in the field of community
psychology through newsletters, journals (often only having a chance to skim), and
conferences. There is also the matter of the content areas of my projects. This means
that at any given time Imight be trying to get up to speed on best practices in early
childhood education, retaining minority science students in college, or providing
effective professional development to special education teachers. It can make your
head spin, but it is neverdull.
Autonomy and Flexibility

I have a set of projects for which Iam primarily responsible. That means that it is
primarily up to me to ensure we meet the needs of the project and client, delivering
on our commitments. There are many aspects to accomplishing this, but Iam given
a great deal of autonomy for actually getting the job done. This also means it is up to
me to manage my own time and resources. For me, this means Ihave the flexibility
to work when and where it best serves the project and my own personal needs. That
can mean responding to work-related emails in the evening after my kids go to bed,
but it can also mean Imight go on a field trip with my sons class on a Tuesday morn-
ing. The autonomy and flexibility Ienjoy in my job are two of the biggest advantages
and for which Ifeel immense gratitude. Iam aware that part of this is a result of the
specific culture and context in which Iwork, but Ialso believe that my situation is
not completely unique.
When talking with other evaluators about our work contexts, I often say that
Ifeel like Ihave the best of both worlds. Iget to work as part of a group that adds to
my capacity in important ways; Ifeel secure in knowing that Iwill have a paycheck
deposited into my bank account next Friday; Icontribute to projects in areas that
interest me and that Ibelieve are important; Ikeep learning new things every day;
and Ienjoy loads of autonomy and flexibility. Sounds great, and it is, however, there
are also some potential drawbacks.

Potential Drawbacks
Not Completely Independent
While Ienjoy a great deal of autonomy in my position, Iam not completely inde-
pendent. The decision to take on a new project is not mine to make alone. Imight
be asked to take on a project in a content area in which Ihave little previous experi-
ence or one that is outside my areas of interest. As part of a group or organization,
Iam not the ultimate decision maker for all things related to my work. In reality, we
are rarely the ultimate rulers of our worlds, because we always have to factor in and
respond to clients or collaborators. As with clients and collaborators, the impact of
working as part of a firm where you are not making all the choices and decisions
varies a lot with the culture of the organization and the management style of bosses
or colleagues.
Money Complicates Everything

Money is a factor no matter where you work. Whether you work for the government,
a university, or a nonprofit, someone has to make sure there are enough resources
to support the work and pay salaries going forward. The small firm where Iwork is
a for-profit business. That doesnt mean that making money is the sole or even most
important objective, but it is an important one. Those 14 employees Ilisted earlier
all rely on a paycheck, and thus, the organization must pay careful attention to its
own sustainability. Among private firms, there are varying levels of the desire for
and focus on growth and prosperity.
Some of the ways I have directly experienced money as a complicating factor
have involved deliberations about leaving a project that is just not working, nego-
tiating with a client who has significantly underfunded evaluation in a budget, and
navigating the murky waters of assessing others motives to distinguish if they are
truly collaborators or they see us as competitors. While money seems to frequently
be a complicating factor, Ihave come to believe that honest personal self-reflection
about motives and direct, open, and transparent communication are important
tools for navigating these complications.
FastPace
One of the characteristics that can distinguish evaluation from research is the faster
pace. Part of this stems from the reality that for data and learning to be useful, it has
to get into a clients hands fast enough. The fast pace is also connected to the short
time span of some projects or grants, sometimes with the whole project only span-
ning a period of months. Another aspect of pace that is not related to individual

projects is the reality of having multiple projects with different deliverables, dead-
lines, and challenges.
Being theLone Community Psychologist

In general, the further you move away from the setting of a community psychology
training program the less likely you are to benefit from working with another com-
munity psychologist. Imentioned earlier the benefits of working as part of an inter-
disciplinary group, but Ialso miss collaborating with someone who has a shared
perspective as a community psychologist. Ihad the opportunity to briefly collabo-
rate with another community psychologist recently and the experience reminded
me of the value and depth possible when working with those with similar training
backgrounds.
What Does theWork LookLike?

My kids have it fairly accurate when they tell their friends that my job is to go to
meetings. It certainly feels that way some of the time. Most of my current projects
are in my local community. Given my high level of participation in planning and
providing feedback, Ispend a lot of time meeting with various clients helping to
ensure that leadership, program staff, or community coalitions have the information
needed to inform their work. There are also in-house meetings at Apex to facilitate
collaboration on projects and to help build the capacity of the organization.
I spend a fair amount of time traveling outside of New Mexico. Some of my
travel is to attend meetings for local projects that are part of national initiatives or
as the evaluator on a national project. Ialso attend evaluation conferences as well
as conferences for project-related content areas, such as school-based health or
community schools. Ihave made it a priority to attend the Society for Community
Research and Actions biennial conference to help me stay connected to my roots as
a community psychologist and to continue to merge my identities as an evaluator
and a community psychologist.
Outside of meetings and travel, my time is spent somewhere on a computer plan-
ning evaluations, developing tools, sending and answering emails, giving feedback
to colleagues, writing reports or grant proposals, and reading blogs and articles.
Who Would It Be GoodFor?

There is a tremendous amount of diversity among evaluation firms, and thus jobs
at evaluation firms. Someone early in his or her career who wants to gain more
evaluation and/or business experience before going out on their own might be

predisposed to pursue a position in a firm as opposed to being an independent eval-

uation practitioner. Afirm might also be desirable for someone like me who was
new to the geographic area and didnt have local networks of connections. Other
factors include the desire to work as part of a team rather than alone, or not wanting
to start or manage a business.
Getting theJob
If this is all sounding good to you and you want to set yourself on the path to a posi-
tion at an evaluation firm, the following is some advice foryou.
Training
While there are graduate programs in evaluation, many if not most evaluators have
received their graduate training in other fields, including community psychology.
Evaluation is a part of many of my community psychology colleagues careers to
varying degrees. Iam not surprised, as Ifeel that my training as a community psy-
chologist has served me exceedingly well as an evaluator.
Regardless of the specific program, courses in program evaluation, statistics,
and research methods are all very helpful as an evaluator. Additionally, training or
experience in program design; group processes and facilitation; survey tool devel-
opment; and conducting interviews and focus groups is also valuable.
The issue of whether to get a doctorate degree or a masters degree is a com-
plicated one. There are interesting jobs for those with masters degrees, and with
experience someone with a masters can progress to having a lot of autonomy and
responsibility. Having said that, my experience has been that a doctorate allows for
entry into higher-level jobs with more autonomy and flexibility from thestart.
In addition to formal programs and courses to prepare for a career in evaluation,
Istrongly advise looking for opportunities to work on an evaluation project and to
participate in workshops at local and national evaluation conferences.
Marketing Yourself
Once you have the training needed to establish your evaluation skills, it is time to
market your skill set to potential employers. An important lesson for me was look-
ing beyond the title of available jobs and instead focusing on the skill set employers
were looking for, and then clearly conveying how my training and experience had
prepared me with those very skills.
Even once employed at an evaluation firm, the self-marketing doesnt stop there,
because potential clients need to find out why the unique skills of a community psy-
chologist who is an evaluator is just what they need. Ihave found that connecting

with potential employers as well as clients is all about putting myself in spaces where
interesting and important things are happening. This has included local evaluation
group events, meetings of coalitions working on areas important to me, and national
evaluation conferences.
Reference
Patton, M. Q. (2010). Developmental evaluation:Applying complexity concepts to enhance innovation
and use. NewYork, NY:GuilfordPress.

13
Nonprofit Support
Can You Profit from Working with Nonprofits?
Marc Goldstein and JohnDaviau
We are going to describe our experiences as two community psychology consul-

tants who both work with nonprofit organizations, who have traveled very different
paths to get there. We have learned much along the way and this chapter attempts to
share some of these insights with those who might be considering this career path.
Please note that we do not consistently work together, although we have collabo-
rated on some projects. What we share is an interest in working with organizations
focused on doing good work and effecting change in the community.
In theBeginning
Neither of us began our careers with the intent of becoming consultants to nonprof-
its. One of us ( John) worked for 20years in staff positions in several nonprofit orga-
nizations, and earned an MA degree in Community Psychology in 2004. One of
the graduate courses that piqued his interest was a course in consultation. Since he
was already working as an internal consultant at a large nonprofit, he began thinking
about starting his own consulting business and began planning for that possibility
by solidifying a network of potential clients through effective partnerships and lead-
ership roles. When his current work situation began to deteriorate due to organiza-
tional changes, John left and started his consulting business in2006.
The other one of us (Marc) completed his PhD in Psychology with a heavy
emphasis in community psychology, and taught in that field for 33years at a state
university. During his academic career, and now, following his retirement from
the academy, he has worked part time as a consultant for a variety of nonprofit
and municipal groups. His start in consulting began through a chance connec-
tion with a local organization. He and a colleague had been approached by the
executive director of a regional substance abuse council to write the evaluation
157

section of a grant proposal seeking $1.5million dollars over five years for a sub-
stance abuse coalition. The proposal, in Marcs eyes, was exceedingly vague and
amorphous. Now, literally a week before the due date, and in the middle of the
academic semester, there was no way to provide meaningful assistance. Marc and
his colleague bowed out, saying while they might be able to help on a future sub-
mission, there was no way we could rescue this train wreck of a proposal. The
executive director acknowledged the sad state of the proposal, but told them she
was going to submit it anyway to placate the pressure she was feeling from the
agencys board. Surprisingly, the grant received funding. This was Marcs intro-
duction to the political world of grant writing and nonprofit organizations. He
ended up working as the local evaluator on that five-year grant and it started his
30-year involvement in working with such organizations in addition to being a
traditional academic.
Working withNonprofit Organizations

Nonprofits are interesting entities in that their bottom line is not dollars but quality-
of-life issues that resonate with most community psychologists, (e.g., empowering
youth, promoting health, preventing substance abuse). They are not interested in
money per se (profit), but they have to be interested in money to sustain their good
work. In many ways, nonprofits and various community organizations are busi-
nesses that dont want to be in business.
This dichotomy creates a number of opportunities for consultants with non-
profit organizations. Our community psychology background helps us to assist
them in thinking about macro level issues such as understanding the impact of com-
munity dynamics on both their organizational structure and program outcomes.
For example, community psychologists can assist nonprofits in understanding
community norms, power systems, interrelationships between community enti-
ties, community readiness, and community needs. On the community level, we
can facilitate or guide community needs assessments, provide skill development
through training and technical assistance, assist in building community capac-
ity to achieve goals including volunteer management. In many nonprofit orga-
nizations, volunteers are critical to achieving the organizational mission. At the
organizational level, we can help clients build intrinsic motivation programs to
counteract the lower employee compensation in the nonprofit world, assist with
organizational structure and development, guide fiscal and program planning and
sustainability, and show how ongoing evaluation can help their intervention strat-
egies be more evidence-based.
As mentioned, assisting nonprofits to sustain their efforts through the develop-
ment of both fiscal and human resources is critical to their ongoing success. In

Nonp ro fit Suppor t:P ro fit f rom Work ing w i th Nonp ro f i t s ? 159
turbulent economies, such as the last several years, nonprofits often suffer more
than for-profit businesses because of reductions in government spending, cutbacks
in donations to charitable groups, and reduced earnings on endowments to private
foundations. Let us now briefly describe the kinds of organizations we serve fol-
lowed by an elaboration on the types of services we provide.
Who We WorkWith
Our most common clients are community coalitions and other organizations
focused on substance abuse prevention. In Connecticut, these other organizations
include Regional Action Councils, state agencies such as the Department of Mental
Health and Addiction Services, Youth Service Bureaus, and local prevention coun-
cils. The federal government legislatively channels millions of dollars each year to
these groups through such programs as the Substance Abuse Block Grants (http://
www.samhsa.gov/grants/blockgrant), the Drug-Free Communities Act (http://
beta.samhsa.gov/grants/grant-announcements/sp-14-002), and the Safe and
Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act (http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/
leg/esea02/pg51.html). Many of the coalitions and agencies we have worked with
have been supported by such funding; some have also received funding from other
sources, such as local or regional foundations.
We have also done some work, primarily need assessments, for local health
districts in Connecticut. Our other employers have included school systems and
police departments. Because of the inherent structure of local school districts in
Connecticut (they are fiercely independent, financed by local property taxes, lead-
ing to big discrepancies in per pupil spending across towns and high overhead/
administrative costs), our work with schools has been more sporadic than with
other types of organizations. This situation is different in many states that either
have more county-based educational systems or rural systems where the school dis-
trict is the primary venue for services directed atyouth.
Services Offered
One domain of service that we offer would fall under the rubric of organizational
development. This would include a variety of activities at different points along the
organizations life cycle. For new and emerging organizations, this might include
helping them establish needed structures (committees), create by-laws and operat-
ing procedures, develop strategies for recruiting new members, identify and provide
specific training needs, and build organizational capacity. Often these organizations
have a priority to establish collaborative relationships and partnerships within the

community. We often guide and support clients to network, coordinate, and col-
laborate with other community entities including the sharing of resources to achieve
common goals. For more mature organizations, this might include more emphasis
on long-term planning to improve overall outcomes, staff and executive training and
coaching, and funding/sustainability strategies.
A second cluster of services deal with environmental/community scanning and
assessment. This domain would encompass such areas as (a) conducting needs
assessments and identifying gaps in service; (b) assessing community strengths
and resources (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993); and (c) examining community
structure (existing organizations and their history of coordination) and commu-
nity attitudes to gauge the readiness of communities to advance effective prevention
strategies.
One of the key skills that community psychologists bring to the table is the
ability to conceptualize a problem from multiple perspectives. Notions such as first-
and second-order change (Watzlawick, Weakland, & Fisch, 1974)and the ability
to reframe issues can be extremely helpful when working with individuals and/
or groups who have developed certain myopias when thinking about a commu-
nity concern. Such skills can help groups find creative ways to address persisting
problems.
Today, almost all providers of funding to nonprofits (i.e., local or state level
agencies and foundations) require some type of evaluative process to ensure that
provided funds are (1)being spent appropriately; and (2)creating positive change
on specific indicators relevant to the objectives of the program. Historically, many
evaluations were largely accounting exercises (e.g., was money spent on appropriate
items? how many units of service were delivered?), but since the widespread adop-
tion of logic model frameworks in federal, state, and foundation grant requests in
the 1990s (see Knowlton & Phillips, 2013, for an overview and history), there is a
much greater emphasis on both process and outcome evaluations at the individual,
organizational, and community level. Many federal grants require that about 10% of
the total funding be earmarked for evaluation services, and organizations are explic-
itly encouraged to seek outside evaluators for this work, making program evaluation
a key area for consultation.
Another type of assistance that we provide is in grant writing. Many organiza-
tions may not have individuals with experience to write grant proposals for govern-
ment (federal or state) or private (foundations) sources. This work requires strong
writing skills and familiarity with the particular details required in such applica-
tions. In addition, grant applications usually require inclusion of community data
that demonstrate the need for the program that the grant applicant is proposing.
Obtaining such information involves knowing how and where to obtain various
social indicator data from government sources (e.g., US Census, state departments
of Health, Education, and thelike).

Key SkillSets
There are a number of skills needed to do the kinds of work just described. Most
of these have been delineated in the Competencies for Community Psychology
Practice that were developed by the Task Group on Defining Practice Competencies
and presented in Dalton and Wolfe (2012). That comprehensive list included
18 competencies for community psychology practice grouped under five headings.
While all the skills listed might come into play at some point over a career as a con-
sultant, we only discuss a subset of these competencies that are most relevant to
our everyday consulting work. We will also mention one other skill area, customer
service orientation, which is not part of thatlist.
The first four foundational competenciesan ecological perspective, empow-
erment, sociocultural competence, and community inclusion and partnership
clearly represent much of what community psychologists can uniquely bring to
their consulting practice. The types of organizations we work with often fail to see
the full complexity of the ecosystem in which they are embedded. Helping them
to see more clearly the dynamic interactions between individuals and groups and
the greater community is one of the key assets we can share with them. Moreover
the notions of first-and second-order change and their application to problem con-
ceptualization and problem-solving (Watzlawick etal., 1974)are particularly valu-
able in helping organizations clearly identify the level of environment at which they
should address their change efforts.
We also believe that effective consulting work with a nonprofit organization
should empower the organization and build its overall capacity. We do not want to
be simply a pair of hands (see Block, 2011 for an excellent discussion of roles that
consultants canplay).
The concepts of sociocultural competence and community inclusion and part-
nership often play out in several ways. First, knowledge of and appreciation for the
many cultural groups within the community and how to incorporate this diversity
is a requisite if you are trying to help build a community organization that will have
the trust and capacity to mobilize community energy toward meaningful change. In
a different context, sociocultural competence may be reflected in terms of under-
standing and respecting the professional and organizational cultures in which we
work. Schools, human service organizations, and police departments each have
their own culture, which reflects both the socialization characteristics of the profes-
sionals involved and the leadership styles of those in charge. Sensitivity to these
nuances is critical for your expertise to be appreciated and meaningfully used within
nonprofit organizations.
Beyond these foundational skills, other important competencies would fall
under the headings of community program development and management, com-
munity and organizational capacity-building, social change, or community research.

An effective consultant needs to understand the elements that go into creating a

community-based organization. This would include such skills as how to identify
community needs and strengths, how to bring community interest groups together,
how to train staff, and how to create certain critical documents such as federal and
foundation grant requests, organizational by-laws, and long-term planning docu-
ments. These writing skills, if not sufficiently developed in graduate school, can be
strengthened through work experience in a nonprofit organization or through train-
ings offered by private sources such as the Grantsmanship Center (http://www.
tgic.com).
Since much of our consulting with nonprofit groups involves working with orga-
nizations focused on substance abuse prevention or health promotion, it is impor-
tant to be knowledgeable about the key conceptual frameworks in these content
areas. These include the Strategic Prevention Framework (Center for Prevention
Research and Development, 2009), the work of the Search Institute on develop-
mental assets (http://www.search-institute.org/), and the social development
model and the Communities that Care model put forth by the Social Action
Research Group (www.sdrg.org/CTCInterventions.asp). Most importantly, you
need to identify the models that prospective clients are using and familiarize your-
self withthem.
Skills in the domain of capacity-building are also critical in working with non-
profit groups. As a consultant, you will often be mentoring organizational members
about such issues as leadership development, group processes, planning for lead-
ership transitions, and identifying and securing external resources, which includes
both financial and human capital.
Necessary skills in the social change area include initiating and supporting
collaborative efforts such as coalition development and community organizing.
Nonprofits are continually being asked by funders to collaborate with other com-
munity organizations and mobilize community members to come together on
particular issues and topics. Many nonprofits lack the conceptual frameworks and
negotiating skills to create effective collaborations with other groups. This is an area
where community psychologists can be quite helpful. Similarly, public policy and
advocacy are skill areas that many nonprofits lack, yet they are becoming essential to
continued success and sustainability. For example, many of the coalitions we work
with have gotten involved in either drafting and/or advocating for (or against) leg-
islation at the local or state level. Skills in this area represent another domain where
community psychologists can provide valuable support to nonprofit groups.
Program evaluation skills are still another key part of your toolkit. While gradu-
ate training in research methods is typically more than ample in this domain, be pre-
pared for many situations that are not amenable to causal analysis of impacts. Except
in the most extraordinary circumstances, true control groups are rarely possible.
The final competency we want to mention is what we call customer service orienta-
tion. This is perhaps not so much an interpersonal skill as it is a cognitive orientation.

One of the deep structural values in academic culture, particularly at the PhD level,
is that, in the academy, you largely march to the beat of your own drum:you decide
your research agenda; you (often) decide what courses youll teach and how you
will teach them; you choose your own office hours (see Resnicow, Baranowski,
Ahluwalia, & Braithwaite, 1999, for a discussion of deep structure). Indeed, one of
the most intoxicating aspects of the academic lifestyle is the tremendous control
you have over your time. You may work very hard, but you work when youwant.
In contrast, being a consultant means you are often marching to the beat of the
clients drum. Deadlines for grant proposals and contract deliverables are rarely
negotiable. If you miss them, it damages your credibility and reputationyour most
important assetswith both current and future clients. This may seem obvious, but
in attempts to interest colleagues in consulting opportunities, I(Marc) have repeat-
edly encountered faculty who only want to do such work when it is convenient to
them, not to the client. This is not a customer service orientation.
If you are serious about being a consultant, you must understand that in most
situations, the clients needs come first, as this is how you will perpetuate work
for yourself through both repeat clients and positive word-of-mouth advertising.
Another manifestation of a customer service orientation is that you meet the client
where he or she is. You do not lecture to your client; you engage in meaningful two-
way conversation. Theoretical or statistical constructs are translated into laymens
terms. In other words, you do everything in your power to build the capacity of the
client and their organization through a positive client/consultant relationship.
Getting Started
While most of the concepts and skills needed to be an effective consultant are at
least touched upon in graduate community psychology programs, there is no sub-
stitute for at least five years of work experience inside a nonprofit organization to
learn the nuances of this culture and to become accepted as an expert in the field.
In many cases, fewer than five years will not be enough time to establish yourself as
a go to resource; moreover, your nonprofit work experience will do a number of
things to help your later work as an external consultant. First, it will increase your
skill levels and others awareness of your skills. Second, work in a nonprofit set-
ting will increase your credibility, both professionally and personally with future
potential clients. While the professional credibility is obvious, do not underesti-
mate the power of and need for personal credibility as well. Thirdly, it also increases
your ability to empathize with clients. The positive reputation you build in this stage
will have a direct impact on your bottom line as you start your business. Astrong
reputation was an extremely important factor for us in developing our consultant
practices. Finally, this experience will start your networking and provide you with
some initial contacts within the nonprofit domain that you can leverage to grow

your referral base (but see Thompson, 2007, for a discussion of the ethical and legal
issues of taking clients with you). The relationships you build at this stage will also
be an important factor in starting your consulting practice.
In addition to work experience, you should also regularly attend professional
conferences and trainings to learn (or at least be exposed to) new skills and con-
cepts. While many of these may be in psychology, do not be afraid to attend events
in other fields. Some of the best training I(Marc) have received has been at confer-
ences on such issues as advocacy and public policy. Be sure to investigate what kinds
of trainings or resources are offered (often free) by local or state-level agencies. In
Connecticut, for example, the state Department of Mental Health and Addiction
Services underwrites dozens of free courses at locations across the state. Such train-
ings are likely to put you into contact with new circles of professionals that, again,
may turn out to be great networking resources.
As you learn new skills or discover novel ways of applying them, be sure to pass
them on by presenting at conferences or at community events. Such presentations
bring value to your colleagues, demonstrate your own credibility, and provide great
networking opportunities.
Potential consulting opportunities may require a wide range of skills and exper-
tise, some of which you have, and some of which you do not. In such cases, it may be
possible to partner with other consultants with complementary skill sets or knowl-
edge bases to apply for the job. For example, one job with a local police department
required skills in both community analysis and police operations and procedures.
I(Marc) collaborated with a faculty member in criminal justice to complete thisjob.
Finally, it is a good idea, if possible, to maintain a connection to your universitys
library system. As students, we take access to electronic databases for granted, but
once beyond the university, many of these privileges stop. I(Marc) have talked with
numerous independent consultants (across all fields) who report that their separa-
tion from these bibliographic services constitute a significant handicap in staying
abreast with developments in their field. Indeed, Ihave bartered my access to online
journals for consultation on particular skills or expertise that Ido not possess.
Marketing Your Services toNonprofits

Marketing your services to nonprofit organizations is essential to maintaining your
income as a consultant. The first, and most important, step is being clear on what
kinds of services you can competently provideby yourself or in conjunction
with other consultantsand understanding what those services mean to your cli-
ents. I( John) have been involved in federally or state funded projects in which the
funders are also new to the project and are using a learning as they go approach. As a
grantee of these funds, this can be very frustrating as it becomes clear that the folks
leading the project are not able to meet the needs of the project. As a funder, you

can ask for patience, but as a consultant, you cannot. Do not damage your credibil-
ity by taking on a project that requires competencies you do nothave.
Once you know what you are providing, the second step is getting your message
out there to potential clients. This can be done in a number of ways. Contact your
existing network (e.g., friends, people you already work with, and so on) and let
them know that you are now working as a consultant (but see Thompson, 2007, for
a discussion of the ethical and legal issues involved). While you may think the easi-
est way to do this is by email or social media, face-to-face or telephone contact will
have more of an impact and you can ask these individuals for names of others who
might be interested in your services. As your client list grows, be sure to ask them to
pass your name on to others. In our practices, positive word-of-mouth advertising
continues to be the most successful method to obtain new contracts.
You will be expected to maintain a website that at minimum describes what you
offer as well as information about you, such as your education and work experience.
You do not need to go overboard on your website design (unless website design is
what you are selling); its primary purpose is to validate your existence, identify the
services you provide, and provide contact information. You can also use other social
media venues like Facebook and LinkedIn, but our experience is that these are not
primary sources for referrals but rather supplementary channels for potential clients
to find out more aboutyou.
A key way to build your visibility is to be active in professional organizations.
This would include organizations representing your own profession (e.g., the
Society for Community Research and Action), as well as those organizations
where your potential clients may be members. Check for state level associations
that represent prevention and/or human service organizations. By active we mean
attending meetings, making presentations at conferences, and writing short arti-
cles for organizational newsletters or websites. Another possible resource can be
found in the Requests for Proposals (RFP) from state and municipal organizations.
Most state agencies and municipalities maintain web pages where they list RFPs,
RFAs (Request for Applications), RFQs (Requests for Qualifications), and RFIs
(Requests for Information). While most of these will not be for services you provide,
every now and then you may find a valuable opportunity. Anote of caution:many of
these agencies are required by law to post these notices even though they know in
advance who they are going to hire to do the service. It is worth a phone call to the
organization to get some background on the RFP to see if they are really looking for
a new provider, or if the posting is simply a pro forma exercise.
Identify local and regional foundations that provide support to community-
based groups for organizational improvement and monitor their RFPs. You may be
able to help a community organization seek funding for long-term planning and
then provide the needed services. It is also valuable to know which community
organizations are applying for or have previously received federal or state grants to
support their activities since many of these grant programs have yearly cycles.

Finally, it is valuable to know other consultants who provide similar kinds of

service as you do. Sometimes there are opportunities available that are beyond
your logistic capabilities. Collaborating with other consultants may be a way to
participate in those ventures. Moreover, in cases where you may not have the
appropriate expertise, referring to other, more appropriate consultants will pro-
vide a valuable service to that organization and will likely keep you on their go-to
list for future, more appropriate projects. Such referrals may also increase the
chance that other consultants may refer you for jobs that are not a good fit for
their expertise.
Lifestyle Issues forConsultants

There are a number of considerations one must keep in mind when going down
this career path. First, unless you work for an established company, you will prob-
ably need to start your own business. This will likely involve issues of incorpora-
tion, accounting and tax procedures, and liability insurance (see Viola & McMahon,
2010, for further coverage of these topics). You will need to work with an attorney
and an accountant to set this up. If you hire employees, other financial and legal
responsibilities will be involved. In other words, there will be some upfront costs.
Most consultants who work with nonprofits usually begin such work on a part-time
basis while maintaining other sources of income.
Working as a consultant means providing your own benefits, such as health
insurance and retirement savings. The cost of health insurance for an individual or a
couple can be high, although these costs may go down as Obamacare continues to
roll out. Having insurance coverage through a secondary job or through a working
spouse or partner is highly desirable.
Another consideration is the degree to which you want to travel. Both John and
Ihave been fortunate enough to find a sufficient number of clients in our small state.
In more sparsely settled regions of the country, however, serving clients may involve
extensive travel.
What will you earn? Obviously there is no simple answer to this. It will depend
on a host of variables including your skills at marketing your services, the potential
number of clients in your area, and how much time you want to invest. One of us
(Marc) does this work strictly on a part-time basis, makes little effort to market
his services, and grosses $20-25K per year. And the economy can have a significant
impact on earnings as well. As a full-time consultant for nonprofits, a good year
could gross you more than $100K, but in a downturned economy, this could drop
to $6570K the following year. Probably the most significant issue for a consul-
tant is time management. Since much of our work involves contracts where certain
deliverables (services, reports, and the like) are to be provided for a set price, it is

critical that you (a)estimate accurately how long given services will take to com-
plete, and (b)manage your time on various projects judiciously. Our experience is
that most jobs take longer than you think they will. It is not the tasks that you do
yourself that slow you down, it is the minor logistical issues of dealing with others
(e.g., setting up meetings and interviews, getting needed materials from others, and
so on), that always take longer than expected.
In this regard, a key learning is to know when you need to charge by the hour
instead of by the job. The need to charge hourly may increase when too many facets
of the deliverables are dependent on others, including your client. This happens
often and will slow your ability to meet deadlines. Your client will want to control
costs and will therefore want a set price, but setting up protocols for additional
costs, if others slow the project down, can be an effective strategy.
Conclusion
Working as a consultant with nonprofit organizations can be both a demanding
and exhilarating experience. Working to assist in organizational change is always
fraught with difficulties because organizations, like people, are resistant to change.
Typically, energy, either in the form of new resources or in the redirection of current
resources, must be added to the system for meaningful change to occur. The task of
the consultant is to help the organization find such energy without being the sole
source of it. The exhilaration comes from seeing organizations devoted to positive
community change become empowered, making the world (or at least one piece of
it) a betterplace.
References
Block, P. (2011). Flawless consulting:Aguide to getting your expertise used, 3rd ed. San Francisco,
CA:Jossey-Bass.
Butterfoss, F. (2007). Coalitions and partnerships in community health. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.
Center for Prevention Research and Development. (2009). Background research: The strategic pre-
vention framework. Champaign: Center for Prevention Research and Development, Institute
of Government and Public Affairs, University of Illinois. http://www.cprd.illinois.edu/files/
ResearchBrief_SPF_2009.pdf
Knowlton, L. W., & Phillips, C. C. (2013). The logic model guidebook:Best strategies for great results.
Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.
Kretzmann, J.P., & McKnight, J.L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out:Apath toward
finding and mobilizing a communities assets. Evanston, IL: The Asset-Based Community
Development Institute, Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University.
Resnicow, K., Baranowski, T., Ahluwalia, J.S., & Braithwaite, R.L. (1999). Cultural sensitivity in
public health:Defined and demystified. Ethnicity & Disease, 9(1),1021.

Thompson, S. (2007). Can you take your clients with you when you quit? Retrieved from http://voices.
yahoo.com/can-take-clients-quit-297862.html
Viola, J. & McMahon, S. D. (2010). Consulting and evaluation with nonprofit and community-based
organizations. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J.W., & Fisch, R. (1974). Change. NewYork, NY:Norton.

14
GoingSolo
Community Psychology as a Small Business
Susan M.Wolfe
Combinations of the community psychology practice competencies provide a

unique blend of knowledge, skills, and abilities that are useful for a wide range of
organizations, including nonprofit community-based organizations, government
(local, state, federal), health-care institutions, schools, and the for-profit sector
(Dalton & Wolfe, 2012). In this chapter Iwill describe how Iapplied the competen-
cies to a solo consulting practice. It will include some of my career history that was
relevant for my practice, the positives and negatives of consulting in a solo practice,
the skills and experiences that contribute to my success, and the benefits of my com-
munity psychology training. Iwill also offer some guidance and caution for com-
munity psychologists who may be interested in developing a solo practice.
It Was a Long, Long, LongRoad

My career path has been influenced by a series of personal circumstances, avail-
able opportunities, and some good fortune along the way. One result is that Ihave
worked across a variety of settings and had a wide range of experiences. In this sec-
tion of the chapter, Iwill describe the different settings and opportunities to illus-
trate the types of skills and knowledge gained from each. The goal is to provide
some examples of settings and experiences to consider working in before engaging
in a consulting practice.
My first experience began as an undergraduate student intern in a research depart-
ment at a large public hospital and lasted through my first year and a half of graduate
school. Ilearned of this opening through my fellow students who had interned in
this department and who knew that Ireally liked my research methods classes. As
required by my program, Icalled the director of the department, interviewed, and
was selected for the internship. It was initially unpaid, but Iwas eventually hired
169

for a grant-funded project and later promoted to a staff position. Iparticipated in

community-based research and program evaluation, and Iexperienced the realities
of working in community settings. During this time Iwas exposed to multiple topics
(e.g., oncology research, maternal-infant developmental research, substance abuse
among the hearing impaired, and domestic violence), and multiple data collection
methodologies, including videotaping and coding videotapes, interviews, observa-
tions, chart reviews, and telephone surveys. Ialso analyzed data. Ilearned a lot about
structuring datasets and gained data and project management skills. Iwas there for
three-and-a-half years and my requests to work on publications of our results were
not received positively, so my advisor suggested that Iexplore other opportunities.
RECOMMENDATION:While you are still in school take advantage of internship
opportunities as much as possible. They provide valuable experience, may give you a foot
in the door, and are helpful resume builders.
My next opportunity was as a research assistant with the Center for Social and
Economic Issues (CSEI) at the Industrial Technology Institute. I learned of this
opening for a paid position through my advisor at Michigan State University. Icalled
Lou Tornatzky, the Director of CSEI, interviewed with him, and was hired. My first
assignment was an interdisciplinary review of technological innovation literature.
I had the good fortune of working with a group of community psychologists in
collaboration with economists, engineers, computer scientists, and others helping
organizations prepare for and adapt to technological changes. While this may not
sound very community related, it actually was the best exposure Ihad in my career
to understanding systems, the relevance of organizational theories to our work, and
the role community psychologists can play in helping corporations and businesses
prepare for and adapt to change. After nearly two years Iwas promoted to a full-time
position as a research associate. While Iwould have liked to have stayed in this posi-
tion longer, personal circumstances relocated me toTexas.
In my subsequent role as the assistant director of research for a large community
college district, Iworked in an administrative higher education setting and learned
about institutional research. Ifound this job through a newspaper ad, applied, inter-
viewed, and was hired. Ianalyzed data, learned to use SAS (the statistical program),
produced reports, and evaluated small programs. The most interesting experience
was when Iwas asked to use a Geographic Information System (GIS; a software still
in its infancy) to redraw district voting lines to create strong minority voting dis-
tricts to elect the Board of Trustees. This was a first-hand experience at seeing how
the small, strategic movement of lines bordering voting districts can impact election
outcomes. Admittedly, this was a job Itook more out of need than of interest in the
work. After two years Ibegan looking for opportunities that would be more consis-
tent with the direction Iwanted to go in for my career.
While attending the SCRA Biennial in Arizona I met Paul Toro who had just
received a large grant to study homelessness and was looking for a project director.
I applied for the position, interviewed, and was hired. This position was as project

Going Sol o :Communit y Ps ychol og y as a S mal l Bus ine s s 171
director for a large, longitudinal study of homelessness, and was one of the best
research experiences I had during my career. It was the first time I worked in research
in an academic setting. It sharpened my project management skills, I learned about
the federal grant process, broadened my analytic skills to include structural equa-
tion modeling, gained content expertise in homelessness and poverty, developed
relationships with community service providers to access research participants,
and overall I grew as a researcher. I started the job in Buffalo, New York. After six
months the project headquarters moved to Detroit, Michigan, and we implemented
the study in a second site and also designed and implemented a study of adolescent
homelessness. While it was an ideal job, personal circumstances intervened, and I
left after a year and a half to move back to Texas.
My next opportunity was as director of research for a childrens mental health
center that provided psychological, social work, and case management services.
This was a newly created position. While Iwas looking for a job in Texas Icalled
many key individuals whose names Igot through referrals and researching nonprofit
organizations in the Dallas, Texas, area. Each time Icalled Igave a brief overview of
my skills and interests, and asked the person Icalled if they knew of any positions
available in the area that would fit with them. Each person Icontacted gave me a
name and number. Eventually Ireached the director of the center who had money
available and was planning to hire someone likeme.
RECOMMENDATION:Have an elevator speech ready for networking that very
briefly highlights your strengths and interests.
I was hired to initiate a research department, but found what they actually had
in mind for me was to search for and write grants. This was my introduction to the
inner workings of nonprofit, community-based agencies and how they are funded.
What became obvious was that there is little funding to sustain existing services
so these organizations must become creative with reframing what they are doing
to accommodate new models that are being funded. For this agency the available
funding would have necessitated deviating too far from the agency mission and
model, so it was an uphill battle to find suitable grants. Sustainability for such ser-
vices also requires that they have a good fundraiser who knows how to recruit and
engage a board with connections to resources, and to plan appealing events that
many people will pay to attend. The board at the time was reluctant to depart from
their old school type of events (very pricey charity balls hosted by has-been local
celebrities), and the fundraisers were not meeting their goals. When the agency
experienced funding cutbacks, my position was one that had to be eliminated. By
this time Iwas back in school working to complete my PhD in human development.
During the next four years Ihad the opportunity to work as a graduate assistant
on a longitudinal study of adolescent development and supplemented my income
with consulting work. While attending graduate school and working on this study
Ilearned a lot about developing and testing theory. Over that same period, Icom-
pleted several studies and program evaluations as a consultant. At that time Idid

not have a business model in place. All of the work Ihad was received through word
of mouth and opportunities that fell into my lap. This was the mid-1990s, before
evidence-based models were required, and funders were asking projects to report
only outputs. One of my contracts was to serve as the local evaluator for Dallas
Healthy Start, a Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) initia-
tive to reduce infant mortality that provided money for communities to apply as
they chose to address the problem. The project funded several different local pro-
grams that ranged from a low-birth-weight development center to teen pregnancy
prevention. Toward the end of my tenure as local evaluator, we were all invited to
Washington, DC, for a meeting to learn about a new technique called a logic model,
and to begin discussing common performance measures across Healthy Start sites.
Shortly afterward, I received an employment offer from the medical center that
served as the Healthy Start parent organization, which required that Igive up my
consulting contract.
One of the most valuable experiences Ihad to prepare me for consulting was
serving as a program manager at the medical center, a position Iheld for four years.
Iwas hired to manage a program that provided education and support for pregnant
and parenting adolescents. When Iarrived, the program was in disarray with dated
materials, lack of structure, and staff running amok. As Icreated structure, staff reac-
tions ranged from appreciative to antagonistic and ineffective. I gained valuable
experience with creating change within an organization.
RECOMMENDATION:If you want to provide evaluation and capacity-building
services, it is helpful to have experience actually managing programs and working within
a larger organization.
As the hospital shifted its priorities, the decision was made to fold this educa-
tion into the larger hospital prenatal and parenting education program, and Iwas
reassigned to manage a program that served substance-abusing pregnant women
and the rape crisis center, both of which were described to me as being in need of a
house cleaning. This ended up being true for the program serving substance abus-
ers, whose social worker was found sleeping in her car on occasions in the parking
garage during work hours. The rape crisis center staff did not require any changes;
they simply needed a manager who would support their needs and advocate on
their behalf.
I found managing the rape crisis center was especially challenging because there
was a mismatch between the needs and culture of mental health providers and the
medical center. The challenges were compounded by a mismatch between my man-
agement style and that of my supervisor. After she made the decision to transfer the
crisis hotline to a nurse hotline, which put victims in crisis on hold for an average of
15 minutes, Iknew it was time for me to give up and find alternative employment.
While at the medical center, Ilearned a lot about the role that a larger organizational
culture and structure play in supporting, or restraining, programs or departments in
their efforts to provide quality services.

My search for the next job included networking. Through this process I was
introduced to the Regional Inspector General for the Region VI office for the US
Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Office of the Inspector
General (OIG), Office of Evaluation and Inspections (OEI). When a position came
open Iapplied, and then found out that someone in Washington, DC, lost part of
my application. Because it was incomplete, Icould not be considered. Iwaited an
additional five months until another position opened up, and Iapplied again. This
time my application was forwarded to the Region VI office, Iwas interviewed and
hired as a program analyst.
RECOMMENDATION:If you are interested in a specific job or organization, do
not give up at the first rejection, and always remain gracious no matter what happens.
Iwas later told that one of the factors that contributed to my being hired was the way
Ireacted to the lost application incident.
I would advise anyone with an interest in a practice career to work for the fed-
eral governmenteither as a long-term career, or at least long enough to have the
experience. If possible, get in early in your career so that you can position yourself
for longevity should you decide to stay for the duration. Iwas located in a regional
office, but the work we did was national in scope. In addition to the actual evalua-
tion experience, this allowed me to learn about how to research and analyze laws,
regulations, and policies; how to evaluate their implementation; how to write about
sensitive information for the general public (in a way that left little or no room for
distortion of findings); and how to craft actionable recommendations for federal
programs and policies. If you are fortunate enough to live in one of the cities where
the agency is headquartered or can relocate, there are ample opportunities to move
around within the federal government. Such opportunities are somewhat limited
in the regional offices, especially if you enter federal service later in your career and
have little time to position yourself.
RECOMMENDATION:If it is feasible, seek employment with the federal govern-
ment. It can either lead to a really great career, or it will give you valuable experience and
an understanding of policy and the larger picture.
Toward the end of my tenure with the federal government, given that there were
limited career options where Ilived, Idecided Iwould like to try my hand at con-
sulting. As an analyst with the Office of the Inspector General (OIG), Iwas not able
to develop my business while employed there because of potential conflicts of inter-
est. Iapplied for a position with a large, urban school district that Ifound posted on
the American Evaluation Association website and was hired. Itook the job with the
mindset that if Ireally liked it, Iwould stay and develop my career there, but if not,
Iwould work to set up the structure needed for a consulting business. After a couple
of months Irealized that this position was definitely not a good fit for me. The orga-
nization was rigid with its start and end times, and Iwas used to a more flexible
schedule. Also, there were some boundary problems with the evaluation depart-
ment reporting directly to curriculum and instructionand most evaluations were

of their programs and initiatives. Iwas assigned to evaluate a high profile project
that was the superintendents pride and joy. Iwrote my findings, which suggested all
was not well with the effort, and large pieces of the report werecut.
RECOMMENDATION: Despite my dissatisfaction in this particular position,
anyone interested in working with schools and school system evaluations should consider
employment at a school district, because Ilearned a lot during my short time there, and
Ibuilt credibility by having worked on the inside.
As the year unfolded, Iworked to structure my consulting business. Iincorpo-
rated as a limited liability corporation, developed my web page, and completed a busi-
ness plan. Itold a colleague who is a consultant that Iwas going into business and
a week later the Request for Proposals for Dallas Healthy Start (my former client)
appeared in my email box. I responded and won the contract (a very small con-
tract), and at the same time a friend of mine invited me to assist with some training
she was doing for a large corporation. While this was nowhere near enough income,
Idecided to have faith that Icould do it and quit my full-time work for full-time
consulting.
A BusinessModel
When Ibegan my business, Iwas fortunate to receive advice and support from some
amazing colleagues that Imet through the AEA Independent Consulting Topical
Interest Group (TIG). They were happy to share their knowledge and expertise and
were genuine in their wishes for my success.
RECOMMENDATION:Anyone interested in developing a consulting practice should
start by getting to know the AEA Independent Consulting TIG. Attend an AEA confer-
ence, network, and attend the sessions they sponsor.
The most important thing to keep in mind is that as a consultant you are also a
business. If you want to succeed long-term, then it will require a structure and tend-
ing to the business side of the endeavor, including legalities and accounting. If you
do well, you can hire out many of these services. If you are small, you will end up
doing a lot of them yourself. First and foremost is deciding upon a business struc-
ture. Ichose the Limited Liability Corporation because it separated liability for my
business from that of my personal finances. Ifound a company online that did all of
the required paperwork, including setting me up with a federal taxpayer identifica-
tion number (TIN). Getting all of this set up was easily accomplished by utilizing
the services of an online business that took care of all of the paperwork for me for
about $500. This was only the beginning of the start-up expenditures.
RECOMMENDATION:Get the separate TIN because you will often need to share this
number with organizations in proposals and on other potentially publicly available docu-
ments where you would not want to share your social security number.

