Θεωρία Αριθμών Αντωνιάδης Κοντογιώργης

2

:
:
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ISBN: 978-618-82124-5-9
Copyright , 2015
Creative Commons -
- 3.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/gr/

9, 15780
http://www.kallipos.gr
ii
. ,
5 2015
ii

ix
I 1
1 3
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2 Goldbach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4 Bertrand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.5 ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 55
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.1 n-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3.1 Fermat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3.2 Catalan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.3 . . . . . 69
2.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
iii
iv
3 75
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.1 Mersenne Fermat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Sloane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4.1 Fermat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 93
4.1 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.1 g- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.5 modm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.9.1 Dixon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.9.2 p-1- Pollard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.9.3 Pollard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5 149
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.2.1 Jacobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.4 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.4 n- , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.4.1 n- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.4.5 a mod m, (a,m)=1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.4.6 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
v
5.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.4.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
II 221
- i
6 Fibonacci 225
6.1 Fibonacci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.2 Lucas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.4 Lucas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7 253
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.8.1 n. 283
7.9 e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8 Pell 295
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2 Pell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.3 Pell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9 309
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
vi
10 325
10.1 Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
10.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
351
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
11.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
11.2.3 Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
11.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
11.4.5 Galois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
, Sage 363

1.3.1 Magicada (public domain). -

: Bruce Marlin, : Wikimedia Commons https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Magicicada_species.jpg . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 276-194 .
(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Eratosthenes.png . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 Euler, : J.E. Handmann (1718-1781), -
(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.4 Yitang Zhang, (public domain). : Wiki-
media Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zhang_2014_
hi-res-download_3.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.5 T. Tao, (public domain). : Wikimedia
Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ttao2006.jpg . . . 23
1.3.6 P. Erdos A. Selberg. (public do-
main). : Wikimedia Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Erdos_head_budapest_fall_1992.jpg https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/File:Atle_Selberg.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.7 (x ) () x/ log(x ) () 1000 . . 28
1.3.8 Arecibo, Arecibo, -
H.G. Wells,
. (public domain). : W-
ikimedia Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arecibo_
Observatory_Aerial_View.jpg H. Schweiker https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arecibo_message.svg :
A. Correa https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:War-of-the-worlds-tripod.
jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.1 ,
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
vii
viii
2.2.2 Aryabhata Brahmagupta Copyright:Public Domain, -

(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg https:
//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brahmagupta.jpg . . . . . . . 59
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.2 1621. -
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diophantus_-_Aritmeticorum_libri_6.
,_1670_-_842640.jpeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.1 , (public domain). : Wikime-

dia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iamblichus.
jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.2 Thabit ibn Qurra (public domain),
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.1 , (public domain)
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.2 , (public domain). -
: Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Polygonal_Number_3.gif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3 Gauss, (public domain),
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.1 H. Hardy, (public domain). : Wikime-
dia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ghhardy@
72.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.2.2 Gauss, 70
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.1.1 Fibonacci, (public domain),

70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.1.2 Jacques Binet, (public domain). : Wiki-
media Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_
Binet.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.1.3 (Anthemis tinctoria), 21
13 . Fi-
bonacci . -
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FibonacciChamomile.PNG . . . . . . . . . 228
6.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.1.5 Lucas, (public domain). : Wikime-
dia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elucas_
1.png . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.1.6 Fibonacci Pascal,
(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:PascalTriangleFibanacci.svg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
ix
7.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
x

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xi
xii
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Hardy , .
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-
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I
1
1

1.1
()

Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
N+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
.
-
.
, -
N.
1.1.1 ( ). S N -
:
1. 0 S,
2. s S, s + 1 S,
S = N.
1.1.2 ( ). S,
, .
a S , a s s S.
.
1. .
.
. 1.1.2
1.1.3 ( ). P (n ) -
n.
3
4 1.
1. P (0)
2. P (m ) m < n P (n ),
P (n ) .
M : = {n N|P (n ) }
M N. M , , ,
M , m0 .
P (0) . m0 > 0. m0 n P (m )
m < m0 . P (m0 ), .
M = , P (n ) n.
1.1.4. P (n ) n.
P (n0 ) n0 > 0 m, m n0 , n
P (m ), P (m + 1), P (n )
n n0 .
1.1.5. , n N :
1
0 + 1 + 2 + + (n 1) + n = (n + 1)n.
2
. n = 0 .
n = m,
1
0 + 1 + + (m 1 ) + m = (m + 1)m
2
n = m + 1.
,
1
0 + 1 + + (m 1 ) + m + (m + 1 ) = (m + 1)m + (m + 1) =
2
m (m + 1)(m + 2)
= (m + 1)( + 1) = .
2 2
n
1.1.6. n :
n !
X n
= 2n
i =0
i
1.1. 5
. n = 0,
n ! !
X n 0
= = 0! = 1 = 20 .
i =0
i 0
m
m
X
n = m, = 2m
i =0
i
m +1
m+1

= 2m +1 .
X
n = m + 1,
i =0
i
m + 1 m + 1
= 1, =1
0 m+1
m + 1 m m
= + ,
k k1 k
.
,
m +1 m
m+1 m+1
X ! X !
= 2+
i =0
i i =1
i
m
m
X m
= 2+ +
i =1
i1 i
m 1 m
m m
X X
= 2+ +
i =0
i i =1
i
m m
m m
X X
= +
i =0
i i =0
i
m
m

= 2 2m = 2m +1
X
= 2
i =0
i
n.
1.1.7. n , 0 :
n
X 1 n
=
i =1
i (i + 1) n+1
. n = 1 .
m 1,
m
X 1 m
= (1.1.1)
i =1
i (i + 1) m+1
m + 1,
m +1
X 1 m+1
= .
i =1
i (i + 1) m+2
6 1.
,
m +1 m
X 1 X 1 1
= +
i =1
i (i + 1 ) i =1
i (i + 1 ) (m + 1)(m + 2)
(1.1.1) m 1 m (m + 2) + 1
= + = =
m+1 (m + 1)(m + 2) (m + 1)(m + 2)
(m + 1)2 m+1
= =
(m + 1)(m + 2) m + 2
n, n , 0.
1.1.8. n ! > n 2 n 4.
. n = 4.
, n = 4 4! = 24 > 16 = 42 .
n ! > n 2 (n + 1)! > (n + 1)2 .
n ! > n 2 n + 1
(n + 1)! > n 2 (n + 1) > (n + 1)2 .
n 2 > n + 1 n 2.
1.1.9. .
. m,
m =m+1
m + 1 = m + 2,
m + 1. n.
. ! ;
.
.
1.1.1
( )
.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. x, y R n N, n 1
n !
X n
(x + y )n = x n i y i
i =0
i
1.1. 7
( )
1. n < 2n .
2. n,
3 7n + 2 2n
5.
3. n, n 1,
1 1 1 1
+ + + 2 .
12 22 n2 n
4. n 1
!2
n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + + n =
3 3 3
.
2
n 3 n, n 1
.
( )
1. 0 1.
2. n 3n 5 + 5n 3 + 7n 15.
3. ( Bernoulli) x R 1 + x > 0 n 1
(1 + x )n 1 + nx.
( )
1. P (n ) n.
P (0) . , P (k ) P (k + 2) .
P (n ) n;
n
2. .
, n = 1.
n, .
n + 1 {1, 2, . . . , n, n + 1}.
{1, 2, . . . , n } {2, 3, . . . , n, n + 1}.
,

{1, 2, . . . , n, n + 1} .
. ;
8 1.
1.2
, .
, .
. a
2a = 1, b 2b = 4.
:
1.2.1. a, b b , 0. b a
c a = b c.
b a, a
() b, a b. b a b|a,
b - a.
:
1.2.2. a, b, c .
1. a, a , 0, a |0 a |a, a .
2. a 1|a, 1 .
3. c |b b|a, c |a.
4. c |a c |b, c |ka + lb k, l.
5. b|a bk |ak k , 0. , bk |ak b|a

( k , 0 0 | 0).
6. b|a a , 0, |b| |a |.
7. b|a a |b, a = b.
8. b|a a , 0, (a/b)|a.
9. b1 |a1 b2 |a2 , b1 b2 |a1 a2 .
. :
1. 0 = a 0 a = 1 a
2. a = 1 a
3. b = c k a = b l, a = c (k l )
4. a = c a 0 , b = c b0 , k a + l b = c (k a 0 + l b0 )
5. a k = (b k ) c = (b c ) k, (a b c ) k = 0 a = b c, k , 0
6. a = b c, |a | = |b| |c | c , 0, a , 0. |b| |a |.
7. a , 0 b , 0. 7, |b| |a |
|a | |b|.
|a | = |b|, a = b.
1.2. 9
8. a = bc. a , 0 c , 0, c |a.
9. a1 = b1 c1 a2 = b2 c2 , a1 a2 = (b1 b2 )(c1 c2 ).
. 7. (1.2.2)
.
1.2.3 ( ). a, b b , 0,
q r
a = bq + r 0 r < |b|.
. , , . M :=
{a bx |x Z} . , b > 0 a b(|a |)
M. b < 0 a b|a |
M.
S := M N
N.
, S , r. r
r = a bq q Z,
a = bq + r.
r < |b|. r |b|,

a b q b = a b (q + 1),
b > 0
r |b | =

a b q + b = a b (q 1),
b < 0
S r, . 0 r < |b|
a = b q + r = b q0 + r 0 0 r, r 0 < |b|,
|r 0 r | = |b(q q0 )|.
r, r 0 [0, |b|) |r 0 r | < |b|. q , q0

|r 0 r | < |b| < |b(q q0 )| = |r 0 r |, .
q = q0 , ,
r = a b q = a b q0 = r 0 .
1.2.4. a, b b , 0, q, r
a = bq +r
1 1
|b | < r |b|.
2 2
10 1.
. 1.2.3 q0 , r0
a = b q0 + r0 0 r0 < |b|. 0 r0 12 |b|, q := q0 r := r0 .
12 |b| < r0 < |b|,

q0 + 1,

b > 0
r := r0 |b| < 0 q :=
q0 1,
b < 0.
a = b q + r = b q0 + r 0
1 1
|b| < r, r 0 |b|.
2 2
, 0 |r 0 r | < |b|. q , q0
0 |r 0 r | < |b| < |b(q q0 )| = |r 0 r |.
q = q0 r = r 0 .
1.2.5. a = 145 b = 23, q = 6 r = 7. a = 61 b = 7

q = 9 r = 2. a = 59 b = 9 q = 7 r = 4.
1. 1.2.3 b|a r = 0.
2. 1.2.3
m > 1, r {0, 1, 2, . . . , m 1}.
a
m l, m l + 1, . . . , m l + (m 1)
l.
1.2.3.
3. m = 2 .
() 2l ()
2l + 1 (l Z).
4. m = 3, a
3l, 3l + 1, 3l + 2 (l Z)
a 2 = 9l 2 = 3k a 2 = 9l 2 + 6l + 1 = 3s + 1 a 2 = 9l 2 + 12k + 4 = 3t + 1.
3l + 2(l Z)
.
1.2.6. 3l 2 1, l -
.
1.2. 11
5. m = 4 a
4l, 4l + 1, 4l + 2, 4l + 3
, l.
, (3), a 2 = 4k 4k + 1.
, 4l + 2 4l + 3 (l Z),
.
1.2.7.
11, 111, 1111, 11111, . . .
.
4l + 3.
, 11 = 4 2 + 3, 111 = 4 25 + 4 2 + 3 = 4 27 + 3, 1111 = 4 250 + 4 27 + 3 = 4 277 + 3
.
a 2 = 4l 4l + 1 (l Z) b2 = 4s 4s + 1 (s Z),

4t 4t + 1 4t + 2 (t Z)
, 4k + 3(k Z)
.
6. m = 10 a
a = 10q + r, 0 r < 10
a 2 = 100q2 + 20q + r 2 .
a 2 r 2 .
0 9 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9.
0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9.
7. a, b b > 0, 1.2.3 a = bq + r, 0 r < b.

