Rainy Michelsen 1

Rainy Michelsen
Venetian Art and the Bible

A City of Covenants: Mediating Christianity and Paganism in Venice

For centuries, Venice played a pivotal role in mediating interaction between the East and

the West.1 This behavior was not limited to politics and economics, but also bled into cultural

and religious facets. Without its own past and ancient history, the foundation and growth of

Venice rested on the cultural enrichment and development that came from combining the people,

artifacts, and ideas of different, and even conflicting origins. 2 Venice became an empire of

fragments[drawing] its strength from the diversity of its constituent parts. 3 Instead of

rejecting other cultural systems, the Venetian system became one of mediation of many different

systems of thought. What is essential to this multicultural city and empire, was its ability to

negotiate the coexistence of the different worlds it contained.4 The millennia that the

Venetian Republic survived is a testament to the power there is in the desire to contain many

worlds, and hold different systems together. Venice had the desire to be a scene of balance and to

1 Hh, Marc Von Der, Jaspert, Nikolas, and Oesterle, Jenny Rahel. Cultural Brokers at Mediterranean Courts in the
Middle Ages. Mittelmeerstudien (Paderborn, Germany) ; Bd. 1. Mnchen : Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink ; Ferdinand
Schningh, 2013; Haque, Samiya. Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Renaissance Venice. May 22, 2016.
https://www.renaissancevenice.org/content/essay/fondaco-dei-tedeschi-0
2 Brown, Patricia Fortini. Carpaccio's St. Augustine in His Study: A Portrait within a Portrait. In Augustine in

Iconography: History and Legend edited by Joseph Schnaubelt, OSA, Frederick Van Fleteren, 507-526. New York:
P. Lang, 1999, 286.
3 Brown, Patricia Fortini. Carpaccio's St. Augustine in His Study: A Portrait within a Portrait. In Augustine in

Iconography: History and Legend edited by Joseph Schnaubelt, OSA, Frederick Van Fleteren, 507-526. New York:
P. Lang, 1999, 286.
4 De Vivo, Filippo. The Diversity of Venice and Her Myths. The Historical Journal 47, no. 1 (2004): 169.
 Rainy Michelsen 2

experience the prosperity that came with such as sense of harmony. Perhaps this is why it chose

to keep its appellation of Serenissima, the most serene.5

In order to understand what is exceptional about Venetian mediation this paper compares

one form of it to the structure of the Biblical covenant, the defined relationship between God and

man within certain conditions. The Bible describes how God sought to have a relationship with

humans, and how this relationship has been mediated through a developing series of covenants

that God made with Biblical figures, such as the one God first made with Abraham. These

covenants at their core define a relationship that brings together two parts that would otherwise

have no reason to connect perfect God and imperfect humanity. This reconciliation allows for

both to meet yet never overlap, but nonetheless allows for new levels of communication and

interaction, as each party now has a reason to notice one another, and gain. 6

This paper addresses how such reconciliation relates to the Venetian diplomacy between

the ancient pagan and Christian cultural elements apparent in its society. It explores how Venice

was able to experience the cultural influences of two belief systems at odds, the conflict between

polytheism and monotheism, by framing this issue as Venice performing a covenant. Specific

focus is placed on how Venetian painting acted as a visual representation of this covenant that

Venice carried. In tracing this issue, this paper analyzes three paintings by Venetian artists from

the 15th and 16th centuries categorized by the space each painting was held in religious space,

commercial space, and private space. These categories represent three key cross-sections of

5 Parker, Geoffrey. Sovereign City: The City-state through History. Globalities. London: Reaktion, 2004, 78; Why
is Venice Nicknamed La Serenissima?. italy magazine. Accessed July 19, 2017.
http://www.italymagazine.com/dual-language/why-venice-nicknamed-la-serenissima

6The Law: Covenant Structure, Biblical Training. Accessed July 22, 2017.
https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/covenant-structure/old-testament-survey/douglas-stuart
 Rainy Michelsen 3

Venetian society and help represent how the system of Venice interacted with Christian and

pagan belief systems.

The first cross-section of religious space is occupied by Giovanni Belllinis Blood of the

Redeemer.7 The painting is divided into three parts. In the foreground there is Christ supporting

his cross, displaying his wounds, and pouring his blood out for a kneeling angel to collect in a

cup. In the middle ground is a balustrade decorated by two classical reliefs showing pagan ritual.

