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    “Sublevel Caving- A Fresh Look at This Bulk Mining Method”

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    Sublevel Caving - A Fresh Look at This Bulk Mining Method

    Uploaded by

    Luis Flores Sabando
    “Sublevel Caving- A Fresh Look at This Bulk Mining Method”

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CHAPTER 47 Sublevel Caving: A Fresh Look at this Bulk Mining Method C.H. Page’ and G. Bullt 47.4 INTRODUCTION By some, sublevel caving is considered to be @ development. intensive, high-dilution, and lowerecovery mining method Results from Some recent operations, however, and changes the Scandinavians are making to very high level intervals would tend to contradict these assumptions. The clear advantage of sublevel caving is that it is a very predictable “factory"-type method with high production potential, reasonable costs, low up-front capital, and very litle risk to the ore at any one time (a few thousend tonnes in an individual ring). Sublevel caving seems to suffer from significant contradictions, The possibility of drawing a slice of broken ‘material relatively cleanly while surrounded by broken waste (Gigure 47.1) apparently defies loge. However, experience shovs that itis possible, When a ring is blasted (typically on the order of 2,000 tonnes), the frst partof the draw is reasonably clean, Waste from above and in front of the ring then starts to come into the crawpoint, and a mixture of ore and waste is drawn. The proportion of waste increases until a cutoff amount is reached. When the drawpoint is shut off, there will be ore left behind. This sixes with previous ore and waste in the cave, and the waste increases in grade asthe cave matures. The objective is to Keep the ‘waste out for as long as possible, but to try to make the most out of the zones of higher grade dilution. For this reason, itis very fmportane that a practical, common-sense model of how and wy the method works should be agreed upon. This model will then be the basis for determining crtieal design and operating aspects. ‘The bases for any model are— LAs oreis pulled from the blasted ring, it wil be replaced by broken waste. 2. This waste will be mixed with some ofthe ore as the choked material is moving. {3 All design and operational efforts are directed toward extracting as much of the ore as clean as possible, delaying the appearance of dilution, and continuing the draw of an economic mixture of ore and waste for as long as possible. ‘The knowledge base for sublevel caving is comparatively small as very few mines use or have used the method. Most theory comes out of Scandinavia, is many years old, and is based con model studies and classical bin theory. Data on draw behavior are difficult ro come by, and most of the data that are available comes from experience in iron mining. A major problem with ‘applying such experience to other operations is thatthe dilution cean carry very high iron grades, so itis difficult to assess the amount of true dilution. Here, by “true” dilution is meant the ‘tonnage drawn from outside the current ring regardless of grade ‘The problem of determining true dilution is also true for the current Australian “choke” method mines (Mt. Lyle, Mt. T Sei Consulting, Vancowver, BC, Canada. + SRK Consulting, West Perth, Western Australia, Austala waste FIGURE 47.1 Overview of sublevel caving Charlotte, Heller, Redeemer, and Perseverance), where very high recoveries and grade factors are quoted, but where the figures are not adjusted for the grade in the diluting material. A related problem in this regard is that many mines judge themselves 386 bo nic ercnienienr ST EE EE AE ww a: We" AYE. a FIGURE 47.2 Sequence of drawing ore from a single drawpoint against a reserve grade that already includes an estimate of ‘mining dilution, 47.2 HOW DOES SUBLEVEL CAVING WORK? ‘The classic theory of sublevel caving (Kvapil 1982, 1992) is based fon ellipsoids of motion and isolated draw from a single rawpoint (Figure 47.2). There are clearly some problems with this model as it ignores differences in fragmentation, material ‘ypes, the significant weight of the cave (which compacts the caved material), and the action of the blast (which also consolidates the waste in front of the blasted ring). The conventional draw curves everyone has used in the past are shown in Figure 47.3. This suggests that in cave mining, dilution centers the drawpoint at low extractions and gives rise to the ‘method's reputation as a high-dilution method. In practice, many operations have encountered dilution at 20% draw, At a major Chilean mine drawing beneath fine material, the waste has been observed to enter the drawpoint almost immediately. At more recent operations having different designs and procedures, it appears that dilution might enter the draw at much higher extraction levels (well above 509%). This results ia much higher grade factors. The information used to justify this claim is very scarce and not well documented. ‘The updated model described below is based on the belief that delayed dilution entry is possible and could he the basis for some significant changes in the conventional model of sublevel caving, 47.3 CRITICAL ASPECTS OF THE NEW THEORY The “new” theory of sublevel caving presented herein was initially based on the fact that the Redeemer Mine in Australia ‘was breaking many of the classic rules, but achieving much better results than suggested by classic theory. The basic factors are illustrated in Figure 47.4. 