,
a r r
= q + , 0 < 1.
b b b
1.2.8. x , x -
h i x [x ].

q = ab .
1.2.1

1. m m .

12 1.
2. n, hm i N, n m > 0, n m
m n
+ 1
3. n > 0, (a + 1) | (a 2n 1 + 1)
4. 10 1000 23
956.
( )
1. 100 500 7 49;
2. , -
.
3. 9`, 9` + 1 9` + 8, ` Z.
4. a 12n + 5 4n + 2 n a = 1.
5. 8` + 7, ` Z
.
6. a, b b - a, k, ` a =
bk + `, ` |`| < b.
7. a , a, a + 2, a + 4 3.
( )
1. `, n 5 | n 3 + `.
5 7.
2. a 2 3, a 2 + 23 24.
3. n 2 | 3n 1, 3 | 4n 1, 4 | 5n 1, . . .
4. n 3 | 2n + 1.
5. n :
3 | n 3 n, 5 | n 5 n, 7 | n 7 n.
k n k | n k n;
6. {1, 2, . . . , 2n } n + 1 .
.
( )
1. n :
(1 + 2 + + n ) | 3(12 + 22 + n 2 ).
2. a, a , 3, :
a 3 | a 3 3.
3. x, y, z x 2 + y2 = z 2 ,
3.
4. S := 1
2
+ 1
3
+ + n1 , n , n > 1, S .
1.3. 13
1.3
a , 0 1 a.
1.3.1. p 0, 1
1 p.
0, 1 .
, 3 19 , 6, 18 .
a a ,
.
P.

1.3.2. n, n > 1, .
M = {m N m |n m > 1}.
M N , n M.
( 1.1.2), M , p.
p n.
, p = a b
a, b N \ {1}. a N, a > 1 a |n ( a |p p|n), a
M a < p, .
1.3.1
,
.
[14].
1.3.2 32, VII :

.
20, ,
: .

,

1.3.1
13 17
. 13 17
.

.
12 2,3,4,6,12
.
1.3.3 ( ). P .
14 1.
1.3.1: Magicada (public domain). -

: Bruce Marlin, : Wikimedia Commons https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/2/20/Magicicada_species.jpg
()
P ,
P = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }

N := p1 p2 . . . pn + 1
N > 1, 1.3.2 N ,
p. p < P, p = pi , i 1, 2, . . . , n p|N p1 p2 . . . pn = 1,
.
P . P .

1.3.2
.
. ...
Marcus du Sautoy [14].
(T.J. Stieltjes)
P
P = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }
p1 p2 pn = A B, A B.
pi A B, .
pi - (A + B) i = 1, . . . , n. A + B > 1 p,
p , pi i = 1, . . . , n.
, , P
. P .

1.3. 15
1. , Stieltjes A = 1.
2. .
3. . -
[1] [12]
. Filip Saidak [7].
n > 1. n n + 1
. N2 = n (n + 1)
. n (n + 1) n (n + 1) + 1
.
N3 = n (n + 1) n (n + 1) + 1

.
, .
Saidak
.
p ab a, b ( 1.5.6
, 1.3.3). ,

.
1.3.4. n , p, p
n.
. n , :
n = a b , 1 < a b < n.

a, b n, a > n b > n

n = a b > n n = n, . a > 1 , 1.3.2
p.

n p a n.
1.3.4 .
1.3.5. n = 179 .
p 179 < 14. 14 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 13.
179. 179 , .
.
1.3.6. n `- ,

` n. ,
`
` n,
n.

.
n

n. n
Fermat, 3.4.1.
16 1.
,
. .
1.3.2: 276-194 .
(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Portrait_of_Eratosthenes.png
,
. ,
n,
2 n 2 3, 5
. .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 60
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
1.3.7. 1.
[16].
2.
http://www.utm.edu/research/primes
C. Caldwell The prime pages.

1.3. 17
1.3.3: Euler, : J.E. Handmann (1718-1781),

(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg
n-
.
, Euler.
pn .
pn .
1.3.8. pn n- (n 1),
n 1
pn 22 .
11
. n = 1, p1 = 2 = 22 , .
m, 1 m < n.
n.
p
p1 p2 pn 1 + 1.
p , pi i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1
1 1 21 (n 1)1
pn p p1 p2 pn 1 + 1 22 22 22 +1
2n 2 2n 1
= 2 2 2
2
+12
p , p , 2 p . (p + 1) .
2.
1.3.9. , .
18 1.
1.3.10. 3 5 , 29 31, 71 73, 4967 4969.
.
p
p + 2 . .
.

X 1
.
n =1
n
1737 Euler ,
X1

p
pP
Euler
( , !).
1.3.3
1849 A. Prince de Polignac n

p , p + n .
Polignac n = 2 .
1919 Viggo Brun , p ,

X 1
.
p
p,
-
. !
P. Clement [11] , 1949, .
(n, n + 2) , , (n + 2)

[4((n 1)! + 1) + n ].
, , . 1966,
Chen Jingrun p p + 2
.
2004 Arenstorf .http:
//archiv.org/abs/math.NT/0405509
. (, Eric W. Weis-
stein Twin, Prime Proof Proffered
(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2004-06-9/twinprimes/.)
1000000000061 1000000000063 .
( 2015 )
3756801695685 2666669 1.
(p, p+4) (p, p+6)

sexy .
1.3. 19
1.3.4: Yitang Zhang, (public domain).

: Wikimedia Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zhang_2014_
hi-res-download_3.jpg
, Hardy Wright -
. is at present beyond the
resources of mathematics. Daniel Shanks the evidence is overwhelming.
1.3.1
Yitang Zhang, , 2013 ,

N 70
N . ,
Quanta1 .
. Zhang
70 . 2013
N = 4680.
James Maynard N = 600.
polymath project,
.
Quanta. 2
(31 2014), N = 6
() Elliott-Halberstam.
N = 252.
1
https://www.simonsfoundation.org/quanta/
https://www.quantamagazine.org/20130519-unheralded-mathematician-bridges-the-prime-gap/
2
https://www.simonsfoundation.org/quanta/20131119-together-and-alone-closing-the-prime-gap/
20 1.
1.3.2 Goldbach
Christian Goldbach (1690-1764),

. Leonard Euler,
. 7
1742 Euler
2 .
(Es scheint wenigstens, dass jede Zahl, die groer ist als 2, ein aggregatum trium primo-
rum sey.)
Goldbach 1 . Goldbach
:
5 .
Euler Goldbach
, 2
.
Goldbach.
, 9
, Goldbach.
1.3.4
N. Pipping , 1938, () Goldbach n 105 .

Chen Jingrun 1966 n 4
p +a, a . (
Sci. Scinica 16(1973), 157-176).
-
.
1995, Oliver Ramare n 4
.
2002, R. Heath-Brown J.G. Puchta (The Asian Journal of Mathematics, 6(2002),
535-565),
13 2. 13 8
Pintz Ruzsa 2003.
Goldbach
Harald Helfgott 2013. :
ArXiV 1305.2897 ArXiV 1205.5252.
James Maynard (University of Oxford) -
7 . -
29 Journees Arithmetiques
2013.
best seller
Goldbach.
N
.
a :
4l, 4l + 1, 4l + 2, 4l + 3 | l Z.
1.3. 21
4l, 4. 2
4l + 2 ( l = 0), .

4l + 1, .. 5, 13, 17, . . .
4l + 3, .. 3, 7, 11, 19, . . ..
.
1.3.11. 4l + 3.
. 4l +3
.
4l + 3 q1 , q2 , . . . , q5 .
N : 4q1 q2 . . . q5 1 > 0, 4l + 3. (
4l + 1, ,
N ).

1.3.12. 4l + 1.
1.3.11 1.3.12 .
. m, m > 1
a, 0 a m 1. ml + a, l Z.
m a ,
1.3.13 ( Dirichlet ).
ml + a l Z.
1837 L. J. Dirichlet. a = 1
1775 Euler. Legendre ,
a, 1785. .
,
.
: L- ,
[15].
1.3.14. 1.3.13,
A : = {77, 177, 277, . . .}
1.3.15. ml + a l Z,
.
, a + m l0 = p P l0 Z,
lk = l0 + k p k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
22 1.
k 1
m lk + a = m (l0 + k p) + a =
= (ml0 + a ) + p(km ) =
= p (km + 1),
m lk + a |k = 1, 2, . . . .
.
1.3.3

. n > 2. p
d n
p, p + d, . . . , p + (n 1)d
;
n = 3. d = 2 3, 5, 7.
p, p + 2, p + 4 3 3.
d. d = 6 p = 47, 53, 59.

. . van der
Copurt [5], S. Chowla [4] Heath-Brown [13].

p = 5 d = 6, 5, 11, 17, 23.

. -
n 4. 2006 B. Green
T. Tao [2].
1.3.16 ( ). n 4 -
n .
. Fields medal
Tao,
2006.
. ,
.
1.3. 23
1.3.5: T. Tao, (public domain). : Wikimedia

Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ttao2006.jpg
n
n = 24. Jaroslaw Wroblewski
17 2007 p = 468395662504823 d =
205619 23 p + d`, ` = 0, 1, . . . , 23.
75 .
. M. Cantor
(1861) [6, . . 425].
1.3.17. d 2 a, a + d, . . . , a + (n 1)d n > 2 ,

q q n.