The relief on the left may show the god Pan by a sacrificial altar with two men, and the relief on

the right may be the god Mercury accepting offerings. In the background is a landscape that

portrays three foci two men standing by ruins, the buildings of a town, and a city in the far

distance. The third section of the painting likely represents 15 th century space that is

contemporary to the artist, and perhaps even references Venice, Bellinis native city.8 This

painting concisely captures the system of Venice, where these two systems of Christianity and

ancient paganism are joined together yet still separate within the ultimate backdrop of Venice.

The composition of the painting gives an overview of the seemingly conflicting systems of

different cultural beliefs that yet balance together within Bellinis artwork.

The composition of the paintings relation to its religious site underscores the religious

concepts that are formed by the images design. Given its size and Eucharistic imagery alluded to

by the collection of Christs blood and his wounded body, this painting was likely made for a

tabernacle door.9 Given that the painting was kept in such an important part of a church, and

used for a sacred Christian ritual, it is somewhat shocking to see that the classical reliefs that

7See Figure 1.
8Brown, Patricia Fortini. Venice & Antiquitys: The Venetian Sense of the past. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1996, 22.
 Rainy Michelsen 4

decorate the balustrade depict pagan religious rituals, most likely of sacrifice. 10 The inclusion of

pagan rites seems inappropriate and in direct conflict with the Christian iconography. However,

there is no move to efface or negate what is occurring in the reliefs.11 This is unlike a number of

European representations of Christianity and paganism together in iconography. Examples of

iconoclastic iconography include Giovanni dAlemagna, a German painter active in Venice, who

painted Saint Apollonia Destroys a Pagan Idol, or Luca Signorelli, an Italian from Tuscany, who

painted a fresco of St. Benedict depicting monks destroying a pagan statue while St. Benedict

evangelizes both emphasizing how Christianity replaces ancient pagan traditions.12 While a

painter raised in Northern Europe and an Italian raised beyond Venice both depict a clash

between Christianity and paganism, Bellini, a native Venetian does not move to do this. There is

a unique Venetian desire to let both belief systems coexist and meet together without conflict.

This reconciliation of two is accomplished by letting them build upon each other through

parallelism.

Apparent parallelism is drawn between the belief systems by mirroring of pagan

sacrificial rites and Christs sacrifice across their respective sections within painting.13 There is a

both a layering in material and meaning in the painting as the cup that collects the blood of

Christs sacrifice is painted in alignment and nearly on top of the pagan altar where sacrifices of

blood and flesh would be burned. Man would make sacrifices to the gods, and now God makes

10 Brown, Patricia Fortini. Venice & Antiquitys: The Venetian Sense of the past. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1996, 199.
11 Dunkerton, Jill, Foister, Susan, Gordan, Dillian, and Penny, Nicholas, Giotto to Durer. Early Renaissance

Painting in the National Gallery, New Haven and London 1991, 22.
12 Pagan Artifacts in Christian Art, Italian Renaissance Learning Resources, Accessed July 18, 2017,

http://italianrenaissanceresources.com/units/unit-7/essays/pagan-artifacts-in-christian-art/; Idolatry and

Iconoclasm, Tufts, Accessed July 25, 2017,
http://emerald.tufts.edu/programs/mma/fah188/kpetersen/iconoclasm.html
13 Saxl, F. Pagan Sacrifice in the Italian Renaissance, Journal of the Warburg Institute 2 (1938): 351, 352; Brown,

Patricia Fortini, Carpaccio's St. Augustine in His Study: A Portrait within a Portrait,; Brown, Patricia Fortini.
Venice & Antiquitys: The Venetian Sense of the past. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, 199.
 Rainy Michelsen 5

the ultimate sacrifice for mankind. The layered space of the composition suggests a development

in religious thought in that the blood of animals in pagan sacrifice prefigured the spilling of

Christ's blood.14 Here the ancient pagan sacrifice represents a type for the antitype of Christs

ultimate sacrifice. Were Bellini to follow Signorelli, and have an angel destroying the classical

reliefs, the audience would be bereft of realizing the sense of completeness of the sacrifice of

Jesus Christ. Bellinis composition represents a folding in of parallel events within the painting.

It depicts a relationship between pagan and Christian ideals that through parallelism and layering

enrich a Biblical concept. Though note, this is all within the ultimate backdrop of Venice and by

the design of a Venetian painter.