44. Interactive draw, The drawpoints are retreated in aline and drawn in rotation so that they ereate a zone of low: ‘density material that can flow at much lower angles ‘than if a drawpoint were drawn in isolation from its neighbor. 83% oF one tytn ORE VOLUME IN SLICE + 100% 2 2 4 6 © 00 0 one + waste —— extracren 20 10 % OF ORE «0 50 % OF WASTE FIGURE 47.3 Conventional draw curves 2. “Fluffed” ore and waste “consolidation.” These twro factors express the concept that blasting thoroughly loosens the ore in the immediate ring (reducing density) while consolidating the waste behind the ring (making it more dense) 8. Coarse material arching over a freshly Blasted ving. Atthe top of the ring, iis difficult to achieve fine fragmenta- tion because of the extensive damage zone and signifi- cant oss of holes in the pillar area. Hence, this coarse ‘material will arch more widely than the rest of the ring. Although the model is unproven, it is a common-sense approach and is a reasonable basis for identifying the more critical aspects of sublevel caving. Several of the assumptions ‘come from models of block caving and involve factors, such as interactive draw, that have been well documented, Many of the critical aspects with the old theory remain important, but there are some new ones and some with 2 different emphasis in the new model, Questions are raised, however, about the importance of some of the assumptions, several of which have not been questioned until recently, What is clear is thatthe following are critical Sublevel Caving: A Fresh Look at this Bulk Mining Method ie Se FIGURE 47.4 Schematic ustrating draw behavior in sublovel caving 1 Differential fragmentation. Fine fragmented material flows more readily than coarse material, Dilution should bbe coarser than the ore since the fine material ean flow ‘through coarse material = Compaction. Compacted material does not flow as readily as freshly blasted material, and the blast must compact the “waste” infront of the fresh ore. 1» Temporary arching. The coarser material at the top of the ring impedes the flow of waste, draws over a much wider arch than fine material, and can temporarily hang up ‘while the finer material is drawn, = Draw coverage. The more the ore is undercut by develop- ‘ment, the more likely itis that the ore will flow into the drawpoint. Figure 475 shows model flow diagrams and Ailution entry for different drawpoint spacings (D/?s), isolated draw zone diameter (IDZ) ratios under interac- tive draw (A, B, and C), and isolated draw (0). The height of the interaction zone (HIZ) is also shown, 1 Interactive draw. The simultaneous drawing of adjacent be maintained within the mineralization envelope or ‘mine where dips are steep. This affects the choice of vertical distance between the drawpoint and che waste igure 477). ‘The overall objective for a sublevel caving operation is delayed dilution entry. Classic theory and practice has dilution entering when 20% to 40% of the ring tonnage has been extracted, More recent operations have achieved 80% and better. By delaying the entry of dilution into the muckpile, both the proportion of clean ore and the grade factor for the same 387 Von] hi ip le A D/P @ 225 in DUB D/Pe @ 15 x 2 DUM Di ENTRY 188 Dik ENTRY cO , A) fie ©. D/P © 3x02 DUM DDFs @ La x Da voR@D DL BNIRY ast In ISOLATOW Di. ETRY 25% FIGURE 47.5 Model flow diagrams and elution entry for different rawpoint spacings. extraction are increased. Dilution in this instance, as indicated carliey, is material outside the current ring. Ifit carries grade, this is cleetly a plus, 47.4 IDEAL LAYOUT ‘The items listed in section 3 are very important when considering layout, conditions, equipment, and procedures that will achieve oF promote ideal conditions. Everything in underground mining is a compromise between what looks good on paper and what an ore body will allow one to do. The compromise is one of reducing development and operating costs or having larger, more frequent development to achieve better grades. Inthe fist case, there may be loss of tonnage and grade through earlier dilution entry and a lower grade factor. In the second case, large amounts may be spent on support and a reduction in production rate. One must be clear about what the compromises are and their consequences. Most mining engineers are happy to estimate costs from which they always conclude that less development is cheaper. However, they are very unhappy with estimates of head grade, which is mostly a function of planned and unplanned dilution, and loss of production. Dilution and production surely are, however, the two ‘most important engineering considerations. There are a number of aspects that must be considered. 