Y

p d
p q
Q
p = q p<q p d.
. r P d,
a, a + d, . . . , a + (r 1)d
modulo r, r .
a + id a + jd , r i, j {0, 1, . . . , r 1,
r | d (i j) (d, r ) = 1 r | (i j). 0 |i j| r 1.
i = j. r, r.
Q
pq p - d. p n
d. p0 . ,
j0 , 0 j0 p0 1 : p0 | (a + j0 d ). ,
a + j0 d , p0 = a + j0 d. a . a , a + j0 d = p0 a
d = a`, ` Z, p0 p0 - d. ,
a | (a + j0 d ) = a + j0 a` = p0 . a = p0 , a | d
p0 - d. a = a + j0 d = p0 , j0 = 0 a = p0 .
24 1.
p0 < q n p0 n 1 p0 a + p0 d
p0 = a + p0 d = p0 + p0 d = p0 (1 + d ), .
pq p d, q = p0 = a
Q
Q
p<q p d.
m l + a f (x ) =
mx + a, x = l Z, .

f (x ) = x 2 + 1.
x = 1, . . . , 40, .
:
x = 1, f (1) = 2 P,
x = 2, f (2) = 5 P,
x = 4, f (4) = 17 P,
x = 6, f (6) = 37 P
x = 40, f (40) = 1601 P.
1.3.18 ((N 2 + 1)- ). (N 2 + 1).
.
Hendrik Iwaniec, 1978 [8]:
N N 2 + 1 .

, -
, p
f (n ) n Z.
H.-E. Richert [3, . 140] 1968
n N f (n ) (deg(f ) + 1)- . (
).
1.3.19. Richert n N
f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , Iwaniec ,
.
1.3.5

,
.
" #
N P
f :
n 7 f (n ) P
.
1772 Euler
f (x ) = x 2 + x + 17
1.3. 25
x = 1, 2, . . . , 15, 16. Euler

Legendre
f (x ) = x 2 + x + 41
41 x < 40 x = 40. f (40) =

40 41 + 41 = 412 .
, f (41) = 41 42 + 41 = 41 43. f (42) = 1847 P, .
Euler. 100 n
86 .
n . n 106 , Euler 261081
.

x.
1899 E.B. Escott,
f (x ) = x 2 + 79x + 1601
x = 0, 1, . . . , 79, x = 80.
Escott 100 n, 95 .

x
. !
1.3.20 (Euler, Goldbach).
f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + + an x n , n 1
, f (m ) , m N,
.
. .
m, m0 , f (m0 ) = p .
t,
f (m0 + t p) = an (m0 + t p)n + + a1 (m0 + t p) + a0

= (an m0n + + a1 m0 + a0 ) + p F (t )
F (t ) t .
f (m0 + t p) = f (m0 ) + p F (t ) = p (1 + F (t )).
p|f (m0 + t p) f (x ) , f (m0 + t p) = p
t, , n
n-.
.

1 h i
f (x, y) = (y 1) |A2 1| (A2 1) + 2,
2
26 1.
A = x (y + 1) (y! + 1) , X Y , ,
.
2 , [9].
.
1.3.6
1976, Matsevic
26 ( ).
, . -
, .
. , , , -
. .
[14, . 312-313].
, -
;
n
W.H. Mills 1947 R+ , [3 ] P,
n. ([ ], ).
,
!
R. Ernvall, A formula
for the least Prime greater than a given integer , Elem. Math 30(1975) , 13-14 S.
Regimbal, An Explicit Formula for the Prime Number, Math. Mag. 48(1975), 230-232.
,

.
.
1.3.21. -
.
. n N. (n + 1)! + 2, (n +
1)! + 3, . . . , (n + 1)! + (n + 1) , (n + 1)! + m, m
m = 2, 3, . . . , (n + 1).
:
. .. n = 100, n ! + 2, . . . .
;
1.3.22 ( Bertrand). n > 1

p,
n < p < 2n.
. 1.4
1.3. 27
1.3.7
, Bertrand (1845).
Tchebychef 1852.
.
p , p + 1 2(p + 1)
q, p < q, .
1.3.22 Ramanujan
1931 P. Erdos.
Gau
100, 1000 .
x R+ , x.
(x ).
X
(x ) := {p P|p x } = 1.
pP px
.. : (10) = 4, 10 2,3,5 7.
(100) = 25 (1000) = 168. 10, 2.5
, 100 4 1000 6.
.
x 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

(x ) 4 25 168 1229 9592 78468 664579 5761455
(x )/x 0.4 0.25 0.168 0.1229 0.09592 0.0784 0.0664 0.05761
(x )
x x . .
x/ (x )
2.5, 4.0, 8.1, 10.4, 12.7, 15.0
Gau x 10
23,
l. 1 N
ln (N ) .
(x ) x/lnx.
Gauss , , .
, ,
Legendre.
Gauss .
1896 Jacques Hadamard Ch. de la Vallee Poussin , -
, , -
.
1.3.23 ( ). x (x )
x/ log x,
(x )
lim = 1.
x x/ log x
, 1948, , Paul
28 1.
Erdos Alte Selberg, .
1.3.6: P. Erdos A. Selberg. (public

domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Erdos_head_budapest_fall_1992.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Atle_Selberg.jpg
1.3.7: (x ) () x/ log(x ) () 1000
, , . ,
.
Alte Selberg 1950 Fields.
,
.
, , ,
1999.
N. Levinson, A motivated account of an elementary proof of the prime number theorem,

American Mathematical Monthly 76 (1969), 225-245 .
1.3. 29
H. G. Diamond, Elementary methods in the study of the distribution of prime numbers,

Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 7(1982), 553-589
Paul T. Bateman and Harold G. Diamond A Hundred Years of Prime Numbers Amer.
Math Monthly 103 (1996), 729-741.
1.3.2
Arecibo.
.
Frank Drake Carl
Sagan 1679 bits
.
1679 = 23 73 bits ,
1-10,
DNA, DNA,
, ,
.
,
,
1.3.8: Arecibo, Arecibo, -

H.G. Wells,
. (public domain). : Wiki-
media Commons https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arecibo_Observatory_
Aerial_View.jpg H. Schweiker https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Arecibo_message.svg : A. Correa https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/File:War-of-the-worlds-tripod.jpg
30 1.
1.3.4
( )
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5.
99, 199, 299, . . . , 999, 1099, . . .
6. ( Tartaglia (1556) )

1+2+4
1+2+4+8
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16,
.
( )
1. (p, p + 2) p > 3 6|(p + 1)
2. p P, p 5, p2 + 2 .
3. n 4 + 4 n > 1 .
4. n > 11 ()
.
5. n 3 + 1 , n = 1.
6. p, p + 2 p + 4 3, 5 7.
7. p, 0 17p + 1 ;
8. p n p > n 1/3 , n
.
9.
f (x ) = x 2 + x + 11
x = 1, 2, , 9 x = 10.
1.3. 31
( )
1. n , n 1 p . l p
n !, pl |n !, pl +1 - n !, l
" #
X n
l=
r =1
pr
2. m1 , m2 , . . . , mn 1,
(m1 + m2 + + mn )!
m1 ! m2 ! mn !
( )
1. n
n n 1
22 + 22 +1
n . -
.
32 1.
1.4 Bertrand
n > 0, p n 1 n 2 3
< p n, p - n
.
p < 4n .
Q
5. p n
. 1. 2n k 2(n k ) k, 0 k < n.
nn+1 =
2n 2n
2n 2n 1
2n n
n 1 1
. , n

(1 + 1)2n , 2n
n
< (1 + 1)2n = 22n .
2n (2n )!
2. n
= n !n !
. p P, n < p 2n p | (2n )!
!
Y 2n
p - n! p| .
n<p2n
n
r (p) " #
X n
3. p n ! ( , ).
j =1
pj
2n
, p n

r (p) (" # " #) r (p)

X 2n n X
2 1 = r (p)
j =1
pj pj j =1
[x ] + [y] [x + y]
" # " # " # " #
n n n 2n
2 j = j + j j
p p p p
1.4. BERTRAND 33
(" # " #)
2n n
2 =01
pj pj

!
Y
r (p) 2n
p .
p2n
n
4. 2n
3
 2n, (2n )!. , n > 2 p > 2,
!
2n 2n
<pp- .
3 n
5. P (n )
P (1) 0 41 ,
P (2) 2 < 42 ,
P (3) 3 < 43 ,
, m > 1, P (2m 1) P (2m ). ,
Y Y
p= p < 42m 1 < 42m .
p2m p2m 1
, n = 2m + 1, m 2. p P, m + 2 5
+1
2m
p 2m + 1, p | m . P (m + 1) , :
2m + 1 2m + 1
! Y !
4m +1 .
Y
p p<
p2m +1
m p m +1
m
2m +1
m
() (1 + 1)2m +1
2m + 1
!
1
< (1 + 1)2m +1 = 4m .
m 2
P (m + 1) P (2m + 1).
1, 2, 3 P (2m 1) P (2m ) P (m + 1) P (2m + 1)
.

. ( Bertrand). n 3 n = 1, 1 < 2 2,
n = 2, 2 < 3 4, n = 3, 3 < 5 6.
n > 3 .

(4) 1.4.1 p 2n
n
-
2n
p .
3
34 1.

s(p), p 2n n
. (3) 1.4.1
: ! Y
s(p) 2n
p | | pr (p) s(p) r (p)
n p2n

ps(p) pr (p) 2n. (1.4.1)

, s(p) > 1 p 2n. [ 2n ]
2n
n
> 1. (1.4.1)

!
2n Y
(2n )[ 2n ]
p. (1.4.2)
n
p 2n
3
4n
!
2n
> , (1.4.3)
n 2n + 1

( 2n
n
(1 + 1)2n = 4n , (2n + 1)-
). (1.4.2), (1.4.3) (5) 1.4.1 :
4n Y 2n

< (2n )[ 2n ]
p<4 3 (2n ) 2n
.
2n + 1
p 2n
3
2n + 1 < (2n )2 , 42n/3

4n/3 < (2n )2+ 2n
.