Vittore Carpaccios St. Augustine in His Study (Vision of St. Augustine) was

commissioned for the Scuola di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, a place of business in Venetian

society.15 The painting shows a personal study bright in color and light. The three walls of the

room each hold key points. The wall on the far right has St. Augustine facing the viewer,

working at his desk, and turning his head right to view light shining through the windows. A dog

to his left looks on with him. The center back wall holds an altar with a statue of Christ

surrounded by other religious symbols and objects, such as a mosaic depicting an angel. The wall

to the far left contains levels of shelving including a great variety of erudite objects from books

to small statues. The whole room seems to have a variety of objects from a humanistic mind

carefully and casually placed throughout.

14
Braham, Allan, Martin Wyld, and Joyce Plesters. Bellini's The Blood of the Redeemer. National Gallery
Technical Bulletin 2 (1978): 11; Brown, Patricia Fortini. Venice & Antiquitys: The Venetian Sense of the past. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, 199.
15 See Figure 2.
 Rainy Michelsen 6

A visual expression of harmony is conveyed throughout the painting. Most of the objects

are anachronistic for a scene meant to depict St Augustine, who lived during the fifth century,

and instead show fifteenth century artifacts that reflect a Venetian desire to balance religious

thought with classical ideas that the Saint may not have shared.16 This desire to emphasize

reconciliation is further communicated by the visage of St. Augustine whose features are argued

to be modeled after Basilios Bessarion, a Greek scholar and cardinal.17 Bessarion was originally

from Constantinople but came to reside in Venice permanently after the Ottoman Empire

conquered the Byzantium.18 He is notable for his efforts to reconcile the schism between the

Roman Catholic and the Greek Orthdox Church, and for his phenomenal collection of ancient

Greek manuscripts.19 He was a great supporter of humanistic thought, and it would be his

donation of his manuscripts to the Venetian state that would found the Venetian public library,

the Biblioteca Marciana. Bessarion had already passed away before this painting was created,

but he was alive during the early years of Carpaccios life, and would so represent a great figure

of Venetian intercultural thought and religious and civic virtue for Carpaccios time. The allusion

to Bessarion may provide a sense of contemporary Venice within the Saints study. His presence

in the work, and his personal history of seeking resolution between East and West, and his desire

to harmonize pagan and Christian teachings, adds even greater strength to the expression of

16 Nagel, Alexander, Christopher Wood, Charles Dempsey, Michael Cole, and Claire Farago. "Interventions:
Toward a New Model of Renaissance Anachronism/Response: Historia and Anachronism in Renaissance
Art/Response: Nihil Sub Sole Novum/Response: Time Out of Joint/The Authors Reply." The Art Bulletin 87, no. 3
(2005): 403-32.
17 Brown, Patricia Fortini, Carpaccio's St. Augustine in His Study: A Portrait within a Portrait, 517.
18 Saint Augustine in his Study. Echoes from the Gnosis. November 09, 2011, Accessed July 17, 2017,

http://echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.it/2011/11/saint-augustine-in-his-study.html.
19 Saint Augustine in his Study. Echoes from the Gnosis. November 09, 2011, Accessed July 17, 2017,

http://echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.it/2011/11/saint-augustine-in-his-study.html.
 Rainy Michelsen 7

reconciliation shown in the painting and the apparent desire for the beautiful conjunction of

sacred and profane elements that Carpaccio creates within the painting.20

Carpaccio took great pains in detail to maintain this harmony between pagan and

Christian thought throughout the room to the point that even the objects included demonstrate

acts of reconciliation. Notable among the objects are the bronze statues within the painting. The

most pre-eminent object in the room is the bronze statue of Christ standing on an altar at the

center of the painting. But, there is also another bronze statue, a small figurine of Venus kept on

the shelving in the far left of the painting.21 What is striking is the separation and parallelism

between these figures. Each sits in a separate place with a stretch of empty space between. They

do not share the same position or regard. Christ is at a place of worship on the altar and Venus on

the book shelf with the other objects of study. They do not overlap, but they each share a relation

with St. Augustine as they are precious objects of his. Beyond St. Augustine, they also share a

connection with each other as indicated by their mirrored poses. Christs and Venus gazes seem

to meet as their heads are turned toward each other, and each holds a hand outstretched towards

the other in what seems to be a symbolic reconciliation of these often considered opposing

forces and ideas, as they tacitly recognize[e] and acknowledge[e] the other.22

While Bellini expressed the connection between Christian and pagan cultures through

paralleling their related beliefs surrounding sacrifice, Carpaccio focuses on a more philosophical

and intellectual sphere given St. Augustine writing at his desk and the erudite objects in the