Finances
You may want to establish separate bank accounts. They will require the incorpora-
tion or other paperwork associated with your business structure. You can also get a
credit card for your business that helps you to track your business finances separately
from your personal finances. Contact your local bank and they will tell you what is
needed. As a self-employed person you will need to pay estimated income and self-
employment taxes quarterly (IRS Publication #334 explains all the requirements).
If you are not planning to utilize the services of an accountant, invest in accounting
software (e.g., Quickbooks). It helps with tracking income and expenses, and has
a feature for preparing and tracking invoices as well. Most importantly, keep every
check stub and receipt, and set up a system for tracking and filing theseitems.
RECOMMENDATION:Work with your local bank to establish a bank account sepa-
rate from your personal finances, get a separate credit card, and save every check stub and
receipt.
Contracting
As a consultant, after successfully bidding on a project or being selected by an orga-
nization, the next step in the process is to sign a contract. Most organizations will
prepare it and send it to you. If you can afford to, have a lawyer look it over. If you
cannot, make sure you read EVERY WORD in detail. Ihave received contracts with
requirements that Iwas unwilling or unable to meet. For example, there is usually
a requirement for workers compensation insurance. The problem with that is that
Ihave no workers to insure and so Ihave them take that requirement out of the
contract, and all have been willing to do so. One organization sent a small contract
that required that Iarrange and pay for a criminal background check, drug testing,
and other measures that would have cost so much that Iwould not have made any
money. Isent it back and all of those requirements were removed. After you sign the
contract, make sure you keep the scope of work and agreement front and center to
ensure that you are consistently meeting the obligations.
RECOMMENDATION:Read every word of each contract carefully and do not be shy
about negotiating and asking for changes.
Insurance
Another requirement for nearly all contracts to have insurance, including errors
and omissions, professional liability, automotive, and other coverage. This can be
purchased through professional associations, such as the American Psychological
Association, and through local insurance agents. There are likely online options as
well, but Ihave not exploredthem.

Building theBusiness and HavingaPlan

It is really important to develop a business plan and to think through the start-up
period and have a plan for managing lean times. During the start-up period, Itook on
small assignments, such as training facilitation and Itaught part time as an adjunct
at local universities to supplement my income. It is helpful to have some type of
additional skill to fall back on. Some of my colleagues have brought in extra income
as needed by getting certified as personal trainers and running boot camps, adjunct
teaching, providing translation services, and making and selling jewelry. While your
business plan should include goals and strategies for reaching them, there is an ele-
ment of unpredictability and you should always have a PlanB.
RECOMMENDATION:Have a business plan and contingencies inplace.
What ILikePositive Aspects ofa Solo Consulting

Practice
Probably the best part about being a solo consultant is that you select your work
hours. You can accommodate your own work rhythm as an early bird or second
shifter, schedule doctors appointments without asking for time off, and select
which days you will work. Ihave ample flexibility and can sleep in if Iam under the
weather.
I work from my home so the work conditions are ideal. Ihave a private office,
furnished to my liking, a fully stocked kitchen and nobody steals my lunches, and
my own private rest room. My dogs share my office, so Isometimes work with little
furry creatures across my lap, which is a great stress reducer. Isave a ton of money
on gas and other commuting fees, require a limited wardrobe, and avoid the time
and stress associated with the daily commute. My dress can be as casual as Ilike, and
Ihave, admittedly, attended very important telephone conferences in my pajamas.
Being my own boss means that Ihave control over the methods Idecide to use
and the final product. The only requirement is that the work is methodologically
sound and meets professional standards. It is important to keep in mind that future
business relies upon producing a good product that is of high quality and meets the
needs of the contracting organization, so it is not entirely a free-for-all.
Unless you are fortunate enough to get signed onto a large, high-dollar project,
contracts come and go. Ihave found it best to maintain a portfolio that includes some
long-term, ongoing contracts and short-term projects. The long-term, ongoing con-
tracts provide a steady stream of income and lend your business some stability. The
benefit of supplementing this work with some short-term projects is that they can
lead to larger contracts and they add to the number of organizations you have worked
with, increasing your marketability and allowing you to expand your range. They also
keep the work interesting by breaking up the monotony. As a solo consultant, every
day is different, which is very appealing to those who do not like routine.

Finally, there are ample opportunities for growth. It is very important as a solo
consultant to continue with professional development and keep knowledge current.
The best part is that you decide which areas you want to develop and the direc-
tions you would like to take. For example, I have recently been learning about a
wider range of qualitative methods and incorporating them into my practice. When
my clients implement a new program or approach, they often include me in their
training. Ihave developed additional content and methodological expertise because
ofthis.
What IDo Not LikeThe Dark Side

ofSolo Consulting
Many of the likes are paradoxically also dislikes. The hours and flexibility are great,
but they are also very long. Balancing the paid project time with business mainte-
nance and professional development activities is sometimes tricky. When Iam fully
booked with contracts, Ioften find myself working evenings and weekends to take
care of the rest of the business. Also, sometimes contracts overlapone project
ends at the same time another is starting. Clients have needs that require long hours
of work to provide support (e.g., when it is time for funding application renewal).
While Ican decide what time Iwant to start and end, Icannot always decide how
many hours Iwork during a week if Iwant to meet deadlines.
Consulting does not provide for paid vacations, pay while attending conferences
and preparing proposals, or paid sick time. While consideration for all this down
time is built into the rates you charge, sometimes unplanned leaves occur. You may
plan to work a certain number of paid hours a month and then along comes a par-
ticularly nasty flu or emergency surgery.
There is a great deal of uncertainty of income and work flow built into solo con-
sulting. Even if you win a long-term assignment, organizations often contract from
year-to-year. If project funding is cut, your contract may be reduced. The work flow
varies throughout the year so that some months are busy and others may be slow, thus
your monthly income will not be consistent. Sometimes projects you are expecting
to win do not come through after all, or you win the bid and the scope of work is
reduced significantly. This means you must constantly be scanning the environment
for potential projects, networking, marketing, and putting together proposals. Over
the past four years, as federal funding has decreased, Ihave noticed a trend whereby
many of the larger firms are now responding to Requests for Proposals (RFP) for
some of the smaller, local projects that were typically awarded to solo consultants.
While a benefit of consulting is that you have control over your work, it is not
necessarily broad control. You are still confined to doing the work that is within the
scope of the contract and that meets the needs of the contracting organization. This
means that often when you are working and see some great opportunities to con-
duct research, expand the scope of the study, or implement changes, this is generally

not within your control. As a business person, you also have to be mindful of keep-
ing the scope of work within budget so you are not working free hours. Additionally,
oftentimes, you have no control over what the organization does with your findings,
and the extent to which they implement the changes you recommend. The vision
you may have for where a program or initiative could go and what could be accom-
plished, the approaches that could empower communities, and how programs or
communities could be more responsive to the needs of their stakeholders often does
not match the capabilities, resources, or willingness of the contracting organization.
While Ienjoy working at home and the many benefits of doing so, it can also be
isolating. Iam often working solo and miss having a team to kick around ideas with
and review and comment on my reports. If Iwant to lunch with others, it usually
means driving some distance to meet them, and this takes too much time out of
my day and can be distracting. Extra effort goes into developing and maintaining a
professional network to meet or lunch with on occasion. But it still does not replace
that every day interaction that comes with working in a larger organization and hav-
ing consistent daily colleagues and teams to workon.
Finally, another drawback is that being successful requires not only the technical
knowledge, skills, and abilities, but the added layer of being a business person. It
requires marketing the business, making sure the logo goes on presentation slides,
and the constant awareness that you are representing a business. It requires being
diplomatic and presenting your best self all the time. Even when you are out and
about for personal fun, you are aware that you may run into a potential contractor
and need to present accordingly. All decisions about activities must consider the
business. For example, even when you want to volunteer for a worthy cause, you
have to determine whether such volunteering will take away too much time from
your paid activities and consider the balance.
In summary, there are many benefits to a solo consulting practice, but it is not
necessarily a bed of roses. It requires tolerance for ambiguity, dedication, and a lot
of self-discipline. It also requires starting out with some kind of financial base that
can accommodate income fluctuations and the start-up period, which can take a
couple ofyears.
Skills and Experience Contributing toSuccess

Developing expertise in selected community psychology practice competencies and
developing that toolbox is critical. First and foremost, one of the factors that has made
a significant contribution to my success is that community psychology values and
principles are built into everything Ido. Iam explicit with clients that my allegiance
will be to the people and communities they serve, not to their organization and not
to their program. This is important because it sets a framework in place for deliv-
ering less positive news to them. My clients also appreciate that rather than create

dependency on me, Iwork to build their capacity. Iwork with them as a partner and
respect what they bring to the table. My clients have expressed appreciation for the
difference between my approach and consultants they have worked with in thepast.
RECOMMENDATION:Highlight your values as a community psychologist and do all
of your work consistent withthem.
In addition to the foundational principles such as ecological perspectives,
empowerment, sociocultural and cross-cultural competence, community inclu-
sion and partnership, and ethical reflective practice, your toolbox will need to
include more tangible, hands-on skills. The remainder of this section will provide
some description of which of the competencies described by Dalton and Wolfe
(2012) you might want to further develop based upon their specific application to
consulting.
Community Program Development and Management

This includes program development, implementation, and management; and pre-
vention and health promotion. If you plan to facilitate development, evaluate, and
build capacity for community-based programs, this set of competencies is required.
While it is important to learn about this from books and classes and to gain the
underlying knowledge, it also requires some time in the trenches. Ifind that along
with my academic training, having the blend of experiences as an evaluator and as a
program manager has provided me with the needed expertise across organizations
and situations.
Community and Organizational Capacity-Building

This competency group includes community leadership and mentoring; small and
large group processes; resource development; and consultation and organizational
development. The extent to which you develop in each of these areas will depend
on where you want to focus your practice. There are some areas that you will need to
develop. It is important to spend time working with community leaders and stake-
holders across issues. Engaging in such activities will help you build your knowl-
edge and understanding of the politics and behind-the-scenes workings that go into
change efforts. The reason to do so across issues is that each issue will have a differ-
ent set of players, a different set of norms, and different dynamics.
It is important to develop your interpersonal communication skills. Different
communication styles will be needed depending on who you are interacting with.
Become aware of what kinds of nonverbal signals you may give off, often uninten-
tionally. Learning skills in diplomacy and tact take some practice. Another related
skill is patience, because impatience will come through in your communication.
Most organizations and programs you will work with may require some assis-
tance with sustainability and grant writing. Take time to do Internet searches of

funding organizations (especially those who serve your area of interest). Look
at federal government, foundations, and other local funding sources to learn
what they fund, what the requirements are, how much their proposals require.
Developing your grant-writing skills is also important. You will be writing pro-
posals for your own business, and your clients may ask for help with theirs as
well. Learn the different styles associated with writing federal versus local founda-
tion grants. Finally, being able to conduct a needs and resources assessment, and
develop actionable recommendations from it, is another basic skill that you will
likely draw upon regularly. The extent to which you develop your organizational
development and other skills will depend on the scope of services you will choose
tooffer.
Community and SocialChange

The associated competencies in this group are collaboration and coalition devel-
opment; community development; community organization and community
advocacy; public policy analysis, development and advocacy; and community
education, information dissemination, and building public awareness. Perhaps
the most broadly utilized will be collaboration and coalition development; and
community education, information dissemination and building public awareness.
Grant-funded initiatives are increasingly expecting programs to develop commu-
nity coalitions and action networks. Being able to facilitate this process and provide
technical assistance can be a useful competency. In the very least, if you are an evalu-
ator, understanding coalitions and how to measure their success is necessary.
The products of most of the work you will do as a consultant are proprietary to
the organizations you serve. You will not have the option to disseminate the reports,
and you may not even share them without the permission of the organization you
are contracting with. However, as you work with organizations and have findings
from needs assessments and evaluations, they may ask you to help to disseminate
them, or they may ask for your help with educating the community about an issue
related to the work they do. Being able to help them organize a community forum,
make a public service announcement, or develop a press release will be useful.
Community Research
Participatory community research and program evaluation will likely be the focus
of your consulting practice. Fortunately, to the best of my knowledge, all commu-
nity psychology programs provide excellent training in this area. You might supple-
ment this by more extensive training in the different models of program evaluation
and developing an understanding of the different approaches you might take. The
American Evaluation Association provides a wealth of resources for expanding your
evaluation toolbox.

Experience
There is still no teacher like experience. Students often tell me that they want to
graduate and become consultants. More often than not, this will not work out well
unless you have returned to school to finish a PhD after years in the field. Getting
job experience in more than one setting is advisable. While you may get experience
through internships and other means, there is no substitute for the experiences and
situations you will encounter as an employee. Being out of school and into the pro-
fessional world brings with it a set of expectations and experiences that are not open
for interns. The result is that you have access to new situations and challenges that
will facilitate your growth as a professional.
The Value Added fromCommunity Psychology

As a consultant, Ihave found that there is truly value added to your services because
of your values and approach as a community psychologist. The collaborative
approach that is respectful of what my client and community members bring to
the table has been my bread and butter. My clients are satisfied, which results in
both continued renewal of contracts and referrals and recommendations to other
organizations.
The range of competencies that extends beyond evaluation skills allows for a
broader practice. In addition to the typical evaluation contracts, Ihave had oppor-
tunities to facilitate the development of a new coalition, to assess policies and deter-
mine the extent to which an organization is adhering to them, to evaluate the extent
of implementation of a set of partnership principles for human services contracting
in the state of Illinois, and Icurrently provide technical oversight for a community
needs and resource assessment. Not only is being able to offer more services profit-
able because it expands the range of possibilities, but it makes my work more fun
and interesting.
Before You Quit Your Day Job, AFew

Things toConsider
If reading all this has not scared you away and you are considering solo consulting
as a career, there are a few things to consider. First and foremost, are you financially
prepared for the fluctuations in income and the start-up period?
RECOMMENDATION:Have six months to one year of living expenses saved up if you
do not have a second household income to fall backon.
Be sure to consider the costs of health insurance and to take off about 30% of what
you think you will gross to accommodate taxes, and additional money for insur-
ances, professional development, and other expenses.

Second, are you tolerant of ambiguity? There is a lot of unpredictability, espe-

cially regarding work, inherent in this business. Contracts will be reduced, you will
write an amazing proposal only to find that the organization decided not to fund
anyone because they are going in another direction, and your monthly income will
be uncertain from month to month because of workflow variances.
Finally, are you prepared to be a business person and do what it takes to make
your consulting business succeed? As community psychologists we are committed
to helping communities and likely enjoy opportunities to engage and contribute
when they arise. Often the organizations that need us most, however, are the ones
with the fewest resources. As a business person, we have to always remember the
adage time is money, which means turning down requests for assistance by organiza-
tions that do not have the means to pay for our services. Turning down meaningful
work is for me one of the most difficult aspects of being independently employed.
Suggested Resources
Should you decide you would like to pursue a solo consulting practice, here are
some resources that you might find helpful.
The American Evaluation Association (especially the Independent Consulting

Topical Interest Group). Retrieved from http://www.eval.org
Barrington, G.V. (2012). Consulting start-up and management:Aguide for
evaluators and applied researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications.
Viola, J.J., & McMahon, S.D. (2010). Consulting and evaluation with nonprofit
and community-based organizations. Sudbury, MA:Jones and Bartlett.
Reference
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (2012). Joint column: Education and the community practitioner.
Competencies for community psychology practice Society for Community Research and
Action DRAFT August 15, 2012. The Community Psychologist, 45,714.

15
A Crossroads of Disciplines
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Academy...
Vincent T. Francisco
A funny thing happened on the way to the academy for me. Itook a road less trav-
eled and arrived at the more interesting place anticipated by Robert Frost. For
many of us, we are the first generation to go to college. Outside of the priests at my
church, the teachers at school, and a few other people Imetalong the way, Idid not
know anyone who went to college. My sister was the first Francisco (among any
in the family we knew about) to actually finish high school. Ialways wanted to go
to college, but Icouldnt figure out how to do it. We had no money for this in our
family, so Ibegan working in factories and doing odd jobs to save money. When the
time came, Iapplied for financial aid but was denied. That made staying in school a
challenge, since Icouldnt afford tuition. So for a while, Iwould go to school when
Ihad money and worked multiple jobs when Ididnt. All the time, Iwas passionate
about learning (always have been, right from when Iwas a small child), and Icon-
sumed every field that caught my attention. In my family, the saying went that educa-
tion was not something we could ever get in a school. They could only put information
in front of us. Education was our responsibility. It was about lifelong learning. This
is one of the greatest gifts my family gavetome.
I had only a few questions driving me, and they still drive me. Why are some peo-
ple successful and others not successful? Why do people do what they do? Why are
some problems more concentrated in my neighborhood and not in others nearby?
How is it that Isurvived, and yet many other kids Iknew didnt? Can we create con-
ditions under which others can succeed? Iwas always passionate about science, but
most of the science teachers steered me toward biological sciences. Many of them
were of the opinion that studying people wasnt really science, and psychology was
all about things not related to science. But these questions wouldnt let me go, so
Ipursued them covertly, and did all that Icould to study people. So, in-between
and during my early undergraduate years, Ispent time with people of nearly every
183

religion Icould find, studying their philosophy and theology texts, and getting into
grand arguments about root causes and definitions of God. For example,
Ispent time at an Ashram;

Iattended Buddhist temple;

Ispent many long hours with Hindu, Sikh, Taoist, and Native American peoples;

Ivisited every denomination of Christian church Icouldfind;

Iattended revivals and tent meetings;

Ispent time with people from a variety of synagogues (Reform, Orthodox and
Hasidic);and
Ihung out with Muslim peoples representing a variety of sects, countries, and
cultures.
In many cases, they had the same questions too, but with different ways of fram-
ing them, and a different attribution of causes.
Transition toSeminary
Along the way, Iran into the writings of several medieval-period transcribers and
interpreters of early philosophical texts. This led me to Thomas Aquinas and Teresa
of Avila, and renewed my interest in my lifelong questions. At the encouragement
of trusted friends, Ientered a seminary to study for the priesthood in the Roman
Catholic Church. The bishop sent me to study philosophy and theology with the
Dominican Order at Providence College. While there, Itook a course in the Science
of Human Behavior from a professor (Dr.Rich Lambe) who turned into a lifelong
friend and mentor. Rich taught me that we really could study human behavior, and
that there were actual scientific principles at work there. Itook some time off from
seminary and was hired as a research assistant in the Department of Child and
Family Psychiatry at Brown University School of Medicine. Icoordinated a variety
of projects, including two of their clinics, and did all of their database management
and statistical analyses. Several graduate programs were recruiting me, but they
were not working on the questions Iwanted to study. Rich and Karen Lambe intro-
duced me to Steve Fawcett, another graduate of Providence College and a mentee
of Rich. We didnt even finish the first beer when it was clear that Steve and Ihad
the same questions and same passion to make a difference in peoples lives. Iwasnt
ready for graduate school, but Iknew that Iwould be working and studying with
Steve Fawcett whenIdid.
In the meantime, a friend and Icreated a company in New Hampshire to guide
people in outdoor adventures. I needed a job, so I applied for a teaching job in
several private schools common to that area. Iwas in an interview for just such a
position at Spaulding Youth Center when Ifigured out they were not interviewing

A Cros sroad s o f D is cipline s :O n the Way to the A cad e my 185
me for a teaching position. They offered me a job as assistant executive director,

with the responsibilities for licensure, intake and admissions, and discharge plan-
ning for their two programs. One program was the residential and day treatment
of children with autism and developmental disabilities. The other was a residential
program for boys diagnosed with conduct disorder and severe emotional distur-
bances. In both cases, these children were not being served well in their home envi-
ronments. Ifurther hit the jackpot in my training, since the executive director of the
facility was one of the people who wrote Public Law 94-142, the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, and who had been the first director of special education
for the State of New Hampshire. He struggled with the same questions Idid, and he
spent many hours teaching me about the state of special education at the time. We
lamented the need for these facilities, but we were committed to providing the best
situation possible for these kids. Everyone failed them in their lives. Their parents
couldnt help them. Neither could the schools, their neighborhoods, the police, or
child protective services. That is how they came to us. At the time, we were working
with children from eight states and nearby Canada. We designed new programs,
engaged in policy advocacy, were involved as expert witnesses in court cases, and
consulted with agencies and school districts.
We only knew of two people working on community-based solutions related to
our work at Spaulding Youth Center. They were in Vermont ( John Birchard and
George Albee at the University of Vermont) and were very successful, but their
solutions didnt seem like they would work with our program in New Hampshire.
Dissatisfied with our attempts to work with communities to prevent the need for
these kind of residential facilities, I contacted Steve Fawcett at the University of
Kansas. Actually, Ihunted him down, since Ithought that he and his colleagues in
the Department of Human Development had the perfect balance (and many of the
answers) Isought. After a week of interviews with the faculty and students, they
invited me to study and work with them. That began a 15-year relationship where
Iwas able to learn from the best people Icould imagine. They were incredible men-
tors who included some of the founders of the field of Applied Behavior Analysis.
And they had the same questions too, but they also had answers and an approach to
finding answers Idesperately neededapplied behavior analysis.
An Intersection ofDisciplines
I involved myself in as many of their research projects as Icould, and Ijoined and
attended the Association for Behavior Analysis. Steve Fawcett, myself, and a host
of others (most of whom were then current and former students of Steves) created
the Work Group for Community Health and Development. We had been working
on research in the field of independent living. Many of the researchers and practi-
tioners working in independent living were involved in the Society for Community

Research and Action. I only learned of community psychology through them,

attending my first Biennial Conference in 1991 at Arizona State University. There
Imet many other people with the same questions as me. Even more importantly,
they had the values needed to keep the science relevant. They were about action as
well as understanding. Imet Tom Wolff, Bill Berkowitz, Rick Price, Irwin Sandler,
Manuel Barrera, Jim Kelly, David Chavis, Bob Newbrough, Frank Reissman,
Thomasina Borkman, Irma Serano Garcia, Meg Bond, Beth Shinn, Lenny Jason,
and many others. Whether they knew it or not, Iadopted them. They added to my
pool of lifelong mentors.
The third area that quickly became relevant for me was public health. At the
urging of people close to Steve, several of us attended the annual meeting for the
American Public Health Association and the Society for Public Health Education.
They had the infrastructure and track record to make a difference on a vast scale.
Even more important, they had a network of funders that included governmental
and non-governmental organizations, private and public foundations, and others.
I always thought Iwould return to Spaulding Youth Center to work with chil-
dren and their families in treatment, as well as work with communities on primary
prevention. Afunny thing happened along the way. Ibecame enamored of my men-
tors to such an extent that Ibelieved Icould follow in their footsteps. Inever for a
minute thought Icould be as good a mentor as them, but Iwanted to be. Isaw a
great opportunity to combine my questions and the approaches to solutions that
Iam still learning with applied science and academic training. Iespecially saw the
opportunity to help new generations of students ask good (and better) questions
and find answers. There was no way that Icould answer my questions or make the
difference Iwanted to make in my lifetime. Ialso knew that Ineeded many more
people involved in this effort, and Imade the commitment to create opportunities
for them to be successful. Ihave been fortunate enough to be provided with the
opportunity to do justthat.
I never anticipated that Iwould be a university professor, but several of my men-
tors (one in particular) encouraged me to figure out what Ilike and then figure out
how to get paid for it. Here Iam successfully pursuing an academic career. At least
part of that is the result of how Irecruit mentors and listen to their advice. Another
part is how Iembrace my critics, and often make them part of my mentoring pool.
Athird approach Itake is to absolutely commit to creating opportunities for oth-
ers. This last point is something that took a long while for me to understand, but
it ultimately is the goal of a university scholar to create opportunities for the next
generation of scholars. This continues to open doors for me to be successful as a
teacher, mentor, and researcher. I take the same approach to applied research in
communityleaving the communities a better place than Ifound them, while also
contributing to scholarship and understanding.
I focused this story mostly on the academic side of my experience, but that is not
to minimize the community partners Ihad along the way. We (myself, my friends,

A Cros sroad s o f D is cipline s :O n the Way to the A cad e my 187
and my mentors) must have been doing something right, as we had incredible com-
munity partners all along this journey. My most trusted mentors were both inside
and outside the academy, but the academy has been my home for most of my career.
This intersection of behavioral science (the methodology to answer important
questions) with the values of community psychology, along with the outcomes ori-
entation and population-level influence of public health, is the right place to be.
Fortunately, there is more overlap among these three fields than differences.
Overlaps between the fields of behavioral science, community psychology, and
public health are present and the result of professional association influences more
than disciplinary differences. Many of the people involved in these fields are inter-
ested primarily in the outcomes experienced by themselves and people they value.
Others are more interested in the methodology involved in asking and answering
the questions. For still others, the attraction lies in identifying principles and theo-
ries. All of these approaches and foci are needed when one wants to make substan-
tial and lasting improvements in how we live, resulting in valued outcomessuch
as helping more people to live successful, long, and productive lives. Psychology
and the behavioral sciences are about understanding individual behavior and adapt-
ing people to be more functional in context. Community psychology has been said
to focus on understanding and adapting contexts to affect human behavior. Public
health has a focus on overarching population-health outcomes, made up of indi-
viduals behaving in context, and contexts affecting individual behavior, but still
focused on the broader populations.
The methodologies across these three professions are quite similaroverlapping,
but still different. In some cases within each area, there are people focused on large
group studies. Others are focused on individual and single-subject research. The
questions determine a lot of the choice of study size, as do the methods employed
to answer those questions. There are volumes written about both, but Ithink it is
important to note that our personal experiences can have just as much influence.
The differences in levels of analysis are greatfrom whole population down to a
single individual. The understandings generated from each approach are also quite
different. One thing that remains constant is our interaction with our research, and
the framework from which we ask questions, choose methodologies, collect data,
and interpret results. We bring a lot to the table, and what we bringour personal
learning historiescannot be divorced from all ofthis.
Recommendations forTraining
and Capacity-BuildinginCP
There are several things that Itake away from reflecting on my own career and life up
to this point that Ithink could be important for others to consider. Ithink that these

apply to people working in academia (maybe better called academic practice), or in

community practice. Ill frame these as bullet points, but they really need expanded
discussion.
For academic programs.
Facilitate engagement in both scholarship (either applied or basic research) and

practice. Students will gravitate toward one or the other, but encourage both.
Scholarship in our field is as much about the core human values we promote as it
is about scientific understanding.
Select for curiosity and a drive for success. It is important to have academic cre-
dentials, but good scholarship is so muchmore.
Make sure that graduate students explore multiple cultures as well as languages.
We can live in a global village, even in our own backyards.
Ensure that academic scholars are also engaged in making the world a better
place. Set this up from the very beginning of graduate (and undergraduate)
training.
For Students.
Develop the habit of exploring your world, and writing about it (every day). You
dont need to share the writing with others, but you will have a lot more to draw
upon as you are writing for scholarship.
Work hard to ensure the success of others. Create opportunities for others,
whether they are faculty, community members, other students, anyone.
Embrace your critics. They will teach you so much more than those who throw
praise at you. Value the praise too, but really embrace your critics and figure out
what to do with what they are telling you. Some of them will not be worth it, but
most are trying to help you be more successful.
It is my hope that by sharing these stories and ideas that others will be even more
successful than Ihavebeen.

16
Community Colleges
A Place for Community Psychology inAction
John M.Majer
Ive always been one to question things, to explore outside the comforts of con-
vention, to march to my own beat and all thatlike many in our field, Isuppose.
Thus, its not very surprising to me that Ive been working as a community college
professor for the past 10years; a position that typically does not attract many com-
munity psychologists but one that is a great fit for community-minded folks. In this
chapter, I share my educational and professional experiences to help those who
are finding their niche as community psychologists. Frankly, Ifeel my professional
development experiences have been amazing and beyond my expectations though
not without obstacle and effort. Maintaining close contact with other community
psychologists has been instrumental in navigating the course of my career and in
putting community psychology values into practice.
When Iapplied to doctoral programs Imade sure to mention in my essays that
my five-and 10-year goals would be influenced by my experiences in graduate
school. Ihad some research and post-masters clinical experiences in the commu-
nity to prepare me for my doctoral studies in clinical-community psychology. Iwas
certain Iwould maintain one foot in clinical psychology and the other in academia;
either as a university-level clinical faculty member or as a faculty member engaged
in research/teaching with a part-time clinical practice. These kinds of positions
were appealing to me based upon the lives of my clinical professors who worked in
varied settings. Ilearned so much when professors shared their professional experi-
ences in lectures, making multiple jobs and multiple paychecks appealing. But, life
is like a box of chocolates...
Shortly after beginning my doctoral program in clinical-community psychol-
ogy, Ibecame interested in research. Research seemed a necessary step to getting
accepted into a clinical psychology PhD program, and would be part of the pathway
of obtaining clinical licensure. But my graduate program mentor ignited my passion
for engaging in community-based research. At the beginning of my first quarter, he
189

suggested Ispecialize, and by the end of that quarter Ifocused on community-based

treatments for persons with substance use disorders and those with co-occurring
psychiatric conditions. Isaw how social action research and community-based inves-
tigations uncovered hidden gems not revealed by traditional research approaches.
By the third year, my clinical interests shifted from direct service provision to clini-
cal/health measures and their use within community research. Iwas designing my
own studies and collecting my own data for my thesis and dissertation, and there-
fore Iwas getting more community-based experience than my peers who used exist-
ing datasets for their degree requirements.
Before Iknew it Ihad a few first-author publications, conducted a program eval-
uation, and defended my dissertation in four years. The last part of my program
was the one-year pre-doctoral clinical internship, and Ichose to train in a prison
system. In some ways, this was a highly untraditional decision, as the site was not
APA-accredited. Nonetheless, the choice was perfect for my interests in obtain-
ing advanced training in psychological assessment and therapy with persons with
substance use disorders. However, preparing for licensure requires an additional
postdoctoral year of supervised training in my state (Illinois).
I applied for a postdoc position in downtown Chicago, and I was a perfect
match for this hospital/university setting, and Iwas impressed with the prestige
of the institution. The position that came with a modest salary and swanky office
set-up was a clinicians dream come true (e.g., corner window office, full secretarial
support staff, help with licensure exam preparation, and potential to transition into
a permanent position). Iwas quite proud yet humble when Ishared this postdoc
opportunity with my graduate school mentor, and to my surprise he made me an
offer to work with him in return. His offer included ongoing clinical supervision,
and Irealized that choosing a purely clinical position at this hospital/university
setting might later complicate my path toward an academic post. In addition, the
opportunity to work with my mentor at his community-based research center on
large grant applications for the National Institutes of Health sounded like a lot
of fun. Yes, fun. Thats something I could have never imagined prior to starting
graduate school, but experiences do have a way of changing ones outlook if one
remainsopen.
I was incredibly grateful for the opportunity to work at DePauls Center for
Community Research (CCR) for a two-year period. In short, Ilearned much
more about research and grant writing, and my skills in a variety of areas
improved. Ialso worked closely with undergraduate and graduate students on
their projects. Thanks to the ongoing mentorship of Dr.Leonard A.Jason, my
work at the CCR complemented my previous clinical, teaching, and research
experiences. My experiences at the CCR put me in a very good position to
apply for academic posts. However, my job search was limited in terms of prox-
imity because my spouse received a full scholarship for her graduate studies in
the neighboring Evanston area, and she needed my support (as I needed her

Communit y Col l eg e s :Communit y Ps ychol og y in A c ti on 191
support when I was in my graduate program). Living apart was not a viable
option, and it was a bit frustrating to discover out-of-state job postings where
Iseemed to be a really goodfit.
After my first year at the CCR, I used my literature search savvy in conduct-
ing online searches to find academic posts within a 100-mile radius, viewing each
academic sites human resources (and psychology) departments webpage twice
weekly for job leads/posts. This went on for about six months. Most positions were
in university settings, but Iincluded hospital/university settings and several com-
munity colleges in my search. In short, Iapplied to about 15 places, received a few
interviews, and got one offer in a neighboring state, while a local and prestigious
hospital/university was expediting my hiring process for a clinical research posi-
tion. At that point Ireceived an invitation for an interview at a local community col-
lege. Iwent, thinking it wise not to leave any stone unturned, while also reasoning
that, at the very least, it would be good interviewing experience. After my interview,
Iwas sold on the idea of working for City Colleges of Chicago. Iaccepted their offer
and have been there eversince.
What is really interesting (and not entirely uncommon) is that Idid not hear
back from a couple universities where I thought I was a strong candidate. I also
thought it a bit odd in that my clinical-community experiences did not seem like
the best fit for working at a community college, where teaching is the emphasis.
However, during the interview process I discovered that community psychology
values such as advocacy, collaboration, embracing human diversity, and social jus-
tice were an incredibly good fit for a community college setting; and that my com-
munity training had prepared me well for this position. The following is an overview
of my impressions of community colleges students, and how Ipractice community
psychology values in this setting.
Community College Students

My impression of community college students comes from a variety of experiences,
starting with being a community college graduate. Ilater got on the other side of
the podium when Ibecame a part-time community college instructor for four years
prior to my doctoral training. By the time Ihad obtained my current position, Ihad
taught part time at universities for five years, and full time for one year as a visiting
graduate instructor. These experiences, and a research investigation of ethnically
diverse, urban community college students (Majer, 2009), give me some ability to
compare different institutions and their students.
Many community college students are first-generation studentsstudents whose
parents never attended (or completed) college or university (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004;
Inman & Mayes, 1999; Shields, 2002). First-generation students typically begin
their higher education at the community college level (Chen, 2005)and they tend
to have different educational experiences compared to other students. For instance,

first-generation students in community colleges complete fewer college credit

hours, work more hours, and tend to have lower grades and study less than other
students (Pascarella, Wolniak, Pierson, & Terenzini, 2003; Terenzini, Springer,
Yaeger, Pascarella, & Nora, 1996). Their sociodemographic characteristics tend to
make them different on class status, ethnicity, and identity issues. These factors can
challenge their adjustment to a white-collar world (Lippincott & German, 2007),
impact their educational outcomes (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004; Majer, 2009) and their
persistence (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). Only one-fourth of first-generation stu-
dents attain a bachelors degree compared to two-thirds with students whose par-
ents are college graduates.
Research evidence suggests that minority students have unique motives for
attending college (e.g., to help ones family) that might challenge their adjustment
to an academic culture (Phinney, Dennis, & Osorio, 2006). This might be more
challenging for first-generation students, especially in community colleges, as they
tend to be of multiple-minority status, which has been correlated to low academic
preparedness (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004), low grades (Chen, 2005), and less academic
persistence (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). First-generation students may also have
family obligations and immigration-related stressors that might affect their beliefs
in pursuing higher education (Phinney etal., 2006)and obtaining higher grades
(Majer,2009).
Unfortunately, there is a dearth of research on first-generation community
college students; especially those from ethnically diverse, urban settings such as
where Iwork. It seems as though most community college students are not college
prepared and bring with them a number of realities that challenge their ability to
engage in the learning process, letalone navigate the culture of an academic set-
ting. Fortunately, most instructors in these settings are sensitive to the various needs
of this population. Although Iam not familiar with literature on the topic of com-
munity college professors, its my sense that community college faculty differ from
university faculty in two majorways.
First, community college faculty are teaching-oriented. They are quite knowl-
edgeable in terms of content, sensitive to learning processes and various learning
styles, and they are more patient and flexible than university professors in terms
of addressing remedial concerns (e.g., developing effective note-taking, assisting
with simple writing assignments, informing students about the virtues of tutoring,
encouraging students to visit professors during office hours). Community college
professors endeavor to hook their students into becoming lifelong learners, whereas
university professors tend to expect their students already are such learners. Second,
community college professors seem more inclined to help students succeed in their
overall transition into the academe in terms of adjusting to the academic climate, in
addition to acquiring important learning skills and knowledge bases. If you think
about it, community college students seem to be a worthy population for commun-
ity psychologists to advocate for and empower. Their worldviews and experiences

can add to our growing school of thought, while we can prevent them from falling
prey to narrow and non-ecological perspectives in psychology.
As a psychology professor, Ive found community college students are gener-
ally more impressionable than upper-level undergraduate and graduate students.
They are prime candidates for embracing community psychology concepts and val-
ues, and for developing critical thinking skills within an ecological frame. Ibelieve
this has considerable implications in terms of engendering their foundation of
psychology as a discipline. What better place for a community psychologist than
a community college for fostering a conscientious and critical imprint of the field
of psychology? Ive found a number of strategies effective in not only promoting
healthy skepticism in the field, but also stirring students passion for social justice
and embracing issues of human diversity.
Practicing Community Psychology inthe Classroom

Many of my professors whose pedagogy had a lasting impression on me were ones
who shared their professional experiences during lectures. Community involve-
ment in terms of training and professional experiences shapes us in becoming
well-informed educators. Ive found sharing field experiences to be beneficial when
fleshing out concepts in courses, something that community college students really
appreciate, whereas they seem less excited about material taught directly from the
textbook (or textbook slides provided by publishers). In particular, applying our
fields foundational principles within the classroom can be the gel that binds instruc-
tional and experiential material that Ibelieve cements a deeper interest among stu-
dents. Sociocultural and cross-cultural competence is indispensable in this respect.
Our community training and fieldwork experiences are informative in many
ways, emphasizing the need for understanding human diversity within the broad
field of psychology, moreover community psychology. Encouraging open discus-
sion on issues of human diversity within a sociopolitical perspective, against the
historic backdrop of empirically based studies that have for the most part been con-
ducted by straight-white-male US researchers, offers more insights and understand-
ing of psychological phenomena.
In addition, disclosing my awareness of my standing along diverse human issues
whenever appropriate encourages students to reflect and share their awareness and
experiences that often times brings to the surface the limitations of scientific meth-
ods (as traditionally practiced in psychology) in terms of ethnocentrism and gen-
eralizability. Although Ihave some academic understanding of racial injustice, Ive
found that Ican mix personal experiences with course material in addressing the
topic of race by simply disclosing my lack of personal experience during lectures
when presenting concepts of human diversity.
For instance, I inform students that I have to believe my non-white friends
and colleagues experiences with frequent acts of discrimination because this is

something that Ido not encounter on a day-to-day basis. Iam privileged in this
sense and make this known. Ifind that providing such candor in my classes com-
plements discussion of Alderfers (1994) position that US psychologists typically
fail to critically examine unconscious forms of prejudice in terms of race rela-
tions. When Iposit that my whiteness basically exempts me from most common
forms of racial discrimination, Iask students to comment on my (and some of my
predecessors) ability to critically examine the relevance of race to psychology.
Likewise, if researchers are unaware of their position and worldviews in relation
to being members of a racially dominant group in US society, then Ichallenge stu-
dents to discuss how we could possibly begin to understand the depths of racism;
and if weve traditionally viewed race as a nominal variable, Iask students why
would we be inclined to consider it as anything elsefor example, as a matter of
identity? Such dialogue serves as a catalyst for discussing other issues of human
diversity.
I find that my frankness gives me some credibility in addition to serving as a
model for students disclosures of their own experiences. As students provide some
of their experiences, they help to flesh out concepts, and in doing so, they establish
a voice to inform others while developing a sense of ownership in the class. Overall,
Icannot lecture on concepts related to human diversity without (1)giving some
explanation as to how they pertain to me, and (2)providing opportunities for stu-
dents to contribute to the discussions lest Icome across in a condescending manner
and lose students interest and respect.
In addition to bridging personal experiences to instructional content, Ifind that
it helps to sequence course topics in a way that reinforces learning and encourages a
synthesis of related topics for a bigger picture understanding. For instance, Idiscuss
diversity issues and cultural considerations in my introductory courses immediately
following lectures on scientific methodsthe initial topic of the course that some
of my students find utterly boring. By introducing issues of human diversity after
discussing scientific methods, students increase their interest in, and are better able
to grasp, the limitations of the use of scientific methods that are traditionally used in
psychology, in addition to seeing how the field is rooted among the worldviews of a
narrow class of straight-white-male US researchers.
I borrow quite a bit from Human Diversity: Perspectives on People in Context
(Trickett, Watts, & Birman, 1994), in addition to recent studies and material
from articles that Iwas assigned in my graduate studies, as well as from my con-
sultative experiences. For the most part, Ipresent issues of human diversity (e.g.,
race, unconscious processes, worldviews, paradigms of diversity, culture, ethnicity,
acculturation, assimilation, gender, heterosexism, privilege, religious intolerance,
Western vs. non-Western approaches to conceptualization) in my introductory
classes and follow-up with small group discussion questions to enable students
to process and share experiences with material. The use of such peer dialogue in
the classroom has been demonstrated as being beneficial in terms of promoting

students (including white students) racial self-awareness (Yeung, Spanierman, &

Landrum-Brown,2013).
Likewise, Ipresent other diversity-related concepts (e.g., access to therapy, lan-
guage barriers and assessment, client/therapist matches, therapeutic approaches
with diverse populations, sexual identity development, attachment theory, cogni-
tive development, adolescent risk factors, prevention interventions, nonprofes-
sional interventions) in my upper level courses. By addressing diversity in these
ways, students appreciate aspects of operational definitions, both qualitative and
quantitative methods, and the importance of scrutinizing sample characteristics
and methods in empirical studies. They begin to see how course material/concepts
are understood within an ecological frame (or lack thereof, in some cases).
In retrospect, Ithink some students view community psychologists as innovators
and advocates of social justice in the field of psychology. Most students get excited
when they discover research conducted by community psychologists goes beyond
the academic and toward advocacy, social justice, and empowerment. Ifrequently
point out the contributions made by community psychologists, how our school of
thought is extending worldwide, and how Im only presenting my understanding of
our discipline within my worldview. In addition, Iwarn students that community
psychology ideas and efforts toward social justice are not always embraced or well
received because they suggest systems reform that threatens the status quo. Im not
surprised that some of these urban, first-generation community college students
take to such ideas quickly and with keen interest. In sum, the manner in which
Istructure my lectures, in addition to how Ideliver my material, seems effective in
connecting students to community psychology topics and values. In fact, some stu-
dents go further and get involved in community psychology outside the classroom.
Practicing Community Psychology Outside theClassroom

I was initially surprised when students sought me out during office hours to dis-
cuss how they could get involved in community psychology. Some students seem to
have a knack for remembering exactly what was discussed and encouraged during
lectures. Ive found myself helping students network with research teams and lend-
ing guidance in their academic planning over the years, and as a result Ive come to
mentor several students.
Mentorship
Its my sense that folks enter the profession of community psychology with a con-
viction for being of service to others, which Ibelieve is the primary root of mentor-
ship. Iam indebted to my mentor for all of his support, which has served me well in
my career, and perhaps more importantly, for exemplifying how Ican help others.
Ihave found the best way to approach mentorship with others is to reflect on ones

experiences in receiving help, and endeavor to give back what was given in order to
keep it alive for others... and oneself.
Although Ido not think there is one clear-cut way of mentoring, Ido believe
mentorship requires a fine balance between maintaining ones professional role,
and being personal in terms of showing genuine concern for students well-being
as they navigate the academe. The professional side involves things such as pro-
viding students with various resources to inform and facilitate their development,
including campus clubs/student organizations, local conferences/events, helping
them network with local researchers and community based organizations, and pro-
viding academic advising through the graduate level, to name a few. Maintaining
that professional/personal boundary for me means being friendly instead of being
a friend:friends are mostly interested in discussing personal matters whereas my
interest in discussing students personal matters is mostly related to their academic/
professional development.
I believe that mentorship with community college students should focus on
bolstering their academic confidence and conveying our belief in their abilities to
succeed in academia. Upper-level and graduate university students do not seem to
need as much encouragement/reassurance. Community college students in par-
ticular seem like the last ones to own their academic potential or to envision their
long-term educational development. Students Imentor are initially shocked (but
quickly relieved) when they realize that graduate school preparation takes place at
this time of their educational development. They truly benefit in knowing that a
graduate degree is not an unrealistic goal. Conveying our beliefs in their ability to
go forward and succeed in graduate school just might be the key for some. In short,
mentoring community college students means to empower them beyond the provi-
sion of external resources.
For instance, Ifind it helpful to point out to students that if they can raise a child/
family, maintain employment, function in multiple cultures (e.g., ones own culture,
US culture, the culture of the academe), and do well in their classes, then they cer-
tainly have it in them to succeed in higher education. It is my sense that community
college students do not easily recognize their strengths because they are biased in
terms of seeing themselves behind the pack of traditional, college-prepped students.
However, many are amazed when such strengths (e.g., wisdom, respect, loyalty,
high work-ethic, street-smarts, getting along with others, persistence, courage) are
validated by their professor; giving them a sense that they too have some things they
bring into the mentoring relationship that promotes a sense of connectedness that
extends beyond this relationship.
Encouraging students by building upon their confidence to advance in aca-
demia and honoring their strengths during office hours might require greater
patience than one might have with university students. Nonetheless, Ifind that
investing in community college students in these capacities creates very mean-
ingful exchanges that draw them into a greater consciousness related to service,

extending their views of higher education from a purpose of self-serving advance-

ment toward seeing how college can help them make an impact in their communi-
ties. Some realize early on that their unique life experiences have informed them
in ways that current research doesnt seem to address, thereby inspiring them to
continue with their studies in hopes of making a contribution in research and/or
direct service provision. Others may not have specific insights but develop a more
general conviction of wanting to make a difference in some way. Most are shocked
when they learn about community agencies and local university researchers that
are open to taking them on as student volunteers at this point of their academic
journey.
Mentoring students is highly rewarding and a good practice that keeps my enthu-
siasm for community psychology going. Likewise, Ifind my involvement in other
community college activities as being equally exciting. I will now address how
Iapply community psychology values by discussing community-building in a com-
munity college setting.
Community Building and Empirical Grounding

I believe my community training, especially in the areas of consultation and par-
ticipatory action research, has prepared me to work with multiple stakeholders
and various campus-wide committees. City Colleges of Chicago is host to seven
campuses, and Istarted at the Richard J.Daley campus where Ideveloped a close
working relationship with the only other full-time psychology professor, Winifred
(Windy) Armstead-Hannah. Windy was tenured, highly knowledgeable about
various systems of the campus, and a consummate educator. We soon discovered
that our values were highly concordant, and as Jason (1997) has noted, such syn-
ergy can result in very positive outcomes.
Our first task was to add more psychology courses, particularly upper-level
courses, to the semester schedules. We followed Jasons (1991) example of influ-
encing legislation with technologies in that we collected data as a means of influ-
encing our administrations scheduling of psychology courses. In our case, this
simply involved collecting student names/ID numbers/signatures on sign-up
sheets whereby students expressed that they would enroll in a given upper-level
course (e.g., Social Psychology) the following semester, if available. We ended up
with many more students than the maximum limit of 35 for this lecture course, and
as a result, our dean agreed to add this course to the schedule. Such a small win
approach ( Jason) ultimately led to several larger victories:an excellent working rela-
tionship with the administration (something that had been strained due to a recent
and ugly strike), increased upper-level classes for students, and a greater variety of
summer psychology courses. In time, more students were identifying themselves as
psychology majors even though such a major was not officially offered, and it didnt
take long before we initiated a psychologyclub.