, n ln
3
4
< (2 + 2n ) ln 2n. n.
n = 750 ( 1, 3 < ln 4 ln 1500 <
7.5
750 1.3
325 = < (2 + 1500) ln 1500 < 41 7.5 < 308,
3
n 750. n < 750 ,
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 23, 43, 83, 163, 317, 631, 751 , , 2 -
.
1.5 ... ...

a, b .
d a, b d |a d |b.
a b:
S = {d N |d | a, d |b d 1}.
S , , 1 S. d S d |a |. S
. S a
b (a, b).
1.5. ... ... 35
1.5.1. a, b .
d a, b :
1. d |a d |b
2. d 0 |a d 0 |b, d 0 d.
1. (0, b) = |b| (a, 0) = |a |.
2. a = 0 b = 0 a, b
. ,
(0, 0) = 0.
3. a a,
.
1. a = 15 b = 18. a 1, 3, 5, 15.
b, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18. , (15, 18) = 3 = (1) 15 + 1 18.
2. a = 76 b = 190. a 1, 2, 4, 19, 38, 76.

b 1, 2, 5, 10, 19, 38, 95, 190. , (76, 190) = 38.
3. a = 14 b = 55. a, 1, 2, 7, 14.
b 1, 5, 11, 55. , (14, 55) = 1.
a b
.

.
:
(76, 190) = 38 = 190 2 76 = 1 190 + (2) 76
(14, 55) = 1 = 55 + 4 14 = (1) 55 + 4 14
1.5.2. a, b , ka + lb, k, l
a b.
1.5.3. a, b , , x0 , y0

d := (a, b) = ax0 + by0
d .
. S := {ax + by|x, y ax + by > 0}. S

N . , a , 0, a > 0 a S, x = 1 y = 0
a < 0, a S x = 1 y = 0. b , 0.
, 1.1.2, S , d.
d S, x0 y0
d = ax0 + by0 > 0.

36 1.
1.2.2, q r
a = d q + r, 0 r < d.
r = a d q = a (ax0 + by0 )q = a (1 qx0 ) + b(y0 q).
r > 0, r S , S
d, r < d. r = 0, d |a.
d |b. 1.5.1
d (a, b) (1.5.1)
, (a, b) a b d = ax0 + by0 ,
(a, b) d. (1.5.2)
(1.5.1) (1.5.2) d = (a, b).
1.5.3
a, b, (a, b) , (0, 0), :
d = (a, b) :
1. d |a d |b
2. d N, d ( 1) d 0 |a d 0 |b d 0 |d
( 1. (1) 1.5.1. 2., d 0 5 d, d 0 |d,

(2) 1.5.1.
2. d 0 |a d 0 |b d 0 |ax0 + by0 = d)
1.5.4. a, b (a, b) = 1.
1.5.5. a, b, c, d, q, bi Z.
1. (a, b) = 1 x0 , y0 :
ax0 + by0 = 1.
2. a |bc (a, b) = 1, a |c.
3. a = bq + c, (a, b) =(a, c ).
4. m (ma, mb) = m (a, b).
5. d |a d |b a b (a, b)
, =
d d |d |
6. (a, bi ) = 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , n (a, b1 b2 . . . bn ) = 1.
7. a |c, b|c (a, b) = 1 ab|c.

1.5. ... ... 37
1. (a, b) = 1 1.5.3
x0 , y 0 :
ax0 + by0 = 1.
ax0 + by0 = 1 d = (a, b) d |a d |b, d |ax0 + by0 = 1.

d , d = 1.
2. 1.5.3 (a, b) = 1, -
x0 , y0
ax0 + by0 = 1.
c,
(ac )x0 + (bc )y0 = c.
a | bc a | (ac )x0 + (bc )y0 = c.
1.5.6. p , :
1. p | ab, p | a p | b
2. p a1 a2 . . . an (n 2),
ai .
3. p p1 p2 . . . pn pi .
1. p|a . p - a. p , (p, a ) = 1.
(2) 1.5.5 (p|ab (p, a ) = 1) p|b.
2. n.
n = 2, , 1. (n 1).
n. p|a1 a2 . . . an 1 an = (a1 a2 . . . an 1 )an . 1. p|(a1 a2 . . . an 1 )
p|an .
:
p|(a1 a2 . . . an 1 ) p|ai i {1, 2, . . . , n 1}. n.
3. 2. p | pi i, 1 i n. p, pi , , p = pi .
.
3. .
a, b a + b(q) = c,
b, c. b, c a = bq + c,
a, b.
4. d1 :=(a, b). x1 , y1 : d1 = ax1 + by1 .
, md1 = (ma )x1 + (mb)y1 . d2 := (ma, mb), d2 |ma d2 |mb
d2 |md1 . (1.5.3)
38 1.
x2 , y2
d2 = (ma )x2 + (mb)y2 = m (ax2 + by2 )
d1 |a d1 |b, d1 |ax2 + by2 .
md1 |d2 . (1.5.4)
(1.5.3) (1.5.4), d2 = md1 .

a b
5. d
d
.
, :
a b
a b
d ,d = |d | ( , ),
d d d d
.
6.
d := (a, b1 b2 bn ) > 1.
1.3.2 d , p. p|d |a p|d |b1 b2 . . . bn .

1.5.6 (2), p|bi0 i0 {1, 2, . . . , n }. p|(a, bi0 ) =
1, . d = 1.
7. a |c, r c = ar
, b|c, c = bs. ar = bs, b|ar. (2)
1.5.5, ((a, b) = 1) b|r. r = bt, t.
c = ar = a (bt ) = (ab)t, ab|c.
1.5.7. m Z
(ma, mb) = |m | (a, b).
1.5.8. d =(a, b),

a b (a, b) d
, = = = 1.
d d d d
1.5.9. (1) 1.5.6, .
, VII, 30.
,

,

, (2) 1.5.5, (a, b) > 1, .. 6|3 4

6 - 3 6 - 4.
1.5.10.
a1 , a2 , an
, (ai , aj ) = 1, i, j {1, 2, . . . , n }, i , j.
1.5. ... ... 39
1.5.11. m1 , m2 , . . . , mn
a, m := m1 m2 . . . mn a.
. n.
n = 1, . n.
n + 1.
, (mn +1 , mj ) = 1, j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
1.5.5, (6)
(mn +1 , m1 m2 . . . mn ) = 1
m 0 |a, m 0 := m1 m2 . . . mn . (7)
(1.5.5)
m 0 mn +1 |a m1 m2 . . . mn mn +1 |a
,
.
a, b m, m
a b. 0 ,
a , 0 b , 0. a b a b a b
.

Sa, b := {m N|m > 0, a b} N
.
1.1.2, Sa, b .
1.5.12. , -, a, b
m := [a, b],
1. a |[a, b] b|[a, b]
2. a |c b|c, c , c > 0 [a, b] c.
1.5.13. 1. a = 3 b = 5 [3, 5] = 15.
2. a = 4 b = 6, [4, 6] = 12.
m a, b c := [a, b]|m.

M = {0, c, 2c, . . .}
a, b. , m c.
1.2.3 ,
m = cq + r, q Z, r Z, 0 r < c.
40 1.
r = 0. r , 0, (a |m a |c ) a |r. b|r.
r a b c,
. r = 0, c |m.
:
e = [a, b] (i) a |e b|e (ii) a |c b|c (c Z+ ), e |c.
(a, b) [a, b];
1.5.14. a, b , ab , 0 (a, b)[a, b] = |ab|.
. d := (a, b). d |a d |b , a = dr b = ds, r, s Z.

|ab| d 2 |rs|
m := d = d = |r ds| = |rb| m = |dr s| = |as|. a |m
b|m. a |c b|c, (c Z). , c = au = bv, (u, v Z),
dru = dsv, ru = sv.
r |sv, (r, s) = 1, r |v, t,
v = rt.
, c = bv = brt = m l m |c. m = [a, b].
1.5.15. [a, b] = |ab| , (a, b) = 1.
1.5.16. a1 , a2 , . . . , an d
:
1. d |a1 , d |a2 , . . . , d |an
2. d 0 |a1 , d 0 |a2 , . . . d 0 |an , d 0 |d.
a1 , a2 , . . . , an c :
1. a1 |c, a2 |c, . . . , an |c
2. a1 |s, a2 |s, . . . an |s, c |s
1. , 1.5.3.
d := (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), x1 , x2 , . . . xn d =
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn d
.
2. a1 , a2 , . . . , an
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = 1.
3. .
4. .
() (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = ((a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 ), an )
1.5. ... ... 41
() [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 ], an ]
5. 1.5.14 n > 2.
, (2, 4, 6) = 2, [2, 4, 6] = 12 (2, 4, 6) [2, 4, 6] = 2 12 = 24 , 2 4 6 = 48
6. .
P. Bundschuch, Einfuhrung in die Zahlentheorie 2
1992, 26 27. :
1.5.17. n1 , n2 , . . . , n` , n10 , n20 , . . . , n`0 n

ni ni0 = n (i = 1, . . . , `)
[n1 , n2 , . . . , n` ](n10 , . . . , n`0 ) = |n |.
sage :
sage : d , u, v = xgcd(1200 ,1334)

sage : print u, v
219 197
sage : d == u12 + v15
True
42 1.
1.5.1
( )
1. (10, 15) = 5
2. (40, 60) = (10) (4, 6)
3. (2437, 51329) = 1, 51329(978) + 2437 20599 = 1
4. (963, 657) = 18, 657 44 + 963(30) = 18
5. a |bc a |b a |c.
( )
1. a Z n Z+ , (a, a + n )|n
2. (a, b) = 1 c |a + b, (a, c )= (b, c ) = 1
3. a |b [a, b] = |b|
4. [9n + 8, 6n + 5] = 54n 2 + 93n + 40, n > 0
5. (a, b) = 1 , (a + b, a b) = 1 2
6. d |mn (m, n ) = 1 d = d1 d2 d1 |m, d2 |m (d1 , d2 ) = 1
7. m > 0, [md, mb] = m [a, b]

a, b, c (a, b, c ) = 1, [ab, bc, ca ] = abc
8. a |b c (a,ab) |c.
9. (a, b) = 1 (a n , bn ) = 1
10. a n |bn a |b
11. a b , (a, b) = [a, b] , a = b
12. n
21n + 4
14n + 3
( )
1. a, b, c, d Z, b > 0, d > 0, (a, b) = (c, d ) = 1 a

b
+ c
d
Z b = d
2. (a, b) = r, (a, c ) = s (b, c ) = 1 (a, bc ) = rs. -

, (b, c ) > 1
1.6. 43
3. a, b, c a |bc, a - b a - c
b
d= bc
|a
(b, a
)
1 < d < a ( a !)
4. (a, b, c ) = 1 1q + b1 = 1c a + b . (64
, 1-11-2003).
( )
1. m 1 a > 1
am 1
!
, a 1 = (a 1, m ).
a1
2. a, m, n m , n

m n 1, a

(a 2 + 1, a 2 + 1) =

2, a

3. m, n m
(2m 1 + 2n + 1) = 1.
1.6
,
.
-
. .
.. a = 224 b = 35 ,
a = b q1 + r1 , 224 = 35 6 + 14.
b = 35 r = 14 b = r1 q2 +r2
35 = 14 t2 + 7, . r1 = r2 q3 + r3
14 = 7 2 + 0.
a b - .
(224, 35) = 7.
:
:
a = bq1 + r1 , 0 r1 < |b|

b = r1 q2 + r2 , 0 r2 < r1
.. ..
. .
rn 2 = rn 1 qn + rn , 0 rn < rn 1
rn 1 = rn qn +1
44 1.
{ri }i N
. n N rn +1 = 0.
(a, b) = rn . , rn |rn 1 , rn |rn 2 , . . . , rn |b rn |a. , d 0 |a d 0 |b
d 0 |r1 , d 0 |r2 , . . . , d 0 |rn .
. a = 288, b = 51
288 = 51 5 + 33 | (288, 51) =