20 Saint Augustine in his Study. Echoes from the Gnosis. November 09, 2011, Accessed July 17, 2017,
http://echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.it/2011/11/saint-augustine-in-his-study.html.
21 Nagel, Alexander, Christopher Wood, Charles Dempsey, Michael Cole, and Claire Farago. "Interventions:

Toward a New Model of Renaissance Anachronism/Response: Historia and Anachronism in Renaissance

Art/Response: Nihil Sub Sole Novum/Response: Time Out of Joint/The Authors Reply." The Art Bulletin 87, no. 3
(2005): 403-32. See Figure 3 for clearer image of Venus figurine.
22 Saint Augustine in his Study, Echoes from the Gnosis. November 09, 2011, Accessed July 17, 2017,

http://echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.it/2011/11/saint-augustine-in-his-study.html.; See Figure 3 for a clearer image.

 Rainy Michelsen 8

room. Blood of the Redeemer shows a reconciliation of beliefs; St Augustine in His Study shows

a reconciliation of thoughts and ideas. This difference of focus may coincide with their

difference in intended location of the paintings. The enrichment of religious ideals within the

church, and demonstration of balanced humanistic thought in a professional setting.

Nevertheless, they both follow the use parallelism and separation to depict these concepts, and

show the desire to hold two separate systems within a third system for here, again, Christian and

pagan elements are held within a Venetian scene

Lastly, the portrait of Andre Odoni by Lorenzo Lotto gives insight into the private life of

a Venetian merchant.23 It directly addresses an experience shared by powerful Venetian citizens,

many of whom had antiquarian collections balancing personal classics interest with their

religious beliefs. The painting shows the merchant Odoni cradling a statuette of Diana of

Ephesus in one hand and clasping a cross to his chest with the other.24 He is sitting in a room

surrounded by the fragments of ancient pagan art referencing his antiquarian collection. One of

several interpretations of his gesture is that Christianity takes precedence over the pagan gods of

antiquity.25 But the composition of an object in each hand, and an arm directed inwards, the other

outwards also conveys a sense of parallelism and separation. Like the other two paintings there is

a maintained contrast between the Christian and pagan artifacts as they are connected by the

third key figure in the painting.

Unlike the previous paintings, there is not an assumed sense of harmony in the scene, or

at least harmony has not been achieved yet. Instead there is a personal statement of the desire for

such a balance. While the religious artifacts are aligned by resting in each hand of the merchant,

23 See Figure 4.
24 Lorenzo Lotto (Venice c. 1480-Loreto 1556), Andrea Odoni, Signed and dated 1527
Accessed July 17, 2017. https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/405776/andrea-odoni.
25 Lorenzo Lotto (Venice c. 1480-Loreto 1556), Andrea Odoni, Signed and dated 1527
 Rainy Michelsen 9

there is a sense of options being weighed, as Odoni's direct gaze at the viewer and the contrast

between the hand held to his heart and the proffered statuette of Diana have suggested a choice is

being proposed to the viewer.26 While there is arguably a reconciliation already present through

the Venetian Odonis own apparent decision to balance both facets of his life as shown by the

collection of objects around him, his earnest gaze still places pressure upon the viewer to resolve

the potential tension between the objects he holds. The arrangement of his arms and his hands,

one stretched to the viewer and one to himself, suggests not just a simple choice being offered to

the viewer, but also the hand gestures of negotiation. He does not offer a cross to the reader to

remind them to be steadfast in their faith. He is not setting the pagan artifact aside to show a

rejection of it. He does not make the decision for the viewer. He is offering it for the viewer to

consider while expressing his gentle regard for it, that it is precious and worth reconciling for.

This painting maintains the pattern of parallelism and separation of pagan and Christian

elements to discuss the balance between them. But what is unique is that it actively seeks the

decision of a third party, the audience. There is a necessary sense of choice and negotiation

required for the balance between Christian and pagan culture. It is not so much the nuance of

type and antitype, nor an issue of reconciliation of beliefs or ideas, but a display of a particular

persons relationship to two separate things, and the question of whether one should decide to

resolve a possible conflict of interests. The painting depicts a call to reconcile it does not so

much represent the construction of a covenant, but the decision of an individual to engage in one.