By obtaining student support and showing documentation for this, we managed

to create a psychology club to support students as they prepared to transfer as psy-
chology majors to university settings. Our club was successful in obtaining guest
speakers, in fundraising activities, and in organizing a holiday toy-drive. Club mem-
bers networked with faculty to make brief presentations in their classes to solicit
new toy donations, which later were given to local community-based organizations
(CBOs), including the Salvation Army, a community mental health center, and a
center for victims of domestic violence. At the end of every fall semester, the psy-
chology club held a holiday party that was attended by students, faculty, college
administrators, and CBO leaders (who created ongoing internships for our students
in appreciation of their dedicated efforts). Allowing students to have autonomy in
the psychology club, where faculty encouraged multilevel networking, was instru-
mental to the success of several club activities. As a result, our students directly
served the interests of a few local CBOs and their constituents, as well as fellow stu-
dents, and they became more invested in their communities, which led to a favor-
able impression of our college as a community resource.
In addition, I found myself engaged in coalition building when I became a
department chair in my third year. This put me in a mid-management position in
that Iwas a leader for a large department working in a semi-administrative capacity.
Ispent quite a bit of my time getting to know part-time faculty as Iwas responsible
for setting up the proposed department schedule of classes each semester. Its my
sense that some part-time faculty members feel slighted for two main reasons:they
earn considerably less than what full-time faculty earn, and their selection of course
load is limited in that they get to choose only after full-timers select their course
loads. Ihave always tried to be sensitive to part-time faculty members concerns, no
matter how small they might appear, out of gratitude for having a full-time position.
Over time, Ibelieve that Iearned the respect of many of my part-time colleagues,
which became invaluable when my administration requested faculty members to
initiate articulation agreements (i.e., obtaining assurance that the courses we offered
would be transferable to neighboring colleges/universities by submitting course
syllabi along with an articulation agreement form to various neighboring institu-
tions) for all courses we offered in our department. Having an open-door policy as
department chair, encouraging part-time faculty to join our monthly department
meetings, listening to concerns no matter how trivial they might have seemed, and
leading by example were some ways that I believe earned the respect of my col-
leagues. So, when we were challenged to develop articulation agreements from at
least three neighboring colleges/universities for all classes that we offered through-
out the year, we stepped up and delivered on this administrative directive. Likewise,
we came together tasked with developing uniformed student learning outcomes
(SLOs) across course sections for all courses.
Obtaining articulation agreements and generating SLOs for all courses within
a large department is no easy task. But it was much easier to accomplish through

the coalition-building that began early on in very small but meaningful ways, and
our departments success set the way for other departments to follow. Imight men-
tion that the process of obtaining articulation agreements led to very fruitful rela-
tionships with a couple of local universities that took a great interest in receiving
our graduates by making various allowances for them as transfer students in terms
of financial aid and receiving a large number of their credits. In fact, our psychol-
ogy club held routine workshops comprised of these university advisors who were
instrumental in ensuring our students ongoing success when they graduated, rein-
forcing the importance of networking early in a students professional development.
Networking was something that my mentor and I frequently discussed when
Iwas a student, and its a valuable skill that Istrive to maintain. City Colleges of
Chicago (CCC) faculty meet annually during Faculty Development week, and
Itake advantage of this opportunity to network with peers from other CCC cam-
puses. During a lunch some years ago, a number of psychology faculty agreed to
meet on a monthly basis to discuss issues related to teaching psychology. This led
to the creation of an inter-campus psychology committee (IPC) that developed
annual psychology conferences open to all students.
The annual IPC conferences were a valuable resource for community college
students majoring in psychology. Although community college students rarely get
exposure to professional conferences, annual IPC conferences created opportuni-
ties for them to present psychology conference posters and participate in work-
shops. Providing professional exposure and networking opportunities early in their
educational development is likely to give community college students an advantage
in transferring and doing well at the universitylevel.
Community training prepared me to network with others, particularly across
various levels (e.g., students, community members and CBOs, college administra-
tors, and fellow faculty). Some probably do not consider the need for networking
with (for-profit) educational resource organizations that can indirectly affect com-
munity college students, however, I found it to be quite valuablefor example,
regarding the issue of student textbooks and other materials.
The average income of a CCC student is at the poverty-level, so book costs are
a serious consideration for our students. Itook the time to develop a relationship
with a textbook representative in search of a high-quality, low-cost textbook. Ifound
a rep who understood our students financial realities, and she was instrumental in
helping me obtain a quality text at a relatively low-cost. Of course, she saw the big-
ger picture in that Iwould assign this text for all introductory courses, something
that was within my authority as department chair. Imade sure that my fellow psy-
chology colleagues were on board and in agreement throughout the selection proc-
ess for this text when Iwas chair of my department at Daley College.
After getting input from others, Iaddressed the issue of book costs by directing
my students to purchase their texts online as an alternative to the recommended (no
longer required) texts listed in my syllabi; encouraging them to find any text in

the respective sub-discipline (e.g., abnormal psychology, introduction to psychol-

ogy) that was published in the past five years. However, Ido order a recommended
text at our bookstore in order to accommodate students receiving book vouchers.
Isoon discovered that students were able to obtain current and earlier editions of
my recommended texts for less than $20. In all, its important to get input across lev-
els (colleagues, administrators, outside venders such as publishing reps) whenever
contemplating innovative solutions to a problem such as the high cost of textbooks.
That way, valuable input is obtained and key stakeholders are in the loop, and thus
supportive of new ideas that are put into motion.
In my community college setting, I also worked across campuses and various
committees to bring about important changes within the larger system. Itransferred
to a CCC campus (Truman College), and upon arrival Iconsidered what Icould
bring to Truman College to help psychology students. This was at a time when we
had a newly appointed chancellor who was pioneering a Reinvention campaign,
with a renewed interest in student success across campuses. It dawned on me that
Ihave some strengths in research, having maintained an active research program, in
addition to my ongoing consultation at DePaul University since coming to CCC.
I decided to create a research course to prepare our students to succeed in their
future research-related courses at the universitylevel.
Although I had heard from a few faculty members that starting a new course
was next to impossible because of the arduous processes associated with getting
approval from a couple of local and district-wide committees, Isoon realized that
none of these faculty members actually initiated a new course. In short, I found
the processes were straightforward, and getting input and buy-in from full-time,
district-wide psychology faculty was a cinch, because I had maintained ties with
them over theyears.
The aim of this course (PSYCH 240)was to serve as a primer for students trans-
ferring into behavior science programs (psychology, sociology) so that they would
be familiar with research methods and the use of the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS) when they took these courses at the university level. But
to my surprise, Ilater discovered many local universities accepted PSYCH 240 as a
direct transfer research course at the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Nonetheless, my campus (and other CCC campuses) did not have SPSS at the
time. The campus-wide edition of SPSS is very expensive, so Ipatiently developed
a working relationship with an IBM salesperson in hopes of getting a reduced cost
for this statistical software. In short, Ilistened very carefully and took my time in
discussing my needs with this salesperson over a few phone chats, and before long
Idiscovered that IBM was trying to market their products to community colleges; as
an incentive, they offered a campus-wide edition of the most recent version of SPSS
at a fraction of the cost. Iwas not alone in advocating for our poverty-level students,
as the IBM salesperson seemed to know about our students financial hardships
quite well as she lived in the area. The next step was to get my local administrations

buy-in for some rather expensive technology before starting the process of course
approval.
I discussed this issue with my college vice president before initiating the course
approval process to find out whether our college could afford the computer soft-
ware for this new research course. In retrospect, Ibelieve having established a good
relationship with him and other administrators, including our president, didnt hurt
my cause. Let me share a little anecdote:
One day Iwas walking into the administrative offices when Iran into a few col-
leagues and administrator who said, Lets ask John. Ask me what? I inquired.
Someone said, Beatles or Rolling Stones? In my humble opinion, the answer to
this age-old question (i.e., which of the two is the better band?) is clearly, The
Beatles. Within a minute, the conversation made its way to the presidents office,
and Iwas propositioned to debate this issue with a senior humanities professor (an
ardent Stones fan) in the second Presidents Debate Series. Iwas flabbergasted. My
mind was remembering the first Presidents Debate on the influence of Islam in
African nations, debated by two faculty members who migrated from Egypt and
Eritrea. Certainly there were more pressing issues (health care, the war on drugs,
religious intolerance, violence, etc.) to discuss in a college-wide, public forum. In
short, the event was a success and turned out to be a brilliant demonstration of
debate from both a humanities and social science perspective that our students
might emulatemore substantial than the content per se. But the point here is that
my involvement in this debate just might have been an indirect way of showing my
administrators that Iam a resourceful team player who can follow through on tasks
with very positive results.
Of course, providing a written rationale, course overview and syllabus, present-
ing documented buy-in from my department and district-wide psychology faculty,
and a having a list of student signatures made a compelling case to my vice president
when Iproposed this research course to him. In addition, the greatly reduced cost
for the SPSS software license was a huge plus, and helping students develop market-
able skills such as data collection, organization, and analysis was within the purview
of our Reinvention aim. Ialso had the opportunity to discuss this proposed course
with our college president, who was enthusiastic about a research course and she
assured me that the cost for the software would not be an issue. In all, covering the
needs of various levels is essential whenever seeking buy-in to proposed changes
within a system. The PSYCH 240 course is a regular course offered each semester,
and Iam hopeful that Ihave successfully set the stage for a new course offering in
the future:Community Psychology.
I have found a few challenges in working in a community college setting as one
with a doctorate in clinical-community psychology. For example, most faculty
members at my campus do not embrace research. Although some colleagues and
administrators have an appreciation for my ongoing research involvement with
community-based approaches to treating substance use disorders, its my sense

that others might wonder why someone in a teaching institution is engaging in

non-teaching activities with non-student populations. Thus, it is difficult to share
ones enthusiasm for research projects and to benefit from the collaborative energy
among colleagues who are not research-oriented. In addition, entering a commu-
nity college as a new faculty member with a doctoral degree can be another chal-
lenge. Community college settings traditionally hire tenure-track faculty at the
masters level. Although this trend seems to be changing in that community colleges
are hiring more tenure-track faculty with doctoral degrees, entering a community
college with a doctorate might set you apart from others. Its my sense that some
masters-level faculty might feel initially threatened by a newly hired faculty mem-
ber who has acquired more graduate educational experiences and skills. Attempts at
securing tenure by demonstrating community psychology competencies can make
one shine, and one should be careful not to eclipse ones peers in the process.
The tenure process at the community college level may not be the same as those
of most universities. My tenure track was only three years, unlike the typical six-year
time frame at universities. In addition, as a bargained-for union faculty member
(which unfortunately is not very common across the nation), ones salary is not
necessarily commensurate with ones rank. Istarted at the rank of instructor, and
in terms of pay, my salary was based on an elaborately structured system consisting
of lanes and steps within lanes. Such lane/step placement is typically determined
by ones previous teaching and relevant work experiences. It is my sense that most
academics in university settings negotiate a starting salary, receive some sort of fixed
cost-of-living increase, and then receive raises based on rank, unlike my experience;
that might be more of a union issue than community collegeone.
Although the salary structure in my setting might be unique because of our
union contact, community college settings in general offer better salaries than most
university settings. My sense is that even though community college settings are
not very prestigious, they certainly attract talented educators and pay them hand-
somely compared to national salary averages among faculty in university settings.
Imight mention that when Iwas applying for academic positions some years ago,
Iapplied to one university that was not highly ranked. Idiscovered the salary was
considerably less than the national average. Idistinctly got the impression that the
campus university system was prestigious, and that the administration was selling
the university systems prestige as a benefit of employment (as opposed to a more
representative starting salary scale). Prospective academics would be wise to give
serious consideration to such things.
I would suggest a few things in preparation for an academic career in a community
college setting. First and foremost, community college settings are teaching institu-
tions. Although graduate training in community psychology emphasizes important
skills that might help one navigate a community college setting, one should take
advantage of teaching assistantships in order to gain experiences and insights as
an educator. Acquiring part-time teaching loads toward the end of ones graduate

training (e.g., post-masters) would increase ones teaching experiences. My univer-

sity offered some tuition remission in addition to a decent rate of pay for part-time
teaching loads (which I used to pay for my dissertation hours during my fourth
yeardouble-bonus!), so graduate students might want to explore their options
in this respect. Second, although community psychology graduates are savvy in the
areas of evaluation, research, and understanding theoretical models (to name a few),
emphasizing these non-teaching qualities during the interview process (appropriate
for university posts) might backfire at a community college setting when applying
for an academic post. Although such strengths might bode well when applying for
an administrative position (e.g., dean) in a community college setting, theyre typ-
ically not viewed as classroom strengths for teaching institutions of higher educa-
tion. Ive sat on several faculty search committees, and the most promising applicants
were those who clearly demonstrated a genuine passion for teaching and were able to
articulate this without pretension. Lastly, Iwould recommend teaching as an adjunct
or part-time instructor for a local community college to see whether this is the set-
ting for you. Ihad the good fortune of teaching part-time for a community college
for four years prior to my clinical-community training, and Itaught one semester as
an adjunct instructor in my current system, so Ihad a pretty good idea of what Iwas
getting into when Iapplied for my present full-timepost.
In closing, Iam immensely happy to be working in a community college set-
ting even though my doctoral training in clinical-community psychology primarily
prepared me to work in clinical and research settings. Iimagine the roles commu-
nity psychologists find themselves in will continue to expand as our field contin-
ues to evolve. Most of my community psychology colleagues in academia focus
their energies at the tail end of higher education, molding graduate and upper level
undergraduate students. However, making significant and meaningful changes can
occur much earlier in the higher educational process in terms of student develop-
ment among community college students. In fact, a few of my former community
college students have since become involved in community-based research. They
have presented at professional conferences, co-authored manuscripts published in
peer-reviewed journals, and are preparing themselves for graduate studies in com-
munity psychology. Community colleges are hosts to many students who, for vari-
ous reasons, have remedial issues that extend beyond the classroom. Mentorship is
a valuable resource to help them navigate their way through the academe of higher
education. Community college students tend to be open to new ideas, especially
those embraced by community psychologists, and with the right guidance these
students are capable of making important contributions directly to their commu-
nities and hopefully to our field. Community psychology programs train us to be
resourceful in many ways, and these competencies certainly have their place in
a community college setting in terms of honoring human diversity, community
building, and working collaboratively across multiple levels within a system to
effect change.

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6,1732.

17
Roles Beyond Faculty inAcademia

Luciano Berardi and Lindsey T.Back
By necessity, there is a strong relationship between community psychology and

higher education, and it is therefore useful to examine issues of higher education
through the lenses of community psychologists working as non-faculty university
staff members. This chapter covers the importance of education and the challenges
that members of disadvantaged communities encounter in college. The chapter
aims to illustrate how community psychology theory, research, and practice are use-
ful for careers in higher education, particularly in the development of academic pro-
graming and high impact experiences to serve at-risk communities during college.
Higher Education Landscape:ACall forAction

Since World War II, the United States has seen the benefits of investing in and
expanding higher education. The GI Bill, enacted near the end of World War II,
increased the nations economic progress, scientific leadership, citizens political
lives and participation, and the inclusion of cultural and racial minorities in higher
education. These rapid changes in the middle of the twentieth century granted
approximately 8 million veterans access to college, leading to a boom in enroll-
ment by the end of the century. It became clear that college was an important ele-
ment of the socialization process, career development, and social progress. Higher
education provides access to higher quality and better paying jobs for incomes at
all ages (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013)and, therefore, leads to a persons improved
socioeconomic status (SES; Proctor & Dalakar, 2003; US Census Bureau, 2012).
From 2000 to 2008, 31% of middle-income adults earning college degrees moved
up to the top income. Only 12% without a four-year degree did the same (Baum
etal.,2013).
In addition to increasing earnings, higher educational attainment reduces
negative psychological outcomes, such as neuroticism, stress, and loneliness
205

(Bishop & Martin, 2007; Savikko, Routasalo, Tilvis, Strandberg, & Pitkala,
2005). Moreover, a cross-sectional study of a large random sample of adults
aged 40 to 85years old found that higher levels of education are significantly and
positively correlated with aspects of positive affect, such as hope, while lower
levels of education were found to be correlated with physical decline and lone-
liness (Steverink, Westerhof, Bode, & Dittmann-Kohl, 2001). Without a post-
secondary education degree, young adults can be less prepared to compete for
high quality jobs. Less educated adults decrease their chances for social mobil-
ity and increase their chances of confronting negative life challenges, including
lack of access to health care, adequate nutrition, and sanitary living environments
(Gallo & Matthews, 2003). Asuccessful transition to and through college is an
important step toward increasing quality of life. However, recent studies from
the National Center for Education Statistics (2013) reported that approximately
24% of students at four-year institutions left school after the first year, raising
concern about the effect of this on their future well-being. In particular, research
shows an incrising gap in college completion between racial minorities and white
Americans (Gamoran,2014).
Contextual challenges can present obstacles to persistence in higher education,
particularly for those from underrepresented groups. The roots of some of these
problems are complex. An oppression framework (Prilleltensky, 2003), valued and
used by community psychologists, is useful in understanding the contextual expe-
riences of students from minority backgrounds transitioning through college. For
example, in the US educational system, students from ethnic minority and lower
educational level backgrounds encounter a significant number of contextual barri-
ers, including racism (Conchas, 2001; Saunders & Serna, 2004; Tierney, 1999; Zea,
Reisin, Beil, & Caplan, 1997), which in turn could impair the development of appro-
priate support systems and a healthy transition through college. Ethnic minority
college students report more negative racial interactions (Reid & Radhakrishnan,
2003), leading students to feel excluded and intimidated during their college expe-
rience, which can negatively impact academic outcomes (Alfaro, Umaa-Taylor,
Gonzales-Backen, Bmaca, & Zeiders, 2009; Mroczkowski & Snchez, 2015;
Umaa-Taylor, Wong, Gonzales, & Dumka,2012).
Given the college context for underrepresented groups, community psychology
theories, research, and practices are of great value to higher education because they
offer a range of possible approaches to identify, understand, and change barriers
affecting students academic and social progress. Community psychologists work-
ing in staff positions can assist in the development of programing aimed to prevent
college attrition and assist students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Therefore,
there is a clear niche for community psychologists in higher education. In the fol-
lowing section, we describe our work as community psychologists on staff at DePaul
University.

R ol e s B e yond Facult y in A cad e mia 207
Inequalities inHigher Education:ACall

forSocialChange
Historically, racial/ethnic minority and low-income students have been excluded
from higher education (Hoffman, Snyder, & Sonnenberg, 1996), and although
enrollment and graduation figures are rising, disparities in access and attainment
persist (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). Initiatives and funding
from the US Department of Education, professional organizations, and private
donors support for underrepresented students in higher education provide an
ample opportunity for community psychologists to intervene. Community psy-
chology training in theory, research, and practice is relevant to the many positions
available in higher education industry to promote the success of underrepresented
students.
Programming forCollege Students

In our community psychology PhD program at DePaul University, we were both
exposed to issues of access in education. We worked on research projects evaluat-
ing the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream Chicago Public School
classrooms, high school afterschool programs, and college-based mentoring. In the
last decade, the problem of access and equity in higher education has become a
greater focus for the US Department of Education. Like many universities, DePaul
has established a specific office to support its many underrepresented students. At
DePaul, we work for the Center for Access and Attainment, through the McNair
Scholars and Students Support Services Programs. The McNair Scholars Program,
a federally funded Department of Education TRiO program, is designed to diver-
sify the professoriate by training first-generation, low-income college students or
students from underrepresented groups to apply to and enroll in doctoral programs.
The Center for Access and Attainment houses a wide range of programs designed
to increase student enrollment from surrounding Chicago Public Schools, to assist
at-risk students in their paths to graduation, and to prepare students from underrep-
resented groups in their application to graduate school. All of these opportunities
allow community psychologists to utilize their unique competencies to level the
playing field for underrepresented students.
The Center for Access and Attainment offered an opportunity to apply our CP
learning and training as part of graduate assistantships during graduate school,
which eventually evolved into full-time positions. Our responsibilities allow us
to utilize program development and teaching skills to instruct TRiO students on
research methods and processes, the graduate school application process, and
academic writing in weekly seminars. On an individual basis, we advise, mentor,

and tutor students. Our roles provide us with the opportunity to utilize research
skills and explore personal interests in the development, coordination, and supervi-
sion of research experiences, often conducted internationally. Because the McNair
Scholars Program is federally funded, program evaluation is particularly important,
such that evidence-based practices both strengthen program outcomes and increase
the likelihood that the program will be refunded.
We draw from several aspects of community psychology training in our roles.
With regard to theory, the McNair Scholars Program subscribes to an empower-
ment approach in designing the overall setting, aiming to increase participants
feelings of control over issues of importancein this case, enrolling in graduate
school (Zimmerman, 2000). We employ Matons (2008) framework of character-
istics of empowering settings, which aligns nicely with the needs of students from
underrepresented groups. Specifically, program activities emphasize a strengths-
based approach toward clear goals. Program activities are designed to be engag-
ing with an emphasis on active learning, feedback, and reflection at the individual
and group levels. Aprimary component of the setting is a support system, includ-
ing quality relationships with peers and mentors, and a sense of community, thus
providing students with the social capital they may otherwise lack. Students have
both autonomy and resources, and are encouraged to be proactive in reaching
their academic goals. By designing programing to include these characteristics, we
have the ability to simultaneously contribute to individual development, commu-
nity betterment, and positive social change (Maton, 2008, p.5). Together, these
approaches support successful learning processes and prepare students for gradu-
ate education.
CP Training:Research and Program Evaluation

Graduate coursework on research methods, statistics, and program evaluation
allows us to weave research throughout our job responsibilities. With regard to pro-
gram evaluation, we collect data from students at various points during their time in
the program and beyond graduation. Data are used to inform program activities and
illustrate outcomes to prospective students, university stakeholders, and funders.
Working within a university also provides the infrastructure and institutional sup-
port to conduct research on a large scale. Individuals with interests in multiple
higher education issues may pursue these interests in their positions in programs
such as McNair Scholars. For example, we have created research abroad program
for McNair Scholars, providing training on research while investigating educational
access issues cross-culturally (Berardi & Kuperminc, 2011; Berardi et al., 2014;
Back, Williams, Berardi, 2015). With institutional support, we have utilized our
community psychology training as university staff to incorporate new perspectives
on and solutions for ameliorating gaps in minority and majority group achievement
in college through research, at DePaul and on a largerscale.

As staff working within higher education, we also find time to practice research
to improve our institutions educational practices. To that end, we conduct research
that has theoretical, practical, and policy implications. For example, between 2012
and 2016, we have conducted research in three complementary areas:(1)the effects
of supportive relationships on academic development and outcomes (Berardi &
Sanchez, under review); (2) empowerment experiences of students from under-
represented racial/ethnic backgrounds in relation to academic success (Back &
Keys, under review); and (3)program practices aimed at improving students per-
formance, educational access, and outcomes (Back, Zurn, Berardi, & Spittle, 2015).
Our goal is to use findings of our research and program evaluation to change how
higher education administrators think about the role of academic environments
and programming for students from minority backgrounds.
CP Training:Social Justice and OrganizationalChange

Our doctoral training in CP allows us to use a combination of research and action
activities to (1)produce effective (evidence-based) educational practices; (2)pro-
mote second-order organizational changes; and (3)actively move forward with an
agenda designed for social change. Acommunity psychologist, working as a man-
ager in higher education, will use core CP values for the development and manage-
ment of academic programs, aiming to improve the quality of services. Moreover,
community psychologists need to work on larger organizational aspects of the uni-
versity, such as capacity building and cultural competency. It is also important to
work toward impacting an even larger social system of historical inequalities, such
as a lack of educational and social mobility for underrepresented groups.
In our case, working at a higher education institution involves (1)providing ser-
vices to students such as academic guidance, mentoring, community building, and
support for student empowerment; (2)managing systems-level tasks such as pro-
gram development and administration, securing program funding, and conducting
program evaluation; and (3)conducting scholarly activities such as research, teach-
ing, and policy advocacy for minority groups. In a broader context, we are working
to create social change. It is important to highlight that usually, all of these tasks are
spread across different areas of institutional practices and roles within a university,
such as student or academic affairs, enrollment management, individual colleges,
and faculty roles. It is a unique asset for the industry of higher education that CP
training allows us integrate these tasks into a cohesive set of services.
Community psychologists working in higher education settings as staff mem-
bers require a diverse set of skills. Table 17.1 displays CP competencies (Dalton &
Wolfe, 2012)aligned with a brief description of our practices of each competency
in the higher educationarena.
It is important to highlight that familiarity with ecological theory is of primary
importance to explain and examine experiences in higher education, such as the

Table17.1Community psychologist competencies aligned withexperiences inhigher education
# Competencies Experiences in Higher Education
1 Foundational Principals Ecological Perspective (theory and analysis) Using ecological theories when developing
seminars, workshops, and interventions.
2 Empowerment Using empowerment theory to develop
services:curriculum and intervention.
3 Socio-Cultural and Cross-Cultural Understanding students needs and
experiences, as we work with a large number
of students from underrepresented ethnic
groups.
4 Community Inclusion and Partnerships Working with students families and friends
to create community trust within the
university, create attachment to university
mission and increase participation on
institutional activities.
5 Ethical, Reflective Practice We base our practice on CP foundational
values.
6 Community Program Program Development, Implementation and Creating logic models, curriculum and
Development & Management Management activities, staff management, budget, and so
on.

7 Prevention and Health Implementing dropout prevention for
first year students. Conducting research
to understand barriers and experiences of
underrepresented students. Developing
programming for first year students
8 Community & Organizational Leadership and Mentoring Conducting seminars to develop students
Capacity-Building leadership skills; peer mentoring services/
model; mentoring participants.
9 Small and Large Group Process Working with cohorts of students, Summer
Research Program.
10 Resources Development (e.g. Grant writing) Grant writing and reporting.
11 Consulting and Organizational Development Offering consulting support to other units of
the university providing educational services
to underrepresented students. We offer to
guide graduate student consultants with
fieldwork projects within our programs.
12 Community & Social Change Collaboration and Coalition development Working with other units in the university
(Office of Multicultural Student Success,
Mission and Values, Dean of Students).
13 Community Development Coordinating multiple annual events to
create community amongst students from
underrepresented groups
(Continued)

Table17.1Continued
# Competencies Experiences in Higher Education
14 Community Organizing and Lobbying legislators to support funding
Community Advocacy for higher education programming (e.g.
working with the Council for Opportunity in
Education).
15 Policy Analysis and Development N/A
16 Community Education, Information Presenting research findings and program
Dissemination, and Building Public evaluation results to university management,
Awareness as well as in local, regional, national and
international conferences forums.
17 Community Research Participatory Community Research Collaborating with other university units
to conduct research aimed to improve staff
cultural competencies and help the university
to understand organizational issues related to
school diversity.
18 Program Evaluation Conducting data collection for annual
reporting of all services we provide to
students.
Adapted from Dalton & Wolfe (2012). Education Connection and The Community Practitioner. The Community Psychologist, 45(4),713.

first-year transition, attrition, and persistence through college. Also, it is crucial

to understand theories capable of explaining social and systemic forces affecting
the experiences and outcomes of students from minority backgrounds, such as
oppression and empowerment theory (e.g., Back & Keys, under review). This
knowledge is what will guide educational practices and organizational interven-
tions. Also, when working with underrepresented groups of students in higher
education, it is important to receive training on issues of cultural competency
and diversity:in order to support minority students to develop their communi-
ties within the institutions, staff needs to understand community issues. It is also
crucial to be competent at working at the systemic level, collaborating and build-
ing coalitions among other campus programs to maximize underrepresented stu-
dents positive experiences. Another important set of competencies are related
with the administration of program activities and practices. We administrate our
practices on professional ethics based on community psychology foundational
values. Part of administrating requires developing and delivering educational ser-
vices, and measuring program outcomes. Finally, it is important to learn about
youth development and young adults transition to adulthood, as it applies to aca-
demic outcomes.
Upsides and Downsides ofthe CareerPath

For community psychologists who may be considering a career in higher educa-
tion administration, there are many benefits. These roles are less competitive than
tenure-track faculty positions, while still offering the institutional support for
research and practice. Additionally, CP skills are relevant across university lev-
els, systems, and units, such that many roles within the university may be attrac-
tive for community psychologists. A university environment also lends itself to
flexibility for community psychologists who want to carve out a unique focus for
their workfor example, by conducting program evaluation, teaching, or provid-
ing supportive services to students. Finally, community psychologys emphasis on
collaboration puts practitioners in a position to facilitate communication, coopera-
tion, and development of new projects across the university, thereby advocating for
and creating positive organizational change. In contrast, some challenges that come
with a position in higher education administration include the need for the support
of key organizational partners in order to pursue an independent research agenda,
which may not always be aligned with service provision and managerial tasks and
needs. For lower-level staff positions, community psychologists may be overquali-
fied. Additionally, for grant-funded positions such as ours, salary increases may be
less available than for faculty positions. However, in general, community psycholo-
gists will find flexibility, institutional support and resources, and the opportunity to
engage in research and practice in a university staff position.

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18
Preparing and Applying fora

Teaching-Focused Faculty Position
Navigating theRoad
Geraldine L.Palmer
Before You DriveOff

For nearly 22 years, I have worked in the nonprofit industry as a practitioner in
community-based organizations, with nearly 20 years in housing and homeless-
ness. Before Iembarked on my journey to obtain a PhD in community psychol-
ogy, my earlier academic endeavors included an associates degree in Marketing
Management, a BA in Business Studies with a concentration in Marketing, and
an MS in Human Services Administration. During the years Iserved in the com-
munity, Ialso held positions as an adjunct faculty member teaching several general
education classes and a number of human services courses online and on-ground.
Ihave always tried to position myself to teach full time at a college or university.
Obtaining a PhD, Iassumed, would make that happen. Along this journey, Ihave
learned a few things, and Ibelieve that sharing my experience will be beneficial to
the novice about to travel this same road. Imust add here that Ihave not given up
my intended destination, but before Icould get there, Iwas given an opportunity to
return to my work as an executive director of a community-based housing provider.
So, needing to pay the bills, Iturned the car around and off Iwent in this direction.
This road has lots of scenery and isnt a dead end at all, but thats another chapter in
another book. We will focus on your travels and Ido hope Smokey doesnt catch
you speeding.
Whether its a road trip to the Grand Canyon, cruising down Interstate 95 from
NewYork to Florida, or taking off in search of a faculty position in higher education,
all trips can benefit from preparations before you take off. Having a few things in
the trunk before you get behind the wheel increases the chance that you can focus
on where you are headed, as well as that you will end up where the map says you
216

P repar ing and A p ply ing for a Teaching -Focus ed Facult y Pos i ti on 217
should be. This chapter, based on my recent journey, will provide you with an idea
of what to pack and what routes to consider. While some educational institutions
will have requirements specific to that particular institution, most require a similar
set of basic materials. Lets start with the curriculumvitae.
CurriculumVitae
In contrast to a resume, a curriculum vitae (CV) should contain a moderately
detailed overview of what you have accomplished during your academic and pro-
fessional career (The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
2013). All the institutions where I sought a faculty position required a CV and
Iexplored positions at numerous colleges and universities in Chicago (University
of Chicago, DePaul University, North Park University) and nationally (Grambling
University in Louisiana, Antioch University in Ohio, University of Maryland,
Baltimore, and many more). ACV should be considered a living document, which
is continually updated with your most recent relevant experiences and accomplish-
ments. Ican hear you saying What? Yes, you need publications in peer-reviewed
journals regardless of the type of institution you are applying to. Agood number
of CV pages for a newbie is two-to-four pages, but a more seasoned professor and
researcher may have 10 to 11 pages or more. Your CV should be developed in
reverse chronological order, where the most recent events are presentedfirst.
A typical CV will include the following information (University of Chapel
Hill,2013).
Name and Contact Information: Contact information for your current institution
or place of employment may work best, unless you do not want your colleagues
to know that you are job-hunting.
Areas of Interest: Alisting of academic and other interests.
Education: Alist of degrees earned or in progress, institutions, and years of grad-
uation. Include the titles of your dissertation or thesishere.
Grants, Honors and Awards: A list of grants received, honors bestowed, and
awards you may have received for teaching or service.
Publications and Presentations: Alist of published articles and books, as well as
presentations given at conferences. If there are many of both, consider having
one section for publications and another for presentations.
Employment and Experience: Separate lists of teaching, laboratory, and/or field
experiences; and volunteer work, leadership, and other relevant experiences.
Scholarly or Professional Memberships: Alisting of the professional organizations
of which you are a member. If you have held an office or a position in a particular
organization, say so here or leave this information for the experience section.
References: Alist of persons who will write letters of recommendations; include
their contact information.

My CV contained all of the items listed above, starting with my education on the
first page. Isimply followed the format of one of my professors at National Louis,
even though, of course, he had way.. . Imean way more... publications. But, the
format was standard and well... hes a full-time tenure track professor. Dont feel
you need to match someone like that. And dont go trying to reinvent the wheel at
this stage of the process. There is plenty of room for showing off your originality
once you land the interview. Remember, higher education folks pretty much stick
to the script. Okay, so once you get a CV together, dont forget to have veteran pro-
fessors take a look-see at it. With this critical document in hand, we can move on
to the cover letter that is standard and a must-have too. Make sure the cover letter
is on point, free of grammatical errors, and a good summary of who you are and
what you can do. After all, search committees are busy, and the cover letter may be
all they read before deciding if you can stop searching or get back in your car and
hit theroad.
Cover Letters
So, youve gotten your CV together and you are done lamenting that you cant use
your resume to covet a prestigious faculty position. Seasoned professors have given
your CV the once-over, pronounced it usable and user-friendly, and now its time
for your cover letter. The cover letter is written, of course, when you find a prospec-
tive faculty position that you are interested in and, as close as possible, qualify for.
In other words, if you have a PhD in community psychology, applying for a full pro-
fessor position in neuroscience might be a bit of a stretch. However, Iwill discuss
later how some degrees, such as community psychology, can apply to a number of
different disciplines, simply based on their interdisciplinary nature.
As in any cover letter, this is your opportunity to make a good first impression.
You want the document to be one-to one-and-a half pages in length, and make sure
you know how to write a five-paragraph essay (introduction, three-paragraph body,
and conclusion). The Office of Intramural Training and Education of the National
Institutes for Health (2013) explains that the cover letter should indicate your teach-
ing and research experience, if applicable, as well as something about your intellect
and writing ability. The letter should add on to and build off of the information on
your CV. The letter should also give the search committee a clear sense of your voice,
intellectual capacity, and last but not least, demonstrate a passion for your teaching.
If the institution is requiring teaching and research, your research agenda should be
established in the letter as well. To this end, if you are required to do research, you
likely, if asked, need a research statement in addition to your teaching statement.
I do not cover the research agenda in this chapter, as that was not my first priority in
a faculty position. But, there are other website resources, such as Cornell University
(2014; http://www.cornell.edu), Academic Coaching and Writing (2014; http://
www.academiccoachingandwriting.org), and The Professor Is In (2014; http://

www.theprofessorisin.com) that have examples and can help you with that part of
your package. The bottom line is that the cover letter needs to present who you are
and convince the reader that you are a good fit for both the particular position and
the institution more broadly. The more you can show that you understand and value
the cultural context you are hoping to enter, the more the search committee will be
able to see you in the position. Therefore, commenting on the unique aspects of the
institutions mission, faculty, or student body might make sense.
The cover letter is just that, your coverwhat the search committee sees first.
Therefore, pass the letter on for feedback from your trusty references, or others who
can provide honest feedback and input. If you are reviewing someones letter, its not
a time to benice.
Rather than me going into detail about what the components of the letter should
look like, Isuggest that you visit the National Institute of Healths (2013) website
(https://w ww.training.nih.gov/assets/Writing_letters_for_faculty_jobs.pdf ).
This source shares how the letter should be constructed and provides a sample let-
ter. Idid model mine after a sample on the this website. Be sure you to customize,
dont plagiarizewhoever wrote the sample letter will probably be on the search
committee and youll be finished before your career starts.
In summary, your cover letter is the first and maybe only chance to make that
initial impression. Thus, its pretty darn important.
Teaching Statements
How do you know what teaching style the search committee is looking for? You
dont. You have to take a chance and be yourself. After all, if you pretend to be some-
one else, you will have to continue to follow the teaching style that fits neither you
nor your potentially new department. Dont pretzel yourself into gaining a teaching
position. Apoor fit does not speak to a good quality-of-life or tenure.
Thus, your first question might be, what is a teaching statement and how do Ibegin
to write one? Good questions, so here is what I learned: Princeton Universitys
MGraw Center for Teaching and Learning (2013) makes that prettyclear.
A teaching statement is a 12 page single-spaced essay that explains your

teaching strategies and goals and in the terms of your discipline and in
the context of the teaching positions that you have held and seek to hold.
(para.1)
This statement should be in the form of a narrative and should cover aspects of
the intellectual and creative skills and the cognitive learning you aim to help your
students achieve in the field. You want to include how you will interact with your
students. For example, Ihave been trained as a facilitator rather than a lecturer so
Ithrive, and believe that my students thrive, in a more interactive classroom; where

students can use their professional experiences and those of their classmates to help
them learn. The facilitative or student-learning style is particularly helpful when the
students are adult learners. You also might want to include how you will organize
class time; how you would handle unruly students; what sources would be used
to gather feedback to know if your students have grasped the concepts set before
them; and other relevant information. This document has to be concise and cover
the necessary information in one-to-two pages. It is unlikely that members of a hir-
ing committee will fully read a longer essay. As with all other materials discussed
in this chapter, Id recommend asking a seasoned professor who has served on a
hiring committee to review your statement. There are also many sources including
sample teaching statements and philosophies available online. Constructing this
document will take some time, especially if you have little teaching experience. As
you consider different styles of teaching and choose one(s) that seems to fit who
you are, you may want to consider having more than one stylestudents are really
diverse in many different ways. If you plan to teach the adult learner, you need
plenty of methods in your arsenal because they are not traditional by any sense.
Adult learners, for example, may be more sophisticated, and may, naturally, have
much more life experience than traditional students. Therefore, they benefit greatly
from using real-life experiences in the classroom (Doherty, 2012). Another example
from Andrea Leppert, an adjunct instructor at Rasmussen College in Aurora and
Naperville, IL (a suburb outside of Chicago) is on point:Move fast and dont waste
anyones time. Adult students have jobs, sometimes children and tons of responsi-
bilities, so pack every class with information and useful activities (Leppert, 2012, as
cited in Doherty,2012).
Also, as a student, even if you dont have a lot of teaching experience, you know
which professors you really liked regarding their style of teaching. Think through
your own learning experiences, and do some research on contemporary pedagogy
and andragogy. Here are several websites that might be of help in creating your very
own teaching statement:
Princeton Universitys, MGraw Center for Teaching and Learning

(2013;https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/1486).
Vanderbilt Universitys Teaching Statements (2013; http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/
teaching-guides/reflecting/teaching-statements/)
The Chronicle for Higher Education (2014; http://chronicle.com/article/
How-to-Write-a-Statement-of/45133/)
Remember that writing and refining this document takes time. It is part of the
package you need to get on the road and it matters when it gets into the hands of
The Firm... oh, Imean the search committee. Now, another part of the package is
the much needed set of recommendation letters. We will discuss these documents
in the next section.