51 = 33 1 + 18 | (51, 33) =
33 = 18 1 + 15 | (33, 18) =
18 = 15 1 + 3 | (18, 15) =
15 = 3 5 | (15, 3) = 3
x0 , y0 d = ax0 + by0 ,
. :
3 = 18 15 = 18 (33 18) = 2 18 33 =
= 2(51 33) 33 = 2 51 33 3 =
= 2 51 3(288 5 51) =
= 288(3) + 51 17
, 3 = 288(3) + 51 17
(a, b) ,
.
1740, Cambridge, Nicholas Saunderson,
.
a, b , a b > 0, d := (a, b) = rn , rn +1 = 0 ri = ri +1 qi +2 + ri +2
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
r1 := a r0 = b. x0 = 0, x1 = 1, y0 = 1, y1 = q1 xi =
xi 2 + xi 1 qi , y1 = yi 2 + yi 1 qi .
1.6.1. a, b , a b > 0 d := (a, b)
d = a (1)n 1 xn + b(1)n yn .
P (n ) : axn byn = (1)n 1 rn .
, n = 0,
ax0 by0 = 0 b = b (1)1 r0 = b.
n = 1,
ax1 by1 = a 1 b q1 = r1 .
k, 0 k < n.
k + 1.
P (k + 1) : axk +1 byk +1 = (1)k rk +1
1.6. 45
,
axk +1 byk +1 = a (xk 1 + xk qk +1 ) b(yk 1 + yk qk +1 )
= (axk 1 byk 1 ) + qk +1 (axk bgk )
,
axk +1 byk +1 = (1)k 2 rk 1 + qk +1 (1)k 1 rk =

= (1)k (rk 1 qk +1 rk ) = (1)k rk +1

d = rn = (1)n 1 (axn byn )
= a (1)n 1 xn + b(1)n yn .

. a = 455 b = 255 .
455 = 255 1 + 200 | a = bq1 + r1

255 = 200 1 + 55 | b = r1 q2 + r2
200 = 55 3 + 35 | r1 = r2 q3 + r3
55 = 35 1 + 20 | r2 = r3 q4 + r4
35 = 20 1 + 15 | r4 = r5 q6 + r6
15 = 5 3 |
(455, 255) = 5 | r5 = r6 q7
i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
qi 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
xi 0 1 1 4 5 9 14 51
yi 1 1 2 7 9 16 25 91
d = (14) 455 + 25 255

:
1. VII, 2

.
2.
VII, 3.

.
,
.
.
3. . , ,
|b|-.

b = r0 , r1 , r2 , . . .
ri +2 < 1
r,
2 i
i = 1, 2, . . ..
46 1.
()
2 log2 (|b|)-, 6, 65-
b .
1.6.1
Gabriel Lame 1845

5- b.
1970, John Dixon -
Lame (John Dixon, The number of steps in the Euclidean algorithm J.
Number Theory 2(1970) 414-422).
4.
q1 , q2 , . . .

.
. q.

r = q
5. Saunderson ,
.
1.7. 47

1. (15540, 19980)
. (6660, 15540, 19980)
2. (a, b),
2n (1)n 2(2n 1 (1)n 1 )

a= ,b=
3 3
n
3. (5040, 7700).
4. a, m, n (a > 1) ,
(a m 1, a n 1) = a (m, n ) 1.
5. m, n m , (2m 1, 2n + 1) = 1.
1.7

.
. , ,
.
:
1.7.1 ( ). n > 1
. .
:
.. 180 = 2 2 3 3 5.
, ..
18 = 2 2 3 18 = 2 3 2 .
. .
1 : . -
n.
n = 2, 2 .
2 i n 1.
n. n , .
n . p1 n.
n , n = p1 m, m , 1 < m n 1.
m , m = p2 p3 . . . pl (pi
P i = 2, 3, . . . l ) , n = p1 p2 p3 . . . pl , n,
n, n > 1
2 n :
n = p1 p2 . . . pl = q1 q2 . . . qs
48 1.
.
, p1 |n = q1 q2 . . . qs . 1.5.6 3 p1 = q1 i {1, 2, . . . , s}.
, i = 1, p1 = q1 .
p2 p3 . . . pl = q2 q3 . . . qs . p2 = q2 p3 . . . pl =
q3 q4 . . . qs . . l < s
1 = ql +1 . . . qs , .
l = s pi = qi .
1. 1 . 1
.
2. (3) 1.5.6

N. E. Zermelo.
3. -
,
. IX, 1.4 :

,

.
. A.M.
Legendre .
Gauss Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) () 16 THEOREMA. Numerus
compositus quicunque unico tantum modo in factores unico resolvi potest.
1.7.2. -
.
4. 43
Marcus Du Sautoy.
4 ..,
, .
.
, , ,

.
,
Dimitri Mendeleev,
. ,
,
.
5. -
, .
E.A. Abbott, Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions, Dover, New York 1952.
1.7. 49
A = {. . . , 6, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . .}
, .
m A n k A
n = mk.
: 4 8 A 12, 12 = 4 3 3
3 < A. p A A- A. ( A-
!).
2, 6, 10, . . . A- . A-
2k |k Z 2Z.
( p|a b p|a p|b) (.
1.5.6 (1) ).
A-. A- 10 A-,
30 50 = 1500 30 50!.
A- A-
.
.. 1500 = 30 50 = 6 250, 30, 50, 6, 250 A- .
!
.
. n -
, n > 1, .
,
n = p11 p22 . . . ps s , pi P i = 1, 2, . . . , s, p1 < p2 < < ps ni -
n n n
.
, n = np
Q
pP p ,
.
( ).
n.
np n p.
p (n ).
a < {0, 1}, a = n, {+1, 1} n
, n > 1, :
a, a < {0, 1},
Y
a= pp (a ) , p (a ) 0
pP
.
1
p (1) = 0 p P .
a Q, a , 0, a = m n
{1} m, n , mn , 0.
m = pP pp (m ) n = pP pp (n ) m, n ,
Q Q
Y Y
a= pp (m )p (n ) = pp (a )
pP pP
50 1.
p (a ) .
.
, a, a , 0 p (a ) 0 p P.

1.7.3. a, b , , b|a
p (b) p (a ), p P
. b a ab . a = a pP pp (a )
Q
b = b pP pp (b) a b a/b
Q
a Y
= 0 pp (a )p (b) (0 = a b )
b
pP
p (a ) p (b) 0, p P,
p (a ) p (b) p.
a = 0 b = 0
. b , ,
0 = pP pp (0) , p (b) p (0) p b(b , 0).
Q
p (0) = , p P. ,
, Y
0= p .
pP
: b = 0 (
a , 0) 0|a a = 0, b|a.
p (a ) p (a ) = p P
a=0

1.7.4. a, b -
Y Y
a = a pp (a ) b = b pp (b)
pP pP
,
Y Y
(a, b) = pmin{p (a ), (b)} [a, b] = pmax{p (a ), (b)}
pP pP
.
.
1.7.4 .
1.5.14 p (|a b|) = p (a ) + p (b) = min{p (a ), p (b)} +
max{p (a ), (p)(b)} p P.
,
, .
.
1.7. 51
1.7.5. 4l + 3, l Z
. .
, p1 , p2 , . . . , ps .
n := 4p1 p2 . . . ps 1
, 1.7.1,
.

4l + 3.
4l + 1, 4l + 1,
n, . p , p|n p 4l + 3. p
pi , i {1, 2, . . . , s}. p|4p1 p2 . . . ps p|n = 4p1 p2 . . . ps 1. p|1, .
4l + 3, l Z.
:

4l + 1, l Z.
4l + 3 4l + 1.
.
1.7.6. a, b c (b, c ) = 1 a n = bc,

n > 1 a1 , a2 , a = a1 a2 b = a1n
c = a2n .
. b = 1 c = 1 . , b > 1
c > 1. a > 1. b, c.
(b, c ) = 1 b, c .
b = p11 p22 . . . ps s , c = q11 q22 . . . ql l

b b b c c c
(pi , qj i = 1, 2, . . . , s j = 1, 2, . . . , l )
a n = bc
a = p11 . . . pss q11 q22 . . . ql l

r r s s s

nr nr nr ns ns2
p1 1 p2 2 . . . ps s q1 1 q2
nsl
. . . ql = p1b1 p2b2 . . . psbs q1c1 q2c2 . . . qlcl ,
bi = nri i = 1, 2, . . . s ci = nsi i = 1, 2, . . . , l. , a1 = p11 . . . pss
r r
a2 = q11 . . . ql l a = a1 a2 b = a1n , c = a2n .

s s

1.7.7. m 2 b1 , b2 , . . . , bm
a Z
a n = b1 b2 bm .
m ci bi = cin i = 1, 2, . . . , m.
52 1.
. m.
m = 2 . m 1.
m.
a n = b 1 b 2 b m 1 b m ,
(bm , b1 b2 bm 1 ) = 1
bm = c m
n
b1 b1 bm 1 = d n (a = cm d ).
bi = cin i = 1, 2, . . . , m 1. bi = cin ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , m 1, m.
1.7.1
1. n n > 1
n
Y
n=
n
pi i ,
i =1
ni > 0 , n
2 | ni , i = 1, 2, . . . , s/
p
2. p P p | k
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p 1.
3. p | a p bp , p P p2 | a p bp .
4. n N, n > 1, [a, b] = n;
5. k, `, m :
max k, `, m = k + ` + m min(k, `) min(k, m ) min(`, m ) + min(k, `, m ).

k`m [k, `, m ]
[k, `, n ] = .
[k, `][k, m ][`, m ]
6. a, m, n , a > 1
(a m 1, a n 1) = a (m,n ) 1.