47.4.1 Longitudinal or Transverse Mining, A transverse layout (Figure 47.8) produces more drawpoints. The slot cuts off the major stress direction and the drifts are in the same direction as the major induced stress, so they are less affected. However, the long faces ate more “relaxed” and can be Jess stable, and cutting the major principal stress can actually reduce the clamping that holds blocks in place. A longitudinal layout means = better development yield, i.e., fewer waste ‘Sublevel Caving SDroctes THe OMe RONEN OE CaN Hane UP GN FA = wranG GUTINENSDE” MNERAUZATON, SO DILUTION CARRIES GRADE, co oyoneas mize one BIE eee ition Entry Anorox %Euation mei at ntmton om og) on 28 Wit De ee eeeat nazass on = AS FIGURE 47.6 Comparison of independent and interactive draws, A, Effect of interactive draw; B, effects of drawpoint spacings connections. It also means potentially lower dilution from the hanging wall if the hanging wall is strong. The clamping stress from the hanging wall is retained, resulting in shorter, more stable extraction faces. On the other hand, these fronts stayin the “nuteracker" position. The longitudinal layout has less ‘production potential and very long ventilation lengths. 47.4.2. Production Drift Size and Snape The drifts should be as wide as possible to assure good draw coverage. They should also be as low as possible for stable pillar ‘walls and shorter muckpiles for easier charging. In addition they should be as square as possible to widen the zone of moving material. This is an area of compromise, however, since the effectiveness of square brows is open to question. If an arched back results in much more stable development, then stability night take precedence (Figure 47.8). 47.4.3 Drift Spacing ‘The drifts should be as close together as possible. Spacing is dependent on pillar size and shape, which depends upon the loads being carried, In effect, the production level is a room-and- pillar layout and the pillars must be able to carry the vertical loads. These tend to be low because of the proximity of the cave (Figure 479). 47.44 Level Interval Level interval is dependent on hole deviation. As common sense ‘would suggest, the loser the levels are together, the less likely FIGURE 47.7 mea FIGURE 47.8 Transverse or longitudinal layout : A Fresh Look at this Bulk Mining Method 389 Boe | "NRE woh ase SS SHER, SOUAT PULARS ARE THE STRONGEST BUT Ta REQURES ‘NbLY Sekar, (aw ech, PRODUCTION DANES CONSEQUENCE OF SPACING wae, weggn mite eee cons oF Hex REDUCE HEIGHT AND AGHEEVE BETTER ACCESS TO BROWS QUE TO REDUGED LENGTH OF MRGKPLE FIGURE 47.9 Consider ions in eit spacing that something will go wrong. Level interval has a significant effect on development cost per tonne. With improvements being made in drill technology, the industry is rapidly increasing level intervals. ATA Ring Burden In the past, the ring burden has been related to the “dig depth’; however, this is doubtful since no bucket can dig anywhere close to the back of a muckpile. It is dependent on hole size and ring pattern, The burden must ensure both “fuffing” and “compaction.” Furthermore, it must achieve the correct design powder factor of 0.9 kg/m? and minimize the incidence of freezing, which is an ever present danger with choke blasting, 4746 Hole Size ‘The largest possible holes are more economic and more accurate. Larger holes mean that level intervals can be increased. They are less likely to be closed and can have larger burdens, which makes it easier to get back under the brow and charge. However, they can do mote damage to the next ring and can cause severe bbackbreak, affecting the collars of the next ring. Sticky ANFO can ‘be used to charge holes with larger diameters. 47.4.7 Ring Pattern Both fragmentation and damage are dependent on ring layout. Hole spacings should be much larger than the ring burden. The burden:spacing ratio at the toes of the holes should be at least 1.3. 47.4.8 Ring inclination ‘The ring is inclined toward the cave to adjust the shape of the roving material, to shield the drawpoint from the waste above, ‘and to protect the brow from backbreak (Figure 47.10). There is {AVERTICAL FRONT ‘meu FRONT INGLNED RNG : ~ BETTER COMPATILTY BETHEEN SAP aD oRAW ELE TRCDUCTIN OF WAC FROM ANOUE #1 \ FIGURE Ring inctination very litde information on ring inclination and the effect of different angles. 47.4.9 Column Height As large a column height as possible is desired to keep pure waste well away from an active drawpoint. Height is a function of dip and size. 47.4.10 Short Hauls Haulage distances should be kept as short as possible, and there should be as many tipping points as possible. Ore passes are cheap in terms of cost per tonne 47.4.11 Continuous Development Crosscuts should not be mixed with drifts as i is very difficult to bring the rings through an intersection. In such cases, mult-ring blasts are often necessary, and there is a high frequency of freezing with multi-ring blasts in choke conditions. 