The three paintings' depictions of the Venetian mediation between Christian and pagan

culture follow the fundamental structure of Biblical covenant. Through their use of parallelism

26 Lorenzo Lotto (Venice c. 1480-Loreto 1556), Andrea Odoni, Signed and dated 1527
 Rainy Michelsen 10

the paintings composition is able to join unlike things together, and their careful maintenance of

separation ensures that the each part does overlap with the other. But, these oil paintings also

reveal a crucial difference between the Biblical and Venetian perceptions of covenants. Biblical

covenants are an agreement between two parties, but the Venetian paintings recognize that there

is always a third party, the presence of Venice. The Biblical covenant involves two parties

willing to meet and join. The Venetian covenant is a negotiation between two elements by a third

party. While the Bible seeks to join two things, Venice seeks to join two things at a third point.

There is an evident awareness of this point of juncture by the Venetians. Venice does not just see

itself as a place that makes covenants but the place of covenants. It perceives itself as a scene of

joining. How could it not it is city that means to contain many worlds. Its desire for harmony

and willingness to engage in covenants ultimately rests on its particular awareness of its point of

intersection, the point of mediation.

 Rainy Michelsen 11

Appendix

Figure 1
 Rainy Michelsen 12

Figure 2

Figure 3
 Rainy Michelsen 13

Figure 4
 Rainy Michelsen 14

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The Blood of the Redeemer. Accessed July 18, 2017.

https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/giovanni-bellini-the-blood-of-the-redeemer

Braham, Allan, Martin Wyld, and Joyce Plesters. Bellini's The Blood of the
Redeemer. National Gallery Technical Bulletin 2 (1978): 11-16.

Bellini, Giovanni. The Blood of the Redeemer. 1460-5. Egg on poplar. London: The
National Gallery.
Brown, Patricia Fortini. Carpaccio's St. Augustine in His Study: A Portrait within a
Portrait. In Augustine in Iconography: History and Legend edited by Joseph Schnaubelt,
OSA, Frederick Van Fleteren, 507-526. New York: P. Lang, 1999.

Brown, Patricia Fortini. Venice & Antiquitys: The Venetian Sense of the past. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Carpaccio, Vittore. Vision of St Augustin. 1502. Tempera on canvas. Venice: Scuola di

San Giorgio degli Schiavoni,
De Vivo, Filippo. The Diversity of Venice and Her Myths. The Historical Journal 47,
no. 1 (2004): 169-77.

Dunkerton, Jill, Foister, Susan, Gordan, Dillian, and Penny, Nicholas, Giotto to Durer.
Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery, New Haven and London 1991.
Haque, Samiya. Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Renaissance Venice. May 22, 2016.
https://www.renaissancevenice.org/content/essay/fondaco-dei-tedeschi-0.
Hh, Marc Von Der, Jaspert, Nikolas, and Oesterle, Jenny Rahel. Cultural Brokers at
Mediterranean Courts in the Middle Ages. Mittelmeerstudien (Paderborn, Germany) ;
Bd. 1. Mnchen : Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink ; Ferdinand Schningh, 2013.
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http://emerald.tufts.edu/programs/mma/fah188/kpetersen/iconoclasm.html.
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Lorenzo Lotto (Venice c. 1480-Loreto 1556), Andrea Odoni, Signed and dated 1527
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odoni.
Nagel, Alexander, Christopher Wood, Charles Dempsey, Michael Cole, and Claire
Farago. Interventions: Toward a New Model of Renaissance Anachronism, The Art
Bulletin 87, no. 3 (2005): 403-32.
 Rainy Michelsen 15

Pagan Artifacts in Christian Art. Italian Renaissance Learning Resources. Accessed

July 18, 2017. http://italianrenaissanceresources.com/units/unit-7/essays/pagan-artifacts-
in-christian-art/.

Parker, Geoffrey. Sovereign City: The City-state through History. Globalities. London:
Reaktion, 2004.

Saxl, F. Pagan Sacrifice in the Italian Renaissance. Journal of the Warburg Institute 2
(1938): 346.

Saint Augustine in his Study. Echoes from the Gnosis. November 09, 2011. Accessed
July 17, 2017. http://echoesfromthegnosis.blogspot.it/2011/11/saint-augustine-in-his-
study.html.

The Law: Covenant Structure. Biblical Training. Accessed July 22, 2017.
https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/covenant-structure/old-testament-survey/douglas-
stuart

Why is Venice Nicknamed La Serenissima?. italy magazine. Accessed July 19, 2017.
http://www.italymagazine.com/dual-language/why-venice-nicknamed-la-serenissima