[1] Aigner, G.M. Ziegler, and and K.H. Hofmann: Proofs from the Book. Springer, Berlin,
2014.
[2] Ben Green, Terence Tao: The primes contain arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions. Ann.
of Math., 167(2):481547, 2008.
[3] Bundschuh: Einfuhrung in die Zahlentheorie. 2002.
[4] Chowla, S.: There exists an infinity of 3-combinations of primes in A. P. Proc. Lahore Philos.
Soc., 6(2):1516, 1944.
[5] der Corput, J. G. van: Uber Summen von Primzahlen und Primzahlquadraten. Math. Ann.,
116(1):150, 1939.
[6] E. Dickson: History of the Theory of Numbers. 1, 1999.
[7] Filip Saidak: A new proof of Euclids theorem. Am. Math. Mon., 113(10):937938, 2006.
[8] H. Iwaniec: Almost-primes represented by quadratic polynomials. Inv. Math., 47:171188,

1978.
[9] James J. Tattersall: Elementary number theory in nine chapters. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, second edition, 2005.
[10] M. Niven and H.S. Zuckerman and H.L. Montgomery: An introduction to the theory of
numbers. J. Wiley, 1991.
[11] P. Clement: Congruences for sets of primes. Am. Math. Monthly, 96:2325, 1949.
[12] Paulo Ribenboim: The Little Book of Bigger Primes. Springer, 2004.
[13] R. Heath-Brown, D.: The ternary Goldbach problem. Rev. Mat. Iberoamericana, 1(1):45
59, 1985.
[14] Marcus du Sautoy: ,

. 2005.
53
54
[15] , .: , L-. , 1999.
[16] , :
, . 2001.

2
2.1

f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0 (2.1.1)
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) .
n- (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (2.1.1)
(2.1.1).
(2.1.1), .
, . -
:
1. (2.1.1), ;
2. , ;
3. , ;
4. , -
, , ,
;
2.1.1.
3 .. . .
. .
189 . -
. 15 .
, Fermat -
, .
, -
, 1953.
55
56 2.
2.2.1: ,
70 .
Isabella Grigoryevna Bashmakova, Dio-

phantus and Diophantine Equations [3] ( A. Shenitzer, The Mathe-
matical Association of America, 1997. .
.)
, 30
. Sesiano
J. Books IV to VII of Diophantus Arithmetica: In the Arabic Translation attributed to Qusta Ibn
Luqa, Springer, New York 1982.
2.2
,
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn = c (2.2.1)
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , c .
Euler 1770.
100 a b
7 11
, a = 7x, x Z, 1 b = 11y, y 1.

7X + 11Y = 100
x 1, y 1.
, n = 2. ,

aX + bY = c (2.2.2)
;
2.2. 57
d := (a, b). (x, y) (2.2.2) d |a d |b
d |ax + by = c
, (2.2.2) d |c. .
d = (a, b)|c, c = ds, s Z.
(1.5.3), x0 , y0 d = ax0 + by0 . ,
c = ds = (ax0 + by0 )s = a (x0 s) + b(y0 s)
(2.2.2) X = x0 s Y = y0 s.
,
2.2.1. (2.2.2) (a, b)|c.
(2.2.2) , ;
2.2.2. (x0 , y0 ) (2.2.2),

xk = x0 + (b/d )k, yk = y0 (a/a )k, k Z.
. (x 0 , y0 ) ax0 + by0 = c ax 0 + by0 = c.

, a (x 0 x0 ) = b(y0 y0 ). d = (a, b) a = da 0 b = db0 , a 0 , b0 Z,
(a 0 , b0 ) = 1.
, a 0 (x 0 x0 ) = b0 (y0 y0 ) , (1.5.5-2) a 0 |(y0 y0 ),
k y0 y0 = a 0 k. x 0 x0 = b0 k, x 0 =
x0 + b0 k y0 = y0 a 0 k.
(x 0 , y0 ),

x = x0 + ab k
0

y = y0 da k
0
k, k (xk , yk )
(2.2.2).
2.2.3. (a, b) = 1 (2.2.2) (x0 , y0 ) ,

xk = x0 + bk

, k Z

yk = y0 ak
, , , (x0 , y0 )
(2.2.2). . (a, b) = ax1 + by1 ,
c c

x0 = x1 , y0 = y1
d a
.
58 2.
. (7, 11) = 1, . 11 =
7 + 4, 7 = 4 + 3, 4 = 3 + 1, 3 = 1 3 + 0, 1 = 4 3 = 4 (7 4) = 2 4 1 = 2(11 7) 7 = 2 11 3 7.
, x = 3 y = 2, (x0 = 300, y0 = 200) .
,
xk = 300 + 11k yk = +200 7k.
300 + 11k > 0 200 7k > 0.
3 4
27 + < k < 28 +
11 7
k, k = 28
x = 8 y = 4
Euler (7 8 = 56 4 11 = 44).

1. .
k = 28 l xl = 8 11l yl = 4 + 7l, l Z.
2. (2.2.1) (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )|c.

[4, . 184] Gauss (1801).
3. (2.2.1), n > 2,
.
4. (2.2.2) -
Aryabhata Brahmagupta 6 .. .
.
,
( ).
2.2.1 n-.
2.2.4. a1 , a2 , . . . , an (n 2), - b ,

a1 X1 + a2 X2 + + an Xn = b
, d := (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | b. ,
(n 1)-.
. (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ,
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn = b,
d | ai i = 1, 2, . . . , n d | b. , d - b,
.
2.2. 59
2.2.2: Aryabhata Brahmagupta Copyright:Public Domain, -

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brahmagupta.jpg
d | b (n 1)-
. n.
n = 2 2.2.2.
n-. -
(n + 1)-
a1 X1 + a2 X2 + + an Xn + an +1 Xn +1 = b
d := (a1 , a2 , . . . , an , an +1 ) | b. d1 := (a1 , a2 ), -

{a1 x1 + a2 x2 |x1 Z, x2 Z} = {d1 y|y Z},

d1 y + a3 X3 + + an Xn + an +1 Xn +1 = 0.
(d1 , a3 , . . . , an , an +1 ) = (a1 , a2 ), a3 , . . . , an , an +1 = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an , an +1 ) | b. , -

, (n 1)-
. n- .
, , .

5X1 + 6X2 + 3X3 + 4X4 = 15.

60 2.
(5, 6) = 1.
5X1 + 6X2 = y, y Z.
:
X1 = y + 6t, X2 = y 5t, t Z.
Y + 3X3 + 2X4 = 15.
Y + 3X3 =: Z.
y = 4z + 3u
x3 = z u, u Z.
Z + 2X4 = 15,
z = 15 + 2
x4 = 15 , Z
x1 = 6y 3z 8 + 60
x2 = 5y + 3z + 8 60
x3 = 15 z 2
x4 = 15 , y, z, Z.
3 8

x1 60 6
x2 60 5
+ y + z + 8 , y, z, Z.
3
=
x3 15 0 1 2

x4 15 0 0 1
2.2.5. 1. :

2X4 = 15 5X1 6X2 3X3

1 X1 X3
X4 = 7 2X1 3X2 X3 + .
2
X4 Z,
1 X1 X3 = 2y, y Z.
2.3. 61
X1 = 1 X3 2y
X2 = X2
X3 = X3
X4 = 5 + X3 3X2 + 5y, X 2 , X3 , y Z

X1 1 2 1

0
X2 0 0
= + y + X2 + 0 X3
1
y, X2 , X3 Z.
X3 0 0 0 1

X4 5 5 3 1
2.
. [5,
. 140-141] [5, . 178-181] [6, . 214-230]
2.3
. x, y, z

X2 + Y2 = Z2 (2.3.1)
(2.3.1), .
.
(3, 4, 5).
. (x, y, z ) (2.3.1)
.
(x, y, z ) d Z, (dx, dy, dz )
, (dx )2 + (dy)2 = (dz )2 .
(6, 8, 10) (9, 12, 15), . . . .
(a, b, c ) (a, b, c ) = 1, -
(2.3.1).
. (a, b, c ) (primitive)
(a, b, c ) = 1
(3, 4, 5) . ; .
(5, 12, 13), (8, 5, 17), (7, 24, 25), (9, 40, 41) .
(x, y, z ) , x, y
.
, x y , z , (x, y, z ) 2, .
x y x 2 = 1 + 4l, l Z y2 = 1 + 4m, m Z, z 2 = x 2 + y2 =
2 + 4t |t Z. , 4l
4l + 1, l Z.
62 2.
2.3.1:

n .
2.3.1. x, y, z y
r, s r > s, (r, s) = 1
(),
(x = r 2 s2 , y = 2rs, z = r 2 + s2 )
. y , x z . z + x z x .
k := z+2x Z l := z2x Z
(z + x )(z x ) z2 x 2 y2
y 2
kl = = = = .
4 4 4 2
(k, l ) = 1, d := (k, l ) > 1 d |k = z + x d |l = z x, d |(k + l ) = z

d |(k l ) = x, (x, z ) d > 1, .
, 1.7.6 k = r 2 , l = s2 (r, s) = 1, ( (k, l ) = 1).
x = r 2 s2 , y = 2rs z = r 2 + s2 .
, r s .
(r, s) = 1,
x, y, z .
, x, y, z -
.
x 2 + y2 = z 2 , (x, y, z ) .
d := (x, y, z ) > 1 p P p|d p|x, p|y p|z. p , 2, x .
p|x p|z, p|(z + x ) p|(z x ) p|2r 2 p|2s2 , p|(2r 2 , 2s2 ) =
2(r, s) = 2, .
(x, y, z ) .
.
2.3.1 ,
2.3.2. r
.
2.3. 63
. AB, , :
bc = r (a + b + c )
(2.3.1),
c = l (r 2 s2 ), b = 2rsl, a = l (r 2 + s2 ), l, r, s Z, l 1, r > s, (r, s) = 1, r . smod2.
r, s
bc 2l 2 rs(r 2 s2 ) ls(r s)(r + s)

= = = = ls(r s) Z.
a+b+c 2lr 2 + 2lrs (r + s)

2.3.1
-
. 17 .

Bachet.
J.P. Fermat (1601-1665). Fermat
. 8,
, :
.
( () ) Fermat
, , :
Cubum in duos cubos aut quadro-quadratum in duos quadro-quadratos et genera-
liter nullam in infinitum, ultra quadratum, potestam in duas ejusdem nominis fas est
dividere. Cujus rei demonstrationem mirabilem sone detexi, hanc marginis exiguitas
non caperet.
: ,
()
.
, ( )
.
Fermat
Samuel Fermat 1670.
Pierre de Fermat, Bemerkungen zu Diophant, Max Miller,
Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig 1932.
, Fermat
2.3.1 Fermat

Xn + Y n = Zn, n 3
, - , xyz , 0 .
-
.
64 2.
2.3.2: 1621.
(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Diophantus_-_Aritmeticorum_libri_6.,_1670_-_842640.jpeg
.
, 1995 [2], [8].
.
Gerhard Frey, Jean-Pierre Serre, Kenech
Ribet, Andrew Wiles Richard Taylor.
Fermat n = 4 X 4 + Y 4 = Z 4 ,
- .