Getting Stellar Recommendation Letters

Okay, so youve got your CV, cover letter, and you finally finished your teaching
statement and research statement, where applicable. Its now time to get letters of
recommendation. Its best to get them from past or current professors who know
you best. However, in my case I did get one letter from a board member who
could attest to my work as a community practitioner. These letters are important
if you are applying for faculty positions to teach in a number of areas, includ-
ing community psychology, nonprofit management, public administration, social
work, sociology, and other related fields. I immediately asked my dissertation
chair and two other professors Ihad worked with and for to write letters on my
behalf. Your references can attest to your work on your dissertation, classroom
interaction, and participation, and what they see in youpositive traits or char-
acteristics that you may be unaware of. And if you are at the doctoral level, Ihave
no doubt that several professors or others who know you and your work will give
you a glowing recommendation letter. Its important that you dont leave this part
of your luggage up to chance. Make sure you consider carefully who you select to
write these letters.
Whats the inside scoop on recommendation letters and why are they so impor-
tant? In this highly competitive academic job market, recommendation letters for
candidates are read with a great deal of scrutiny. It is one way that search committees
eliminate many of the large numbers of candidates seeking faculty positions. Thus,
getting the best letters from the people who know your work best (e.g., professors,
board of directors, and the like) are important pieces of your package. If you are a
shy person and are afraid to ask professors (who can be intimidating just by nature),
you have to work up the courage to ask them. Its better to ask in person and only use
email if you cant see them in person, or call them if you have a relationship that goes
beyond being simply professional. Share with them, I am considering applying for
a faculty position (be specific, e.g., assistant professor, lecturer...) at Distinguished
University. Would you consider writing me a recommendation letter? Now, my
understanding is if they reply, I would be delighted to write you a letter, then this
is better than if they say, Well, okay, Ill write you one. If you receive the latter
response its better to find someoneelse.
For me, Ihad three professors write letters, one was a former dean of an adult
education program where Iserved as an adult educator, my dissertation chair,
and another professor who at the time was dean of Student Affairs at my under-
grad alma mater. They were all glowing, thank goodness! In fact, I was happy
to know they what they really thought about me. My method for asking was by
telephone for one of them and two by email, attempting to individualize how
I would reach them faster. Im not really shy, but it was easier to reach one of
them by email and Iwas already in contact with my dissertation chair on a num-
ber of other projects, so the ask fell right in. Also, Ihave heard that many faculty

actually enjoy writing strong letters for former students as they are interested
in the success of students they have advised/supervised. Faculty really do want
their students to meet their own goals, providing a sense of accomplishment to
the letter writers. If you think about it, why would faculty spend hours editing
our writing and thinking through research designs if they didnt think some of
their students would make a strong future candidate for a job (whether that be
academic or practice oriented)?
In discussions or websites regarding letters of recommendation, there is infor-
mation on how to write a recommendation letter. Idid not share with those Iasked
to write recommendation letters what I thought the letters should say because
Ifigured they knew. However, some bloggers and SMEs (subject matter experts)
writing about how to get a faculty job suggest that the writer should seek advice
on how to write a good recommendation letter, or at least talk with the candi-
dates about their aspirations, why they are interested in the specific position, and
review the candidates CV and statements to be reminded of their experience
and work beyond what they have seen first-hand. Ithought all the letters Igar-
nered were excellent and discussed my work as a student, researcher, community
practitioner, and teacher. Thus, it seemed all the bases were covered. Matt Welsh
(2012a), a software engineer at Google and a prior professor of computer sci-
ence at Harvard, who also sat on a hiring committee at Harvard, had this to say
in hisblog:
Your recommendation letters are key. I could write an entire blog post
about what a good faculty recommendation letter should say, but you as
a job applicant have little control over what your letters will look like. The
letters touch on many things:your technical and intellectual capacity, your
research taste, your teaching style, your personality, your chances at get-
ting tenure down the road. As an applicant, what you can do is make sure
you talk to your letter writers before they write the letter. This is for several
reasons . . . your reference needs to understand what youre looking for
in a faculty job. What kind of job are you after? Do you want to mostly
teach?... You need to give your references a chance to ask these ques-
tions directly rather than infer the wrong thing and write a blind letter...
(para.17)
He has much more to say, so I recommend that you look his blog up (http://
matt-welsh.blogspot.com/2012/12/how-to-get-faculty-job-part-1b-how-to.html).
In any case, gather two-to-four recommendation letters (most institutions want
at least three), make sure they say something wonderful about you (relevant to an
academic position), and put them in your suitcase. You will need to upload them
with online applications or the educational facility itself will get the letters directly
from your references after you provide their contact information.

Completing Online Applications

Youve got your package ready and now its time to send it out on a test run to see
what happens. There are a number of sites to find faculty positions and Irecom-
mend three in particular: HigherEdJobs.com, Higher Education Recruitment
Consortium (HERC), and The Chronicle for Higher Education. These sites will
have national and international positions. The catch is that they keep the positions
listed on the site for long periods of time, so you may take the time to send out your
wonderful packet and the position might already be closed. It often takes a long
time to get a position filled, but if it is an ad that has been posted for longer than
three months, it is wise to email or call the institution to find out if the position has
been filled prior to you sending in your exemplary materials.
The majority of higher education institutions have online application proce-
dures. If you are not computer savvy, its best to practice navigating on the site
before trying to go ahead and submit the application. You will want to make sure
you are uploading the right documents so good organization of your cover let-
ters, CV, and other required material is essential. Icreated a folder on my desktop
called Work Materials, which contains my CV, customized cover letters, teaching
statement, recommendation letters, and unofficial transcripts. (You want to also
have on hand your transcripts, as they are often needed as part of your package).
Some universities will accept unofficial transcripts until they hire you, and then
you must submit official ones. Be careful to use meaningful names for your files
to save yourself time later once you have more than 10 versions of each type of
document.
Once you find a position and have located the online application portal on
the campus website, you can follow the instructions and upload your documents.
Again, double check that you have uploaded the right document for the particular
university. Most portals will have you create an account, which includes your name,
email, password, and so on. The good thing about this is once you have created an
account you can apply for other jobs without creating a new profile. You also have
the opportunity to designate whether you want to revise your profile, or upload a
new CV, and other options. Once the documents are uploaded, you can check on
the status on the universitys website by signing in. Dont be surprised if you go
back months later and nothing has occurred with your application. Matt Welsh, the
blogger and former professor at Harvard had this to say about how long you might
have towait.
Its a complex process and utterly opaque for the poor applicant, who will
usually not hear anything for many months after submitting the applica-
tion. Most of the time, the response is a polite email from the hiring com-
mittee chair that because of the large number of highly qualified applicants
for the position, they are very sorry that they will be unable to interview

you. That is, if they ever contact you at all. Most schools dont bother even
declining your application explicitly. You just never hear anything. (As for
me, Im still holding out hope that Stanford wants to interview me. Its only
been 10years since Isent my application. Iguess its still under considera-
tion! (Welsh, 2012b, para.3).
Oh my, and Ithought six months was long. Well, at least youre on the roadnow.
On Cruise Control:Waiting foran Email or TelephoneCall

Since its going to be a while before you hear anything, there are some things you
can do while you wait, and one of the most productive is to write articles. Getting
published is significant in getting a faculty job, so it makes sense to promote your
research through scholarship. In my case, Ihad recently defended my dissertation
and had the written materials handy, which made it easier to turn it into smaller
articles. Getting published is another long process, so even if you dont have
articles published to put on your CV, you can create a section on your CV called
Manuscripts in Preparation and stick the pending articles under this heading. At
minimum, a Manuscripts in Preparation section shows your seriousness in working
to get published.
Yet another thing to do while you wait to hear back from schools is to build your
network and vita through attending conferences. Whether it be presenting poster
presentations, leading roundtables and symposia, conferences are opportunities to
share the findings of your work, learn about cutting-edge research conducted by
others, and build relationships that may lead to information about position open-
ings or an opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge and presentation skills to
faculty who serve on the very search committees of positions you have already
applied for, or may in the future. Lastly, conference presentations are opportunities
to practice and improve upon your presentation skills, which will come in handy
when you are asked to interview
Of course, there are additional opportunities beyond conference presentations
and attendance for networking and relationship-building. You may have profes-
sors whose networks extend to one or all of the institutions for which you are
applying. If this is the case, see if theyd be willing to send a letter of recommenda-
tion directly or introduce you through a telephone call or email. Atelephone call
is probably the best first step. Simply say you were referred by Professor so-and-so
and interested in a faculty position (be specific). Hopefully they will give you
some encouragement for moving forward, but dont be discouraged if they dont.
Idid this several times, even though it didnt turn into a full-time position, but the
contact did send me a couple of other position announcements in administration
(which is another place to start in educational institutions aswell).

Rest Stops Along theWay:The Telephone

and In-person Interview
So, you have presented at conferences, written articles, and you are at the stage
where you are wondering if you are invisible, but lo and behold, an email comes or
the telephone rings. My first response was by email and it was from the University
of Maryland, Baltimore. I was too excited and it felt good that an institution
like the University of Maryland was interested. The position was for director of
their Social Work Community Outreach Services (SWCOS). The position also
included teaching classes if desired. It was a good fit for me because of my commu-
nity practitioner experience. The first email was from the department coordinator
who wanted to set up a Skype interview. If you are not equipped to handle Skype
and other voice communication/video conferencing technology, you should get
set up to do that right now. Fortunately, because Ihave a pretty tech-savvy daughter
who lives out of town, Iwas prepared. My daughter (bless her heart) spent a few
days doing mock interviews with me on Skype, so Ithought Iwas ready. However,
you always get a trick question thrown at you. Iwas sailing through the interview
when one of the search committee members asked me how Iwould put into action
the social work values. Well, thats something Ihadnt thought about because
now what are those social work values again? Icould only think of one or two
and needless to say Ididnt handle that question well. Im not sure if that was the
point where Imay have lost the position, but Iwasnt selected to move on to an
in-person interview. But, thats okayI had made it to the Skype interview and
Iwas encouraged. That meant my CV and small publication efforts were getting
me in the door atleast.
Not too long after this interview, Idid get another interview using videoconfer-
encing technology, but this time it was Google Hangout. Ihad applied for a pro-
gram chair of the Human Services program at Antioch University in Ohio. Now
you might be wondering if I applied for any community psychology positions,
since Ihad spent years pursuing my PhD.in this field. Yes, Ireally did. Once you
are on the job market youll notice that there are not a large number of university-
based positions with community psychology in the title, because there are not a
lot (approximately 70) of colleges/universities that offer community psychology
programs. Having read this far into the current book, you know by now that there
are a number of disciplines community psychology can fall under. Ipracticed work-
ing with Google Hangout beforehand with my cousin and all seemed to be work-
ing. However, as computers do, a glitch occurred right when the search committee
called. And this speaks to making sure you have a plan B. I had to switch to my
cell phone. The search committee even had some challenges with Google Hangout
themselves (I felt better). Iwent through that interview and Iscored an in-person
interview. How exciting!

The interview was set up and Iflew to Dayton, which is right outside of Yellow
Springs. One of the professors on the search committee promptly picked me up
from the airport and off we went to Yellow Springs. I wont go into much detail
here about Yellow Springs, except to say when searching for a full-time faculty pos-
ition you might end up somewhere you never imagined you would. Ispent a day in
interviews with a myriad of faculty and staff at Antioch, which is par for the course.
It was a good learning experience because interviews should be about the candidate
seeing if they like the university and vice-versa; the search committee has to like the
candidate. There are a number of factors that go into the selection process and one
is deciding if there is a reasonable chance that you will fit in with the other faculty.
This is important.
The job talk or presentation is another significant factor impacting whether you
get an offer. By the way, Ididnt get an offer with Antioch but Iasked the search
committee contact person what Icould do to strengthen my CV or presentation
thanks to this suggestion from my dissertation chair. And the contact person did
make suggestions for strengthening my talk. Matt Welsh (2012b), my favorite blog-
ger on the topic, sharedthis:
The job talk:This is by far the most important part of the interview. If you
give a bad talk there is no chance you will recover and end up with an offer,
whereas a few botched one-on-one interviews might not sink you. The
job talk serves the dual purpose of presenting your research contributions
to the department, as well as showcasing your teaching ability. The talk
needs to be extremely well-rehearsed, technically solid, clear, entertaining,
engaging, and instructive. It is a tall order. If you cant do this well, then
you probably dont want to be a professor, since giving talks and lectures is
a huge part of the job. (para.11)
I did practice considerably with colleagues and the talk went pretty well. After
talking to the contact person at Antioch though, Idid see where Icould have been
stronger, particularly making sure Iappealed to academics that do have a language
of their own. Even at the dinner, which is part of the on-campus day (or two) of
interviewing, professors are discussing existing theories or coming up with new
ones. But there is good in everything, and in this case, practice makes perfect.
After this interview, Iwent on to do other interviews (in community positions)
where Ineeded to present. Iincorporated the feedback and Idid well in those
presentations. So dont be discouraged if you flub the first job talk and remember
there are people who do want to help. For more details on elements of the cam-
pus interview see what Matt Welsh (2012b) says in his blog (http://matt-welsh.
blogspot.com/2012/12/how-to-get-faculty-job-part-2-interview.html). Dont
forget when you get back home, worn out from all that academic talk, send a
thank younote!

Danger, CurvesAhead!
I think its prudent to start this section with a bit about the climate and overview of
the state of the higher education industry. As in any venture one takes, with an eye
on a particular destination, one should research first. Lets take a look at what the
publicly available data say about higher education, and in particular, consider how
to make sense of the data for those with a degree in community psychology or a
relatedfield.
Jobs Outlook
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (US Department of Labor, 2014) reported that
employment of postsecondary teachers is expected to grow by 13% from 2014 to
2024. This percentage is as fast as the average for all other occupations and paral-
leled with expected enrollment numbers, which continues to rise as well. But the
Bureau also reported that the best job prospects were projected for those with PhDs
who are willing to work as adjuncts or on short-term contracts. Iconcur. Italked
with a number of deans and administrators in various departments in a number
of universities and colleges about the full-time, tenure track professorship. Each of
them shared that many colleges and universities are hiring more adjuncts for finan-
cial reasons. However, one dean of an adult education program shared that this isnt
all bad because working in the community, as Ido, or in another industry can heav-
ily inform teaching. So, it seems that having a full-time job in the area you teach is
the preferred model. Iknow that the University of Phoenix model is to hire facilita-
tors or associate faculty, as they are called, who have many years of experience in the
field they are teaching. The Bureau also reported that many part-time or adjunct
professors make a living teaching multiple courses at several different colleges or
universities.
The jobs outlook may be a bit better for some disciplines than others. For exam-
ple, the outlook for professorships in English is bleak and for those with a concen-
tration such as 20th century American history it is doubly bleak (Lewin, 2009).
In contrast, for postsecondary professors of psychology, employment prospects
are better. Industries with the highest published employment and wages for majors
in psychology are colleges, universities, and professional schools. However, based
on the results of my job search, the positions in higher education institutions are
most often those of a clinical nature and include school psychology. Industrial and
organization psychology also appear sporadically on the list of jobs. As Ishared ear-
lier, community psychology appears very infrequently on the list, but it is a relatively
new discipline and the colleges and universities that offer programs are limited.
Yet, because community psychology is so interdisciplinary in nature, the academic
positions where Iinterviewed were in social work, human services, and nonprofit

management, which Isee as a testament to community psychology versatility. Ialso

applied for a couple of professorship positions in multicultural and ethnic studies
and urban studies. Furthermore, my research helps to position me for potential
teaching in these areas, particularly urban studies because of my interest in housing
and housing policy related to the disproportionate numbers of African Americans
who become homeless. This is a significant historical and contemporary urbanissue.
I want to share a bit more about the versatility of having a community psychology
degree. The responses that Idid receive were from departments other than commu-
nity psychology. Ihad interviews with or, at minimum, some type of interest from
folks in the following fields:social work, human services, urban studies, nonprofit
management, and public administration. As a community practitioner this makes
perfect sense to me, as all these areas call for a community psychology approach on
some level. For example, in human services, it is important to understand ecological
theory when working with individuals struggling with social issues. Individuals are
impacted not only by their immediate family (e.g., child homelessness), but by the
larger society as wellfor example, by the way organizations implement policy for
homeless programs and services. Thus, options continue to be out there for com-
munity psychologists, but it may take a creative approach to get that faculty posi-
tion. Keep driving!
Does Sexism and Racism Play a Part inGetting

a Faculty Position?
As a woman who is African American, Ihave to say, it might. Its nothing Ican prove
in a court of law, but... its definitely a lingering thought. Lets see what research tells
us. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (2006; 2007), reported that nation-
wide just over 5% of faculty members in higher education institutions are African
American. Unfortunately this trend has not improved. As of 2013 (US Department
of Education, 2015)the percent of African American faculty was 4% for those in full-
time positions. In a 2005 study, of the 26 high-ranking universities that responded
African Americans made up more than 5% of the total full-time faculty at only five
institutions. Emory University in Atlanta has the highest percentage of black fac-
ulty at 6.8%. The study also indicated that in research conducted in the 2002 and
2005 surveys, Columbia University had the highest percentage of African American
faculty. It should be noted, however, that a large majority of African American fac-
ulty at Columbia were in its graduate and professional schools in the study years. In
the study year, 279 African American faculty members at the University of North
Carolina made up 5.9% of the full-time faculty. In total numbers, Chapel Hill had
the most African American faculty members. Even though at the time of this writ-
ing, the study is nine years old, a first-hand look on a good number of university and
college campuses in Chicago tells me that the disparity between African Americans
faculty and those of other ethnicities is indeed veryhigh.

The reason why this phenomena exists is difficult to say, and speculations range
from there are low numbers of African Americans who hold PhDs to the sad truth of
continued discrimination. In any case, no matter what your ethnicity, keep driving
and somethings sure to turn up, unless you hit a snag too big to continue on, and the
only thing that Ican think of thats way too big, is a deer.Ouch!
References
Academic Coaching and Writing. (2014). Retrieved from www.academiccoachingandwriting.org
Cornell University. (2014). Research. Retrieved from https://www.cornell.edu/research/
The Chronicle of Higher Education. (2003). How to write a statement of teaching philosophy.
Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/How-to-Write-a-Statement-of/45133/
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. (2006). Blacks in higher education:Still only a drop in the
bucket. Retrieved from http://www.jbhe.com/features/55_blackfaculty.html
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. (2007). Blacks in higher education:The snail-like progress
of blacks in faculty ranks of higher education. Retrieved from http://www.jbhe.com/news_
views/62_blackfaculty.html
Leppert, A. (2012). Tips for teaching adult students. Retrieved from http://www.facultyfocus.
com/articles/effective-teaching-strategies/tips-for-teaching-adult-students/
Lewin, T. (2009, September 17). At colleges, humanities job outlook gets bleaker. NewYork Times.
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/18/education/18professor.html?_r=0.
National Institutes for Health, The Office of Intramural Training and Education. (2013). Retrieved
from https://www.training.nih.gov/assets/Writing_letters_for_faculty_jobs.pdf
Princeton Universitys, MGraw Center for Teaching and Learning. (2013). Writing teaching state-
ments and philosophies. Retrieved from https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/1486
The Professor Is In. (2014). How to write teaching and research statements. Retrieved from http://
theprofessorisin.com/category/how-to-write-teaching-and-research-statements/
Society for Community Research and Action. (2014). The education connection. Retrieved from
http://www.scra27.org/resources/educationc
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2013). The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill.
Retrieved from https://writingcenter.unc.edu
US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2015). The condition of
education 2015 (NCES 2015144):Characteristics of postsecondary faculty. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=61
US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014).Occupational employment and wages,
May 2015. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes251066.htm#ind
US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2015). Occupational outlook handbook,
201617 edition. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/
postsecondary-teachers.htm#tab-1
Vanderbilt University. (2013). Teaching statements. Retrieved from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/
teaching-guides/reflecting/teaching-statements/
Welsh, M. (2012). How to get a faculty job, part1:How to get an interview. Retrieved from http://
matt-welsh.blogspot.com/2012/12/how-to-get-faculty-job-part-1b-how-to.html
Welsh, M. (2012). How to get a faculty job, part2:The interview. Retrieved from http://matt-welsh.
blogspot.com/2012/12/how-to-get-faculty-job-part-2-interview.html

19
The Road toScholarlyRiches

Preparing and Applying for the AcademicMarket
Christopher R . Beasley
Fifteen years ago, Inever would have thought Iwould be writing a chapter about
finding a faculty position. I grew up in poverty with a mother who worked two
full-time jobs and a father who spent much of his time secluded in the bedroom or
acting out the agitation of his schizoaffective disorder. Ihad not intimately known
anyone who transcended their poverty or had a college degree, so Iaccepted the
social constraint and sought factory employment. Iexcelled in blue collar roles but
always yearned for ones with more reward and challenge. Ifound such challenge
and prestige in the drug culture where Iwas successful and felt like Ifit in, but
arrests and subsequent imprisonment quickly eroded that fragile status.
Academic supports and mentors also helped me transcend my impoverished
roots by providing guidance and opportunity. When Ifirst began college, Iadmired
the role of professors, but felt such stature was out of reach for someone of my social
standing. My perception of professors was somewhat akin to how one would view
the president of the United Statesa position often admired but rarely attained.
However, opportunities for growth began to shift my perspective. For example,
I was able to mentor and tutor other students. The mentoring of other students
helped me give back to society, and the tutoring provided validation for my aca-
demic progresssomeone actually valued my academic potential enough to pay
me for my services! This opened up a whole new world of possibilities. Work was
no longer about payment for labor performed but about being valued for having
knowledge and being able to share this knowledge with others.
The insight would have limited impact though if I had not continued in my
educationa thought that had not even crossed my mind when Istarted commu-
nity collegeI really could not even picture myself in a four-year program then.
Idid well early though and decided if Icould excel at a community college, then
Icould succeed in an undergraduate program. In my undergraduate career Ibecame
active in political advocacy and substance abuse prevention programs. Isimilarly
230

P repar ing and Ap ply ing for the A cad e mi c Mark e t 231
excelled while pursuing a bachelors degree and decided to keep going, eventually
applying for a masters program in clinical psychology where Ibecame excited and
confident about research. Again, Iexcelled and was further inspired to continue my
education. Idecided to enroll in DePaul Universitys Community Psychology PhD
program to pursue a career that once seemed an intangible dreamto become a
college professor.
Fortunately, that decision turned out well. I am now an assistant professor at
Washington College. As Ishift into a career in academia, Ilook back on my scholarly
path filled with unexpected detours to places Inever dreamed possible. The journey
started with community college and was heavily influenced by the opportunities
and validation academic support programs provided. Ican only hope that, as a fac-
ulty member and researcher, Ican inspire others the way my mentors inspired me.
Ialso hope to share my experiences looking for an academic job in hopes that others
can benefit from what Ihave learned.
Preparation
Teaching versus Research
While it is possible to change your focus from teaching to research or vice versa,
choosing an emphasis early in graduate school can help concentrate efforts on rel-
evant experience and credentials. Life is full of trade-offs and this is no exception.
Time and energy spent on one task can divert from another. This was something
Iknew before beginning my doctoral program; yet, Istill allowed myself to stray
from my initial goal of prioritizing the teaching role of academia over the research
one. I was fortunate to be in a research center rich with resources for empirical
inquiry, and Ifound Iwas talented at such research, so Ifocused mostly on inquiry.
Fortunately, Imanaged to teach two quarters of an introductory psychology course
and gained tremendous experience mentoring student researchers, which Idiscov-
ered was the most satisfying aspect of academia for me. However, most of my time
was spent thinking about and conducting research rather than honing my knowl-
edge and experience in teaching and in developing my teaching philosophy.
By the time Igraduated, Ihad credentials most applicable to a research-focused
position and found myself desiring one without even knowing why. In retrospect,
I know some of this was from the expectations of academia in general and the
respect research positions have compared to teaching-oriented roles. These expec-
tations are easy to unknowingly internalize. My experience is a prime example of
how our environments can shape us in ways we never expect. Graduate training
environments often challenge us and promote growth but can also lead us astray
from our goals. By acknowledging these goals early and reflecting on how they may
change over time, emerging scholars may find themselves better able to recognize
and diffuse diversions. Whether your goal is teaching or research, it is important to

focus on the skills and credentials necessary for achieving your aims while being
open to new experiences for growth and mindful of how such experiences may be
changing our ambitions and qualifications.
Branding
One or Two FociEarly
Perhaps even more important than setting and maintaining a goal of either research
or teaching is to focus on one or two major research and teaching aims. The idea is to
brand yourself. Iam a person who likes to explore a variety of ideas, but our society
is one of ever-increasing specialization, and academia is no exception. Universities
are looking for people who have committed to one or two major research aims and
have spent their graduate career exploring those ideas in depththey are looking
for experts and assurance of what area a prospect would study if hired. Although my
advisor gave frequent and consistent advice about having a narrower focus, Ifound
myself nonetheless exploring my curiosities. As Ientered the academic job market
and began preparing materials such as the research statement, Istruggled to encom-
pass everything underneath one or two primary aims. In retrospect, Iwould have
preferred to incorporate my advisors suggestions.
Non-Community Branding
Topical branding is particularly important in a field such as community psychology,
where there are few field-specific programs for which to apply. Community psy-
chologists may find it helpful to choose interests closely aligned with other fields,
such as prevention and human development. That opens the door to a considerably
larger pool of potential employment opportunities. Much of my work had revolved
around person-environment fit and engagement in community settings. Iwas able
to draw on these interdisciplinary topics for applications to community, applied
social, industrial/organizational, and environmental psychology positions. In the
end, I was hired as an environmental psychologist to study person-environment
interactions and engagement in environmental advocacy groups.
Aligning Experiences withYourBrand

It also helps to align your community action/practice and teaching experiences
with this branding. Community psychology programs generally include fieldwork
components. However, students sometimes select readily available opportunities
rather than looking for those that closely align with the brand. I had chosen to
start a mutual-help group to support people transitioning from prison to college.
Although there was a tremendous need for this in my community and Iwas passion-
ate about the cause, in retrospect it deviated from my brand considerably and added

little to my applications. We all have an entire career to devote to action once we are
in academic positions that can support that work. Similarly, sometimes students
are assigned as teaching assistants for courses that may diverge from their brand.
Offering to give guest lectures on topics related to your focus can help maintain
that emphasis though. Ivolunteered to give a number of guest lectures on person-
environment fit, social ecology, and grant writingall of which helped support my
brand and applications.
Networking
Graduate school is not only a prime opportunity to develop ones brand but also a
time to build up a network of scholarly peers. Ilike to think of networking as multi-
dimensional, with horizontal, upward vertical, and downward vertical components.
Horizontal networking establishes a lasting group of peers to dialogue and collabo-
rate with as our career progresses. Downward networking provides support to those
at earlier stages in their academic development while also providing opportunities
for valuable connections in the future. Upward networking builds relationships
with established and respected colleagues and is paramount for preparing yourself
for faculty applications.
Such upward networking can help students gain valuable research experience,
facilitate entry into graduate school, obtain strong letters of support, receive recom-
mendations for faculty job openings, and form indirect connections to faculty mem-
bers in programs with such openings. For example, Iwas once a clinical psychology
major and had not even heard of community psychology. Ihad been establishing a
relationship with a faculty member and asking about opportunities for addiction
research experience. She pointed me to a research center where Imight be able to
get such experience. Little did Iknow this was a prominent community psychol-
ogy research center. There, Igained not only the experience Iwas looking for but
also exposure to a new perspectivecommunity psychology. Because Ihad been
working at DePaul already, Inaturally found an ally to facilitate my entry into their
program. I continued to work with him during graduate school and also formed
close relationships with other faculty through classroom discussions, thoughtful
assignments, and assisting them with grant writing and research conceptualization.
I maintained contact with all my mentors throughout my academic career and
have now found support for my tenure-track job pursuits. This is particularly helpful
for getting insider access to openings and letters of support. Some of these faculty
members contacted me about job openings and expected openings while others
nominated me to their colleagues when openings arose. Still others wrote letters
of support and contacted colleagues for inside information when Ihave applied or
was considering applying. Most applications will require three letters of recommen-
dation while some others ask for five. Letter writers should include people who are
familiar with both your research and your teaching. It is often expected that your

thesis and dissertation chairs be included as references as well as your teaching

mentor, especially for recent graduates.
Manuscripts/Writing Samples
Both vertical and horizontal networking provide opportunities for publication
and builds a support network for improving your own work. Many academic job
postings will ask for copies of writing samples. Such publications demonstrate not
only your commitment to a scholarly topic but also productivity. They also dem-
onstrate your capacity for research and writing. My networks provide opportuni-
ties to conduct research at other universities, strengthen research designs and grant
applications, collect data with support of community partners, and develop quality
manuscripts to submit as samples. In addition to collaborations with my mentors,
Iwas able to work with peers to conduct research and publish papers.
BuildingaCV
These branding, networking, and publishing activities provide opportunities to
obtain the experiences and credentials to demonstrate capacity for faculty posi-
tions. The curriculum vitae (CV) is a document that conveys your professional
development to colleagues and potential employers. It includes educational,
research, teaching, and employment experience, as well as professional contri-
butions and recognitions. My CV includes sections such as education, grants,
research experience, teaching experience, related professional experience, univer-
sity service, scholarly service, community service, guest editing, peer-reviewed
articles, chapters, conference presentations, awards, and professional member-
ships. To help build research experience early on, you can volunteer as a research
assistant initially and seek out paid assistant and postdoc positions later. Often,
people fresh out of graduate school have not been instructors before, but you can
list other teaching experiences. For example, Iincluded independent study super-
vision and theses Ihad supervised, as well as my graduate teaching assistant and
guest lecturing experiences.
Professional positions can also demonstrate a commitment to your brand of
scholarship. For example, Iheld several addiction and LGBT-related positions prior
to graduate school and maintained those on my CV. There are a variety of ways in
which university service can demonstrate commitment to your academic commun-
ity. For example, Ivolunteered for university committees during my undergradu-
ate and graduate tenure. Ialso served as a student representative to the Graduate
Student Association and volunteered to develop marketing tools for my graduate
program. Similarly, commitment to your larger scholarly community can be dem-
onstrated in a variety of ways. For example, Iwas an organizer for various confer-
ences, social events, and business meetings as well as a peer reviewer for journals.

Community service can include various volunteer and community organizing

activity such as that mutual-help group Istarted.
Course Reviews/Observations
Job ads will also frequently request documentation to demonstrate your excellence
in teaching. Such documentation could include student reviews as well as mentors
formal observations of your teaching. These credentials demonstrate commitment
to teaching, capacity for teaching, progress as an instructor, and what your strengths
and weaknesses may be. While any weak course evaluations could affect an applica-
tion, it is most important to show your reviews have consistently improved. While
my first student evaluations were at or below the department mean, my later evalu-
ations were above what is typical of the department. This helped demonstrate Ihad
learned through experience and was likely to continue growing in thefuture.
Applying
While graduate school focuses on developing these networks and credentials, pro-
grams and advisors vary in how much support they provide for the application pro-
cess. If you find yourself in a situation without sufficient support, remember Google
and professional consultants can be important allies. For example, The Professor
Is In (http://www.theprofessorisin.com) is a blog website with a broad array of
information on the application process, and the author is a professional consultant
for academic applicants. There is also the Psychology Academic Job Search website
(http://www.psychjobsearch.wikidot.com) where applicants can share informa-
tion and advice. Other important allies are time and practice. My advisor suggested
Iapply one year before Iactually wanted to find a job, so Icould learn more about
the process and gain experience. Having seen the difference this made in my appli-
cations, Iam confident in passing this advice along to others.
Developing Application Materials

The vast majority of academic job ads are released between August and January, so
a good time to prepare materials is the summer prior to the application season. At
this time you can create an organization system, refine the CV, and request letters
of recommendation as well as draft a cover letter, teaching philosophy, and research
statement. Aminimal organization system should include a directory for computer
files and a spreadsheet for logging information such as open positions, information
about these positions, submission of required materials, and status of recommenda-
tion letters. It may help to prepare two copies of a CVone with research experi-
ences prioritized toward the top and another with teaching experiences prioritized.

Similarly, it helps to have at least two versions of a cover letter preparedone with
research emphasized and another with teaching emphasized. These cover letters will
be the same for most positions you apply for with the exception of one paragraph at
the end that is tailored to each position. Your teaching statement can also include a
paragraph tailored to each position. In this paragraph, you would indicate specific
courses you are interested in teaching. You may also find it useful to have different
versions of your research statement if you plan to emphasize different aspects of
your research for various positions.
The CV, cover letter, teaching statement, and letters of recommendation are all
discussed in the prior chapter, so Iwill only discuss the research statement here.
This is essentially a one-or two-page themed statement of why your work is impor-
tant, the one or two general themes of that work, your inquiry thus far, and where
you are headed in the future. Think of it like a graduate school personal statement
in which you are telling a story with this academic position naturally serving as
the next chapter. This is the day of reckoning for all your branding efforts. You will
quickly realize how successful or unsuccessful you were in this endeavor. For me,
it was the latter. Ihad done several interesting things in graduate school, but the
theme was somewhat weak. I had realized the importance of depth too late and
struggled to pull my work together under two coherent themes, letalone one. After
several drafts and revisions, Iwas able to put a decent story together my first year of
applying, but Ispent the next year working on research that helped strengthen my
branding.
Researching Opportunities
Once you have the degree, other qualifications, references, and materials for an aca-
demic position, there is a plethora of online resources for locating one. My favorites
included APA PsychCareers, Higher Ed Jobs, Inside Higher Ed, the Chronicle, the
Psychology Job Wiki, and Indeed. The Psychology Job Wiki will also help you find
and share updates on positions such as when candidates have been offered phone
screenings and campus visits as well as when a position has been filled. For search
engines, new listings are posted daily, especially during the fall. Most of these are
posted on Monday and Friday, so I searched each website every Tuesday using
bookmarks that included filters for geographic location and other criteria. Although
I was more selective of positions and geographic areas my first year of applying,
Iexpanded both my second year and had considerably greater success.
Researching Universities and Communities

Once a position is identified, one then reviews information on the schools and com-
munities. The background information may include the mission, vision, and val-
ues of the school and/or department as well as their strategic plans. Ialso reviewed

course requirements and course catalogs for programs in the department. Another
tip is to become familiar with student organizations, research and action centers,
and local community organizations related to your work. This information will be
used to draft a paragraph about how your work and interests specifically relate to the
campus and surrounding community. The information may also be used to tailor a
paragraph of your teaching philosophy to the department and/or program. Lastly,
this information will become essential for interviews and campus visits.
Interviews
Initial Screening
If you have been productive, gained experience and credentials, built your net-
work, developed your brand, assembled a strong application, and have a little for-
tune along the way, you will likely find yourself being considered for a position.
Some search committees conduct an initial 1530 minute screening by telephone
or videoconference, while others skip this step and invite candidates for a campus
visit. Committees will also vary in how condensed the screening sessions are. Iwas
surprised that some were quite structured and fast-paced while others were more
casual. For a screening process, committees are generally most concerned about
assessing your capacity for teaching and research as well as your fit with their pro-
grams culture and goals. The chair of the search committee will likely email you to
arrange a time for a screening with one or two weeks of leadtime.
While waiting for the screening, take some time to prepare. There is often little
time for an in-depth discussion of their program and your fit, but it helps to at least
be familiar with them and the surrounding community. One important piece of
information to request is the names of people you will be speaking with. This will
help focus your preparation. Ifound it helpful to gather basic information about
peoples research interests. Icreated basic biographic sheets for each person includ-
ing their interests and pictures to familiarize myself with the committee. Ialso found
it helpful to learn about the programs mission, values, and goals as well as those of
the university. In addition, Ifound information on local community organizations
that Icould collaborate with there. While committees vary widely in the questions
they ask, lists of commonly asked questions are readily available online as are sug-
gestions of questions to ask. Lastly, you will likely have at least a couple versions of
your application materials, so it helps to review both the job ad and your application
to remind yourself how you want to market yourself in the screening.
CampusVisits
If selected for further consideration, you will likely receive an email or call within
one or two weeks after the screening to arrange a campus visit. Usually, only three

or four people are invited for a visit, so you are really in the top tier and the odds are
pretty good if you get the call! Now you just need to seal the deal. While you will
have a little more time to prepare for this visit compared to the screening, visits are
often scheduled within two weeks. During this one-or two-day visit, you will meet
with faculty members individually, have meals with the faculty, meet with students
as a group, and give a teaching and/or job talk. You will also likely meet with fac-
ulty members in other departments and/or meet directors of university centers or
programs.
Preparation
The preparation process is similar to that of screening preparation but more in depth.
Competition is pretty tight at this stage, and sometimes the smallest things separate
candidates. Therefore, preparation is not just important but essential. Some search
committees will give clear guidance about what you will be doing, when you are
doing it, and who you will be around. For others, you may need to seek additional
information about who you are meeting with individually, what type of audience
you will have at your talks (e.g., undergraduate students, graduate students, pro-
gram faculty, other faculty). Some provide an itinerary with ample notice of a week
while others do not provide one until the day of arrival. Additionally, some give
specific information about who will make travel arrangements and whether they are
paid up front or reimbursed, but you may need clarifications from others. If you or
your advisor knows people at the institution, you can get inside information about
the culture of the program, politics involved in the current position, and the most
pressing current needs of the program. You can further prepare by reading abstracts
and/or articles of people you will meet, looking up recent campus and department
news articles, the strategic plan of the program and/or university, and even online
student reviews of faculty for teaching-oriented positions. Those reviews will help
shed some light on the teaching culture there. Given the breadth of this informa-
tion, Ifound it helpful to have summary guides and Ieven enlisted help from others
to create summary sheets of faculty members with their pictures and summary of
their interests. The biggest thing to keep in mind though is your overall strengths
and branding. Almost any conversation can be steered in their direction if you stay
mindful ofthem.
JobTalk
The single most important part of the visit is the talk, whether it is a research-or
teaching-focused one. This is usually 4560 minutes in length and needs to be
practiced and revised repeatedly with input from supportive peers and mentors. It
should also be tailored to a broad audience across sub-disciplines of psychology and
potentially other disciplines. As an applied field, theory can sometimes become sec-
ondary in our work, so it is especially important that theory be strongly integrated

for the job talk. Even though Ithink about and use theory in much of my work,
theory was still seen as a weakness in one talk Igave. Ihad been grounding my work
in theory, but Ifound some gaps and worried others might spot them. In retrospect,
Ishould have had more confidence in knowing the theory better than others and
addressing gaps if they were spotted and voiced. The talk should also be tailored to
the job ad, other program needs, and the branding you are marketing tothem.
TeachingTalk
For teaching-oriented positions, the committee may ask for a teaching talk in addi-
tion to or instead of a job talk, which is typically research-focused. Some programs
assign a topic while others allow you to choose your own. Similarly, some require
integration into existing courses while others allow a more independent focus.
Regardless of the topic though, you will want to focus on your technique rather
than content, because that is what the faculty will be evaluating you onyour peda-
gogy. You likely submitted a teaching statement to these schools, so that will give
you a guide for selecting techniques to use in this talk. For me, Ifocused on student
engagement and critical thinking, so my technique focused on these areas. Ihad also
talked about specific strategies for enhancing both, so Iincorporated those strate-
gies as well. Lastly, after the talk, you may be asked questions about your pedagogy
and why you used certain strategies, so be prepared to answer these type of ques-
tions about your approach as well as the content, just incase.
Meetings andMeals
Meetings and meals will likely take place both before and after your talks, so be
prepared to repeatedly discuss your research before your talk and to field questions
about your work after. Most faculty members already think you are competent, or
they would not have invited you for a visit, so think of the interactions as largely
informal discussions in which faculty and other colleagues are trying to understand
what you would be like as a colleague. It is not unusual for candidates to meet with
individual committee members in depth but also to meet with the chair, dean, and/
or provost, as well as directors of centers and programs. This will include both fac-
ulty members in the program and others outsideofit.
Negotiation
Although it can sometimes take months to hear if you were not successful at prior
stages of the academic job application process, you will likely receive a call from
the search chair, dean, or provost to tell you whether or not you were selected. This
can sometimes be the beginning of the negotiation process if you are selected, so it
helps to be prepared before you get the call. Some of the things that are negotiable

include salary, lab startup funding, relocation funding, office and/or lab space, first-
year teaching load, number of first-year new course preps, course releases for things
like writing grant proposals, tenure clock pausing for life events, and other specifics
of the tenure process. At this stage, you could probably consider almost anything
negotiable, but these negotiations are your entry into the institutions political pro-
cess, so keep in mind that you will want collegial relationships going forward. The
key is to prioritize what you want and need, get enough to feel valued and be produc-
tive, and maintain a collegial relationship with others involved in the negotiation.
Conclusion
Im sure by now you are realizing just how involved this process is and possibly even
wondering why one might choose an academic career path! It is certainly a chal-
lenging process but, like other aspects of academia, one which provides consider-
able opportunity for self-reflection and growth. Writing your teaching and research
statements helps solidify your goals and objectives while also providing additional
practice communicating them to others. The process also builds tremendous orga-
nizational, time-management, and political skills. Sure, it is a competitive process,
but you are truly the cream of the crop at this point. As long as you are productive,
gain experience, collect credentials, build your network, develop a strong applica-
tion packet, and cast a wide net, you will land an academic position. It may not
always be in the location or university you dreamed of, but you will be in a place that
can support your academic work. In closing, to all those considering an academic
route, remember the wise words of Wayne Gretsky:You miss 100% of the shots
you donttake.