47.412 Slots A free face is needed before ring blasting can start. There are essentially four types of slot: (1) “individual” with a raise at the tend of each drift; (2) “continuous” with a raise at one end, (3) “slashing” along the axis of the drift, or (4) “slashing” along @ perpendicular drift (Figure 47.11). 47.5 WHAT CAN GO WRONG? Before discussing the ideal conditions under which sublevel caving should be operated, itis useful to consider what can go wrong, remembering that the emphasis should be on achieving —__ 390 some —_ = @ = a D FIGURE 47.11 Slot types Q) late dilution entry and (2) very high production rates per Grawpoint. The item identified as contributing to the success of the new sublevel caving model will also detract from these results if they do not perform as planned, Some of the potential problems are indicated below. Brows. There are three potential prablems with damaged brows: wedge failures narrow the draw, backbreale makes it difficult to charge the holes, and stress failure resulting from high horizontal stresses damages the hole collars. Pillars. The walls of the drifts can be lost because of high stresses and weak rock or the daylighting of structures. ‘This can oceur if development is to far ahead, the pillars are too small, and/or the walls are too high, Bridges. Bridge formation because of unbroken toes atthe top of a ring or unbroken ore from above removes choke conditions. This allows waste to flow around. The bridges usually get thicker and thicker until they ate down to the brow and the whole blast freezes (Figure 47.128) Was. Walls form when the front ring of a double-ring blast freezes, compacted waste freezes (over-compac= ‘ion(?), or sticky material is present (Figure 47.12b). Ring freezing, Blasting problems or delays in operations allow the choke to overconsolidate Ribs. Unbroken toes on the side of the ring leave unbroken ore between the drifts (Figure 47.12c). ‘Oversize. Hole deviation and misfires can cause signif- cant amounts of oversized rock. The oversize slows the draw process, affects production rate, and can resultin premature dilucion entry as it intereupts the draw process. “BRIDGES” "RIBS" (0) (b) ieaweatae (oR RUE) ores (c) FIGURE 47.12 Examples of problems in sublevel caving 476 Wedge crushing. Wedge crushing occurs with the day- lighting of large, continuous structures in the hanging wall and crushing of immediate development. The latter israre, Overhangs. Dipping ore with delayed caving can result in significant stresses being induced because of an over- hhang. This can result in crushing of development and/or loss of holes. ‘Incomplete slots If the sublevel caving production drive starts with an incomplete free face, the rapid formation of bridges and ribs can occur. ‘oss of holes. Drilling too far ahead and stress changes or relaxation can result in the deterioration of drill holes, Daylighting structures can cause block movement and ‘cutoffs, loose material can ril into breakthrough holes, and blasting damage from the previous ring ean cause hole loss. IDEAL CONDITIONS ‘The ideal layouts for sublevel caving have been reviewed and ‘what can go wrong during operations has been presented. AS was discussed earlier, mining methods are a compromise between ‘what looks good on paper and what the ore body will allow to be done. Determining what the ore body will permit is a technical consideration. Making sure that what should be achievable is actually ackieved is management. The combination of ideal ‘Sublevel Caving: A Fresh Look at this Bulk Mining Method layouts and what can go wrong should indicate the ideal conditions for sublevel caving. What the ore body will allow one to do is a function of mining difficulty. This includes geometry, rock mass conditions, major structures, stresses, grade distribution, ete. Some of the factors to keep in mind aze-— 1» Strong rock. Strong rock allows the use of small pillars (small drive centers) '# Competent rock. Rock competence is dependent on joint: ing and formation of wedges. Competent rock implies {ew joints and strong joint surfaces (with lite intlling and irregular and rough surfaces). In competent rock, the brows are mostly disturbed by blasting and then by grav- ity. Such rock masses allow the creation of wide backs. Since the presence of joints may cause wedge failures in one direction but notin the other, a design decision ‘might be to align development in the favorable direction. = Few major structures. The lack of major structures mini- ‘izes massive wedge failures and/or hole cut-offs. 1 Steep dip. A steep dip keeps the source of low-grade dilu- tion farther away from current drawpoints, As a result, ‘most dilution comes over the top of the mixture of ore and waste from caving at much higher levels than the ‘current extraction level, 1 Massive ore body. The ore body should be sufficiently massive to present a large footprint for high production rates. Most dilution comes from the boundary between fore and waste, and hence the more massive the deposit, the smaller the proportion of material from the bound- ary. The development yield (ore recovered + waste development) is higher for massive deposits. 