. ,

X4 Y4 = Z2
, -, .

20 VI.
Fermat (2.3.1) ( )
. .
-, ,
.
, -, , .
- .
Fermat . P. De Carcavi (1659),
:
2.3. 65
... ( ) -
.....
(la descente in finie)...
Fermat 17
.
2.3.3.
X4 + Y4 = Z2
. , (x, y, z ).
x, y, z
. (x, y, z ).
(x 2 , y2 , z ) . -
y2 .
x 2 = s2 t 2 , y2 = 2st, z = s2 + t 2 ,
(s, t ) = 1, s > t .
x 2 + t 2 = s2 . (x, t, s) .
(s, t ) = 1, (x, t, s) x t
. ,
x = u 2 v2 , t = 2uv, s = u 2 + v2 ,
(u, v) = 1, u > v . y2
y2 = 2st = 4uv(u 2 + v2 ).
u, v, u 2 + v2 . 1.7.7
u = x12 , v = y12 u 2 + v2 = z12 ,
x14 + y14 = z12 .
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) x 4 + y4 = z 2 .
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) z1 > 1.
,
z1 < z14 = (u 2 + v2 )2 = s2 < s2 + t 2 = z.
() . (x, y, z )
z ,

z > z1 > z2 > > zn > zn +1 >
.
66 2.
2.3.4. Fermat n = 4.
. (x, y, z ) x 4 + y4 = z 4 (x, y, z 2 )
x 4 + y4 = z 2 , .
2.3.5. 4 | n X n + Y n = Z n
X 4 + Y 4 = Z 4 , .
2.3.6.
X4 Y4 = Z2
. . (x, y, z ) x.
(x, y) = 1. (x 2 , z, y2 ) -
. : y
y2 = s2 t 2 , z = 2st, x 2 = s2 + t 2 ,
s, t , . ,
s4 t 4 = (xy)2 ,
(s, t, xy) s < x, .

y
y2 = 2st, z = s2 t 2 , x 2 = s2 + t 2 ,
s, t , . t ,
(2s, t ) = 1. 2s = (2u )2 t = v2 y = 2st. ,
x 2 = 4u 4 + v4 ,
(2u 2 , v2 , x )
.
2u 2 = 2ml, v2 = m 2 l 2 , x = m 2 + l 2 , m, l ,
. u 2 = ml m = a 2 , l = b2 , a 4 b4 = v2
a < x, .
t , (s, 2t ) = 1, s = u 2 , 2t = (2v)2
x 2 = u 4 + 4v4 , (u 2 , 2v2 , x ) . ,
u 2 = m 2 l 2 , 2v2 = 2ml x = m 2 + l 2 ,
m, l . v2 = ml (m, l ) = 1
m = a 2 , l = b2 a 4 b4 = u 2 , (a, b, u )
a < x, .
2.3.7. .
2.3. 67
. , x, y, z
:
x 2 + y2 = z 2 xy = 2m 2 , m Z, m 1
(x + y)2 = z 2 + 4m 2 (x y)2 = z 2 4m 2 . , z 4 (2m )4 = ((x + y)(x y))2 ,

X 4 Y 4 = Z 2,
2.3.6.
Fermat n = 3 Euler.
1770.
Euler
X4 + Y4 + Z4 = W4
, - .

Euler . n, n > 0 (n 1) n-
n- .
Euler : ... ( -
Fermat) .
,
.

, . -

.
Euler
1911 R. Norrie
304 + 1204 + 2724 + 3154 = 3534 .
1966 Lander Parkin Euler n = 5. ,

- (27, 84, 110, 133, 144).
1986 Elkies [7] n = 4 .
. , 7 .
N. Elkies
26824404 + 153656394 + 187967604 = 206156734
Roger Frye :
958004 + 2175194 + 4145604 = 4224814
Euler n = 4 Don Zagier.

[1] 1986
2013.
n 6 .
68 2.
2.3.2 Catalan
1844 Eugene Catalan ,
8 9.
Xm Yn = 1 (m > 1, n > 1)
x m = 32 , yn = 23 .
2003 P. Mihailescu.
. Catalan
, 2007.

1. () , .
, ,
.
, (x1 , y1 , z1 ) (x2 , y2 , z2 ) z1 = z2 x1 y1 =
x2 y2 , n x12 + y12 = z12 x22 + y22 = z22 (x1 y1 )2 = (x2 y2 )2
(x1 + y1 )2 = (x2 + y2 )2 .
, x1 y1 x2 y2 ( ),
x1 = x2 y1 = y2 .
() ,
.
.. (21, 20, 29) (35, 12, 37).
Fermat n, n > 1 n
( )
[9, . 49 . 2].
2.
.
,
1
x 2 + y2 = z 2 x +y+z = xy
2
(x 4)(y 4) = 8, (x 4)|8. x 4 < 0,
x 4 = 1, 2, 4, 8,
x = 5, 6, 8 12.
y = 12, 8, 6 5.

(5, 12, 13) (6, 8, 10)

3.
(9999, 137532, 137895)
,
687591234
, .
2.3. 69
2.3.3 .
(x, y, z ) ,
x 2 + y2 = z 2
, z , 0 z,
x 2 y 2
+ =1
z z
y
u = x
z
v = z

U2 + V2 = 1 (2.3.2)
y
(u, v) Q2 , (2.3.2) u = x
z
, v = z, z ,
0,
x 2 + y2 = z 2

(x, y, z ) z , 0
(2.3.2) .
.
8 9
.
:

.
[3], [10]
(2.3.2) .
(0, 1).
(u, v) , (u, v) , (1, 0).
(1, 0) (u, v) t V = t (U + 1).
(u, v)
U2 + V2 = 1
V = t (U + 1) (2.3.3)
V (2.3.3)
(1 + t 2 )U 2 + 2t 2 U + (t 2 1) = 0.
2
u = 11+
t
t2
u = 1
t2
(1, 0). u = 11
+t 2
v ,
v = 1+
2t
t2
.
t Q (u, v) Q2 ,
.
, :
70 2.
2.3.8. U 2 + V 2 = 1, (1, 0),

1 t2
!
2t
(U, V ) = , ,
1 + t2 1 + t2
t . ( (1, 0)
t ).
t = sr , r, s Z, s , 0, (u, v)
s2 r 2
!
2rs
(u, v) = ,
s2 + r 2 s2 + r 2
( ) (x, y, z ) = (s2 r 2 , 2rs, s2 +

r 2 ) z = s2 + r 2 , 0.
2.3.3:
sage :
SquaresL =[ i ^2 for i in range ( 1 , 5 0 ) ]
CP=CartesianProduct ( range ( 1 , 5 0 ) , range ( 1 , 5 0 ) )
PT=[ [ a [ 0 ] , a [ 1 ] , sqrt ( a[0]^2+a [ 1 ] ^ 2 ) ] for a in CP i f \
a[0]^2+a [1]^2 in SL ]
PT
[ 3 , 4 , 5 ] , [ 4 , 3 , 5 ] , [5 ,12 ,13] , [ 6 , 8 , 1 0 ] , [7 ,24 ,25] , [8 ,6 ,10] ,\
[8 ,15 ,17] , [9 ,12 , 15] , [9 ,40 ,41] , [10 ,24 ,26] , [12 ,5 ,13] , \
[12 ,9 ,15] , [12 ,16 , 20] , [12 ,35 ,37] , [15 ,8 ,17] , [15 ,20 ,25] , \
[15 ,36 ,39] , [16 ,12 , 20] , [16 ,30 ,34] , [18 ,24 ,30] , [20 ,15 ,25] , \
[20 ,21 ,29] , [21 ,20 , 29] , [21 ,28 ,35] , [24 ,7 ,25] , [24 ,10 ,26] , \
[24 ,18 ,30] , [24 ,32 , 40] , [27 ,36 ,45] , [28 ,21 ,35] , [30 ,16 ,34] , \
[32 ,24 ,40] , [35 ,12 , 37] , [36 ,15 ,39] , [36 ,27 ,45] , [ 4 0 , 9 , 4 1 ] ]
2.3.4
1. 20, 50, 100 -
15. 690 .
;
2.3. 71
2. 41 , , .
400 . 40 30
10 . ,
; (Bachet)
3.
x y
x + y + z = 30, + + 2z = 30
3 2
(Fibonacci, 1228.)
4. 4000 100
. 120 , 50
25 .
;
5. 42 63 .

() 10, 50
() 12, 00
() 23, 31
6. -
.
7. (3, 4, 5)
.
8. (x, y, z ) , x, y, z -
5.
9.
.
10.
x 2 + 2y2 = z 2 .
72 2.

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120:243264, 2013.
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141:443551, 1995.
[3] Isabella Grigoryevna Bashmakova: Diophantus and Diophantine Equations, A, Shenitzer

(translator). The Mathematical Association of America, 1997.
[5] Kenneth H. Rosen: Elementary Number Theory. 2011.
[7] Noam Elkies: On a 4 + B4 + C4 = D 4 . Mathematics of Computation, 51:825835, 1988.
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matics, 141:553572, 1995.
[9] W.Sierpinski: Elementary Theory of Numbers. P.W.N. Warsawa, 1964.
[10] , : . 1953.
73
74
,
3
.
,
, .
, , -
.
3.1
n, (n ),
n.
, (1) = 1, (2) = 1 + 2 = 3, (3) = 1 + 3 = 4, (4) = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7. n 2,
(n ) n + 1. n = p|n pp (n ) () n ,
Q
d |n
Y
d= pap , 0 ap p (n )
p|n
p P, p|n.
,
X p (n )
Y X
(n ) = d= p ap
d |n p|n ap =0
p (n )
X
pp (n )+1 1
pap = .
ap =0
p1

Y pp (n )+1 1
(n ) =
p1
p|n
. n = 120 = 23 3 5 d = 2a 3b 5c 0 a 3, 0 b, c 1
4 2 2
(n ) = 2211 3311 5511 = 15 4 6 = 360.
75
76 3.
3.1.1. n, m (m, n ) = 1, (nm ) = (n ) (m ).
.
Y pp (nm )+1 1 Y pp (n )+1 1 Y pp (m )+1 1
(nm ) = = = (n ) (m ).
p1 p1 p1
p|nm p|n p|m
. m, n
(m ) m = n
(n ) n = m,
(m ) = m + n = (n ).