20
Writing Grants toFund Research

and Programs
Fabricio E. Balcazar and Yol anda Suarez -B alcazar
When we started our undergraduate studies in psychology during the early 70s at
the Universidad de los Andes in Bogota, Colombia, community psychology was not
a career choice. In fact, it was not even mentioned in the introduction to psychol-
ogy books. In Colombia at the time, the closest one could get to the field of com-
munity psychology was through applied social psychology and there were some
psychologists who were very engaged in prevention programs, particularly in the
areas of addictions and interventions with low-income children and youth. When
we applied for Fulbright Scholarships to come to study in the United States, we
emphasized the areas of health promotion and disease prevention as our main inter-
ests. At the time, these were areas of great need in Colombia, yet very few psycholo-
gists were trained to conduct research in these areas. At the University of Kansas
(KU), Yolanda became engaged with the research team of Dr. Steven Fawcett
who still leads the Work Group for Community Health and Development, and
Fabricio started working as a graduate research assistant (GRA) for the Research
and Training Center on Independent Living. Those two positions were our initial
doorway into grant writing. We became SCRA members after attending a meeting
of the Midwest Ecological Community Psychology Conference in 1984. We have
been members ever since and Fabricio finished his term as president of the Society
in August 2014 while Yolanda was elected President of SCRA in 2016.
We started writing grants at KU when we were working as graduate research
assistants at a large research and training center that depended on grant funding for
its operation. We learned to write our first grants with the help and support of our
mentors. We were responsible for writing small projects that were part of the larger
research proposal for our research unit. Fabricio wrote and received his first grant as
a principal investigator (PI), during his last year in graduate school. This was an early
career award of $48,800 from the US Department of Education National Institute
241

on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR). This grant was intended to

help young professionals start their research careers.
This chapter first discusses the roles of grant writing in community psycholo-
gists careers, the main types of grants, the main sources of grant funding, basic prin-
ciples of proposal writing, and some ethical considerations about grant writing.
Grant Writing and Community Psychologists

The Importance ofGrant Writing inCommunity
Psychology Research and Practice
There is no question that grant writing is critical to our professional careers. All aca-
demic tenure-track positions in community psychology require that you establish
your own program of research. This is even more critical in Research 1 universities
in which promotion to tenure will depend on, among other things, your ability to
demonstrate that you are an independent researcher. Whether you are consider-
ing a career in academia or as a practitioner, grant writing is a necessary skill. Early
career awards usually help launch very successful career paths for faculty members
or researchers working in academic settings. Asuccessful record of grant writing can
also launch a successful practitioners career.
There are many reasons why grant writing is critical. First, conducting research
is expensive and funding enables us to pursue our research interests. The more sup-
port we have, the more likely we are able to write publications, mentor graduate stu-
dents, and participate in professional conferences. Second, faculty in nine-month
academic appointments can fund their summer salary, and in some institutions
academic faculty have to contribute to their base salarythis is called salary recov-
ery. With grant money, faculty can buyout teaching responsibilities and spend more
time conducting research. There are a growing number of research positions at uni-
versities that are funded through grant money. These positions are often referred
to as being funded with soft money because they do not include state or private
fundsin the case of private universities. Indeed, universities across the country
are increasingly relying on grant funding and the indirect costs rates (ICR) they
charge to the funding institutions in order to support some of their basic operation
(e.g., space rental or maintenance, the cost of heating and air conditioning, electric-
ity) and administration costs (offices of grant services, budget, IRB, and soon).
The Purpose ofGrant Writing

A research grant award is a specified amount of money given to an investigator or
to the investigators parent institution in order to undertake a specific research proj-
ect. There are many different types of grant awards which can fund program devel-
opment, capacity building, evaluation projects, and education or training. Agrant

Wr iting G rants to Fund R e s earch and P rog rams 243
application is the document that an investigator prepares to request the funding

(Taylor, Suarez-Balcazar, Pepin, & White, 2006). Depending on the guidelines of
the granting agency, grant funding may be used to cover the following.
All or a certain percentage of the research team members salaries

Tuition waivers and monetary stipends for graduate research assistants
Supplies and equipment that is necessary for conducting the study (e.g., tests,
mechanical devices for experiments, computers, printers, and/ or relevant
software)
Incentives for participants data collection
Travel to conferences to disseminate and present research findings
The costs of ancillary needs such as telephone, postage, transportation, printing,
and photocopies
How Do You Build Grant Writing Skills?

There are many manuals and workshops to teach faculty and practitioners how to
write and prepare grants. However, practice is the best way to build that capacity
as the process improves with experience. For those who are starting the grant writ-
ing learning process, it is helpful to be able to review applications from other fac-
ulty members or researchers that were successfully funded. Most universities allow
faculty access to such documents in the research office. Practitioners should seek
mentoring from colleagues in order to get access to such documents and/or advice
about how to write contracts. Box 20.1 provides a list of suggestions that could be
useful for learning to write successful grant applications.
Grant Writing asa Career Path forCommunity

Psychology Practitioners
Practitioners need to know how to write grants and contracts in order to survive
as consultants. In addition, many not-for-profit organizations increasingly rely on
grant writers to keep their operations going and this is another potential career path
for practitioners. Astrong grant writer working with local service organizations and
building a successful track record of funded proposals can develop a prosperous
career. Practitioners tend to build their reputations around specific competencies
like program evaluation, empowering service delivery, or capacity building. Ihave
known practitioners who are often contracted to serve as external evaluators in
grants and other projects. This is becoming standard practice among several fund-
ing agencies. Thus, serving as an evaluator written into grants becomes another
pathway for practitioners to become involved in grants and benefit from grant
funding. As external evaluators on an intervention project, the consultants get to
learn about the intervention components, contribute their input into the project

Box 20.1 Ways toBuild Your Grant WritingSkills
1. Attend webinars and grant writing workshops and add yourself to the mail-
ing list of grant announcements for different funding agencies. For example,
we are registered with the National Institute on Disability, Independent
Living, and Rehabilitation Research and we get their grant announce-
ments. In most federal agencies, you can email and request to be added to
the list of recipients. Many research offices at universities also have grant
announcements that they are happy to share with interested faculty.
2. Review successfully funded grants from other colleagues who are willing
to share. It is always a good idea to see good models, especially early on in
the process.
3. Become part of a writing team in which you provide feedback to, and
receive feedback from, your colleagues.
4. Seek or request a mentor at your academic institution.
5. Volunteer to serve as a grant reviewer. In several federal agencies (e.g., US
Department of Education) you can request to be considered as a grant
reviewer. This is an important experience that gives you insight about the
review process, how the decisions are made, and the issues that reviewers
raise when conducting their reviews.
6. Write, write, write, and resubmit if you are not funded the first time around.
evaluation and if the project gets funded, become engaged with the research team
on a regular basis. Agood external program evaluator is likely to be rehired in future
projects and/or recommended for other projects. So good performance generates
a positive ripple effect.
Main Types ofGrants

ResearchGrants
These are grants that are usually funded by federal agencies with the purpose of con-
ducting basic or applied research to contribute to new knowledge. Basic research
studies are typically conducted in laboratory or controlled settings, and are often
designed to generate knowledge about a particular theory. Applied or community-
based research often involves examining the impact of theoretically grounded inter-
ventions designed to address a particular problem, or collecting data to understand
the factors that contribute to the problem of interest. As community psychologists
we are concerned with finding solutions to complex social problems. Conducting
community-based research requires not only funding but close collaboration with

other professionals, community members, and/or institutions. Community psy-

chologists in our opinion are specially trained to engage in community-based,
problem driven, participatory research projects that are favored by some funding
agencies.
DemonstrationGrants
The main goal of these grants is to test a particular intervention, methodology, or
treatment, and engage in the dissemination of such intervention. These grants allow
researchers to test the efficacy of a particular intervention, and/or they are used to
test new models or approaches in community settings.
Training, Educational, and Professional DevelopmentGrants

These are grants used to support professionals training and education, including
postdoctorate positions and/or professional conferences. These grants can also sup-
port graduate or undergraduate students training. For example, members of the
Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA) have in the past collaborated
with other American Psychological Association (APA) divisions to prepare grant
proposals to fund regional conferences and/or training workshops using grant
funds available fromAPA.
Career DevelopmentGrants
These awards are intended to promote a research career for junior investigators and
postdocs. There are several career development awards. For instance, the National
Institutes of Heath (NIH) has the following.
Career Transition Awards (K99/R00 andK22)

NIH Pathway to Independence Award (K99/R00)
NIMH Career Transition Award for Tenure-Track and Tenured Intramural
Investigators(K22)
Mentored Career Development Awards (K01, K08, andK23)
Mid-Career Awards (K02 andK24)
For a complete explanation of these different awards, please consult the NIH
website (http://w ww.nimh.nih.gov/f unding/t raining/c areer-d evelopment-
programs-k-series.shtml#4).
These career development awards are intended for junior investigators and are
strategically designed to create a pathway for independent research. Junior research-
ers who obtain a career development award are more likely to secure additional
research funding. Other funders such as NIDRR have awards like the Switzer

Fellowship for early career researchers in the field of disability (see more infor-
mation at http://www2.ed.gov/programs/resfel/applicant.html). There are also
multiple awards to promote or advance the careers of minority researchers start-
ing at the undergraduate level (e.g., the Summer Research Opportunity Program
(see more information at http://www.cic.net/students/srop/introduction); the
McNair Research Awards (see more information at http://mcnairscholars.com/
funding/); graduate students (e.g., institutional funding for graduate assistantships
and mentoring); postdocs (e.g., one to two years of funding); and junior faculty
members (e.g., early career awards) in the NIH and its multiple agencies, like the
office of minority Health (see http://www.minorityhealth.hhs.gov/).
CenterGrants
These are usually large grants that involve multiple years of research activities (typi-
cally up to five years), multiple related projects, and often multiple sites. These
grants often involve partnerships among multiple universities and/or community-
based organizations. Most centers missions include conducting multiple research
projects as well as engaging in training, technical assistance, and dissemination
activities. Box 20.2 summarizes the activities of a center grant that we directed in
the area of capacity building for conducting research with minority individuals with
disabilities.
Main Sources ofGrant Funding

Federal
The US federal government funds the largest portion of basic and applied research.
These grants are first announced in the Federal Register (see https://www.feder-
alregister.gov/) where applicants can review the notice announcements by federal
department (e.g., Department of Education grants, National Institute of Health,
Department of Health & Human Services grants, and so on). Once you identify a
grant that you are interested in, you should obtain the appropriate application forms
at Grants.gov (http://www.grants.gov). At this site, you can register and obtain the
forms and instructions necessary to complete and submit the application for fed-
eral funding. Keep in mind that all these grants usually have short timelines (from
30 to 60days) and grants cannot be submitted after the deadline has closed. The
grants submitted through Grants.gov can only be submitted by authorized agency
personnel and not the PI. So you will need to plan for about five to 10days for your
home institution to review and approve the budget and internal approval forms for
the grant before they can submit it to the federal agency. With few exceptions (e.g.,
individual fellowships, some early career awards, and the like), federal grants are
not given to individuals and only institutions can apply, meaning the researcher

Box 20.2 The University ofIllinois atChicagos Center forCapacity

Building onMinorities withDisabilities Research
The Center was funded in 2004 by a five-year $3million grant from the National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research from the US Department
of Education (Balcazar & Suarez-Balcazar, 2004). The Centers main purpose
was to build the capacity of state vocational rehabilitation agencies (VR) and
community based-organizations (CBOs like Centers for Independent Living
and/or other agencies serving minorities with disabilities) to document the
impact of their programs and develop culturally competent services. In addi-
tion, we were committed to improving the capacity of researchers to include
individuals with disabilities from underrepresented groups in their research,
outreach, and dissemination efforts. Our work involved a national network of
collaborators who were conducting a variety of research, evaluation, and train-
ing projects to fulfill our mission. These collaborators included multiple states
(Texas, Massachusetts, California, Montana, and Illinois). The Centers mis-
sion also included the dissemination of information about the processes and
outcomes involved in our work related to building, sustaining, and document-
ing organizational capacity to better serve minority individuals with disabili-
ties. Center staff conducted participatory research and demonstration projects
in collaboration with many community organizations, engaged in active dis-
semination efforts, and provided state-of-the-art training and technical assis-
tance on cultural competence to organizations, professionals, and researchers
in the disabilitiesfield.
prepares the application but the funding is given to the academic institution who
administers the grant. The applicant must be very careful to follow all the directions
for each competition as explained in the application forms, because lack of com-
pliance could be a reason for eliminating the application from the review process.
Typically these grants are funded from three to five years depending on the type
ofgrant.
State
Almost all state agencies have contracts to support a variety of services for their
residents. These services cover all ages across the life span, all types of services (e.g.,
health, education, housing, transportations, welfare, food, and so on), and all geo-
graphical areas of each state. All local social service agencies have to submit annual
applications to continue and/or start new programs or services. These agencies have
staff members who prepare these applications and sometimes they hire consultants

to help them with the process. Occasionally, some contracts may include funds for
evaluating services and/or conducting training activities.
Foundations
There are local, state, national and international private foundations and corpora-
tions that fund basic and/or community-based research. Agood source of informa-
tion about foundations by state is the Foundation Directory (see https://fconline.
foundationcenter.org/). Foundations tend to be specific in terms of the type of
projects they fund. Usually they require a letter of intent that is reviewed and if the
ideas presented in the letter are of interest to the foundation or meet their guide-
lines, they then invite the individual or organization to submit a full application.
These applications are usually shorter and easier to complete than federal grants.
The amount of funding tends to be smaller than federal grants and the time frame
for the project is usually one to two years. Private foundation grants have become
very competitive.
Basic Principles ofProposal Writing

Grant writing takes time and commitment as well as advanced planning and prep-
aration. In the grant writing and application process, one must justify and plan
the research, write the proposal to meet the requirements of the funding agency,
gather institutional support and necessary collaborators or consultants, obtain all
the paperwork and signatures required by the institution, submit the proposal to
the funding agency on time, and follow up with the funding agency once the grant
has been submitted. Asuccessful research grant application includes a good idea,
knowledge of the research topic and related funding initiatives and policies, sophis-
ticated understanding of research design and methods, a good track record, and
patience. The following are important suggestions for the process of grant writing
(from Kiritz, 1980; Taylor, Suarez-Balcazar, Pepin, & White,2006).
The Proposal Should Be Well Written

Grant reviewers often have many proposals to read and not have enough time. This
means that they could get upset if a proposal has typos or if the writing is not clear
and to the point. The applicant should focus on addressing the specific issues or
questions that need to be addressed and avoid wandering with unnecessary expla-
nations. It is critical that all required sections in the proposal be addressed. In federal
applications, each section has a score. In foundation proposals, clarity and concise-
ness is important. One common mistake of grant writers is their use of professional
jargon and acronyms. You should not assume that the reviewers are familiar with

terms that may have a particular meaning in a profession, and acronyms should
always be spelled out the first time they are cited in the text of the proposal.
The Proposal Should Be Neat, Clean, and Easy toRead

The application should follow the guidelines of the agency and you should follow
the format of the proposal as requested. Most proposals are now handled electron-
ically and that means attention to the content rather than the form. When we were
in graduate school, one of our writing teachers advised us to write in such a way that
our grandmother would be able to understand what we were writing about. This is
usually the case for grant writing as well, unless of course the topic is very technical
and specific (e.g., Nitric Oxide Releasing Diazeniumdiolated Acrylonitrile-Based
Polymers, and Compositions, Medical Devices, and Uses Thereof [HHS Ref. No.
E-188-2004/0-US-06]).
The Proposal Should BeBrief

Most proposals specify the length of the application. Reviewers may not read sec-
tions of proposals that exceed the page limit. In fact, we have been in review panels
where fellow panel members have refused to read the pages from proposals that
exceeded the page limit, therefore not scoring such sections. Follow the guidelines
regarding length as requested by the funding agency.
Avoid Making Unsupported Assumptions

You cannot claim that you are the best qualified person to conduct the project unless
you can prove it. Avoid coming across as too arrogant or pretentious. You should be
able to let your record speak for itself and highlight your strengths. In addition, do
not assume that the granting agency is familiar with your institution. Kiritz (1980)
advices grant writers to make sure to describe your organizational capacity for con-
ducting the study and/or delivering the services and handling all the administrative
and budgetary procedures. When preparing service grants, you should make sure
to provide empirical support for the service needs of the target population that is
being proposed toserve.
Developing anIntervention Idea or Identifying

a CommunityNeed
Federal grants are very specific about the research topic and allow some flexibility
with regards to the type of intervention proposed. Foundations may be interested
on addressing a community need, but then you need to be able to justify the pro-
posed intervention or services. Kiritz (1980) explained that some funding agencies

consider the magnitude of the need among the target population in determining
their funding priorities and decisions. Other agencies may value certain method-
ological approaches over others. For example, some foundations may be inclined
to support research that focuses on empowerment and capacity building for indi-
viduals or agencies; others may be more interested in reducing health disparities
among various populations. Such agencies will tend to fund researchers that work
with participants who do not have adequate economic resources, educational and/
or employment opportunities, or access to health care. When developing the inter-
vention component of the proposal, community psychologists should document
the magnitude of the need among the target population. The proposed interven-
tion should articulate a viable way for addressing those needs so the two are clearly
interrelated.
Defining thePotential Impact ofthe Proposal

The most critical aspect of preparing a grant proposal is developing a research
or intervention idea that is significant and innovative enough to warrant fund-
ing. Agencies want to utilize their money wisely and prudently. They want to be
sure that studies have the potential to be of high impact in terms of understand-
ing, preventing, reversing, or alleviating certain health or social conditions. Taylor
et al. (2006) pointed out that developing a grant proposal idea with the poten-
tial to be of high impact involves the following considerations: (a) defining the
impact; (b)taking into account policy documents and legislative initiatives related
to the agency (particularly federal agencies); (c)matching your idea to the goals
and priorities of the funding agency; and (d)building on existing or innovative
research trends. Knowing these priorities can help a researcher determine how
reviewers might evaluate a proposal in terms of its overall significance and poten-
tial for impact. Community psychologists have particular strengths that should
be employed with regards to conducting problem-driven participatory research
and having a vision for developing interventions designed to empower research
participants.
Many funding agencies consider how community interventions will be sustained
once the funding period ends. This aspect becomes another example of the strengths
that community psychologists can bring to the research team because of their skills
for capacity-building, coalition-building, and promoting community involvement
and/or community organizing that may lead to local and/or state funding initiatives
when the federal or foundation fundingends.
Demonstrating Expert Knowledge ofthe Literature intheArea

For many granting agencies, one of the criteria by which a proposal is evaluated
includes the estimated expertise of the principal investigator and the research team.

Level of expertise is typically judged according to a number of factors. Taylor etal.

(2006) proposed several steps to consider, including the following.
Number of peer-reviewed publications in the area understudy

History of prior grant funding in the area understudy
Evidence of specialized training and research mentorship in the area understudy
An established area of focus and a tradition of research
These are reasonable indicators that the investigator has experience successfully
managing the intellectual, managerial, budgetary, and logistical challenges involved
in carrying out a grant-funded study. The lack of experience can become a serious
obstacle for new or early career researchers. Astrategy that worked well for us when
we were starting the process of submitting grant applications was to partner with a
senior researcher who was added to the proposal as co-investigator.
Developing anAppropriate and RigorousDesign

Taylor etal. (2006) explained that funding agencies vary widely in terms of what
they consider to be appropriate and rigorous designs for research. For example, agen-
cies that fund basic science studies and clinical research trials value traditional exper-
imental approaches like randomized controlled studies, while other agencies may be
more open to quasi-experimental designs, epidemiological research, and prospective
follow-up studies that utilize repeated measures designs. It is important to ensure
that the design chosen matches the central aims of the study, the resources (budget
requested), and the sample size, and that it is likely to produce the expected data
within a reasonable time period. For example, participatory approaches to research
have become widely utilized in community-based research. Qualitative research
methodologies are also getting more recognition. Over the past two decades, commu-
nity psychologists have contributed to expanding mixed methods designs (involving
both quantitative and qualitative data collection) to address multiple social, educa-
tional, and/or health related problems (Tolan, Keys, Chertok, & Jason,1990).
Anticipating Potential Barriers forData Collection

and Their Solution(s)
Taylor et al. (2006) suggested that grant applicants often encounter dilemmas
involving logistical and data collection issues and the grant writer should be able
to indicate his or her awareness of such possibilities and ways to effectively address
them. Expert reviewers are well aware that data collection can sometimes be dif-
ficult, and it can be approached from multiple methodological perspectives, set-
tings, or formats. In projects that involve complex research questions that have the
potential to be approached using a variety of different measures, methods, and/or

statistical approaches to analysis, reviewers often look for evidence that an applicant
is aware of and has considered a wide range of choices for data collection and over-
coming potential barriers.
Developing a Reasonable and DetailedBudget

The budget request and budget narrative together justify the applicants request for
a certain amount of funding in each budget category. Taylor etal. (2006) indicated
that the budget narrative should provide the reviewers with a rough overview of
the applicants thinking about the logistical, timing, and implementation aspects
of the study. The budgetallows the writer to anticipate and plan all aspects of the
implementation of the research project, including personnel costs and fringe ben-
efits, costs of materials and supplies, travel, subcontracts, and other expenditures
necessary to implement the project. Whenever we have subcontracts in our pro-
posals, we like to negotiate the budget early on in order to have a clear idea of the
funds needed for the subcontracts and the amount available to run the grant. Most
funding agencies provide detailed instructions regarding the level of detail and bud-
getary planning that is required for documentation in an application. Whenever
possible, PIs should learn to prepare their own budgets. The reason being that bud-
gets are revised often during the proposal writing process and to depend on some-
one else for budget revisions could be burdensome and might create unnecessary
delays. We use Microsoft Excel spread sheets to prepare the budget, which allows
for automatic corrections every time a particular budget line is changed. However,
it is always helpful for a novice applicant to seek accounting consultation and assis-
tance from an individual experienced in the assembly of the budget.
Developing anAppropriate Timeline and EvaluationPlan

Most grant applications require a specific timeline for all major grant-related activi-
ties, including both management and research activities. In addition, a detailed eval-
uation plan and a description of performance indicators are required. Most federal
funding agencies also provide evaluation guidelines that should be reviewed care-
fully before starting the proposal and should be used in order to meet the evalua-
tion criteria. Most federal grants include a section with the evaluation criteria in the
RFP (Request for Proposals) or in the PAF (Proposal Application Form). NIH has
developed a website with useful information for grant writers and potential review-
ers about the peer review process (see Office of Extramural Research:Peer Review
Policy and Issues).
According to Taylor etal. (2006), proposals ordinarily include the following.
Adetailed listing of all main research objectives and activities (e.g., participants
recruitment, data collection, data analysis and dissemination)

When the specified activities will takeplace

Who will perform each activity
The criteria by which the activities will be judged as successfully completedornot
The evaluation plan (for a multi-year funded project) could include two separate
levels of evaluation:
Aformative evaluation: This is an evaluation of the intervention activities under

field conditions with a smaller sample. The formative evaluation serves to test
the measures and intervention components, including participants recruitment
and data collection. In a way, it is a test of the overall research strategy that helps
the research team make corrections and address unanticipated problems before
moving to the nextphase.
Asummative evaluation:This is an evaluation of the impact of the research study
or intervention strategy that the grant application has proposed. The summative
evaluation of the project usually involves specifying how one will determine the
extent to which the aims and objectives proposed have been achieved and how
they will be measured. Many funders now require a logic model to guide the
evaluation process; it provides a visual representation of project goals, inputs,
outputs, and outcomes. The logic model gives the research team an overview
of the outcomes of the project and also of the process of implementation and
evaluation. It provides a framework that can serve as a reference point for the
research team and the funding agency to make sure that each step of the research
is achieved or that the proper adjustments are beingmade.
Gathering theNecessary Documentation

and Letters ofSupport
Many funding agencies require a biographical sketch from each investigator and
key research personnel included on the proposal. Most funders accept the NIH
bio sketch format of about four pages. Additionally, letters of support need to be
appended to the grant application. If community partnerships with several agen-
cies and organizations are proposed, letters of support or memorandums of under-
standing should be included. It is important to include letters of support. These
letters are either commitments from your research sites or support for the project
you intend to conduct. You should present enough evidence and documentation
to support your proposal and no more. Taylor etal. (2006) explain that letters of
support are obtained from collaborators who intend to participate directly as mem-
bers of the research team; from consumers who intend to serve in advisory capaci-
ties; and from collaborating sites such as community organizations, practice sites,
or other individuals who intend to support the study in a more peripheral way (e.g.,
local agencies that have agreed to refer their customers to participate in the study).

Letters of support are typically obtained from consultants, subcontractors, referral

sources, and advisory board members.
Co-investigators (commonly paid as subcontractors unless they are housed
within the same institution) are research personnel critical to conducting the study.
They share responsibility for the intellectual contributions made to the develop-
ment of the study ideas, design, and/or methods and analyses, and collaborate
with the principal investigator in interpreting the findings and in publishing results
for dissemination. Co-investigators are typically senior-level individuals with the
knowledge base, technical skills, publication history, and a scientific reputation that
support the central aims of the study and complement the credentials of the prin-
cipal investigator and other collaborators. Increasingly, agencies expect a research
team reflecting diverse and complementary disciplines.
The role of consultants is often circumscribed to a specific task, like external
evaluator or statistician. Their contributions to the overall study are proportionally
smaller than those of the co-investigators. Consultants are usually selected before
a proposal is written and they are always identified in the grant proposal. Other
members of the research team, including project staff and student research assis-
tants, can be named once the grant has been funded. However, some reviewers look
more favorably upon grant applications that identify key grant staff because it leaves
an impression that the investigator has a stable research team. Selecting strong col-
laborators will not only increase the likelihood of a positive review, but also ensure
the overall success of the study. Enlisting support from collaborators early in the
grant-writing process can be vital to the idea development. Given the complexity of
the social issues that we study as community psychologists, it is often advisable to
recruit investigators with a complementary set of skills and from diverse disciplines,
like public health or social work, in order to form a stronger multidisciplinaryteam.
Ethical Considerations forGrant Writing

An important aspect of grant writing is explaining in detail the steps to be taken by
the research team to protect the confidentiality and safety of research participants.
Researchers have to follow the guidelines from their respective Institutional Review
Board (IRB) with regards to the protection of human subjects engaged in research.
Federal grants require applicants to submit detailed information about IRB applica-
tion, and often require applicants to address a number of questions regarding the
study design, participants criteria for inclusion and exclusion from the research,
and details about the proposed intervention if any. This information becomes part
of the application package and is read by the reviewers.
Universities require all personnel engaging in contact with research participants
at any level to be trained and certified with regards to the IRB guidelines for protec-
tion of human subjects in research. Taylor etal. (2006) explain that when selecting

designs and methodologies for grant-funded research studies, applicants must

balance the demands of methodological rigor with the necessity to treat research
participants in an ethical manner and protect their rights to confidentiality. For
example, if using control groups is needed in the study design, then a delayed inter-
vention is always recommended for the individuals in the control group. Other
issues that may appear could relate to compensation of participants, storage and
protection of identifiable data, and participants expectations from the intervention.
It is advisable to consult with the local IRB to address potential questions or
challenges. For example, some populations require special accommodations in the
consent form (e.g., individuals with intellectual/developmental disabilities), and
the IRB could provide some guidelines or share information from previous propos-
als with similar populations. Working with underage populations always requires
parental consent unless working with wards of the state, which requires consent
from the state agency in charge.
Finally, in situations that are ambiguous or debatable, Taylor etal. (2006) recom-
mend that applicants should make it explicit within the grant proposal that alterna-
tive designs or methodologies were considered, and then justify why one approach
was chosen over another. It is important that the researchers explain to reviewers
that they have been considering carefully the ethical implications of the study and
justify the particular choices that were made in the proposal.
Conclusions
Grant writing is a necessary and important skill for community psychologists,
whether they are in academia or working in the field. The process is not easy but
it does get better with practice. During the last few years, it is becoming more dif-
ficult to secure grants because of the combination of budget cuts in many federal
programs and an increased number of people submitting applications. Community
psychologists have a competitive edge in developing grant proposals because of
our close relationships with local community agencies, our understanding of mul-
tiple factors influencing complex social or health-related problems, our knowledge
of participatory evaluation and intervention approaches, our capacity to propose
interventions designed to empower participants, and our knowledge of both quan-
titative and qualitative evaluation methodologies. We are also skilled in building
organizational capacity for change and that is one of the long-term outcomes that
many funding agencies are looking for. Many professionals can talk about develop-
ing interventions for social transformation but we are trained todoso.
This chapter offered a comprehensive overview of the various steps of proposal
writing. We explained 12 basic principles of proposal writing in some detail in order
to inform readers of the main components of the process. We encourage readers
to use the additional resources presented in Appendix 20.1. Both academics and

practitioners can benefit from sharpening their grant-writing skills. We believe that
graduate programs in community psychology should consider a grant-writing class
where students can have the experience of grant writing, perhaps as a service to
local agencies that may be glad to get additional help to pursue funding to expand
or continue their programs. This experience could be mutually beneficial to the stu-
dents, the organizations involved, and the academic program. As we mentioned, the
skill of grant writing improves with practice and greater familiarity with the fund-
ing agencies. Although it is disappointing when we do not get a grant after work-
ing very hard, remember that there is always the possibility to revise and resubmit.
Goodluck!
Appendix 20.1 List ofAdditional Resources forgrant

writing and granting agencies
Books
Gitlin, L.N., & Lyons, K.J. (2004). Successful grant writing:Strategies for health
and human service professionals. NewYork, NY:Springer.
Karsh, E. & Fox A. S. (2014). The only grant-writing book you will ever need.
NewYork:NY:BasicBooks.
ONeal-McElrath, T. (2013). Winning grants step by step: The complete work-
book for planning, developing, and writing successful proposals. San Francisco,
CA:Jossey-Bass.
Digital
How to find the fight funders:Astrategic approach. The Grantsmanship Center:
http://www.tgci.com/publications-purchase
Internet Resources for the Nonprofit Grantseeker, 3/e (CD-ROM). http://www.
grantcenter.org/publications2.htm
Websites:Non-Profit Guides. Free web-based grant-writing tools for nonprofit orga-
nizations, charitable, educational, public organizations, and other community-
minded groups. Available at http://www.npguides.org/
General Services Administration, Federal Domestic Assistance Catalogue.
Developing and Writing Grant Proposals. Available at http://www.nmfs.noaa.
gov/trade/howtodogrants.htm
The Foundation Center. A nonprofit information clearinghouse and library that
collects and disseminates information on more than 80,000 private foundations
for organizations and individuals seeking information about grants. Available at
http://www.fdncenter.org

Foundations.Org:Afoundation directory and search tool. Available at http://www.

foundations.org
Funding Search. Provides grant funding resource services for nonprofit organiza-
tions, consultants, and proposal writers. Available at http://www.fundingsearch.
com/
Grants.Gov. This is the main portal for accessing grants from the US Federal
Government. Available at http://www.grants.gov/web/grants/home.html
References
Balcazar, F. E., & Suarez-Balcazar, Y. (2004). Center for capacity building for minorities with dis-
abilities research. The University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Disability and Human
Development and Department of Occupational Therapy. Award Number: H133A040007
funded by the National Institutes of Disability and Rehabilitation Research, US Department
of Education.
Kiritz, N. J. (1980). Program planning and proposal writing. Expanded version. Los Angeles,
CA: The Grantsmanship Center. Available for purchase at http://www.tgci.com/
publications-purchase#commerce-cart-add-to-cart-form-18
Taylor, R.R., Suarez-Balcazar, Y., Pepin, G., & White, E. (2006). Obtaining funding for research
(chapter30). In Gary Kielhofner (Ed.), Research in occupational therapy:Methods of inquiry for
enhancing practice. Philadelphia, PA:F.A.Davis.
Tolan, P., Keys, C. B., Chertok, F., & Jason, L. (1990). Researching community psychology:Issues of
theory and methods. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

21
International Community Psychology

Development
A Case Example in Nigeria
Mary Gloria C.Njoku
Community development as defined by Fawcett, Paine-Andrews, Francisco, Schultz,

Richter etal., 1995)denotes the coming together of persons who share commonali-
ties in location or experience for the purpose of improving the community in areas
that are important to them. I was exposed to community psychology principles
and values during my education at a Midwestern university in the United States of
America, which prepared me for international community development activities.
Iwas trained in a clinical/community PhD program. Ibelieve that the combination
of academic activities involving in-class learning, field work, and research prepared
me to take on community development in various cultural contexts. My exposure to
the work of other community psychologists such as Leonard Jason, Jim Kelly, and
Ed Trickett helped me to understand how Icould become involved in community
development. Thus far, community research and action have been my primary ways
of engaging in community development work. In this chapter, Iprovide a review of
my international community development efforts in conducting community-based
research, participating in the beginning of a new university and educational refor-
mation, and initiating peace programs in Nigeria.
Community-Based Research
To provide a sense of the type of community-based research that Ido in Nigeria,
Iwill provide information about one study in which Ifocused on estimating the
prevalence of chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME)
and associated factors in Nigeria (Njoku, 2009; Njoku, Jason & Torres-Harding,
2007). In this project, as a community member myself, Irecruited other community
258

Inter national CP Devel op me nt : Nig e r ia 259
members to serve as research coordinators and assistants. The community-based

method was selected to increase the likelihood of obtaining a truly representative
sample. Studies with minority groups and those living in poverty have suggested
that people from these backgrounds have minimal access to medical settings
( Jason etal., 1995; Richman, Flaherty, & Rospenda, 1994). In addition, clinical or
hospital-based samples tend to over-represent fatigue prevalence ( Jason etal., 1995;
Richman etal., 1994). In an African country where 70% live below the poverty line,
Ifelt that the use of a community-based approach would provide a more accurate
and representative fatigue prevalence rate. The study was done in two phases and
took place in an urban city, Enugu, within the southeastern region of Nigeria, where
Igbo is the predominant language.
In phase I, Isought and obtained approval from our Institutional Review Board
(IRB). One of the things Ilearned from the process of obtaining the IRB approval
was the requirement for using a 4th grade English reading level when developing
research scales that were to be used with individuals for whom English was not their
first language. I was also required to translate and back-translate all the research
tools. Ispent a considerable amount of time translating the consent form and the
13-page survey and getting it back-translated by an expert in the Igbo language. In
the United States, most epidemiological studies of CFS/ME had utilized random
phone digit dialing for recruitment of participants ( Jason etal., 1999). In Nigeria,
at the time of this study, telephone access was considered a luxury because it was
expensive. Further, some areas of the nation do not have telephone lines. This meant
that community-based sampling in Nigeria would require a method that will allow
us to reach the people in their homes or workplaces. Itherefore chose the door-to-
door approach where the interviewer would go from house to house and administer
the study to consenting adults. Using this approach, the research team recruited and
administered the survey to 1,145 participants.
Another challenge that Ihad to manage in this phase of the study was getting the
research assistants to appreciate the importance of collecting data systematically in
a way that followed the sampling guidelines and protocols. Collecting data that had
incomplete responses was also something that Iwas challenged with in this phase.
Imet with the research assistants several times to ensure that all participants con-
cerns were discussed and resolved.
In phase II of the study, participants of the study completed full medical, labora-
tory and psychiatric evaluation. With the help of community members, Iwas able
to locate many of the individuals who were expected to participate in this follow-up
investigation. In trying to find all the identified participants, we walked through one
neighborhood after another, and we kept making contacts and trying to find leads
as to where people might be. In this way, we found some of the participants who
had not included their addresses on the questionnaire. We were able to schedule all
the consenting participants for their medical, laboratory, and psychiatric evaluation.
Out of 15 pre-identified participants, we were able to successfully work with12.

Within the hospital environment, Iworked to develop a relationship with all the
important departments, such as the outpatient, X-ray, and laboratory departments.
The hospital administrator communicated with the key staff in each of these depart-
ments to assist with the study. Iwent with the study participants to every depart-
ment to facilitate the activities they were required to complete and to ensure that
they would not encounter problems in any department. The participants expressed
satisfaction with the study. Before Ileft the hospital, Iwent to each of the depart-
ments and expressed my appreciation for their assistance to the study participants
and myself. They in turn expressed satisfaction with the way Iworked with them.
Ihave continued to maintain communication with those who served as research
assistants and with the hospital management.
To a great extent, my ability to carry out this community work was as a result of
my exposure to community psychology principles and values, and because of the
training Ireceived at the Center for Community Research directed by Dr.Leonard
Jason. Specifically, the concept of diversity and participatory community research
influenced my choice of the approach implemented in this study. Iwas conscious
of the need to involve community members in my study from its inception. Ialso
learned about the importance of developing rapport with clients/consultees from
the community psychology course, consultation, and clinical psychology courses
and from the field work course required in my graduate studies. At the Center for
Community Research, within the CFS research team, staff members always accom-
pany participants of the study to their physician appointments. This model inspired
me to do the same for the participants of my Nigerian CFSstudy.
Supporting theFoundation ofa New University

and Educational Reformation
After the completion of my doctoral education at DePaul University in the United
States, Ireturned to Nigeria hoping to devote my time and skills to the develop-
ment of a clinical practice and engage in academic activity on a part-time basis.
Within few months of returning to Nigeria, I realized the need for educational
reform. Iencountered several applicants and workers in my clinic and at the school
where Iwas engaged in part-time teaching who were unable to practice the skills
and competencies of their jobs. In addition, frequently in my conversation with
employers, I learned that graduates were not delivering intended services and
were now talked of as unemployable. Also, the media and Association of Vice
Chancellors of Nigerian Universities (AVCNU) identified the problem of graduat-
ing unemployable people as a key issue that must be addressed by all educational
settings (AVCNU, Discussions at the 2010 AVCNU Meeting). I was convinced,
therefore, that one of the solutions to the identified problem was to restructure the
way students learn in varied levels of education, particularly the university settings.
Irecalled the position of Weinstein (2002), who called community psychologists

to action for overcoming inequality in schooling. Iacknowledge that schools are

critical socializing forces in society and a place where diverse population of stu-
dents converge and thus present an opportunity for contributing to social change
in the society. The desire to be present to the table of school reform inspired me
to become involved in the creation of Godfrey Okoye University (GO University).
My community psychology training equipped me with the tools that helped me
to understand that change can come from varied levels. Moreover, learning that
community psychologists have the obligation to participate in the life of the com-
munities in which they live, understand their needs, and proffer solutions for the
identified problems of the communities motivated me to move from my full-time
clinical practice to full-time academic life. This is not to say that Nigeria does not
have a need for mental health services. In 2008, while Iwas still working at DePaul
University Chicago, preparing to return to Nigeria to establish a clinical psychology
practice, my religious superior informed me that the Catholic Diocese of Enugu was
starting a new university. She expressed that my assistance may be needed. When
Ieventually returned to Nigeria, Iapplied for a part-time position and was offered
the job. One day, without any warning, the founder of the university asked me to
become fully engaged with the proposed university. Iwas torn between my desire
to combine clinical practice with part-time teaching and full-time involvement with
this proposed university. Iaspired to be part of the educational reformation but on
a part-time basis. Reflecting on the social change tenet of community psychology
(Duffy & Wong, 1996), and asking the question; What can Ido to help? Ifound
the energy to embrace Godfrey Okoye University.
Somewhat unexpectedly, I was offered the position of Director of Academic
Planning. The founder of the university in making the announcement of the offer
to me expressed that my education, experiences, and social exposure made me
the appropriate person for the position. He stated that my delivery of speeches at
events and the way I taught my courses, in addition to my profile in my curriculum
vitae (CV), made me an excellent candidate for the position. The academic plan-
ning unit handles the collection and management of data and information to guide
the academic development of the university and ensure compliance with National
Universities Commissions Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS)
and with the university senates academic requirements. This means that I monitor
the planning and implementation of the curriculum of all courses offered at the uni-
versity. My community psychology training in program development and evaluation
helped me in this position of guiding my office to attain its goals through organiza-
tion of the ongoing and annual performance evaluation of the academic programs,
students, staff, and other university activities; development of plans for ensuring
that the Academic Brief of the university is properly implemented; and advising the
university management on all academic matters regularly. The Academic Brief is a
book that contains the academic and administrative plan for running a university.
My job also included negotiating and building linkages with universities in Nigeria,