1 Fragmentation. Fragmentation of both the blasted mate- rial and the caved material must be considered, Joint fre- quency, joint condition, and joint direction will al affect, the degree of fragmentation, A competent rock mass is usually the most suitable because larger, widely spaced hholes will still result in good fragmentation, but the caved material will be very coarse. This results in the blasted material being finer than that of the caved ‘material and yields “even” pieces of fragmented material with a minimum of both oversize and fines. 1 Dry conditions. minimum of groundwater is positive both for the maintenance of roadways and the prevention ‘of muck rushes. There should be a program to encaurage drainage ahead of the cave face. 1 No muddy material. There should be little, or preferably no, very weak or rapidly weathering material in order f0 avoid problems of muck rushes, over-compaction, and Jhangeups. 1 Caving. Caving is seldom an issue with sublevel caving as ‘mining usually starts out ofthe bottom of an open pit. Lack of caving from the hanging wall is usually an advan- tage because it delays the beginnings of dilution, How- lever, choke conditions must be maintained. At dips below 50°, for example, the occurrence of voids can be an issue, Cavability is a function of rock mass conditions and hydraulic radius (Figure 47.13) 47.7 PROCEDURES AND PROCESSES ‘TO MAXIMIZE EFFECTIVENESS “Ideal” is not found in mining, and compromises ate inevitable. There are a number of processes and procedures that should be used to help overcome the possible consequences of making ‘compromises and to enhance the effectiveness of sublevel caving, ‘The only methods in which most ofthe technical uncertainty is “designed out” of the system are those with cemented backfill _—_— 391 own Rose mass maT (in) sro RADU (AREVPeRNEER) a iS FIGURE 47.43 showing eavabiity ‘conditions and hydraulic ras This, however, is done at great expense and with a significant reduction in production rate, There are a number of ways in ‘which design (technical) and attention to detail (management) can be used to reditce uncertainty in sublevel caving. 477A Development ‘The excavation process can cause considerable damage. Irregularities in the size and shape of drifts can make them less stable and more difficult to support. Care must be taken in the design and management of the process, This means that any plan should include— 1 Enough holes at the perimeter. Both the perimeter and the next row of holes in from the perimeter (if necessary) should be “cautiously” charged and timed. © Good breaking faces forall holes (at least right-angle triangles). ‘© Timing to prevent out-of sequence detonations. ‘© Standard patterns. Jumbo operators should not be allowed to “individualize” their pasterns, The patterns should be marked in detail. Usually there are 100 few lines or marks on the face for a jumbo operator to follow. ‘= Autoparallelism. Too often the autoparallelism feature of ‘modern drills is not used, and much too much look-out angle is put on the perimeter holes. 47.7.2. Ground Support Roof support has to function when the brow has freedom to move ‘and has to resist strong disturbances from blasting. Its not there to simply protect personnel in the drive. Whether precautionary ‘or structural support is required should be established. 392 eRcent pasane FIGURE 47.14 Distribution of material sizes Precautionary support can be Split'Set rock bolts and mest, ‘whereas structural support would normally include grouted bolts with strong plates. Bolt length is not usually important as all development is small. Increasing support intensity would include straps, etc., up through reinforced shoterete, Support is ‘concentrated at the brow position. Cables might be required to hold pillar walls. It should be remembered that the walls may often need more support than the backs. The objective is to retain brow shape, maintain stable collars, reduce backbreak, and produce safe charging conditions. 47.7.3 Ring Blasting ‘The objectives of the ring blasting program are “fluffing” ore, compacting Waste, preventing misfies, creating good fragmentation that results in interaction and high productivity, and limiting damage. Spacing and burden. Spacings and the amount of burden are chosen to minimize oversized material that interrupts or slows draw. This sa function of drawpoinc dimensions and bucket sizes of load-haul-dump (LHD) machines. A significant shift in the distribution of material sizes might need to be achieved, as illustrated in Figure 47.14. This is best done with small amounts of burden, large spacings, and longer delays. However, itis also necessary to be able 1 create swell by compacting the choke. 1» Pattern, There is a need to flatten the lower holes as ‘much as possible, but not so low that they choke and mis- fre, This is done to reduce hole length and to minimize the amount of hole that has to be drilled through the damaged pillar zone (Figure 47.15). The problem of relieving the flatter holes is reduced by interactive draw, Charging pattern. The charging pattern used must mi ‘ize sympathetic detonations, damage to the brow, and

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