America, Asia, Europe, and other parts of Africa, to ensure that our students and
staff have the opportunity to share educational, research, and cultural ideas with
students and staff of other universities. This collaboration is geared towards espous-
ing in our students and staff the socialization that will lead them to the appreciation
and respect of cultural diversity.
A challenge Ihad was getting other universities (those outside Nigeria) to whom
we proposed collaboration to agree to exchange students, staff, and resources.
I tried to gain an understanding of why the collaboration process was not being
embraced by some universities and realized that they were afraid of committing to
Nigeria, a nation that the media has portrayed as a den of kidnappers and crimi-
nals. This fear of Nigeria can be attributed to lack of understanding of the breath
and width of the nation and the culture of hospitality that supersedes the menace
of kidnapping and other criminal activities. In fact, many Nigerians are hospitable
and only a few people engage in kidnapping behavior. Therefore, the fear of col-
laboration with Nigerian universities stems from cultural bias that only exposure
to the Nigerian culture can ameliorate. In one of my communications with a poten-
tial collaborator, Iwas made to understand that their university would be happy to
receive our students and lecturers, but they would not encourage their students and
staff to travel to Nigeria. Lack of understanding and misconceived notions that are
now stereotypes may have contributed to why some universities in Europe and the
United States are finding it difficult to collaborate with Nigerian universities. Can
we change the perceptions and attitude of the Western world about Nigeria? Not
quickly. We can choose, however, to propose a collaboration that will allow our stu-
dents and staff to experience learning at universities in the Western world. It should
be noted that some universities in Europe are collaborating with us in the areas of
academic staff exchange and sharing research ideas. Thus far, only universities in
Austria and Germany have agreed to a two-way collaboration. One university in the
United States has also commenced a two-way collaboration with our university. The
mode of operations we have with our collaborators from Austria and Germany and
the university in the United States was facilitated by professors and researchers who
have actually visited and lectured briefly at our university. Iexpect that with time
and some exposure, our other collaborators from the United Kingdom and United
States will open their doors to a bilateral exchange of staff and students.
Having studied and worked in the United States, Iwas exposed to a variety of
teaching and learning models. The citizen participation tenet of community psychol-
ogy spurred me to aim for a recreation of some of the things that Ilearned overseas
in Nigeria (Florin & Wandersman, 1990). For example, advocating for multidisci-
plinary collaborations among the staff and students and finding ways to promote
appreciation of diversity of knowledge (Trickett, 1996). It is part of Godfrey Okoye
University (GO University) culture to have lecturers from varied fields teaching the
same course. For example, the universitys peace and conflict resolution course is
shared by an anthropologist, a sociologist, a philosopher, a political scientist, and

a language specialist. Thus, our students see that varied disciplines can contribute
to a better understanding of specific areas of learning and practice. In addition, we
encourage our students to take lectures from any area of study. My hope is that the
university will someday become a center of epistemic dialogue (that is dialogue
between varied fields of learning) where students and lecturers will love to engage
in interdisciplinarywork.
Another challenge was the result of my many years of sojourn in the United
States. The Nigeria Iknew had changed and Itoo have changed. My first year as a
lecturer was challenging. My students reported that they had difficulty understand-
ing me because of my American accent. Itoo found it difficult to understand both
their verbal and written communication. Both pronunciation and written material
differ between the two nations. While Nigerians maintain British spelling, the pro-
nunciation of words reflect Nigerian ethnic accent. To deal with communications,
Iturned to my siblings who taught me how to pronounce words the Nigerian way.
For example in the word data, the English alphabet a is pronounced as the Igbo
alphabet a which sounds ah. In the words of Kelly (2006), Ithink of my personal
challenges as my antidote to arrogance, lest Ishould think of myself as the expert
in the community.
As can be deduced from the preceding, my entry into the Godfrey Okoye
University system was facilitated by the previous experiences documented in my
CV and activities such as speeches and lectures that I gave at events and institutions.
It is important for candidates to prepare their CV well. At DePaul University, we
were required to prepare our CVs as part of the learning activities of our consulta-
tion course. I prepared my own while taking this course. I kept the basic format of
the CV that we were taught in the course, but I have continued to update it. In addi-
tion, the feedback from the vice chancellor/president of the university regarding
the role my public presentation played in my appointment as Director of Academic
Planning suggests that it is important for individuals aspiring to get into this type
of position to develop their presentation skills. Program development and evalua-
tion skills are also essential. Community psychology students aspiring to engage in
international development must work hard to develop both theoretical and practi-
cal knowledge of program development and evaluation.
In the course of my work at GO University, Ihave developed several initiatives
to contribute to the advancement of the university and the community. One of my
initiatives is the peace program.
Peace Program
The first thing Idid when Ireturned to Nigeria was to enlist myself for the National
Youth Service Corp (NYSC). The NYSC is a year-long service program required of
all those who graduate with a bachelors degree before age 30. Those who are older
than 30years are exempted from participating in the program. The Corp members

are usually posted to varied regions of the country to enable them experience other
cultures while serving in different capacities. In the course of completing this year-
long service, I was exposed to varying degrees of violence, and many of my col-
leagues in more violent regions experienced high levels of violence. Ialso noted that
many settings, including educational settings, were breeding grounds for violence.
I was touched by the culture of secondary school seniors punishing junior stu-
dents. Ireflected on a variety of community psychology principles and values and
intervention methods. Iremembered the violence prevention program that Iwas
assigned to during my training at DePaul University. Iwas in a cohort that provided
school-based social skills intervention at a local school in Lincoln Park district.
In deciding on my responsibility toward ameliorating the level of violence in our
society, Ireflected again on the community psychologists obligation to participate
in the life of the communities in which they live. Whereas this obligation is not
necessarily taught in the university, at formal and informal gatherings of commu-
nity psychologists, this obligation is echoed in conversations, presentations, and
the types of work that prominent founding members of the field accomplished.
Two approaches to community interventions that are predominantly taught in
community psychology are prevention and promotion (Caplan, 1964; Durlak,
1995; Cowen, 2000). Ihad to decide between a violence-prevention and a peace-
promotion pathway. Ichoose the later because of my belief that teaching young peo-
ple peaceful approaches to challenges might equip them with tools that will enable
them to develop both inner and external peace. Itherefore began my peace initia-
tives in 2011 with the annual youth peace conference which brings young people
from high school and higher education institutions together for a peace dialogue
and peace activities, such as art and puzzle solutions. Through this annual youth
peace program, Ihave been able to reach more than 3000 young people from high
school to higher education institutions. Evaluation results of the annual youth peace
conference have shown that participants develop better understanding of peace and
some of the concepts associated with peace, such as justice, human rights, tranquil-
ity, sense of community, harmony, environmental safety, safeguarding the goods of
other people, and basic amenities (Njoku & Anieke, 2014). In addition, Ihave now
established a peace club at GO University; with the goal of assisting other students
to learn about peace and exhibit peaceful dispositions in their interactions with
people and the system.
In June 2013, Icommenced a media peace promotion program entitled Peace.
The Peace program is a weekly radio talk that tells stories of peace. In this program,
I target young people and adults, and present both family and systems-oriented
peace strategies and stories. The stories are used to explore varied peace approaches
that cut across age groups. Thus far, the Peace program seems to be achieving its
goal. Its audience sends in affirming correspondence and some stakeholders have
visited me at the university where Iwork to express their appreciation for the pro-
gram. Some individuals have also called or visited to inform me that the program

has helped their families or relationships improve. The greatest challenge Ihave now
is to find ways to keep up with requests to provide family and community peace
interventions in face-to-face communication mode. In addition, the sustenance of
the program depends on continual support from the financial sponsors of the pro-
gram. Ican see the project turning into a media and face-to-face peace intervention
for communities, families, and individuals. This might require full-time attention,
which Iam unable to give as a result of my work at the university. An alternative
direction for the Peace program would be to develop a community-based consulta-
tion forum and recruit students and professionals or paraprofessionals to provide
the consultation under my supervision.
The community psychology training I received through coursework such as
consultation, grant writing, and community psychology, and the field work project,
equipped me adequately for this future direction of the Peace program. Ibelieve
that this direction will bring the Peace program closer to individuals who are in
need of peace intervention in their homes and communities. The project will also
serve as a training ground for students and professionals who are interested in peace
promotion.
All of my activities at the university coalesced into my inaugural lecture enti-
tled Behavioural Health:Application of Biopsychosocial Model of Prevention and
Treatment. An inaugural lecture is usually delivered by a professor within the first
two years of promotion to the rank of a professor in universities that implement
the British academic system. Nigerian universities implement this inaugural lecture
requirement. In the course of my activities in the university, I continued to pro-
vide behavioral health consultations to the university management, staff, students,
and the community. I receive invitations to deliver behavioral health workshops
and papers at least twice a year from various institutions. The inaugural lecture is
expected to provide good information on a topical issue that is related to the pro-
fessors field and areas of research and intervention. Ichose the topic of behavioral
health because of its broadness and connection to the work that Ihave been doing.
The biopsychosocial model connected well to the vision of GO University and phi-
losophy of epistemic dialogue. This model allowed me to support the concept of
providing holistic health care embracing physical, psychological, social, and spir-
itual health. Iwas able to integrate the ecological framework of Bronfrenbrenner
(1979; 1986), and the prevention and health promotion values of community psy-
chology (Cowen, 2000; Durlak, 1995)into my inaugural lecture.
My Appointments and Promotions

My first academic appointment at the university was the senior lecturer rank, which
was offered because I had previous teaching and research experience and consider-
able scientific articles. At least a senior lecturer rank is required for appointment to

the position of Director of Academic Planning. I was appointed to this position, and
I spent five years in this role before my next assessment.
Given that the professorial rank requires three years associate professor (reader)
experience, considerable publication, academic leadership, and professional rec-
ognition, or five-years senior lecturer experience with the relevant publications,
academic leadership and professional recognition, Iwas assessed for the professo-
rial rank after five years. All the projects I described in this chapter were carried
out in the context of my academic activities, and they contributed to the recogni-
tion of my work at GO University and my promotion to the professorial rank, as
well as the academic leadership positions that Ihave held in the university. Iwas
recently appointed the dean of the Faculty of Management and Social Sciences at
GO University.
As previously noted, Ibelieve that Iwas able to take on the community-based
research, supporting the foundation of a new university and the peace initiatives
because of my training in community psychology principles and values, and because
of the mentorship Ireceived at the Center for Community Research. The concepts
of diversity and participatory community research, and the social-change tenet
enabled me to embrace full-time academic work at Godfrey Okoye University. The
citizen participation tenet of community psychology spurred me to aim for a recre-
ation in Nigeria of some of the things that Ilearned from the United States, mindful
of the context of the society. The health promotion value of community psychology
inspired me to focus on a peace promotion agenda as a way of contributing to peace
in the region where Iserved.
Summary
Academic settings that provide opportunities for the development of individuals
are an important setting where community psychologists can work and promote
principles of diversity, social justice, collaboration, and empowerment in schools,
and indirectly as a second-order change, contribute to the reformation of a society.
However, when a person trained in the Western world returns to a non-Western
culture to work, the individual should be aware of challenges that may be primarily
due to cultural changes and the persons acquired culture. My challenges made me
more aware that working in international settings, especially, non-Western cultures,
requires courage and a willingness to assess the societal challenges, develop plans,
and implement an agenda that is consistent with the needs of that moment intime.
In addition, once a person joins an academic setting, the rules for appointment
and promotion to ranks are followed. This requires conscientious effort on the part
of the candidates to work assiduously to ensure that they participate in teaching,
research, and academic leadership. Whereas, the community psychology training
is a good preparation for the types of work Idiscussed in this chapter, successful

navigation of the system requires understanding of the context and the process of
participation in the academic system.
My work at GO University and the larger academic system in Nigeria will con-
tinue to revolve around the activities Ihave discussed in this chapter. My main focus
at this time is to find ways of institutionalizing peace through the use of psychologi-
cal principles. Iam also working on the integration of media and technology into
this work. As a person, while Iam happy to contribute to diverse areas of research
and action and to the academic world, Iwant to be known for bringing peace, and
Iam ready to lay down my life to make peace a household value in Nigeria.
Appendix 21.1 Community Psychology Competencies

Exemplified inMyWork
Community Psychology Core Application in My Roles

Competencies
Advocacy and Community Not addressed explicitly in all projects but was
Organizing central to my work with participants at the
hospital.
Collaboration and Coalition The epistemic dialogue of my university made
Development this competence a central aspect of my research
and teaching.
Community-Based Research Implemented in the community-based research
Idescribed.
Community and Organizational Inherent in the foundation of a private
Development university.
Consultation Helpful in my work as a Director of Academic
Planning
Ecological Theory, Analyses, Addressed in understanding the changes that
and Perspective had occurred in my approach to life and work
as a result of my many years of missionary and
educational activities in the United States, and
the challenges Ifaced when Istarted working in
Nigeria.
Grant Writing and Resource I continue to engage in resource development
Development for my university and the community.
Information Dissemination Ongoing through my radio peace talk,
and Public Awareness conferences, and publications.

Community Psychology Core Application in My Roles

Competencies
Leadership I am actively involved in the leadership as a
member of the senior management team of the
University, Committee of Deans and Directors,
and as the dean of my faculty.
Need and Asset Assessment This was part of my work as a Director of
Academic Planning of the university. Icontinue
to use this competence now in identifying
strengths and weaknesses of my faculty in
Management and Social Sciences.
Small and Large Group Processes Addressed in the development of the peace
clubs. Ihope to implement this in initiating
the consultation forum that will help me with
providing peace promotion interventions.
Policy Analysis/Development My work as a Director of Academic Planning
involved policy formulation, and it was
addressed in reforming our educational
strategies.
Prevention Addressed in the founding of the university and
in peace initiatives.
Program Development and Addressed in the founding of the university and
Implementation in peace initiatives.
Program Evaluation Addressed in the founding of the university and
in peace initiatives.
Note:Adapted from Dalton & Wolfe (2012). Education connection and the community practitio-
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22
Doing Community Psychology

Internationally
Lessons Learned in theField
Ronald Harvey and Nikol ay L. Mihaylov
This chapter will address the challenges and rewards for those choosing a career
in International Community Psychology (ICP), which we define as conducting
community psychology (CP) research in a community in a nonnative country. The
authors briefly describe their own experiences in international settings during their
graduate training. We also include interviews with five community psychologists
with extensive international research experience. We hope to show that interna-
tional work is not only a viable career option, but we also hope to convince readers
that ICP work itself is uniquely fulfilling and illuminating. Community psychology
research on a well-known subject in an international setting can be an effective way
to expose hidden contexts and challenge thinking about core CP values such as
community engagement, social justice, empowerment, and the value of collabora-
tion. As such, the practice of doing research in international settings is noteworthy
as method in itself to explore community psychology theories and practice.
The chapter co-authors first met in Sofia, Bulgaria, in the spring of 2010. At that
time, Ronald Harvey was a third year CP student at DePaul University in the last
months of a US Student Fulbright grant, and Nikolay Mihaylov was the recent recipi-
ent of a Fulbright to become a visiting student of psychology in the United States.
Nikolay L. Mihaylov: I am a PhD student in the Community Research and
Action program at Vanderbilt University. I received degrees in Economics and
Clinical and Counseling Psychology, as Iwas trying to find my path toward a profes-
sion that would contribute to social change in both practical and conceptual ways.
I encountered community psychology in 2010 thanks to the Fulbright academic
exchange program that introduced me to Ronald Harvey, then a PhD student at
DePaul University, Chicago. Through a Fulbright Scholarship, Iwent to DePaul to
270

Doing CP Inter national ly :L e s s ons L ear ned 271
explore community psychology as a non-degree graduate student, and the following

year Iwas admitted to Vanderbilts Community Research and Action PhD program.
My research interests and life plans are related to the growing civil society in
Bulgaria and its attempts to assert control over a consistently exclusive and cor-
rupt democracy. I draw upon community psychology, applied social psychology,
sociology, and political science theory in my research. Currently Iam studying as a
participant-conceptualizer in the movement against fracking for oil and gas extrac-
tion in Bulgaria, a movement that achieved a huge policy success in 2012. The pos-
sibility of an international community psychology is of crucial importance to me as
Igrapple with the question how to transfer knowledge and competencies that crys-
talized in US academia and society to the Bulgarian and Eastern-European context.
Can CP thrive where it does not yet exist? Iam currently introducing CP into
Bulgaria. CP can be welcomed in a less-affluent country such as Bulgaria, because
it is economical with its strengths focus. Most Bulgarian psychology students are
individualistically oriented; you will meet many psychoanalysis fans in the major
universities. CP would be a challenge to their thinking, which is good. Another
opportunity is in the inadequacy of social psychology in Bulgariaobsolete
knowledge, no application. CP can fill that vacuum for socially oriented students in
psychology. Amore pragmatic reason to take on CP is that therapists and therapy
schools in Bulgaria abound, but there is meager demand for therapy, and most of
therapists just train each other. Its not just culture (the stigma of therapy); we dont
have a sizable middle class to sustain so many therapists.
Ronald Harvey: My introduction to international community psychology
occurred quite by accident. I had just started my first year of graduate studies at
DePaul. At the time Iknew Iwould be studying Oxford Houses (OH) in the United
States: resident-run, self-financed recovery homes based on self-help principles
and operating democratically (Oxford House, 2012). To date, DePaul research-
ers have conducted multiple NIH-funded studies, which have revealed much
about the structure, residents, and effectiveness of the OH model ( Jason, Davis, &
Ferrari, 2007). That summer, Iwas visiting Bulgaria on a holiday visit that included
Romania, Moldova, and Hungary just before my first year of study. Ibecame inter-
ested in doing Oxford House research in Bulgaria because of a chance encounter
with an NIH program officer who had recently spoken at a conference on the treat-
ment of substance use disorders (SUDs) in Sofia. My NIH contact helped me to
meet with Bulgarian professionals at the National Center for Addictions (part of
the Ministry of Health) and the Sofia Municipal Centre for Addictions treatment
facility. Naturally, we discussed the issues concerning substance abuse treatment,
housing, and aftercare in Bulgaria and the United States, as well as DePauls Oxford
House research. As in the United States, there are two significant risk factors leading
to substance abuse relapse in Bulgaria:returning to pro-using neighborhoods; and
a lack of housing and social environments supportive of abstinence. Iasked my new

collaborators, Do you think Oxford Houses could work in Bulgaria? Iwas told,
Bulgaria has nothing like Oxford Houses, though we certainly needthem.
The value of doing international research struck me when I began to think
about the essential ingredients of the OH model and whether these could translate
to a Bulgarian context. Whether in the United States or Bulgaria, it seemed to me
that OHs require, at minimum, five underlying social, cultural, and infrastructural
ingredients:appropriate-sized rental housing; residents willing to live together and
follow the OH principles; opportunities for OH residents for work and income,
training, and/or continuing education; institutional and legal support from gov-
ernmental and treatment professionals; and acceptance from the local community.
These ingredients are plentiful in the United States, although Ihad taken for granted
the context in which they exist. For example, a large middle class creates a housing
market of rental homes so that OH residents can live together and provide mutual
social support; in Bulgaria, most urban housing is in tow-or three-room apartments
in huge housing blocks. Additionally, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
protects recovering individuals in the United States from discrimination in jobs and
housing. In the United States, self-help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous are
plentiful and culturally mainstream. It was unclear whether these ingredients were
present in Bulgaria or anywhere else in theworld.
I conducted a needs-assessment and a feasibility study in Bulgaria during my third
year of graduate studies through a Fulbright US Student grant in 20092010. My spon-
sors and collaborators in Bulgaria were essential to the project. In addition, Iwas for-
tunate to establish a collaborative relationship with Phoenix House, the first Bulgarian
therapeutic community (TC) for recovering substance abusers. Imet with 40 Phoenix
House clients in SUD treatment to talk about their plans after leaving Phoenix TC, and
to ask their opinions of the Oxford House model. From these data, Iam currently writ-
ing grant proposals to develop and research the first OHs in Bulgaria. In addition, my
research in Bulgaria helped me to articulate the ingredients for OH sustainability in the
United States (Harvey, Mortensen, Aase, Jason, & Ferrari,2013).
Both authors international CP research experiences are (so far) limited. What
follows are excerpts from interviews with five experienced international commu-
nity psychologists. Here you will see similarities and differences in philosophy and
orientation, but all these viewpoints are incredibly insightful and valuable.
Douglas D.Perkins
Douglas D.Perkins is a community psychologist, professor of Human & Organizational
Development at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Dr.Perkins is the author of
many articles on international CP research (Perkins,2009).
How did you first become interested in international issues and community
psychology?

My interests stemmed originally from traveling internationally with my parents who

both spent time abroad for lectures, consultations, and study, often for up to six
months at a time. As a researcher, Iwas focused domestically until my first sabbatical
leave from the University of Utah in 1998, when Iwas invited as a visiting professor in
Perth, Australia. The trip involved giving CP and community development research
and academic program development talks and consultations all over Australia (and
Ialso spent time in New Zealand). But Idid not really consider myself an inter-
national researcher until 2003, when as director of the Program in Community
Research & Action at Vanderbilt, Iwas invited to deliver a keynote address at the
National Congress on Prevention in Schools and Communities:Development of
Social Capital for Health Promotion and Prevention at the University of Padova,
Italy, and to teach a 2004 graduate master class at Otto-von-Guericke University
in Magdeburg, Germany. These opportunities produced my first international
research collaborations. I subsequently developed other collaborative research
and educational projects with other faculty and students in Italy, China, and South
Africa, and many of those faculty and students have also been visiting scholars in
our program at Vanderbilt.
Another important influence came from my department hiring Bill Partridge, an
applied anthropologist, from the World Bank, who helped me realize that it was pos-
sible to create opportunities for international collaborative action-research training
for students. Vanderbilts Field School in Intercultural Education and Research,
which Iwill say more about later, is an example of such an opportunity.
In what important ways do you find international research different from

research in the United States?
Outside the United States there is a little more focus on theoretical work and quali-
tative methods, and generally (with some noteworthy exceptions) less interest in
technical quantitative methods and analyses among community psychologists.
Non-US community psychologists are also more likely to radically critique positiv-
ism and favor phenomenology. My collaborations have tended to be with quanti-
tative or mixed-methods psychologists. This has provided easier common ground
when working in different languages, which can be more of a challenge for qualita-
tive research.
How did/do you find international collaborators and partners? What types of
partners are most/least receptive to international collaborations?
I think it is incredibly easy to find international collaborators. One good way to

make connections is to attend international conferences and to get to know foreign
attendees at US conferences. Another way is to participate in international special
issues of journals. Researchers in other countries tend to be more open to collabo-
ration than many US-based researchers who are happy to discuss their research

but not always available to collaborate due to lack of time or unfamiliarity and
inexperience with issues, cultures, and research in other countries. Researchers
in non-English-speaking countries seem enthusiastic to collaborate with native
English-speaking researchers as it may provide opportunities to publish in more
respected (in their home countries) English-language journals or to possibly visit
a US university.
What cultural issues, challenges, and opportunities do you experience as a

researcher working in communities in a different country?
The openness and enthusiasm of foreign researchers to collaborate may be partly a

cultural difference and thus an opportunity. Even community-oriented psycholo-
gists in the United States operate in an individualistic society and a very competi-
tive system for grants, recognition, publication, and promotion. Some of that exists
in other countries, but the attitudes seem more collegial. When I worked at the
University of Padova, for example, every day students and faculty would eat lunch
together and take a morning and an afternoon coffee break together and chat. Even
in very collegial departments in the United States, I have never experienced the
same kind of mutually interested and supportive atmosphere as in the universities
Ihave visited in Italy and some other countries. The greatest opportunities of inter-
national collaboration, however, are the new ideas and comparisons that collabora-
tion provides to adapt and improve theory, research, and interventions in ones own
country.
One challenge of international work that I encountered was in forming com-
munity partnerships on potentially sensitive projects in China, where government
permissions are required. But even there, the problem was not due to Chinese fac-
ulty and students, who were eager to collaborate, but to working in a location unac-
customed to international collaboration or even the presence of foreigners. That
has already changed pretty dramatically in recent years, although one must still be
careful in China and other authoritarian regimes about what one tries to do and
withwhom.
Other challenges arise when preparing and supervising US student researchers
to work in other countries, as Ihave done with Vanderbilt Field Schools in China
and South Africa. For example, health, safety, and liability may be bigger or lesser
concerns depending on the country and region, but must be carefully planned for
and monitored. Working with host-country students has always been mutually
rewarding and enlightening in my experience. What has been more difficult to
deal with is the behavior and attitudes of some US students while living abroad.
Difficulties are unpredictable and probably unavoidable, but aside from some rel-
atively minor hassles, my students and Ihave been quite fortunate. Most students
cope just fine and all seem to gain a great deal from the experience. International
travel and work can be a liberating experience (one of the great benefits), but

some students respond to that by resisting any form of supervision or reflection,

even if necessary for optimal learning and quality assurance, and even when the
university or funder requires it. Some of these challenges and lessons are dis-
cussed in a chapter on The Field school in Intercultural Education as a model
for immersive action-research training and service-learning in the 2016 edited
volume, Academics in Action! AModel for Community-Engaged Research, Teaching,
and Service.
How did you develop cultural competence to work in the particular contexts
youve had experience infor example, is it necessary to learn the language?
Learning the host language is an enormous benefitat the very least making an
effort to learn some basic conversational or practical words and phrases is appre-
ciated. But the international academic language is clearly English, so it is fortu-
nately possible to communicate almost anywhere in English. If you do not speak
the local language, however, it will limit your ability to communicate with some
partners or participate easily and fully, especially in qualitative research. Ialso try
to learn as much as possible about the history, politics, and social issues of the
countries I plan to visit, sometimes as part of the preparatory courses for field
schools.
Do you have advice/anecdotes on working with citizens or collaboratorsfor

example, language issues, entry into the field, human subjects protections, access
to resources, differing attitudes toward problems and theories?
Human subjects protection reviews in other countries seem generally less cumber-
some than they often are in the United States. At Vanderbilt, getting international
review board (IRB) approval for international research used to be difficult, but as
it becomes more common, such approvals have become easier to the point where
they may now be even less restrictive than they are for research conducted in the
United States. Other issues of entry and access and differing attitudes are discussed
in depth in the in-press chapter Icited earlier.
How did/do you find international funding for researchphilanthropic versus

research, private versus public, NGO versus governmental?
Funding may be one of the greatest impediments to international comparative

research. Among my funding sources were the US Department of Education
Fulbright-Hays Group Projects Abroad grant; my own college (for the Field
Schools); the World Health Organizations Health Behaviors of School- aged
Childrens longitudinal study (with my Italian colleagues); and inviting universi-
ties. Aside from Fulbright Fellowships and some specially targeted public health

research grants, the funding opportunities in the United States for foreign research
collaboration seem to be harder to find than sources for domestic research.
Any special challenges or issues that are different from domestic-only research
funding? For example, is country/context/community usefulness related to the
funding sources, which are often US-based?
Multidisciplinary academic programs, departments, and research teams, as well

as service-learning pedagogy appear to be much more common in the United
States than in other countries. This can present some challenges in doing inter-
disciplinary collaborations or applied research with students. Ihave found that
people in other countries see the value of interdisciplinary collaboration but
complain that their universities are very traditional, and interdisciplinary work
is difficult and largely unsupported. Change seems to be happening, but may
take sometime.
US funding for domestic research seems generally less constrained than US
funding for research abroadthe latter being more strictly related to the destina-
tion country and the nature of the proposedwork.
How do you present community psychology competencies to potential funders,

partners, or employers, especially if CP is unknown tothem?
I have found that CP principles and competencies translate very well and can be
conveyed persuasively to potential funders, government agencies, and partners
both in the United States and in other countries. CP topics, methods, and proj-
ects tend to be much more practical and applied than many more theoretical ques-
tions in other branches of social science. People need not be familiar with CP or
even psychology to immediately see the benefit of the sort of useful knowledge
we help provide, such as needs and assets assessment, program evaluation, and
action-research.
What advice can you give to researchers starting their careers now or anyone
who wants to get involved in international research?
Offering to coauthor articles or edit special issues with colleagues based in other
countries can be an enormous help to everyone involved, especially for nonnative
English speakers in other countries. English language journals are the most presti-
gious, even for scholars in non-English-speaking countries, so joint publications can
help foreign collaborators obtain academic jobs and advance in them. Visiting col-
leagues and giving talks at their foreign universities, and inviting them to visit you,
can also be helpful tothem.

Isaac Prilleltensky
Isaac Prilleltensky is the dean of the School of Education and Human Development at
the University of Miami and a faculty member in two departments:the Department of
Psychology and the Department of Education and Psychological Studies. He teaches in the
Community Wellbeing PhD program, the Community and Social Change masters pro-
gram, and the Human and Social Development undergraduate program. Dr.Prilleltensky
is also a co-editor of International Community Psychology:History and Theories,
one of the few texts on ICP (Reich, Riemer, Prilleltensky, & Montero,2007).
What are some of your most recent or most important international research
projectinCP?
One group of current projects involves publishing collaborative papers; one with
colleagues from Naples, Italy, where we applied some of my ecological under-
standings of well-being to the topic of immigration; another one with Manolo
Garcia Ramirez from the University of Seville for the Journal of Psychosocial
Interventions.
The other type of collaborative projects involves consulting, or boots-on-the-
ground work, with community psychologists from Latin America. Iam a consultant
to a research project on ethics in Chile. On two sites in Argentina, Icollaborate with
colleagues and nonprofit organizations on a community-engaged action research
project on health promotion.
How did you become interested in international issues and CP? Why would you
go international?
For me, it all started as a side effect of my interest in other cultures. Ihave lived on
five continents; I speak Spanish, Hebrew, and English fluently and manage quite
well in Italian and Portuguese. International work is a natural extension of my inter-
est in other cultures but also part of a personal quest for changea seven-year itch
to explore new environments. Iam in the fortunate position where people from all
over the world reach out to me with proposals for collaboration. Between writing
papers and giving keynote addresses in different countries, Ifeel forced to refresh,
to be current with what is happening in this field. Recently we started working with
colleagues in the city of Barranquilla in Colombia to offer our community and social
change masters program. We are also embarking on a collaboration with Shandong
University in China. They want to send students to the same masters program.


In other parts of the world, especially in Latin America, research relies more
on sweat and tears and less on funding. Researchers do their job because they
believe it needs to be done, and they often do not expect to be paid or to hire
assistants. While US researchers have resources, international researchers are
very resourceful.
Another difference is that my foreign colleagues are less oriented toward mea-
surement of outcomes, or to program evaluation. This makes learning from experi-
ence more difficult. On the other hand, Latin American colleagues pay much more
attention to theory building and are more interdisciplinary.
How are these differences negotiated in order for international collaboration to

happen?
Relationship-building conversations are key; but the local nonUnited States cul-
ture tends to dominate. Unless you immerse yourself in the other culture for a long
time, a more reciprocal relationship is limited. Therefore, US scholars should follow
along. Power imbalances exist, but they are not more pronounced than in any other
research team. In international work, the US researcher is a guest, which also helps
with balancing.
What types of partners are most receptive to international research

collaboration?
The most important characteristic of a good partner is philosophical and intellec-

tual alignmentbeing able to speak in a similar research language, and share para-
digms and methods. The rest is resources and logistics. It is unlikely that the partner
would be a grassroots organization. Usually an academic partner in another country
has already established relationships with community organizations, and thus the
partner is the mediator for our work on the ground.
What cultural issues, challenges, and opportunities did you experience as a

researcher, working in communities in a different country?
Sometimes you dont know what you dont know! It is humbling to realize you
are not sensitive enoughfor example, by using offending languagealthough
Itry hard. It is also humbling to see shocking instances of poverty and realize
the privilege of being a US scholar and living in the United States. You some-
times feel ashamed of your shock, because people live there all their lives.
Such experiences push a US researcher to own his or her incompleteness and
also reminds him or her of what is driving community psychologists work. In
other instances abroad you might encounter blatant government corruption or
unequal academic relationships; you often feel judgmental, which is another

thing one needs to own. Working internationally really makes you confront
some of your biases and limitations, and negotiate differences without impos-
ing your worldview.
Are there cultural competencies in the contexts you go to that are needed for
international research?
These competencies have to do with being a really good listener and making no assump-
tions. This helps the researcher be sensitive to, and negotiate the differences with, her
foreign colleagues. Ido not believe in reified international skills uniquely different from
the skills to engage with communities anywhere, such as being sensitive and caring,
being respectful, listening before talking, and asking open-ended questions.
Funding international researchis it different from funding US research, and

where do you find international research funding?
Obtaining funding in the United States to do research abroad is not so easy. In Latin
America, funding is available from Spanish and European Union sources. There are
also established sources such as the World Bank, the Inter-American Development
Bank, and the Kellogg Foundation, among others. With regard to US federal fund-
ing, researchers in public health are at an advantage compared to community psy-
chologists. My research is justice-related, which makes it even harder to get funding.
Therefore, I have positioned my projects at the intersection of community well-
being (a broad concept allowing for diverse interventions) and justice. For example,
Iuse the language of social determinants of health and inequality, and frame the
issues as wellness and fairness. It is crucial to build bridges between your work, your
values, and the interests of funder or partner.
What is a meaningful impact in situations of dire poverty that you encounter

abroad? How can you feel happy with your work if these problems are so seri-
ous? How do you keep your motivation to do something?
That is a question every reflective community psychologist probably has. Antonio

Gramsci said, I am pessimist of the mind and an optimist of the heart. Amelioration
versus transformationthere is always a frustrating gap between what you are doing
and what you really want to do. It is a tension we need to navigate:always to stretch
ourselves, not be content with ameliorative solutions, but not to be too frustrated
by the lack of transformation, because that means paralysis. Away to cope with that
is to appreciate the somewhat clichd small wins:unless you measure your progress
in small dosages, it is very hard to be engaged and to be motivated. If we measure
success in creating more caring and just societies and minimizing inequality, that
is a tall order. But if you are able to impact the training of the future generation of

psychologists, that is something. We are all contributing a little to a social move-

ment whose fruits we cannot seetoday.
Do not forget the big questions. Sometimes we get a little lost in micro-problems.
The way to get ahead in academia, the research world, is to be able to frame the big
questions, to be part of a larger intellectual conversation. And not just to be so nar-
rowly focused, that all Iam interested in is tweaking this part of an intervention to
see if it has an additional 0.001 effect size. Other people Im sure will have had suc-
cessful careers doing that kind of stuff, but it is not what helped me... As a dean,
member of tenure committees, research protocol reviewer, and reviewer for many
journals, Ithink the academic world likes to see how your particular research fits into
the larger picture of what were trying to address. So this has helped me. Ihave found
that people resonate with the big questions. Ive written about big topics:liberation,
oppression, wellness, fairness, status quo, critical psychology, values, and assump-
tions, because Ithink there is hunger for connecting around the big issues of theday.
Jeffrey Kelly and Yuri A.Amirkhanian

Jeffrey Kelly, PhD, is senior vice chair and professor in the Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Medicine at the Medical College of Wisconsin and serves as director of the
Center for AIDS Intervention Research (CAIR). Dr.Kellys work includes AIDS/HIV
prevention research as well as mental health issues associated with HIV/AIDS in the
United States, Russia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
Yuri A. Amirkhanian, PhD, is professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine and
director of International Research Core at the Center for AIDS Intervention Research,
Department of Psychiatry, Medical College of Wisconsin. His research interests are HIV
prevention, behavioral epidemiology, and intervention research.
Their research involves evaluating HIV prevention interventions that rely on existing
social structures of high-risk communities in Eastern Europe and the United States. Yuri
studies social network intervention approaches with Roma (Gypsy) ethnic minorities and
men who have sex with men. Dr.Amirkhanian was interviewed by email from his offices
in St. Petersburg.
Can you give our readers a summary of your most recent/important interna-
tional research projects?
Yuri Amirkhanian (YA):First, we performed social networklevel HIV preven-

tion trials, which were carried out in Russia and Hungary among men who have

sex with men, and in Bulgaria among Roma men. The study outcomes have not
been published yet, but the study showed significant reductions in behavioral
risk indicators among intervention participants when compared to the control
group. Second, our ongoing research is a social network trial among people liv-
ing with HIV (PLH). The intervention will train network leaders to promote
linkage to care, initiation of the therapy, and adherence to the therapy. Network
social support is the key asset that will assist participants to set and reach their
healthgoals.
Lastly, we are involved in a five-year-long infrastructure-building project at the
St. Petersburg Municipal Botkin Hospital for Infectious Diseases in Russia. The
project included pre-and postdoctoral training of new generations of HIV pre-
vention scientists in Russia, dissemination of efficacious interventions to service
providers, and carrying out HIV behavioral epidemiology studies among HIV +
pregnant women, injection drug users (IUDs), social networks, and serodiscordant
heterosexual couples; as well as pilot trials of HIV prevention intervention with
labor migrants andPLH.
psychology?
Jeff Kelly ( JK):My main interest is in HIV prevention research and that started
in the mid-1980s, evaluating community and structural levels and their effects
on HIV prevention. My international interests started at CAIR, an HIV preven-
tion center funded by NIMH for 20years. Our research was entirely domestic
until about 12 or 13years ago. Then Ifound out that 96% of HIV infections are
outside of North America. Acolleague was the head of the Global Prevention
of AIDS and wanted me to do research in Africa. Although there was a need
in Africa, Ithought it was too crowded with competing researchers to make an
impact. Iwas asked to conduct research in China, but it was too far from home.
When asked to conduct research in Russia, it sparked my interest. At the time,
HIV was just starting to accelerate in the former Soviet regions, but it was almost
completely ignored by other researchers. So, we started conducting research in
the region.
Although Ihave a degree in clinical psychology, Iconsider myself a community
psychologist because CP harnesses psychological principles in HIV prevention.
Istopped going to APA a while agosome people say Iam an anthropologist, but
in my heart Iam a community psychologist.
YA:Icarried out my first study in the field of AIDS research in 1993. Iam origi-
nally from St. Petersburg, Russia, and at that time, Iwas an undergraduate student
of the Department of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University. So my engage-
ment in AIDS research was not international for me. Ijoined CAIR in Wisconsin
in 1999 as a postdoc and have worked there since then. So, Iam an international
researcher via a circuitous route: I am from Russia; I received training and am

employed by an American research organization; and Im working in my home

country.
Which countries have you worked in (or worked in most often)?
JK: We have worked in Russia since 1998, and more recently in Bulgaria and
Hungary. We have a very stable program currently in St. Petersburg, Russia. We also
have links with other countries in the region-particularly with our dissemination
studies. We partner with agencies in the region on how to inform treatment provid-
ers with our HIV research.
YA:Russia, Bulgaria, and Hungary are the main focus. However, Iwas involved
in studies that disseminated HIV-prevention intervention technologies to NGO
service providers in virtually every country in Central and Eastern Europe.

JK:Russia is an interesting and challenging place to do research. The political con-

text is different; cultural context is different; peoples views about life are different;
where people get information and who people trust in their social networks is dif-
ferent. We have been pursuing network interventions there because many people
have learned not to trust officials. This is because they fear they would be receiving
false information. People from this region turn to people they know, so personal
networks are very important.
In the 80s, the Soviets said they would never have problems with the spread of
HIV and AIDS because everything was so controlled. People did not travel much
and the government had a lot of control over behavior concerning drugs and alco-
hol consumption, which they criminally prosecuted quite heavily. There were not
a lot of enabling factors. They might have been right, but then the Soviet system
fellapart.
When we came in 1998 just a few years after the Soviet system ended, Russia
was in chaos. Drug and alcohol use skyrocketed, even among 12-and 13-year-old
children. The existing health-care system was not adequate and totally collapsed;
it was not prepared to handle an epidemic like HIV. Even today, this region is
in constant change. Today, you find harsh social controls being re-imposed.
This includes gay activism. So it is a constantly changing dynamic in which to
dowork.
YA: International research is somewhat similar and somewhat different than
domestic research. The agencies abroad tend to be more oriented to reach proj-
ect goals. They feel more obliged to reach those goals than the domestic agencies.
Domestic partners are more mature in terms of relations with study partners and

vary a lot in terms of the study protocol delivery and adherence to it. They could be
very productive but there are also challenges.
How do you find international collaborators and partners? What types of part-
ners are most/least receptive to international collaborations?
JK:We have done this very well and also very badly! Our first collaboration was
with the World Health Organization, which was informative and frustrating at the
same time. After this experience, we decided to fund on our own one-year pilot
projects with in-country community organizations. This allows both parties a trial
run to discover how they getalong and work together and to gather information for
large five-year grants. If things work out positively, we parlay that information and
relationship as a basis to apply for more substantial external funding to continue
thework.
The best partners we have found are community-based service providers; they
are much closer to the people in the community than a typical university setting.
Over time, we have found eight partnerships that were very close to the community
that have worked out really well. And during the pilot program phases, even if they
do not work out, you gather valuable information.
YA:We found international partners through research publications in the fields
of interest. Both quality and quantity of publications should be considered. Then,
establishing initial contacts, meetings, and if those go well, carrying pilot studies
together allows you to conclude whether the collaboration has a potential ornot.
JK:Indeed, sometimes you find partners just by chance. For example, in Bulgaria,
Dr.Amirkhanian and Iwere reading health material and one persons name kept
coming up:Elena Kabakchieva of the Health and Social Development Foundation.
She is a physician who has worked with the Roma (Gypsy) in Bulgaria for a long
time. We eventually approached that organization and have since become close
partners and research co-authors (Kelly etal., 2006). They do great work. So keep-
ing your eyes and ears open when in-country can help you find great partners.
What cultural issues, challenges, and opportunities do you experience as a

researcher working in communities in a different country?
JK:The challenges and opportunities are vast. Working internationally is incredibly

revitalizing. Academically and career-wise, it really opens your eyes to a lot of things.
Starting from zero, you can have a huge impact. There is so much that is needed, but
you also have to harness strengths that you do not anticipate. You have to experience
it. But it also harkens to established community psychology principles. In my early
days in Bulgaria, a bartender at a gay bar in Sofia told me that people pass through to
help with HIV prevention, but they disappear. Ipromised Iwould not do that. With

Elena, we worked closely with that community. That really feels good. Iwant to focus
more on reproductive health in the Roma community; the needs there are so urgent.
YA:There are infinite opportunities... there are so many countries and popula-
tions to work with. However, there are many challenges as well. We work together
with the partner organizations to work out any problems. This often includes logis-
tics and project administration. With respect to cultural challenges, those are also
present. One really has to know the country with which they are collaborating. It
helps to know what to expect and to find ways to solve those problems.
youve had experience in. For example, is it necessary to learn the language?
JK:It is helpful, but not necessary to speak the local languages yourself. Ispeak a lit-
tle Bulgarian and a little bit of Russian. However, you do need language competence
from the other people you work withto be bridgessuch as good collaborators
who are native to the country. My colleague, Dr.Amirkhanian, born and educated
in Russia, is on the CAIR faculty in the United States but lives in St. Petersburg. He
is the bridge and the reason it allworks.
Cultural competence is tricky. Even if you say you want to learn and help, you are
often viewed as an actor who is privileged and rich. There is only so far you can go
with it, so having a bridge is necessary. The mistake is not being close to the com-
munity you are workingwith.
YA:It is not necessary to learn a language. Iam lucky that Ido have enough of
cultural competence working with Eastern European partners because Iam from
this region.

JK:You must have an attitude of humility, and hope your work is viewed in terms of
respectfulness to the community youre working with. Amistake for researchers is to
only talk to other researchers. Researchers may not be as attached to the community;
the closer you can get to the community, the better. One time, we reached out to a gay
HIV prevention organization and were turned down. The organization said the way they
defined prevention was very different than our way of defining prevention. Instead of
passing out condoms and talking about prevention, the organization wanted people to
just have a safe place to stay without talking about issues. They just wanted a space for
people to feel socially accepted. We respected the organizations decision and movedon.
YA:We learn a lot from the experience. In addition, prior to any big study, we
always carry out qualitative studies to learn all possible aspects of working with a
particular target group over a given study. Sometimes there could be misunderstand-
ing between research collaborators, but we always get over these by having regular

one-on-one meetings with them. Periodic traveling into the study site countries
helpedalot.

YA:Virtually all funding comes from NIH grants.

JK:This is true; Ihave no experience with philanthropic funding. We use one-
year pilot projects, which we fund ourselves through the College from small grants
of the World AIDS Foundation, to gather a preliminary studies section for the larger
NIH funding. For NIH, first, we define a project or a population study in a coun-
try. The harder part is to figure out how to make the study scientifically important
for NIH. That is the big challenge:what scientific question are you addressing, and
what quality of the research, what organizations are you working with, and what
projects do you want to do. Then you try to craft this into a credible NIH grant
application for international research. You can do this in number of ways:that we
live in an interconnected world with global problems; humanitarian purposes, that
you can learn something better and quicker or less expensively over there than you
can here and it will affect US public health. For example, are the Roma communities
like any other highly marginalized impoverished community in the United States?
Are there interventions that work in the United States that are generalizable to other
populations?
What worries me is that the reviews and study sections are often very academic
and not community-oriented or familiar with international culture.
YA:Since Iwas involved in grant writing, almost all of the successful grant sub-
missions were to carry out international research. In fact, it was more difficult for me
to apply for domestic grants. Reviewers see my close linkage to Eastern Europe and
were less enthusiastic about my domestic applications. One may see this as bias, but
it is understandable. So, Iwould say that domestic applications are more challeng-
ing for me than international.

JK:We do not necessarily talk explicitly about the values of community psychol-
ogy. This is because we know that the community organizations we partner with all
share these values. People who want to only talk about values are people who we
really do not want to work with. You have to be careful how you are perceived:some-
times youre viewed as a food sourceI come with US money and this makes people
color things and say things that they probably do not feel. This comes from research
inequality.
YA:We deal with any agency we work with in the way that makes sense to them.
When writing grants that involve scientific specialized methods or techniques, we

explain this in words that would make sense to outsiders. If scientific jargon cannot
be avoided, we carefully explain what we mean. That is a generalrule.
JK:Get established in your home country first. If you are from the United States, get
established doing research here first. Realize that it is difficult to carry out research
in a different culture. Iadvise researchers to become competent, work on listening
skills, and develop models closer to home before you venture. Also, funding is the
hardest part. So, Iadvise getting attached to someone who is already doing interna-
tional research rather than applying for funding on your own. That way you learn
the ropes, and everyone stands a better chance of carrying out their research.
Keep your eye out for novel opportunities. As 96% of HIV infections are outside
of North America, Idid not consider myself doing important HIV work, because
Iwas ignoring a vast portion of the problem. Also, not a lot of researchers were in
Russia, so my interest was in doing something new, something that no one else was
doing; that is what prompted me to pursue HIV prevention in Russia.
YA:There are quite a few aspects to take into account. Some beginners are attracted
to certain world regions, some are more familiar with these, and therefore it is impor-
tant first to identify personal reasons to plan collaborations. Sometimes there are
unique scientific opportunities. It is important to be very patient and recognize that
any long-term collaboration requires patience. We already mentioned steps that help
establishing oneself:finding reliable partners, planning pilot work, and so on. It is also
necessary to recognize that collaboration requires a certain level of commitment.
Finally, it is important to understand cultural differences; it is often the case that
the US scientists become frustrated with local work styles, customs, and the way
things work in these countries. Some flexibility is needed. At the same time, US fund-
ing is often seen as big cash flow and the bad agencies would say they would do any-
thing to get that funding. It is important to distinguish phony agencies and real ones
that would do a great job. And, of course, the latter needs recognition and fair funding.
Gary W.Harper
Gary W.Harper, PhD, MPH, is a professor in the Department of Health Behavior and
Health Education in the School of Public Health at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor. Dr.Harper has worked on sexual health promotion and HIV prevention programs
for youth in both the United States and in Kenya for over 20years.
Can you give our readers a summary of your most recent/important interna-
tional research projects?

I work on the development and evaluation of primary and secondary programs for
adolescents impacted by HIV. Istudy this both domestically and globally. Iwork
mostly in the primary prevention realm:developing community-based HIV inter-
ventions with young black gay men in the United States. Also some work with ado-
lescent females of color. My secondary prevention has mostly been domestic. We
have a randomized control trial intervention set up for black gay men living with
HIV and also an intervention for young women of color living withHIV.
Internationally, Iwork on primary and secondary prevention in Kenya. These
are programs for primary-school-aged school children in Kenya, and programs for
youth in rural settings in Kenya. We are currently working on a study of young, gay,
or bisexual men in Kenya, specifically examining factors of risk and resilience, and
designing prevention programs for these individuals. With these programs, we work
to translate what has been learned domestically and try to apply that globally and to
Kenya (Harper etal.,2014).
psychology?
I consider myself a community psychologist and a health psychologist, because my

work does reflect community psychology approaches and values. Ilike that com-
munity psychology stems from values, and Ithink the focus on values is so impor-
tant to help marginalized communities.
It was a pure accident how Igot involved in international issues. When Iwas
at DePaul in 2004, there was a staff trip to Kenya. We were trying to bring staff to
Kenya to see how they could bring resources from DePaul to Kenya. At that point,
Ihad no interest in going and doing work abroad, only because Ihad been doing
work on HIV domestically since 1985 and felt that there is the same need here.
Someone begged me to apply so they could have a member who was familiar with
HIV prevention. When Iwent to the federal hospital in Kenya. Isaw things that
Ihad never seen before. It made me realize the privileges we have in the United
States.
Then Iwas asked to help organize HIV prevention programs in a rural area in
Kenya. We did a day long workshop and helped them plan more events. Afterwards
we were hanging out at a youth centermore like a shack. When we started talk-
ing to the youth from the area about our HIV work, they were very curious. Most
of them were boys and they were begging for more information. They wanted us to
come back and do a workshop for the boys and their friends.
These boys recruited 35 other boys for the workshop, and that moment was
very powerful for me. Here was a group of young people who wanted to make a
difference and were willing to put themselves out there to change things. After
returning to the United States, Iwent through a culture shock. Ifelt that Icould-
nt just experience it, be affected by it, and then turn my back. This motivated

me to write two grants and allowed me to bring two grad school students over to
Kenya. We ended up doing workshops for 1,000 youth within a period of aweek.
I also started talking to people from the CDC, and started talking about funding
mechanisms, and ended up getting funding. The rest is history. Ihave not done pure
research; it has been more of capacity-building. Having the ability to connect with
people and spending time in the community keeps me going back. It is more about
a commitment to the community and immersing myself into the community.

International work is more about immersion to the community than domestic

work. When you are in the United States, you are a part of the culture and have
a better understanding of what you are getting into. When doing international
work, you have to do the research in order to understand the culture. You have to
make an effort to learn about whats actually going on. Iam always reading and
watching the news on Kenyas culturepolitical, social, economicfor the work
to be relevant.
How do you find international collaborators and partners? What types of part-
ners are most/least receptive to international collaborations?
The challenging thing is that a lot of the organizations are in need of money. They
view the United States as having a lot of money and resources, so you have to be
careful that you are having an honest connection. You are looking at them for access
to a community, while they are looking at you with dollarsigns.
The best collaborations Ihave in Kenya are with the nonprofit organizations
who have similar values to the work that we are doing. We have a shared inter-
est in the same population as well as a mission to maintain the rights of these
individuals. These shared values and missions break boundaries, because we
can connect on similar issues. Some of the men I work with look at me as a
father figure, because Iam an openly gay man who has been doing this work for
years. They see this in me and connect, because we are a part of the same global
struggle.
I do have good collaboration with universities in Kenya, but there is some ten-
sion because they view me and the United States as having money, and there is the
danger of them looking for me to give them money. It is important to realize that we
do come from a rich country, but because of this, we have to be careful not to create
hierarchal situations. We try to work with the partners to equalize everything so we
can actually work with the affected people, and not just be there so our collaborators
can get themoney.

A big collaborator has been the Catholic Church. Working with an institution
that does not support some of our work is interesting. With the Catholic Church,
we have done a little radio promotion, but really not much. We started working with
the University of Nairobi initially, but we started moving away from them because
of their opinions on sexuality and abortion.
We then moved into working with LGBTQ organizations through the Internet,
and through networking and word-of-mouth. Now we work more closely with the
LGBTQ organizations.
I do not work with the media, but some faculty members at DePaul have worked
with them. Mostly concerning the LGBTQ population inKenya.
youve had experience infor example, is it necessary to learn the language?
It is really important to develop cultural competence. That usually means immer-

sion into the culture, into different situations, and spending time just being in a
space and observing. Ihave spent a lot of time going to night clubs. You have to just
see what it is like to actually live there. Take public transit, eat in restaurants.
I have moved from saying cultural competence to saying cultural humility, which
is more of a constant lifelong learning process and a reflective process of thinking about
your connection to different cultures and communities. Also, I am always engaging
in the process of learning and relearning and critically analyzing what it is that we are
doing. Iam always challenging my assumptions and notions, and recognizing my power
and privilege, and deconstructing what Iknow. Ihave to do this process because being
in a position of power, we sometimes unconsciously oppress the community that we
are trying to help. Sometimes change might not be the best thing for the community.
Take the anti-gay laws in Kenya, for example. Things are changing, but it is still ille-
gal for two men (or women) to have sex. It is not illegal to be gay, but if two men have
anal sex, it is considered a crime. There is still a lot of stigma. There has been a shift
since 2004 [Harpers initial study] and the influence of the first nonprofit LGBTQ
organization, which started in 2007. Since 2007, other LGBTQ organizations have
started, but just a few have been recognized as nonprofit. Many have not been nation-
ally recognized.
It also depends on the region in Kenya. In the rural areas, we have to be careful
because we are working with very small LGBTQ communities. Sometimes we have
to meet in hiding. Once we were having a meeting in the back of a bar and when
rumors started spreading around the bar that there were a bunch of gay men in
the bar, the drunken bar-goers locked them all in the back room. They had to bribe
them to let them out. It is easier in Nairobi, which is the main metropolitan city, but
most of our work is in rural western Kenya. In western Kenya there are pockets of
acceptance, but you still have to be careful.

One day when they were trying to hold a church service, community members
tried to burn down the building. After that, we had to go into hiding for a day and
cancel planned events. Despite these incidents, all these difficulties are worth it at
the end of theday.

Yes:be humble. Coming from an academic mindsetwhere we feel like we always

have to have a solution to the problemit is hard because sometimes we do not
have the solution. Just shut up and be; this is when the learning occurs. Absorb
andlearn.
It is preferable to learn the language. Igrew up in a poor family so Inever thought
Iwould ever speak a different language. Istarted learning another language in my
30s, but the brain is hardwired differently by then. So it is good to attempt to learn
the local language, but just because you are not fluent in that language does not
mean you cannot work in that community. So try to speak! But it is more impor-
tant to be familiar with the culture than the language. If you have the skill to learn a
language, do it, but it should not be a deal breaker. You do need a staff member who
speaks fluently. Translation does get very expensive.
At DePaul, they were very good about working with Human Subjects Protections.
You have to do some creative things. We did an evaluation of the school-based inter-
vention (pre-and posttest interventions) and all the teachers had to give proof
that they went through HSP training. We had to work with Global NGO, and they
created a training program for the teachers in Kenya. It was very cool to work with
the IRB that was within their ethical standards and also applicable for the Kenyan
population. The Catholic Church really helped with making sure the teachers
received certification before they helped with the study. We also worked on getting
verbal confirmation because having a written documentation can put these people
at risk. We have worked with two IRBs in Kenya, and the Kenyan universities have
been very helpful

It is not easy. The one project that Ihave had for so long was funded by the Plan for
AIDS Relief starting in 2006 and ending at the end of February 2014. Ihave applied
for some NIH grants; weve also gotten funding from the University of Michigan.
Like my start in Kenya while at DePaul, we have gotten some funding from different
organizations. You just have to be creative with your funding. It depends on what

you want to do. Unfortunately, when times are hard in the United States, a lot of
people dont want to plug money into internationalwork.

Community psychology principles do translate, but the words community psychol-

ogy do not. When you say psychology, people think clinical, therapy, and
mental illness. There is a lot of stigma with mental illness. Iget around this because
Iam less invested in labels and more invested in concepts. So, Irecommend using
common language about concepts. Iam careful that they have a shared meaning of
the concepts, so we can connect on values. Then we can work to tie in the commun-
ity psychology values.
What advice can you give to researchers starting their careers now or to anyone
Not everyone should do global work. You have to be comfortable feeling

uncomfortable.
Before you start doing global work, spend that time being thoughtful about your
motivations and goals. You need to think about why you are doing this. You need to
make sure you are doing it because you want to make a difference and bring some
cross-cultural learning to other settings. If you go in with the wrong intentions, you
can do more harm than good. Dont do it for fun. Do it for the right reasonbecause
you have an interest in the culture and community and you want to have an impact.
It is a sign of strength to know what you should not do. Be deliberate, but not forced.
I am also not a fan of the short-term. You need to have commitment. Expect
things to fall apart and not to work. Expect things to go crazy at the last minute.
You cannot be a control freak. In the United States, Ican be more uptight; global
work meant that Ihad to adopt a no-worries attitude. Ihad to be flexible, think on
my feet, really keep my eyes open, ears open, and mouth shut. Having said that,
Ilearned to enjoy the ambiguity, even embrace the ambiguity. The best interview
happened when Iwas stuck in a van for two hours and had a causal conversation.
What seems like chaos can turn into something beautiful. It is in those accidental
moments when Ihave learned themost.
Chapter Summary
As reflected in these interviews, a career as an international community psychology
researcher is complex and rewarding. Reassuringly, all our interviewees emphasized

that standard community psychology training and values are invaluable tools ena-
bling them to be effective when working in international settings. Indeed, commun-
ity psychologists are perhaps uniquely capable to do international work because of
CP values:understanding people in context, listening to the needs of the commun-
ity, and working with communities rather that for or to them. Another point, per-
haps paradoxically, was made repeatedly:do not be fooled by your assumptions of
what you think you know well. For example, our interviewees mentioned that polit-
ical context is very different from that in the United States; indeed, the meaning and
legitimacy of what is political is often radically different elsewhere. The same applies
to terms such as social justice, or even community.
A common thread expressed among all our interviewees was enjoying the revi-
talizing quality of living in a different place and culture, and working with collabo-
rators with differing viewpoints. As such, ICPs are always learning new things and
having to adapt to new circumstances. Rather than this being an additional bur-
den, our interviewees found that doing international research keeps the work fresh
and invigorating, and they enjoyed dealing with these challenges. However, ICP is
not for everyone; researchers working in international settings face language issues,
unfamiliar cultural contexts, and heavy reliance on local community members as
experts and interpreters. As such, mistakes and misunderstandings are common,
and relinquishing some control is often paradoxically necessary to getting things
done. Although corruption exists in varying degrees everywhere, many ICPs are
not accustomed to the level of corruption (bribery, in particular) or other infor-
mal power negotiations that natives and in-country collaborators must work with
every day to accomplish even mundane things, such as getting a telephone installed.
One must be ready and willing to accept unconventional methods for how things
aredone.
Another common, perhaps less invigorating challenge all our interviewees men-
tioned is that of securing funding for international research, and managing the
perceptions of collaborators view of ICPs as a funding source. All funding must be
important to NIH; obtaining international funding is more difficult than for domes-
tic research. And there is the additional requirement that it be justified in that it
answers specific scientific questions that are applicable in the home country. One
must be mindful that collaborators may vary widely in their goals and motivations,
from pragmatic selflessness to personal enrichment.
Also, our interviewees emphasized that social connections are needed more for
international work than perhaps domestically. Although each place has unique cul-
tural contexts, the time it takes to build trust often takes longer, is more ritualized,
and more subtle than in ones home country. One may have to trust a local person
more than follow ones own instincts. This is part of the challenge and enrichment
of international research. Indeed, the word for connections in Bulgarian is
(vrazki), which is the same word for shoelaces; without connections, you cannot
even tie yourshoes!

One final thought:All our interviewees stressed the importance of developing a

spirit of humilitythe quality of being teachableas an essential skill for develop-
ing cultural competencies in international research. We could not agreemore.
References
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her/cyt081
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bility of self-run recovery homes in the United States. International Journal of Self-Help & Self-
Care, 7(1), 99109.
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ogy:History and theories. NewYork, NY:Springer.

23
From Preparation toPractice

How to Find Training in Community Psychology
Sylvie Taylor and Gregor V. Sarkisian
Becoming a community psychologist involves formal education in the theory,

research, and practice of community psychology. Community psychology is a rich
and eclectic field with applications to virtually every setting where communities
can be found, from densely populated urban centers to isolated rural areas, from
church basements, hospitals, to government offices, schools, or private businesses.
The diversity of settings in which community psychologists practice and conduct
research reflects the diversity of academic training and professional experience they
have received, as well as their personal interests and passions.
The current chapter is designed to support prospective students interested in
pursuing a degree and eventually a career in community psychology. We will review
the types of educational options at both the masters and doctoral level, how to select
the program that is right for you, and the types of preparation you might seek in that
program to achieve your career goals. Throughout this chapter we will provide sug-
gestions to support your professional development, suggestions we have personally
found effective in our work with students.
Pathways toBecoming a Community Psychologist

While most community psychologists have postgraduate training in community
psychology or related fields,i many community psychologists have been involved
in community work long before we knew the field existed. It is often within our
own communities, through paid or volunteer work, where we first bear witness to
social ecology and the transformative nature of prevention and empowerment. It
i
Many community psychologists receive their advanced degrees in disciplines other than commu-
nity psychology. These disciplines most frequently include, but are not limited to clinical/counseling
psychology, social psychology, public health, social work, urban planning, and business.
294

From P reparation to P rac tice: Training in C P 295
is important we embrace these experiences as they can serve as the foundation for
a long and successful career. Earning a graduate degree can then supplement this
foundation, adding knowledge and skills, to increase your likelihood of effecting the
change you hope tosee.
Types ofGraduate Programs

Graduate education in community psychology can be obtained at the masters or
doctoral level. Masters level degrees are more likely to emphasize practice skills
(the application of theory to real-world settings). These programs prepare their stu-
dents for work in a wide range of community settings. The Society for Community
Research and Action (SCRA) Practice Council has prepared a comprehensive list
of Practice Competencies for community psychologists (http://www.scra27.org).
This list is valuable to better understand the types of practice activities in which
community psychologists are likely to engage. Doctoral programs provide more
extensive training in research and may range widely in the amount of practice skills
they focus on promoting for their students. In addition, there are two broad catego-
ries of community psychology programs, available at both the masters and doctoral
levels:
1. Community psychology programs that emphasize theory, research, and practice

of community psychology
2. Clinical-community/community-clinical programs combine community and
clinical psychology. Clinical programs at both the masters and doctoral levels
typically adhere to curricular requirements imposed by external accrediting
bodies and state licensure agencies. As a result, clinical course content and prac-
tical experiences may dominate such programs.
Selecting a Graduate Program

Selecting a program for graduate study can feel daunting to prospective students.
The first step in any successful search is to identify potential programs of interest.
The SCRA Council on Education Programs maintains a listing of graduate pro-
grams on the SCRA website (http://www.scra27.org). While not a comprehen-
sive list (programs voluntarily provide this information), it is a good place to begin
your search. We suggest that you select graduate programs based on the quality of
the specific psychology program and faculty of interest to you, rather than on the
general reputation of the institution. While this may seem counterintuitive, it is,
particularly within the field, the reputation of the department or program that is
most important. You will be spending your time and energy within an academic
department, sometimes a psychology department, although oftentimes commu-
nity psychologyrelated programs will be found within schools of education. It is

Box 23.1 Graduate School Application Process

Because there are such a large variety of graduate programs, it is often useful to
develop a method for screening potential programs based on specific criteria.
For example, programs vary greatly on their level of academic competitive-
ness to gain admission to be a student. Some programs focus their admissions
decisions heavily on standardized test scores, undergraduate GPAs and appli-
cation essays, or previous research experience, whereas others put a greater
value on community engagement experience and passion displayed in the
interview process. Inquiring directly with the program about admission rates
can provide initial data on the level of competition within each program. If
you make inquiries to programs in your initial screening, you may also want to
inquire about the average time students take to complete their degree, the level
of support in completing theses or dissertations to better understand the level
of academic support a program will provide to its students, and, the types of
employment graduates typically obtain.
There are several considerations in applying to graduate school. Masters
and doctoral programs vary in their frequency of admission. Typically, major
research and public universities accept students once a year in the fall. At the
doctoral level, these institutions are more likely to offer grants, scholarships,
research, and teaching assistantships to fund students through completion of
their degree. Private and smaller universities are more likely to accept students
more frequently (some as often as quarterly). These institutions typically offer
more limited financial support, and are more likely to cater to adult learners
and/or students who work full time (e.g., low-residency programs or one-day-
a-week option). Regardless of the type of institution, most graduate programs
will require the following application components:
Standardized Test Requirements: Does the program require a minimum

score on the general and/or psychology subject General Record Exam
(GRE)? Typically, doctoral programs housed within major private and
public universities require GRE scores. However, more recently schools
have acknowledged cultural biases in the tests, as well as little connection
between test scores and success in grad school, and they have reduced the
weight they put on them or moved away from using them altogether.
Program-Specific Questions or Application:Many programs will require that
applicants answer questions specific to how their prior experience has pre-
pared them to continue in a masters or doctoral program. This is an oppor-
tunity for you to describe how your previous education and professional
experience matches the educational and professional opportunities the

program will provide, and it is always a good idea to be as specific as pos-

sible about what aspects of the program you find to be most promising to
your future academic and professional development. Most programs place
a large weight on these application essays, so it is worth investing time and
energy in them to put your best foot forward.
Application for Financial Aid: Most programs require that students sub-
mit an in-house as well as the Free Application for Federal Student Aid
(FAFSA).
Application Fee: Most universities require that an application fee accom-
pany your application. These fees can become quite costly for students
applying to multiple programs. Most universities provide fee waivers for
low-to-moderate-income students.
Letters of Recommendation:Almost all programs will ask for letters of recom-
mendation. Graduate programs are interested in learning about how you
have performed in prior settings (as a student, research assistant, employee,
and/or volunteer). Graduate programs are most interested in recommen-
dations from people who have supervised your work and can speak to your
personal qualities and character. Thus, your current supervisor at work, a
previous faculty who has supervised your work, an experienced commu-
nity practitioner with whom youve collaborated in your community prac-
tice, or a previous instructor who can speak to your knowledge of specific
course content are all solid candidates to write letters of recommendation.
Letters of recommendation should never come from personal friends,
family members, your personal psychotherapist, or other individuals with
whom your relationship is of a personal nature.
Resume or Curriculum Vitae (CV):Almost all programs will require appli-
cants submit a resume or CV with their application packet. If you obtained
a bachelors degree outside of the social sciences and community psychol-
ogy is a new career, a resume is the best option. However, if you have earned
a social science degree, gained experience in research or community prac-
tice, or published an article in a social science journal, you may want to
consider developing a CV even if you currently only have a resume. There
are many templates for resumes and CVs online which can be useful in
developing a resume or CV that clearly and concisely conveys your educa-
tional and professional experience.
Personal Contact: There is no substitute for developing personal contact
with a program to which you are considering applying. Oftentimes you will
find out about opportunities (e.g., internships or financial aid) that are not
published on websites, and you can often learn about the level of competi-
tion that you may be facing and how to better your chances of admission. It

is also helpful to inquire if you can be placed in touch with current students
to gain their perspectives on the program. You may also want to reach out
to faculty whose work you find interesting. However, it is important to do
some homework beforehandread some of their publications and become
familiar with their work so that you can have meaningful interactions.
also important that you consider the following criteria in making your selection
decisions:
1. Program emphasis (theory, research, practice) in relation to your personal career

interests, goals and chosen field. If you are more interested in becoming a com-
munity researcher, then that is where you might want to place your emphasis. If
your career goal is to work directly with people within their communities (i.e.,
a practitioner), then you may want to consider applying to graduate programs
that commit to such training. If interested in both, get a sense from prospective
programs that have a relative emphasis placed on eacharea.
2. Quality of the faculty (as determined by their research, professional activities and
publications). Do the faculty members research and/or community practice
interests closely match your own? This is especially important for students seek-
ing a doctoral degree. The vast majority of doctoral programs follow a mentor-
ship model in which doctoral students are typically funded (via tuition waivers
and/or living expense stipends) as research assistants through fellowship and
research grants that require the students to be in more of an apprentice-like
relationship with their faculty mentors; therefore match is important. Faculty
typically want to mentor students with research and scholarly interests similar to
their own. So as you are searching for programs, look carefully at faculty profiles
and read some of their publications to determine if there is a good fit for your
interests.
Other institutions employ more of a cohort model which can place less emphasis
on studentfaculty research interest match, and a greater emphasis on practitioner
skill building. Although the faculty of these programs may be more generalists, it
may still be worthwhile for you to determine if faculty in the program are work-
ing on community projects that are of interest to you and if their expertise is likely
to support your goals. Cohort model programs tend to have more limited research
assistantships and fellowships, although they may also have other features of the
program that offer more flexibility than traditional programs.

3. Adequacy of each institutions libraries, research facilities. This is particularly

important for doctoral students pursuing careers in research. These factors loom
large in an institutions ability to attract federal funding in support of faculty and
graduate student research.
4. Adequacy of community partnerships and quality of these relationships to sup-
port your community-based work. This is particularly important for students
pursuing careers as community practitioners. It may be difficult to gain access to
this information, as programs do not necessarily post it on their web pages and
in written materials. You may need to ask questions about partnerships directly
of faculty, alumni, and current students. Asking such questions may set you
apart as a serious candidate.
5. Financial support and assistance available from the institution. Graduate
education can be very expensive and non-loan based support can be limited
for students in masters programs as well as cohort model doctoral programs.
It is important to gain an understanding of how students fund their education
while in graduate school. Mentorship-model doctoral programs often provide
a combination of grants and scholarships, as well as teaching and research
assistantships.
6. Programs reputation for preparing and assisting graduates for professional

careers. It is important to consider what happens when you complete your
degree. Does the department or the university have formal or informal resources
for career development, job searches, active alumni associations or groups,
andsoon?
7. Roles students are prepared to play after graduation. Evaluate the program in
terms of the career roles that students are prepared to fulfill after graduation and
the ability of the program to prepare students to be flexible in adapting to chang-
ing professional environments. This too requires that you go beyond what is pre-
sented on the programs website or in brochures. Ask faculty and students in the
department about this directly:Where are their graduates now? How successful
are they when they enter the job market?
8. Student life. As we have noted earlier, there is a great deal of variability from one
program to another. Regardless of the type of program you attend, it is impor-
tant for you to determine if you will be comfortable in the academic setting and
the overall campus environment. The best way to get a sense of this is to talk
to current students. Most departments will accommodate applicant requests to
speak to current students. You may want to ask questions about how students
in the program relate to each other, the nature of faculty relationships with stu-
dents, and thelike.

Box 23.2 Some Personal Criteria You May Want toConsider inSelecting
a Graduate Program
1. LO CATION OFINSTITU TION
Is the program in an urban, suburban, or rural area; east coast, west coast,
north or south? Is it close to home or will it take you out of state or out of the
country? Do you have family, work, or other obligations that limit your ability
to leave the area where you currentlylive?
2. COMPOSITION OFFACULT Y AND GR ADUATE STUDEN TS
Is this a diverse setting? Ethnic minority, LGBT, and students belonging to

other marginalized groups may want to inquire about how friendly a pro-
gram iswhether such students and faculty feel isolated/stigmatized or
empowered by the program, whether research, community and/or clinical
experiences routinely include such populations. Students with disabilities
should inquire about the programs readiness to address their specific needs
and requirements. For example, although all institutions are required by law to
be accessible for persons with physical disabilities, some programs may be less
prepared to cope with the needs of students with visual or hearing challenges.
3. AVAIL ABILIT Y OFETHNIC AND LGBT POPUL ATIONS
For ethnic minority and LGBT students, the availability of ethnic minority
and LGBT populations and communities may also be an important consider-
ation, not only for personal reasons, but as the source of a prospective setting
for conducting research, engaging in community practice, or serving clients.
For example, if you are interested in studying or working with members of a
particular group, then selecting programs that are located in areas where such
groups reside would be important. Presence of an ethnic minority or LGBT
community might also be valuable as a social support resource.
Engagement inCommunity Practice

The authors of this chapter teach in a masters program where we offer a course in
program development and evaluation in which students work in small groups col-
laboratively with community-based organizations to assist them in developing or
evaluating a program. Students receive weekly supervision in class, complete a tech-
nical report, and learn from course materials as well as their experiences in working
collaboratively with the host organization. Program development is one of many
community practice competencies. Others include public policy development,

prevention, empowerment, and participatory community research (Dalton &

Wolfe,2012).
What are the skills related to social change processes that you want to learn more
about? When you do a little research, you can usually find many opportunities to
engage in community practice in your local community. Finding opportunities to
develop new skills and contribute in meaningful ways can be accomplished through
engaging in issues that are personally meaningful and that offer supervised experi-
ence in community practice skills. If you end up transferring locations to attend a
graduate program, you may find yourself in a new community full of opportunities
to gain experience in community practice. You may engage in this community work
through your own independent contacts or through faculty, students, and others
you may meet at university and/or other community functions.
Engagement inCommunity Research

When the second author of this chapter was a postdoctoral research fellow, he
conducted community research with staff that ran a Center for Science Education
and Outreach to improve access to higher education for disenfranchised popula-
tions. Research activities included shadowing college outreach counselors in the
field, conducting focus groups with outreach counselors to develop research pro-
tocols, assisting in planning community events, as well as conducting more tradi-
tional research activitiescollecting, analyzing, and reporting data to a variety of
constituents.
An important question may be, what research methods related to social change
processes are you most interested in learning about? Both public and private uni-
versities have faculty who conduct research and who are open to including com-
munity volunteers to participate in different aspects of the research process. Most
community-based nonprofit organizations regularly conduct evaluations of the pro-
grams they operate and often welcome help. Additionally, many volunteer organiza-
tions engage in various types of applied research activities. Community meetings,
block club gatherings, conferences, or networking events are great opportunities to
meet people from these various organizations and to identify opportunities to learn
and develop ones community research skills. If you pursue graduate studies, you
will have even more university-based opportunities to develop your community
research skills through coursework and fieldwork with students, faculty, commu-
nity practitioners, and community stakeholders.
Volunteer Opportunities
Volunteering can be a highly effective way to gain experience prior to and during,
and even after graduate school. Many community-based nonprofit organizations
welcome volunteers to support their efforts. If you have a particular interest, such
as serving as a youth mentor, seek out organizations in your community that work

Box 23.3 Links toProfessional Organizations

Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA):
http://www.scra27.org
American Psychological Association (APA):http://www.apa.org
American Psychological Association Graduate Students (APAGS):
http://www.apa.org/apags
American Evaluation Association (AEA):http://www.eval.org
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI):
http://www.spssi.org
in that area and inquire about volunteer opportunities. Volunteering also provides
valuable insights into community issues and concerns. In many settings, volunteers
have the opportunity to develop new skills and to make professional contacts who
can serve both as references and professional resources in the future. Volunteering
is also an effective way for more seasoned professionals to gain additional exposure,
experience, and expertise in areas where their knowledge and experience is limited.
Participation inProfessional Organizations Before and duringGradSchool

Professional organizations are an excellent resource for learning more about com-
munity psychology and related fields. The largest member organization of commu-
nity psychologists in the United States is the Society for Community Research and
Action (SCRA), Division 27 of the American Psychological Association (APA).
SCRA provides a wealth of resources including information on education pro-
grams, practice, and research in community psychology, in addition to discounted
memberships for students, international scholars, and practitioners and early-career
professionals. In addition, the APA extends membership to students through its stu-
dent affiliate program and the APA Graduate Students (APAGS). In addition, APA
has 54 Divisions (interest groups) organizing its members. Some divisions focus on
topical areas such as trauma, while others focus on sub-disciplines of psychology,
such as community and clinical psychology.
Finding Mentors
A good mentor sees right through you to who you are becoming. Mentors can pos-
sess expertise in a skill or set of skills (e.g., community research or community prac-
tice) that you want to learn from them, or they may provide guidance in the form of
advice about how to gain the experience you desire and connect you with opportu-
nities to gain that experience. Every mentor is different and mentors are not always
easy to find. Often times we must seek them out, rather than wait for one to find us.

Once you meet and get to know someone who you think would be a good mentor
for you, let them know what you are interested in learning from them and actively
engage them in the possibility. They will likely be open about their willingness and
availability.
On Becoming a Community Psychology Professional

Networking
Professional conferences and memberships provide excellent formalized oppor-
tunities to network with other students, faculty, and community practitioners
engaged in practicing similar skills and conducting research on social issues and
social change processes. Networking can occur in a variety of ways and getting
involved through membership and service in national professional organiza-
tions, such as SCRA, is a great way to develop long-term professional relation-
ships and ongoing opportunities for leadership and professional development.
Networking can also occur through involvement in local community issues and
through issue-focused organizations (e.g., National Coalition to End Domestic
Violence, National Coalition for the Homeless, Human Rights Watch).
Professional Relationships
In academia, we often use the term, collegiality, which refers to the respectful
nature of relationships in a university setting, where all faculty are working
toward a common purposethe university mission. In a more general sense,
the idea that we enact our value on inclusion and mutual respect in relationships
with our colleagues, whether they are students, faculty, community residents,
administrators, community practitioners, or community researchers, is at the
core of building trust in developing professional relationships.
Building a Portfolio of Experience
Community psychologists (whether seasoned professionals or students just
learning about the field) are often engaged in activities that involve a wide range
of skills and capacities. The richness, depth, and intricacy of these activities are
often difficult to capture on a resume or curriculum vitae (CV). Professional
portfolios can supplement a resume or CV with actual work products from proj-
ects that reflect the depth and scope of ourwork.
A professional portfolio is an organized collection of relevant documents and
artifacts that showcase your talents, skills, and professional growth. Depending
on the amount of experience you have had, a professional portfolio can contain
as little as a resume, letters of recommendation, and artifacts from a single com-
munity project you have worked on, to an extensive document showcasing a
wide range of activities. Portfolios are useful tools for graduate school and job
interviews, for obtaining volunteer opportunities, and as your professional skills
build, for obtaining consultation opportunities, teaching positions, or policy
work.

Reference
Dalton, J., & Wolfe, S. (2012). Competencies for community psychology practice: Society for
Community Research and Action draft, August 15, 2012. The Community Psychologist,
45(4),7-14.
Further Reading
To learn more about the career paths of community psychologists, we encourage you to review the
following.
Dr.Gloria Levins Living community psychology column in The Community Psychologist, the offi-
cial newsletter of the Society for Community Research and Action (http://www.scra27.org).
Kelly, J.G., & Song, A. (2004). Six community psychologists tell their stories:History, contexts, and
narrative. Binghamton, NY:HaworthPress.

INDEX
Page numbers followed by f or t indicate a figure or table on the designatedpage
AAAS. See American Association for the Academic Coaching and Writing,218
Advancement of Science Academickeys, website,13
academia. See also community colleges; higher Academics in Action! AModel for Community-
education; teaching careers Engaged Research, Teaching, and Service
branding and, 232233 (ed. Barnes, Brinkley-Rubinstein, Doykos,
federal sector comparison,28 Martin, McGuire),275
health care sector comparison,14 AEA. See American Evaluation Association
practice career vs., 21, 2526, 99100,103 Affordable Care Act (ACA),37
preparation for teaching-focused faculty African Americans, 30, 228229
positions, 216229 Agency for Children and Families (ACF),36
reward systemin,76 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
things to know about workingin,13 (AHRQ),36
value of publishingin,23 Albee, George,185
academic careers, preparation and application, Alderfer, C.P.,194
216229, 230240. See also universitywork Allen, S.,8081
campus visits, 237238 American Association for the Advancement of
choosing teaching vs. research, 231232 Science (AAAS), 31,33,47
cover letters, 218219 American Association for the Advancement of
curriculum vitae, 217218 Science (AAAS) fellowships,47
focusing on research and teaching aims,226 American Evaluation Association(AEA)
in-person interview,226 AEA365 blog, 21,152
interview, via videoconferencing,225 annual evaluation conference,21
interviews, 109, 218, 223228, 225,237 job listings, 100, 107,173
job outlook, 227228 research resources,180
job talk, 226, 238239 Topical Interest Groups (TIGs), 124,173
letters of recommendation, 220, 221223, website,302
235,297 American Psychological Association (APA),302
meetings and meals,239 Committee on Psychology and AIDS,30
negotiation process, 239240 Congressional Fellowships, 33,47,71
online applications, 223224 grant writing collaboration,245
self-branding/aligning with brand, 232233 internship program,104
sexism, racism, and, 228229 Postdoctoral Workshop,6162
Skype interview,225 American Psychological Association Graduate
teaching statements, 218, 219221, 223, Students (APAGS),302
236,238 Americans With Disabilities Act (1990),272
teaching talk,239 Amirkhanian, Yuri A., 280286
waiting for email, phone call response,224 Annie E.Casey Foundation (AECF),70,72
305

306 Ind e x
Antioch University, Human Services Program,225 Brungardt, C.L.,80

Apex Education. See small evaluation and Buddhism,184
consultingfirm building community-based practices,6168
Applied Behavior Analysis,185 collaborative relationships and, 6465,6768
applied research consulting/advisory role,65
at Atlantic Health System,103 knowing when to leave and,66,67
consulting firms and, 129, 138, 139, 142143 look for/pursuing opportunities, 62,6566
funding sources, 244,266 look for trends, build sensible solutions,6667
international CP and,276 risk-taking and,6364
organizational vision and,103 utilization of local resources,6263
volunteer organizations and,301 Bulgaria
at Wichita State University,102 HIV/AIDS prevention intervention, 280283
Aquinas, Thomas,184 substance abuse research, 271272
Aristotle,86 Bureau of Labor Statistics,227
assistantships. See graduate assistantships; research business development
assistantships; teaching assistantships for-profit consulting and, 129, 130, 131t, 132,
Associated Ministries of Tacoma-Pierce 134138,143
County,65 IDIQ lists and,135
Association for Behavior Analysis,185 nonprofit organzations and, 120, 121, 122,
Association of Vice Chancellors of Nigerian 124,128
Universities (AVCNU),260 REAs/RFPs and, 134135
Atlantic Health System (New Jersey),103 business plan, 75, 174,176
attachment theory,195
Australia,7,273 campus visits, 237239
AVCNU. See Association of Vice Chancellors of Canada,7,185
Nigerian Universities capacity-building. See also community and
organizational capacity-building
baby boomers,14 recommendations for training and, 187188
Back-to-School & Work program,51 skills in the domain of,162
Bahamas,7 systems change and,53
Barrera, Manuel,186 types of experience for providing,172
Batelle,34 career trajectory,1718
Behavioral and Social Science Working Group Career Transition Awards,245
(BSSWG; CDC),38 case management, 92,171
Behaviors of School-aged Children, longitudinal caseworkers, 2, 4f,9f,14
study,275 Casey, Jim,72
Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards Catholic Diocese of Enugu (Nigeria),261
(BMAS),261 CBOs (community-based organizations), 198,
Berkowitz, Bill,186 199,247
Better Together (Putnam, Feldstein, Cohen),83 CCSR. See Center for Community Support and
Biennial Conference on Community Research and Research
Action (SCRA; 1999), 82, 170,186 CDC Epidemic Intelligence Services,47
Birchard, John,185 CDC ORISE Postdoctoral Fellowships,47
Blachman, Moss,87 CDC Public Health Associate Program
blogs/blogging (PHAP),47
AEA365, 21,152 Center for Access and Attainment (DePaul
articles on,154 University), 207208
employment-related,2 Center for AIDS Intervention Research (CAIR),
networking and, 124125 280281,284
recommendation letters and,222 Center for Capacity Building on Minorities with
of Welsh, Matt, 222, 223224,226 Disabilities Research (University of Illinois
Boal, Ashley, 103105 at Chicago),247
Bond, Meg,186 Center for Community Research (CCR), DePaul
boots-on-the-ground work,277 University, 190191,260
Borkman, Thomasina,186 Center for Community Support and Research
branding and academia, 232233 (CCSR), 9497,99

Ind e x 307
Center for Creative Leadership,80 collaboration and coalition development

Center for Prevention Research and Development (competency), 5f, 58, 98t, 127t, 180, 212t,
(CPRD), University of Illinois at 260, 266,301
Urbana-Champaign,9597 College Connection project,53
Strategic Prevention Framework,162 Commissioned Corps (civil service),44
Center for Social and Economic Issues Commissioned Corps (US Public Health
(CSEI),170 Service),44,47
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Communities that Care (Social Action Research
(CDC), 20, 2223, 36. See also specific Group),162
centers, institutes, and offices community and organizational capacity-building
Behavioral and Social Science Working alignment with higher education
Group,38 experiences,211t
centers, offices, institutes of,2425 CCSR and,94
employment with,35 community psychology competencies and,88
Epidemic Intelligence Service, 30, 31, 32,42,47 nonprofits and, 78, 79, 94, 161,162
formal training programs,42 Partners in Policymaking program and,59
free courses offeredby,26 solo consulting and, 172,179
HIV prevention work,29,40 systems change and,53
National Institute of Occupational Safety and training recommendations for, 187188
Health,36 Wichita State University and,89,93
ORISE Postdoctoral Fellowships,32,47 community and social change, 89, 127t,180
Prevention Research Branch,45 Community and Social Change competencies,3f
Public Health Associate Program,32,47 community asset mapping,14
Youth Risk Behavior Survey,39 community-based organizations (CBOs), 198,
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services,36 199,247
CFS/ME. See chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic community-based practice mission,6167
encephalitis community-based research
Chavis, David,186 community colleges and, 189190,203
Chicago Public Schools,207 courseworkin,14
Child Health and Development Institute of funding sources, 244245, 248,251
Connecticut (CHDI),73 internships, career development, and,104
Childrens Fund of Connecticut,70,73 job postings for,108
child welfare, 72, 74, 115,117 in nonprofits,78
chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalitis at a Research 1 institution,2
(CFS/ME), 259261. See also Nigeria in solo consulting work, 170, 171,179
Chronicle of Higher Education, 13, 220,223 at University of Iowa, Prevention Research
Chronicle of Philanthropy,73,76 Center,21
City Colleges of Chicago,191 community colleges, 189203. See also academia;
civil service higher education
experience opportunities,3334 challenges of working in, 201202
job classifications,4344 community building, empirical grounding in,
Title 5 employees,2425 197201
coalitions faculty profile, 192193
community, 154,159 first-generation student profile, 191192
CPRD and,95 getting employment at,191
funding support for,159 mentorship, 195197
group initiatives and building,59 practicing CP in the classroom, 193195
Human Service Providers Coalition,67 practicing CP outside the classroom, 195203
Pierce County Coalition to End preparation for working in, 202203
Homelessness,67 salary and tenure process in,202
pros and cons of working with,97 student comparison with upper-level
state domestic violence, 22,2324 students,193
substance abuse,158 community development
Wichita Health and Wellness in Australia and New Zealand,273
Coalition,102 endorsement,5f
cognitive development,195 higher education and,211t

308 Ind e x
community development (Cont.) in small evaluation and consulting firms,

in Nigeria, 258268 147156
non-academic university work and,98t training competencies in practice, 2, 3f,
nonprofits and, 79, 98t,127t 4f,2324
solo consulting work and,180 community psychology (CP) degree, 92, 93,228
community education, information dissemination, Community Psychology Topical Interest Group
and building public awareness, 5f, 98t, 127t, (CPTIG),21
180, 180t,212t Community Research competencies,3f
community foundations,70 competencies. See also specific competencies
community inclusion and partnership, 5f, 6t, 16, administration/program management
52, 57, 58, 98t, 126t, 161, 179,210t and,4142
community leadership and mentoring, 5f, 58, 98t, AECF job posting and,75
126t,179 career survey and,119
characteristicsof,79 community college work and, 202,203
competencies and qualities of,8687 DELTA FOCUS program and,24
CP perspective in,81,83 development of, xxvii,2
as empowerment,7983 endorsementby,5f
endorsement,5f graduate training and, 100, 116117
framework of, 8081,81f higher education and, 210t212t
lack of graduate education in,7879 leadership and, 57, 7879,8687
nonprofits and,7983 listof,3f
organizational capacity-building and,8889 Nigeria international work and, 267268
participative leadership and,82 nonprofits and, 122123, 126t127t,
practical wisdom element,8687 161162,165
servant leadership and,82 practice jobs and,106
skills required for,8081 sector specificity and, 24, 4f, 6t, 5859, 66, 97,
venues for application of,8283 98t, 103,111
VUCA and,87 small evaluation and consulting firm and,
youth leadership and, 95,116 147149
community mapping,102 solo consulting practice and, 169, 178182
community organizing and community advocacy, Wichita State University and,89
5f, 16, 81f, 98t, 127t, 162, 212t, 250,267t conferences
community program development and AEA, 2122, 152,174
management, 3f, 126f, 161,179 chairingat,52
The Community Psychologist (SCRA publication),2 at community colleges,199
community psychology (CP). See also consulting work and,177
competencies; training in community on evaluation, 154, 155,156
psychology grant funding for, 243,245
answers to questions about careers in,119 inclusion on CV,112
career path ups and downs,213 international, 264, 271,273
in community colleges, in the classroom, networking at, 1011, 26, 136, 224,301
193195 planning committees,30
in community colleges, outside the classroom, presenting at, 22, 142, 143, 165,225
195203 for professional development, 96, 121,164
description, xxvx xvi SCRA Biennial Conference, 82, 154, 170,186
finding training in, 294304 Congress
higher education careers and, 205213 fellowship placements with,33
International Community Psychology, 270293 funding of DELTA FOCUS,22
job prospects,227 GAO and,36
in large nonprofit research organizations, policy formation role,40
115128 Congressional Black Caucus Foundation,47
lessons learned internationally, 270293 Congressional Fellowships (APA),33,71
in Nigeria, 258268, 258269 Congressional Hispanic Caucus
online survey,119 Institute,47
role in nonprofits,7891 Congressional Science Fellow,71
as a small business, 169182 Connecticut Childrens Medical Center,73

Ind e x 309
consultation and organization development resume vs., 141, 217, 297,303

(competency), 5f, 88, 98t, 127t, 149,179 for teaching-focused faculty position, 217218
Consultation-Oriented Community Mental things to include, 112, 217218
Health workshop (APA Postdoctoral
Workshop),6162 Dalton, J.,161
consulting. See also for-profit evaluation data analysis, 42, 47, 48, 114, 119, 124,133
consulting; nonprofit consultancy work; data collection
small evaluation and consultingfirm at CDC,24
federal government,39 computerized methodsof,29
for-profit evaluation consulting, 129146 at CPRD,9597
full-time jobs data,12f at DELTA FOCUS,24
for nonprofits, 157167 federal government work and, 34,3842
salary and hours,8t for-profit evaluation consulting and, 131t, 132,
small evaluation and consulting firm, 147156 133134, 138,140
typesof,66 at foundations,75
consumer-run-organizations (CROs),80 in internships,170
contracts (contracting) at NIH,30
attorney review of,175 nonprofit research organizations and, 118119,
bidding on,174 120f,121
careful review of,175 for program evaluation,22
deadlines and,163 state-level work and,58
description, 47,175 at WestEd,105
duration negotiation,177 Data Collection Lead,132
federal contracting,3334 data management,106
in for-profit consulting firms, 133, 134,137 data visualization,124
grants compared with,133 DELTA FOCUS (Domestic Violence Prevention
IDIQ lists and,135 Enhancements and Leadership Through
interagency personnel agreement,48 Alliances, Focusing on Outcomes for
in solo consulting, 178,180 Communities United with States)
transitory nature of,176 program,2224
contract specialist,20 demonstration grants,245
cooperative agreements, 29, 31, 35, 38, 39, 47, Department of Child and Family Psychiatry,
48,135 Brown University School of Medicine,184
Cornell University,218 Department of Mental Health and Human
Council of Education Programs (SCRA),2 Services (Connecticut),159
Council of Foundations,76 DePaul University. See also Jason, Leonard
Coursera,18 Center for Access and Attainment, 207208
cover letters Center for Community Research, 190191,260
development of,235 community psychology PhD program,207
for-profit evaluation consulting job and,141 CV preparation and,263
importance of, 141,218 doctoral program,260
online applications and,223 Oxford House research, 271272
preparing mutiple versions,236 DePaul University, Center for Community
for teaching-focused faculty position, 218219 Research, 190191
things to include, 2, 16, 110111, 218219 Devex,2
CP. See community psychology Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT),4
CPRD. See Center for Prevention Research and diplomatic corps,44
Development Diverse Careers in Community Psychology Survey
Crawford, C.B.,80 (questions and answers),119
curriculum mapping process,89 academic job possibilities,13
curriculum vitae(CV) applicant preparation, options,2
DePaul University and,263 career trajectory,1718
development of, 19, 112113, 141, 234235 experience, requirements and gaining,45
for-profit evaluation consulting job,141 government focus information,15
for graduate programs,297 health care focus knowledge,1315
portfolios as supplement to,303 job information sources, 1112,12f

310 Ind e x
Diverse Careers in Community Emergency Mobile Psychiatric Services

Psychology Survey (Cont.) (Connecticut),74
job market competition,57 Emory University,228
mentorship and networking,1011 employment. See also practice job, searchingfor
nonprofit sector information,1516 advice for job seekers,2526
salary potential, 7,8t,9f federal government opportunities,2048
strengthening qualifications for a position,17 full-time vs. part-time,7
training focus,23 job market competition,57
diversity-related concepts,195 public health agency careers,2027
Division of Violence Prevention,24 strategies for gaining, 2, 11,12,19
doctoral programs. See also postdocs/postdoctoral employment blogs, 2. See also specific
programs employmentblogs
application,189 employment websites,11
CHDI jobs and,74 empowerment, 14, 16, 24, 51, 5758, 80, 81f, 84,
community college work and, 202,203 98t, 111112, 126t, 161, 179,210t
DePaul University, 207,260 community leadership as,7983
federal jobs and,15 DELTA FOCUS and,2324
nonprofit sector jobs and,78 endorsement,5f
Portland State Univerisity,103 Maton and,208
pre-doctoral clinical internship,190 sectors, 6t,14,16
research work and, 119, 189190 of self-advocates,51
self-responsibility with,141 empowerment evaluators,2324
Wichita State Univerisity,89,94 endorsements by competency,5f
domestic violence. See also DELTA FOCUS England,7
program; intimate partner violence Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS; CDC), 30, 31,
CCSR work against,94 32,42,47
Chicago center against,198 ethical, reflective practice, 5f, 6t,98t
internship work against,170 evaluation firms, 12, 129143, 147156. See also
organizations against,303 American Evaluation Association; program
prevention programs,22,23 evaluation
state coalitions against,2324 Executive Branch (defined),47
Dominican Order, Providence College,184 executive leadership positions,12
Dorken, Herb,62 extramural research (defined),4748
DOT. See Dictionary of OccupationalTitles
Drug-Free Communities Act,159 Facebook,165
DuBois,P.,82 Fawcett, Steve, 184,258
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),36
early childhood development,42,95 federal government. See also federal government
Eastern Europe, 271, 280, 282,285 employment
ecological perspective, 5f, 6t, 8485, 98t, 126t, academic background and,22,26
149, 161, 179, 193, 210t,267t administration function,4142
education. See academia; academic careers, agencies, roles, content areas,3538
preparation and application; community block grants to coalitions,159
colleges; doctoral programs; higher career options,2048
education; masters degrees; teaching case histories, 2022,2931
careers civil service jobs,4344
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, direct hiring into,3132
Public Law 94-142,185 fellowships with non-federal partners,3233
Egypt,7,201 grant funding by, 246247
elevator speech, 11, 19,171 grants, research, programs funded by, 159,
email 179180, 246,257
job application and,224 hiring timeline,110
job search and,110 OMB and,22
networking and, 10,165 pathways into and through,31
organization member lists,11 policy work in,3941
surveys and,9394 program management,4142

Ind e x 311
publishing requirement,23 prime contractors in, 133,134

recommendation for working for, 173174 professional development, 141142
research in,3839 project duration, activities,134
steps toward employment,34 project management, 130,132
subject matter expertise and,26 project sizes, 133134
training and federal roles, 32,4243 proposal development, 137138
violence prevention goals,2627 soft money and, 133,144
working with federal contractors,3334 staff responsibilities, 130t131t
federal government employment subcontracting projects,134
advice for job seekers,2526 Foundational Principles competencies,3f
applied community psychologists,2848 Foundation Center, 76,256
characteristics,6 foundations. See also grants; philanthropy
civil service jobs,4344 Annie E.Casey Foundation,72
hiring process, 3132,110 careers in,7677
KSA writing requirements,31 Childrens Fund of Connecticut,70,73
practical matters in,4446 Congressional Black Caucus Foundation,47
reasons for seeking,173 CPs alignment with,7375
salary, hours,8t evidence of outcomesin,57
steps toward achieving,34 focusof,70
things to know,15 job search resources,76
Federal Register,246 National Science Foundation,38
federal tax payer identification number (TIN),174 Pierce County AIDS Foundation,67
fellowships private, 70,72,75
AAAS-related,33 public, 70, 7374,75
APA-related,33 research-based,29
benefitsof,15 size and scopeof,69
federal government opportunities,31 Francisco, V.T.,258
Fulbright Fellowships,275 Fulbright Fellowships,275
hiring for,2526 Fulbright-Hays Group Projects Abroad grant,275
with non-federal partners,3233 Fulbright US Student grant,272
ORISE Postdoctoral Fellowships,32,47 funding
SRCD-related,33 for coalitions,159
Switzer Fellowship, 245246 for community-based research, 244245,
FHI360,34 248,251
Field School in Intercultural Education and of DELTA FOCUS,22
Research (Vanderbilt University),273 of for-profit consulting projects, 133135
fieldwork, 4, 11, 193, 211t, 232,301 grant-in-aid funding,6364
FOAs. See funding opportunity announcements for grant software,243
Food and Drug Administration (FDA),36,42 for international projects, 275276, 278279,
Foreign Service (civil service),44 283, 285286, 288, 290291
for-profit evaluation consulting, 129146. See also for nonprofit organizations, 47, 48,118
small evaluation and consultingfirm for youth leadership programs,116
benefits, 121122, 142143 funding opportunity announcements (FOAs),
building/maintaining relationships, 136137 38,39,48
business development, 129, 130, 131t, 132,
134138,143 Garcia, Irma Serano,186
challenges, 142143 Gates Foundation,70
data collection in, 131t, 132, 133134, 138,140 generalist versus specialist debate,2
developing/selling personal skills, 140141 Geographical Information Systems,14
education/skills needed for, 138141 Geographical Information Systems (GIS), 14,170
evaluator identity and, 139140 GI Bill,205
funding and project types, 133134 Global NGO,289
interviewing process, 141, 144145 Global Prevention of AIDS,281
monitoring issue areas in,136 Godfrey Okoye University (GO University;
office governance, 132133 Nigeria), 261267
organization structure, 130134 Google Hangout,225

312 Ind e x
Government Accountability Office (GAO),36 budget planning,252

graduate assistantships, 140, 171, 207,246 CCSR team approach to,9495
graduate programs. See also doctoral programs; data collection barriers, solutions, 251252
masters degrees defining proposals potential impact,250
application process, 296298 demonstrating expert knowledge, 250251
community practice engagement and, 300301 design development,251
community research engagement and,301 developing intervention idea, 249250
mentorship and, 302303 digital sources,256
personal criteria for consideration,300 documentation, letters of support, 253254
professional organization participation and,302 ethical considerations for, 254255
selecting, 295, 298300 funding sources, federal, 246247
types of,295 funding sources, foundations,248
volunteer opportunities and, 301302 funding sources, state agencies, 247248
Gramsci, Antonio,279 higher education and,211t
grant-in-aid funding,6364 identifying community need, 249250
grant-making foundations,70 job creation and,16
grants. See also foundations; grant writing large nonprofit research organization,127t
academic employment and,13 length limitation,249
achieving goalsof,51 median salary,9f
administering/managing,30,41 neatness/easy to read,249
for becoming a PI, 97, 241,250 nonprofits and, 7980, 158,160
for career development, 245246 online search for assistance with, 179180
for centers,246 resources, books and digital,256
competenciesin,4f skill building strategies, 180, 190,244
contracts compared with,133 state funding sources, 247248
cooperative agreements, 29,38,47 timeline and evaluation plan, 252253
defined,48 Greenleaf, Robert,82
DELTA FOCUS program and,24 Guardian Careers,2
demonstration grants,245
educational grants,245 Harper, Gary W., 286291
evaluation plan,253 Harvard Business Review,2
extramural research and,4748 Harvey, Ronald, 270, 271272
federal, 22, 52, 66,160 Hasidic Judaism,184
FOAs and,48 Hatch Act,45
Fulbright US Student grant,272 Head Start,37
funding sources, 246248 health carejobs
grant-in-aid funding,6364 characteristics,6
for international projects, 275, 290291 employment opportunities,3536
investigational research, 3839,40 salary, hours,8t
NIDA prevention program and,45 things to know,1315
NIH Guide,38,47 Health Disparities and Inequality certificate,2
nonprofit consultancy assistance,160 health-related employment,3536
for professional development,245 Health Resources & Services Administration
program evaluation and,23 (HRSA),36
proposals,66 Dallas Healthy Start initiative,172
Request for Proposals, 252253 employment with,35
research grants, 38, 41, 242, 244245, 248, Ryan White HIV Care,37,40
275276,298 Healthy Start initiative, 172,174
resource sources,76 Heath,C.,85
training grants,245 Heath,D.,85
types of, 244246 HigherEd jobs, website,13
Grants.gov website,246 higher education. See also academia; academic
grant writing, 241257 careers, preparation and application;
academia and, 211t,233 community colleges; doctoral programs;
avoidance of jargon, 248249 postdocs/postdoctoral programs;
avoiding unsupported assumptions,249 universitywork

Ind e x 313
call for social change in, 207209,213 International Community Psychology (ICP),
competencies aligned with, 210t212t 270293
contextual challenges in,206 Amirkhanian, Yuri A., and, 280286
ecological theory and, 209,213 boots-on-the-ground work,270
employment-related websites, 13,223 Bulgaria, 270, 271,283
first-generation students and, 191192 China,277
gaining employment in, 13, 203, 216218, 223, Columbia and,277
228229 description,270
inequalities in, 207209 Eastern Europe, 271, 280, 282,285
initiatives/funding for,207 funding sources, 275276, 278279, 283,
jobs outlook, 227228 285286, 288, 290291
mentorship and,203 Harper, Gary W., and, 286291
positive impact of, 205206 Harvey, Ronald, and, 270, 271272
preparation for teaching-focused faculty HIV prevention intervention, 280291
positions, 216229 IRB approval for research, 242, 254255, 259,
program implementation in,5253 275,290
programming for students, 207208 Kelly, Jeffrey, and, 280286
raising children comparison,196 Latin America, 277,278
research/program evaluation training,208 Mihaylov, Nikolay L., and, 270271
self-confidence and, 196197 partnerships,278
social justice, organizational change training, Perkins, Douglas D., and, 272276
209,213 Prilleltensky, Isaac, and, 277280
Hindus,184 research funding sources, 271, 275276
HIV/AIDS prevention Internet
CPRD and,95 community psychology survey,119
implementation studies and,2930 courses/trainings, 2, 22, 119, 121, 216,236
international programs, 280291 Foundation Directory,248
public health work and,25 job applications, 15, 222223
Hospitality Kitchen (Washington),67 job interviews,225
Human Diversity:Perspectives on People in Context job search guidance, 220,297
(Trickett, Watts, Birman),194 job search/postings, 11, 13, 107, 174, 191,223
Humane Society,93 journals,164
Human Service Providers Coalition reporting systems,99
(Washington),67 resumes,31
Human Services Program, Antioch Univeristy,225 social media and, 121,165
Hungary, HIV intervention prevention, 280282 student reviews of faculty,238
webinars, 18, 22, 119, 128t, 145,244
IDIQ (Indefinite Delivery, Indefinite Quality) internships
lists,135 APA program,104
Illinois Department of Human Services Boals experience, 103105
(IDHS),95 CBO leaders creation of,198
Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH), Congressional Black Caucus
54,56,59 Foundation,47
Illinois Youth Survey,9596 in consulting firms,140
individualized education plan (IEP),52 employment experience vs.,181
Industrial Technology Institute,170 federal government opportunities,31
infographics,124 gaining competency and,45
Institute for Social Policy (Yale University),71 gaining skills and,45
Institutional Review Board (IRB), 242, 254255, insights gained in, 15,111
259, 275,290 locating, 36, 68, 297298
insurance coverage,175 median salary,9f
interagency personnel agreement (defined),48 networking and,109
Inter-American Development Bank,279 practice jobs and, 103104
International Community Psychology:History and pre-doctoral clinical,190
Theories (ed. Prilleltensky, Reich, Riemer, public hospital, 169170
Montero),277 Walter Reed Army Medical Center,61

314 Ind e x
interviews LinkedIn,2,165
academic teaching, 109, 218, 223228,237 logic model technique, 59, 160, 172,253
community colleges, 191,203 longitudinal studies, 150, 171,275
for-profit evaluation consulting job, 141, Louisiana State University (LU),61
144145
foundation jobs,75 masters degrees
informational, 1011, 68, 109,110 academic jobs and,13
in-person, 2526, 140,226 community college jobs and, 202203
non-government jobs,32 evaluation jobs and, 149,155
nonprofit research organization, 125,128t federal government jobs and,32
practice job,100 for-profit consulting jobs and, 138,143
solo consulting job, 170171,173 nonprofit jobs and,78
telephone, 25,225 practice jobs and,109
intimate partner violence, 22, 24, 25, 32, 104. research work and,119
See also domestic violence maternal-infant developmental research,170
Intimate Partner Violence and Teen Dating Maton, K.I.,208
Violence prevention,24 Matons framework of characteristics of
Intimate Partner Violence and Teen Dating empowering settings,208
Violence prevention program,24 Maughan, M.R.C.,80
intramural research (defined),48 McGraw Center for Teaching and Learning
Israel,7 (Princeton University), 219,220
Italy, 7, 273274,277 McNair Research Awards,246
IT departments,121 McNair Scholars Program, 207208
Medicaid program,6364
James Marshall Fellowship (SPSSI),33,47 Medical College of Wisconsin,280
Jason, Leonard, 186, 258,260 Mehmel, Vince,62
job market competition,57 Meissen, Greg,93
jobs. See employment mentalhealth
job talk, 226, 238239 APA Postdoctoral Workshop on,6263
Joint Commission on Hospital Accreditation centers,6264
(Washington),67 children and,72
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education,228 EIS programs and,32
Judaism,184 NAM reports on,3637
research,14,29
Kabakchieva, Elena,283 Mental Health Initiative for Urban
Kellogg Foundation,279 Children,72
Kelly, Jeffrey, 280286 Mental Health Services Research and Evaluation
Kelly, Jim, 71, 186, 258,263 program,71
Kenya, HIV prevention intervention, 287288 Mentored Career Development Awards,245
Kiritz, N.J., 249250 mentoring leadership (competency), 5f, 43, 58,
KSA (Knowledge, Skill, Abilities) writing 98t, 126t, 162, 196, 207, 211t,231
requirement,31 mentors
benefits of, 13, 55, 89, 109, 141, 186187
Lambe, Karen,184 in community colleges, 195197
Lambe, Rich,184 graduate school and, 302303
Lappe,F.,82 internships and,104
Latin America, 277,278 obtaining, 1011,19
Lead Qualitative Analyst,132 recruitment of, 51,186
Leppert, Andrea,220 Mexico,7
letters of recommendation, 220, 221223, Michigan State University,170
235,297 Mid-Career Awards,245
Lewin, Kurt,82 Mihaylov, Nikolay L., 270271
LGBTQ organizations,289 mobile crisis clinicians,74
LGBTQ students,300 Model Cities,64
life considerations and strategies,1718 multilateral organizations, agreements,48
linear modeling, 42,122 Muslims,184

Ind e x 315
National Academy of Medicine (NAM),3637 competencies used in, 267268

National Center for Addictions,271 educational reforms in, 260263
National Center for Education Statistics,206 Godfrey Okoye University in, 261267
National Center for Health Statistics,46 Peace program in, 263265
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Nigeria, community psychology development in,
(Injury Center),24 258268
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and NIH. See National Institutes ofHealth
Stroke (NINDS),134 NIMH Career Transition Award for Tenure-Track
National Institute of Occupational Safety and and Tenured Intramural Investigators,245
Health (CDC),36 non-academic side of university work,92100
National Institute on Disability, Independent nonprofit consultancy work, 157167
Living, and Rehabilitation Research, description, 158159
241242,244 environmental/community scanning,
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), assessment,160
30,33,45 funding evaluation,160
National Institute on Environmental Health getting started in, 163164
(NIH),36 grant writing,160
National Institutes of Health(NIH) key skill sets, 160, 161163
courses for credit,42 lifestyle issues, 166167
cover letter writing guide,219 marketing to nonprofits, 164166
employment with,15,35 organizational development, 16, 159160
grant announcements,246 services offered, 159160
HIV prevention programs, 30,281 types of organizations,159
National Institute on Environmental Health,36 nonprofit organizations, 7889. See also nonprofit
Office for Behavioral and Social Science research organizations
Research,38 community-based,55
Office of Intramural Training and community leadership and,7983
Education,218 continuous quality improvementin,85
Pathway to Independence Award,245 CP guiding principles and,8386
National Institutes of Health (NIH) Guide,38,47 deliberation and collaborationin,84
National Science Foundation (NSF),3839 ecological perspective in, 8485,117
National Survey on Drug Use and Health educational curriculum development for,8889
(SAMHSA),39 foundations and,69,73
National Universities Commission (Nigeria),261 full-time salary,7,8t
National Youth Service Corp (NYSC), 263264 funding sources, 47, 48,118
Native Americans,184 health-care,14
negotiation process, for teaching position, international,6t
239240 job distribution,12
networking job sources for,73
adviced gained through,26 leadership opportunities in,7879
AEA and,147 local,6t
business opportunities and,118 management, administrationof,41
at conferences, 1011, 26, 136, 224,301 professional development in, 88,121
elevator speech for, 11, 19,171 subcontractors in,122
importance of,1011 nonprofit research organizations, 115128
job searching and, 13, 15, 16, 19, 109, 124125 assistance in proposal, technical writing at,121
in nonprofit research organizations, 124125 bureaucracy and paperwork,122
payoff of,56,64 challenges, 120122
Newbrough, Bob, 23,186 competencies utilized in, 116117, 122123,
New Zealand,7,273 126t127t
NIDA. See National Institute on DrugAbuse ecological paradigm in, 8485,117
Nigeria educational preparation for working in,116
AVCNU in,260 management skills in, 41,123
Catholic Diocese of Enugu,261 national,6t
chronic fatigue syndrome study, 258260 networking in, 124125
community development in, 258268 organizational research, challenges, 120122

316 Ind e x
nonprofit research organizations (Cont.) PhD programs. See doctoral programs

philanthropy for,57 philanthropy. See also foundations
potential interview questions of,128t nonprofit sector,57
presentation skills in, 122, 224,263 outcomes requirementin,60
professional development in, 88, 121, 123,128t resources for informationon,76
project work in, 118119 route to working in,7073
resource responsibility and,76 youth voice and leadership funding,116
RFPs in,118 Phoenix House (Bulgarian therapeutic
salary and benefits, 7, 8t, 121122 community),272
social service,57 phone calls, job search and, 110, 165,224
strength-based approach in,8384 phronesis (practical wisdom),8687
systems perspective in,117 Pierce AIDS Foundation (Washington),67
team orientation in, 116, 119120,123 Pierce County Coalition to End Homelessness
technical skills in,122 (Washington),67
things to know about,1516 Pierce County Sheriff Department Offices
types of work in, 117118 (Washington),67
VUCA and,87 Plan for AIDS Relief,290
Northwest Justice Project (Washington),67 Planned Parenthood,64
Nursing Home Care Act,54 Portland State University, Applied Psychology
nursing homes, 14, 54,56,93 doctoral program,103
NVivo (qualitative analysis software),121 Portugal,7
postdocs/postdoctoral programs. See also doctoral
Office for Behavioral and Social Science Research programs
(OBSSR; NIH),38 AAAS programs,33
office governance, 132133 APA Postdoctoral Workshop,6162
Office of Evaluation and Inspections (OEI),173 building a CV and,234
Office of Intramural Training and Education of the CDC and,32,45
National Institutes for Health,218 CHDI and,74
Office of Management and Budget (OMB),22 competencies used in employment,2,4f
Office of National Drug Control Policy (White demonstration grants and,245
House),36 federal government and,32
Office of Personnel Management, Federal Pay fellowships, 20, 47,107
Scales,47 grants for, 245246
Office of the Inspector General (OIG),173 in hospital/university setting,190
oncology research,170 median salary,9f
online applications, 223224 public policy,71
online job postings,11 in Russia,281
online trainings,2 supervised training,190
organizational development. See consultation and Practical Wisdom:The Right Way to Do the Right
organization development (competency) Things (Schwartz and Sharpe),87
ORISE Postdoctoral Fellowships (CDC),32,47 practical wisdom (phronesis),8687
Orthodox Judaism,184 practice competencies, 2, 3f, 4f, 75,161
Otto-von-Guericke University (Germany),273 DELTA FOCUS program and,2324
Oxford House (OH; DePaul University), 271272 endorsementsby,5f
job market competition,57
Paine-Andrews, A.L.,258 sectors where frequently used,6t
participative leadership,82 Practice Council (SCRA),2
participatory community research (competency), practice job, searching for, 101114
5f, 58, 98t, 127t, 180, 212t, 260, 266,301 academic preparation, 102104
Partners-in-Policymaking training programs,51 accepting employment, 113114
Partridge, Bill,273 advice in pursuing,99100
Pathway to Independence Award (NIH),245 application process, 105, 110113
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University,23 Boals experience, 102, 103105
Peace Corps, 36,102 cover letter, 2, 16, 75, 110,113
Peace program (Nigeria), 263265 cultivating/using professional networks,109
Perkins, Douglas D., 272276 curriculum vitae (CV) development, 112113

Ind e x 317
description of, 105106 in large nonprofits,127t

identifying necessary skills,106 nonprofits and,16
identifying organizations, 101, 105, 107, OMB and,22
108109 service to communities and,23
identifying specific positions, 108109 transferabilityof,24
internships and, 103104 usefulnessof,59
Johnson-Hakims experience, 101103 varied training backgrounds in,149
resources for locating, 103104, 107109 Program Implementation and Dissemination
resume, 110, 112113 Branch (CDC),24
right fit determination,108 Program in Community Research & Action
SCRA and,102 (Vanderbilt University),273
timing, 102103, 109110 project management
prenatal and parenting education program,172 in for-profit evaluation consulting, 130,132
presentation skills, 122, 224,263 in nonprofit research organizations, 123124
prevention and health promotion (competency), organization staffing structure and,120f
5f, 6t, 14, 24, 126t, 179,265 in practice jobs,106
Prevention First agency (CPRD),95 in solo small businesses, 170,171
Prevention Research Branch (CDC; NIDA),45 project work, in nonprofit organizations, 118119
Price, Rick,186 proposal writing
Prilleltensky, Isaac, 277280 basic principles of, 248254
prime contractors, 133,134 in for-profit consulting firms, 137138
Princeton University, McGraw Center for learning challenges,122
Teaching and Learning, 219,220 organization structure and,120f
principal investigator(PI) research assistants role in,119
collaborations,254 teamwork approach to,9495
grants and, 97, 241,250 Providence College,184
in university setting,45 psychometrics,115
principal researcher, 120,120f public foundations, 70, 7374,75
private foundations, 70,72,75 public health agency careers,2027
professional development,2 Public Health Associate Program (CDC),32,47
conferences and, 96, 121,164 Public Health Services Act (PHSA), Title
CPRD and,96 42,2425
internships and,104 Public Law 94-142, Education for All
in nonprofit organizations, 88, 121, 123,128t Handicapped Children Act,185
support/opportunties for,22 public policy analysis, development and advocacy,
The Professor Is In, 218219 5f, 58, 59, 127t,180
Program Announcements, 135,136 Puerto Rico,7
program development, implementation and Puyallup Indian Reservation (Tacoma, WA),65
management, 2, 5f, 6t, 13, 16, 42, 57, 58, 78,
98t, 126t, 149, 179, 210t,242 qualitative analysis, 121, 122, 124, 132,138
program evaluation, 162, 208209, 212t. See also quantitative analysis, 116,124
American Evaluation Association Quickbooks,175
at Apex Education, 147156, 148149,
152,155 Ramirez, Manolo Garcia,277
benefits to clients,148 RAND Corporation, 34,104
collection requests and,22 Range Mental Health Center (Virginia),62
coursework in, 14, 147,155 rape crisis center,172
CPRD focuson,95 Rasmussen College,220
description, 148149 recommendation letters, 220, 221223, 235,297
development of approach to,148 recovery orientation,61
education systems and,5354 Reform Judaism,184
in for-profit evaluation consulting, 129, Regional Action Councils,159
133,134 Regional Association of Grantmakers,76
health/health care agencies and,37 Regional Inspector General for Region VI, US
higher education training in,208 DHHS,173
job search and, 100,147 regression modeling,121

318 Ind e x
Reissman, Frank,186 nonprofit sector,16

Requests for Applications(RFAs) by sector,8t
business development and, 134135 senior management,43
federal government research and,38 Sandler, Irwin,186
FOAs and,48 SAS statistical analysis software,170
Requests for Proposals (RFPs),118 Schultz, J.A.,258
business development and, 134135 Schwartz,B.,87
for Dallas Health Start,174 Science of Human Behavior course,184
federal government research and,38 Scotland,7
FOAs and,48 SCRA. See Society for Community Research
things to include, 252253 andAction
Requests for Task Order Proposals (RFTOPS or Search Institute,162
roof tops),135 self-advocates, empowerment and development
research assistantships of,5152
cohort model programs and,298 self-employment taxes,175
doctoral programs and,298 self-help groups, 93, 94,272
financial support for, 243,299 Self-Help Network,93,95
graduate research assistant (GRA), 241,243 self-help principles,271
letters of recommendation and,297 Senior Associate for Mental Health,72
organizational structure and, 120f, 130,138 senior researcher, 119120, 120f,251
responsibilities of, 119, 170, 184, 254,259 servant leadership,82
skills development and,4,116 sexual identity development,195
volunteering as,234 Shandong University (China),277
research grants, 38, 41, 242, 244245, 248, Shankman, M.,8081
275276,298 Sharpe,K.,87
research positions,12 Shinn, Beth,186
Research Synthesis and Application Team Sikhs,184
(CDC),24 Skype, 10,225
Research Triangle Institute,34 small and large group processes, 5f, 58, 59, 88,
resource development, 5f, 88, 98t, 117, 127t, 127t, 149, 179, 211t,268t
179,267t small evaluation and consulting firm (Apex
alignment with specific jobs,19 Education)
CV vs., 141, 217, 297,303 advantages of being small, 150152
functional vs. traditional,17 autonomy and flexibility in,152
in-person interviews and,25 client profile, 149150
internships, fellowships, and, 15,170 collaboration limitations,154
job searches and,16 colleague support in, 150151
online version,31 coursework preparation,155
practice job search and, 110, 112113 disadvantages of being small, 153154
things to include,17 employee profile, 154155
Richter, K.P.,258 evaluator training backgrounds,149
RMC Research Corporation, 103104 fast pace in, 153154
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,70 financial complications in,153
Rockefeller Foundation,70 getting hired at, 155156
Russia, HIV prevention intervention programs, lessened independence in,153
280282 ongoing education in,152
Ryan White HIV Care,37 predictability and security at,151
program evaluation at, 147, 148149,
Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities 152,155
Act,159 pursuit of interests in, 151152
salary potential type of work in,154
academia, 13, 202, 213, 239240 Social Action Research Group,162
civil service,44 social ecology (ecological perspectives), 22, 24,
government sector,15 233,294
media, full-time jobs,7,9f social media, 121,165
nonprofit positions, 7, 121122 social network analysis,14

Ind e x 319
Social Work Community Outreach Services Southwest Washington Synod of Evangelical

(SWCOS),225 Lutheran Church,67
social workers, 2, 4f, 9f, 12f, 14, 66,172 Spain,7
Society for Community Research and Action Spaulding Youth Center, 184186
(SCRA), xxvi,302 special-education programs, 50, 51,152
Biennial Conference on Community Research SPSSI. See Society for the Psychological Study of
and Action, 82, 154, 170,186 SocialIssues
community leadership definition,79 SRCD. See Society for Research in Child
Council of Education Programs,2 Development
grant writing collaboration,245 staffing
independent living practitioners and, 185186 in federal government,63
mailing list,25 in for-profit consulting firms, 132,138
Practice Competencies,75 grant proposals for,66
Practice Council,2 organizational structure,120f
Society for Prevention Research,30 statistical analysis software,170
Society for Research in Child Development STI/HIV prevention,95
(SRCD),33,47 Strategic Prevention Framework (Center
Society for the Psychological Study of Social for Prevention Research and
Issues (SPSSI),33,47 Development),162
Society for the Study of Social Issues (SPSSI),302 subcontractors
sociocultural and cross-cultural competence, 5f, 6t, in for-profit consulting firms, 133, 134,142
14, 98t, 126t, 179,193 letters of support from,287
Sofia, Bulgaria, 270, 271,283 in nonprofit organizations,122
Sofia Municipal Centre for Addictions treatment substanceabuse
(Bulgaria),271 behavioral health researchon,14
soft money, 133, 144,242 Bulgarian treatment programs, 271272
software coalition grant proposal, 157158
accounting,175 pregnant women program,172
cost factors,201 prevention programs, 158, 159, 162,230
courseson,46 SAMHSA and,36
GIS,170 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service
grant funding for,243 Administration (SAMHSA), 15,36,39
in nonprofit research organizations, 115, Substance Abuse Block Grants,159
121,124 Summer Research Opportunity Program,246
qualitative analysis, 121,122 Switzer Fellowship, 245246
quantitative analysis,122
in small evaluation, consulting firms,149 Tacoma, Washington,65,67
statistical, 46, 121, 170,200 Taoists,184
solo consulting practice, 169182 Task Group on Defining Practice
AEA Independent Consulting TIG Competencies,161
and,174 Taylor, R.R., 250, 251, 253, 254255
areas of focus, 179180 teacher to researcher/evaluator transition,55
attributes for success, 178179 teaching assistantships, 202203,296
bidding and contracting,175 teaching careers. See also academic careers,
business model, 174176 preparation and application; community
business plan,176 colleges; higher education
career path development, 169174 adjunct positions,176
community and social change,180 federal government work and, 29, 3031,
finances,175 35,42,48
gaining experience,181 government sector work and,15
insurance requirements,175 health sector work and,14
negative aspects, 177178 on participatory action research,52
points to consider, 181182 research vs., 231232
positive aspects, 176177 teaching statements, 218, 219221, 223, 236,238
Tacoma, Washington,6667 Teaching Statements (Vanderbilt University),220
TIN number and,174 teaching talk,239

320 Ind e x
teamwork researcher to administrator,56

in federal government projects,30,45 seminary to community-based solutions,185
in for-profit evaluation consulting, 131t, state officer to CEO,57
133135, 139, 140,142 teacher to researcher/evaluator,55
IDIQ teams,135 teacher to teacher researcher,55
leadership of, 57,120 young adults to adulthood,213
in nonprofit organizations, 5960, 118120, Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
123,127t (TF-CBT),74
practice work and,195 Trickett, Ed,258
working solo compared with,178 TRIO program,207
technical skills, in nonprofit research
organizations,122 UNAIDS,29,48
technical writing,121 UNICEF,48
Teresa of Avila,184 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
TIN (federal tax payer identification number),174 Cultural Organization (UNESCO),118
Title 42, Public Health Services Act United Nations (UN),48
(PHSA),2425 United States Agency for International
Title 5 government employees,2425 Development (USAID),118
Tornatzky, Lou,170 United Way,64
Toro, Paul, 170171 University Affiliated Programs in Developmental
training grants,245 Disabilities (Illinois),51
training in community psychology. See also University Center for Excellence (Illinois),51
doctoral programs; internships; masters University of Illinois at Chicago, Center for
degrees; postdocs/postdoctoral programs Capacity Building on Minorities with
AEA and, 21, 22,180 Disabilities Research,247
areas for preparation, 123126 University of Iowa, College of Public Health,20
CCSR and,9495 University of Iowa Prevention Research Center
CHDI and,7475 (PRC), 21,23,25
core competencies and, 2324, 98t,100 University of Kansas,185
CPRD and,9596 University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,228
DELTA FOCUS program and, 22,2324 University of Padova, Italy,273
federal programs, 20, 26, 3035, 39,4143 University of Seville,277
fellowships,25 University of Vermont,185
graduate assistantships, 140, 171, 207,246 universitywork
grants/funding sources, 244248 collaborative work,5960
higher education and,208 community leadership and,79
Internet, online-based programs,22 competencies,4f
online survey,119 fellowships and,25
professional conferences,164 hierarchical structures,22
real world skills translation, 111112, 115117 joint appointments and,15
in research and program evaluation, 208209 non-academic side of,92100
in social justice, organizational change, 209,213 salary potential,7,9f
sources for, 294304 transitioning from,34
teaching assistantships, 202203,296 types of work,58
Walter Reed Army Medical Center,61 website postings for,13
work experience, 155, 164, 177, 179, 185,193 USAjobs.gov website, 15, 25, 31, 32, 47, 100,
transitions 103,108
academia to public health agency,2027 US Department of Agriculture (USDA),36,44
administrator to state officer,5657 US Department of Commerce,44
CEO of nonprofit community-based agency,55 US Department of Education, 207, 244,246
college years, 192, 206, 209,213 US Department of Education Fulbright-Hays
leadership, 83,162 Groups Projects Abroad grant,275
permanent positions,190 US Department of Health and Human Services,
prison to college,232 15, 26, 36, 37, 136, 173,246
project coordinator to full-time special ed US Department of Labor,36
teacher,5254 US Department of Veterans Affairs,36

Ind e x 321
US House of Representatives,71 volunteer organizations,38

US Public Health Service, 44. See also specific VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity,
agencies ambiguity),87
US State Department,36,44
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research,3031
Vanderbilt University Washington College,231
doctoral program,270 webinars, 18, 22, 119, 128t, 145,244
field schools, 273,274 Welsh, Matt, 222, 223224,226
IRB approval for international research,275 WESTAT,34
Program in Community Research & WestEd,105
Action,273 White House Office of National Drug Control
Teaching Statements,220 Policy,36
Veterans Administration (VA) system,14 Wichita Health and Wellness Coalition,102
Veterans Affairs (VA),15 Wichita State University, 89, 93, 9495,102
vocational rehabilitation (VR), 51,247 Wolfe, S.,161
voice communication/video conferencing Wolff, Tom,186
technology,225 Womens/Gender Studies degree,2
volunteering Work Group for Community Health and
business development and, 151,158 Development,185
at conferences,21 workshops,2
for gaining experience, 2, 4, 16, 111, 197, 234, World AIDS Foundation,285
294, 301302 World Bank,279
grant writing and,244 World Health Organization (WHO), 29, 30, 48,
inclusion on CV, 112,217 275,283
median salary,9f
nonprofits and,88 Yale University, Institute for Social Policy,71
in nonprofit settings,16 youth leadership, 9596,116
paid work vs.,178 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (CDC),39
Peace Corps and,102 Youth Service Bureaus (Connecticut),159
retirement and,61
self-branding and,233 Zoom,10

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Diverse Careers inCommunity

Advances inCommunity PsychologySeries

Published in the United States of America by Oxford UniversityPress

Oxford University Press2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, storedin

You must not circulate this work in any otherform

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

To my family, Mike, Nicholas, and Katherinethank you for your endless

Series Foreword by Bradley Olson and Nicole E. Allen xi

1. Answers to All Your Questions about Careers in Community

2. Federal Careers for Applied Community Psychologists:Transitioning

3. Federal Careers for Applied Community Psychologists:Pathways

4. Accidental Community Psychologist:From the Classroom

5. Community-Based Practice Mission:To Deliver Psychology

6. The World of Foundations:An Ideal Setting for a Community

7. Leading the Way:The Role of Community Psychology

8. Supporting Community Agencies:The Non-Academic Side

9. Putting Your Training to Work:Finding a PracticeJob 101

10. Practicing Community Psychology in a Large Nonprofit Research

11. Five Years as a Hired Gun:Working in For-Profit Evaluation

12. Practicing Community Psychology in a Small Evaluation and

13. Nonprofit Support:Can You Profit from Working with

14. Going Solo:Community Psychology as a Small Business 169

15. A Crossroads of Disciplines:AFunny Thing Happened

16. Community Colleges:APlace for Community Psychology

17. Roles Beyond Faculty in Academia 205

18. Preparing and Applying for a Teaching-Focused Faculty

19. The Road to Scholarly Riches:Preparing and Applying for the

20. Writing Grants to Fund Research and Programs 241

21. International Community Psychology Development:ACase Example

22. Doing Community Psychology Internationally:Lessons Learned

23. From Preparation to Practice:How to Find Training in Community

xii Ser ie s Foreword

Bradley Olson and Nicole E.Allen

xiv Fore word

environments, promoting diversity, and focusing on community building as a mode

Olya Glantsman, PhD, earned a doctorate in community psychology and a

xvi About the Editors

editor of the Community Psychologists The Community Practitioner column, one

Theresa L. Armstead is a behavioral scientist in the Research and Evaluation

Lindsey T. Back completed her PhD in community psychology from DePaul

Fabricio E. Balcazar, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Disability and

Christopher R. Beasley received his PhD in community psychology from DePaul

xviii Cont r ibutors

In particular, he has examined involvement in mutual-help addiction recovery

Luciano Berardi holds a license in clinical psychology from Universidad de

Michelle Bloodworth is a community psychologist based in Albuquerque,

Ashley Boal is a research associate at WestEd in Los Alamitos, California. She

Cont r ibutors xix

Vincent Francisco is a Kansas Health Foundation professor of community leader-

Marc Goldstein, PhD, is professor emeritus of psychology at Central Connecticut

Ronald Harvey earned his PhD in community psychology from DePaul

Richard A. Jenkins, PhD, is a health scientist administrator in the Prevention

includes research and training related to HIV prevention, as well as develop-

Sharon Johnson-Hakim received her PhD in community psychology from

John M. Majer, PhD, received his doctorate in clinical psychology (community

Alison J. Martin, PhD, was first exposed to community psychology as an

Greg Meissen is professor of psychology and coordinator of the community psy-

Cont r ibutors xxi

Center initiatives, and he is a Kansas Health Foundation Leadership Fellow, which

Nikolay L. Mihaylov is a doctoral candidate in community research and action

Mary Gloria C. Njoku holds a PhD in clinical community psychology from

Geraldine (Geri) L. Palmer, PhD, is a community psychologist, nonprofit devel-

Allen W. Ratcliffe, PhD, has practiced clinical and community psychology in

Table1.1Sectors where competencies are most frequentlyused