(220, 284).
. ,
, .

;, . %
3.1.1: , (public domain). : Wikime-

dia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iamblichus.jpg
: (1184, 1210), (2620, 2924), (5020, 5564), (6232, 6368),

(10744, 10856), (12285, 14595), (17296, 18416).
1636 Fermat 1638 Descartes (9363584, 9437056).
. Euler 1747, 30
64 (
3.1. 77
3.1.2: Thabit ibn Qurra (public domain),

70 .
). (1184, 1210) ,
Euler 16 Nicolo Papagini 1866.
1946 390 , ( 2007) -
- 12 106 .
,
9 .. Thabit ibn Kuwah (,
Qurra)
3.1.2. n > 1 p = 3 2n 1 1, q = 3 2n 1 r = 9 22n 1 1

2n p q 2n r .
. n = 2, p = 5, q = 11, r = 71 22 5 11 = 220 22 71 = 284.
, .. (6232,
6368). , Euler.

1. .
2. , .. (69615, 87633).
5000 427 .
,
.. (2620, 2924).
3. 60 -
3. Bratley Mc Kay (1968)
. 20
Battiato Borho (1988).
:
(42262694537514864075544955198125, 42405817271188606697466971841875)
78 3.
32 .
3.2
(n ) 1 + n, n, n > 1.
, n P. . (n ) = 1 + n,
n P.
. n, n > 1
1. (abundant) (n ) > 2n
2. (perfect) (n ) = 2n
3. (deficient) (n ) < 2n
.
, p, (p) = 1 + p < 2p,
.
n = 2k 3, k > 1
(n ) = (2k ) (3) = (2k +1 1) 4 = 2k +1 4 4 = 2k +1 3 + 2k +1 4 > 2k +1 3 = 2n
.
4 () :
6=1+2+3
28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14
496 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 31 + 62 + 124 + 248
8128 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 127 + 254 + 508 + 1016 + 2032 + 4064
4
.
3.2.1. (). 2n 1 , n 2, 2n 1 (2n 1)

.
. 2n 1 , (2n 1) = 1 + (2n 1) = 2n . m := 2n 1 (2n 1).

n 1
X
(2n 1 , 2n 1) = 1, (m ) = (2n 1 (2n 1)) = (2n 1 ) (2n 1) = 22 2k =
k =0
2n (2n 1) = 2m. m .
. ( , -
36)

,
, 0 ,
.
( 1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n 1 2n 1 (1 + 2 + + 2n 1 ) .)
.
3.2. 79
3.2.1: , (public domain)

70 .
1. 1 + 2 = 3 P. , 2 3 = 6 .
2. 1 + 2 + 4 = 7 P. 4 7 = 28
3. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31 P, 16 31 = 496 .
4. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 = 127 P, 64 127 = 8128 .
,
.
.
1. n- n .
2. .
3. 6 8 .
4. ( 3.2.1) .
5. .
.
1747 Euler
.
3.2.2 (Euler). m ,
m = 2n 1 (2n 1), n 2.
. m , m = 2n 1 l n > 1 l .
(2n 1 , l ) = 1 3.1.1
(m ) = (2n 1 l ) = (2n 1 ) (l ) = (2n 1) (l ).
80 3.
m ,
(m ) = 2m = 2n l
2n l = (2n 1) (l ), (2n 1)|2n l , (2n 1, 2n ) = 1, (2n 1)|l, l =

(2n 1)t, t Z.
l , 2n 1
2n t = (l ).
l t l (t < l ). l + t (l ) = 2n t. l + t =
(2n 1)t + t = 2n t (l ) = l + t. l l
t. l , (l P) t = 1.
l = (2n 1) P, m = 2n 1 (2n 1).
3.2.2 (4)
(2).
3.2.2
2n 1 ;

a n 1, a > 1, n > 1
3.2.3. a n 1, a > 1, n > 1 , a = 2 n
(a n 1) = (a 1)(a n 1 + a n 2 + + a + 1).
1. a n 1, , a 1 = 1,
a = 2.
n , n = m l, m > 1, l > 1
2n 1 = 2ml 1 = (2m )l 1 = (2m 1)((2m )l 1 + + 2m + 1).
1, 2n 1
.
n .
: 3.2.3
2n 1 , n . ,
, .. p = 11 P 2p 1 = 211 1 = 2047 = 23 89 .

2p 1, p P.
.
1496 213 1 = 8191 , 212 (213 1) =
33550336 5 .
( 5 8 ).
3.2. 81
1555 Schebyl , , 1588 Piedro Antonio Cataldi

217 1 = 131071 219 1 = 524287
8589869056, 137438691328.
: 5 6 6.
(3).
(3) . Euler.
3.2.4. m 6 8.
. 3.2.2 m = 2n 1 (2n 1) 2n 1 =: p .
3.2.3 n , n = : q P. q = 2,
m = 2 3 = 6, .
q > 2. .
1: q 4l + 1. m
m = 24l (24l +1 1) = 28l +1 24l = 2 162l 16l .
16l , 105 + 6.
, l = 1, . l = k, 16k = 10s + 6.
l = k + 1, 16k +1 = 16k 16 = (10s + 6)16 = 160s + 96 = 10t + 6 (t = 16s + 9).
,
m = 2(10s1 + 6) (10s2 + 6) = 10(2s1 s2 ) + 6.
2: q 4l + 3. m = 24l +2 (24l +3 1) = 28l +5 24l +2 = 2 162l +1
4 16l = 2(10t1 + 6) 4(10t2 + 6) = 10(2t1 4t2 ) 12 = 10(2t1 4t2 2) + 8

3.2.5.
6 28 [3].
3.2.1 Mersenne Fermat
Mp := 2p 1, p P
( ) Mersenne.
( 2014), 48 Mersenne
, , 48 .

1. ,
Mersenne. M. de Sautoy [12, .
326], P. Erdos
. Mersenne
10.000.000 100.000 . http://primes.utm.edu/
Mersenne.
2. .
, .
82 3.
3.2.4 a n + 1.
3.2.6.
a n + 1, a > 1, n > 0
a n = 2l , l N.
. a , a n + 1 4 , , .
n 2 , q, n = mq.

a n + 1 = a mq + 1 = (a m + 1)(a m (q1) a m (q2) + a m + 1).
q 3, 1
a + 1 . n = 2r , r N.
n

n
Fermat a = 2, Fn := 22 + 1.
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 .
F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, F4 = 65537.
. Fermat
. .
, F5 641.
F5 = 4294967297 = 641 60417.
Euler (1732).
n
. Fn := 22 + 1, Fermat.
Fermat F0 , F1 , F2 , F3 F4 .
.
1796 19 Gauss n-
. n
n = 2` p1 p2 ps
` N pi (1 i s) Fermat.
() 365 366 [1].
Wantzel 1837.

, .
30 1796 -
(
17 )
"Principia quibus innitur sectio circuli, ac divisibilitas eiusdem geometrica in septemdecim
partes?"
M. Gardner W. Watkins , -
32 Pascal,
0 1
3.2. 83
,
.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 1
1 1 3
1 0 1 5
1 1 1 1 15
1 0 0 0 1 17
1 1 0 0 1 1 51
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 85
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 255
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 257
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 771
3.2.2
. Heath [13, . 100],
.
-
.
1, 3, 6, 10, . . . .
n (n +1)
1 + 2 + + +n = 2 .
1, 4, 9, 16, . . . . n 2 .
1, 5, 12, 22, . . . .
t2 1
3 + t |t 1
2
2
, n- (n 2) t 2t + t |t 1.
(6 ..,),
(1 ..) ,
. (3 ..).
18 Fermat [10] -
:
n n- .
84 3.
3.2.2: , (public do-

main). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Polygonal_Number_3.gif
,
.
Fermat, 29 IV .

4 -
.
Bachet
2,3 4 . Bachet
1 125 . [10].
Gauss, 10
1796 , [14],[2]:
! num [erus] = + +
J-L. Lagrange, 1798. -
, Cauchy 1813.

1. Tattersall [5, . 1-23].
2. ,
, ,
36 = 62 = 829
X 2 2Y 2 = 1. [6, . 28]
3.2. 85
3.2.3: Gauss, (public domain),

70 .
X 2 Dy2 = 1, D > 1, D , Pell
3.
Kazuya Kato, Nobushgo Kurokawa, Takeshi
Saito [7].
3.2.3
(x, y, z )
. 10 :
;
3.2.7. -
(congruent numbers).
3.2.8.
6. 3,4,5.
5 . , (3/2, 20/3, 41/6)
3 2 20 2 41 2 3/2 20/3
+ = E = = 5.
2 3 6 2
Leonardo Pisano (Fibonacci) (1220) [8, . 17]
3.2.9. n

X 2 + nY 2 = S2 (3.2.1)
2
X nY 2
= T 2
(x, y, s, t ) y , 0.
. n , (a, b, c ), a 2 + b2 = c 2
n = ab
2
.
(a b)2 = a 2 2ab + b2 = c 2 4n,
(3.2.1) (x, y, s, t ) = (c, 2, a + b, a b).
86 3.
, (x, y, s, t ) (3.2.1) y , 0,

s t s + t 2x
!
(a, b, c ) = , ,
y y y

!2 !2 !2
st s+t 2x
a 2 + b2 = + = = c2
y y y

sts+t s2 t 2 2ny2
= = = n,
y y 2y2 2y2
n .
3.2.10. n -
x x 2 n x 2 + n
.
Fibonacci Johann Panormitanus of
Palermo:
x x 2 5 .
Fibonacci
Liber Quadratorum
3.2.11. 1 . ,
3.2.9
X2 + Y2 = S2
X2 Y2 = T2
(x, y, s, t ) y , 0
X4 Y2 = Z2
, . 2.3.6
3.2.12. n , ,
nm 2 . , (a, b, c ) a 2 + b2 = c 2 n = ab
2
2
(ma, mb, mc ) (ma )2 + (mb)2 = (mc )2 nm 2 = m 2ab . 4
n.
3.2.13. [4, . XVI].

[11, D 27].
n = 5.
:
1. s, t (s, t ) = 1
. (x = s2 t 2 , y = 2st, z = s2 + t 2 )
xy
E= 2.
3.3. SLOANE 87
2. E = m 2 n n
(x/m, y/m, z/m ). s = 5, t = 4 (x, y, z ) = (9, 40, 41) E = xy/2 =
180 = 62 5. 5 5
(9/6, 40/6, 41/6) = (3/2, 20/3, 41/6).
1.
. ,
m 2 n n, n
s, t. ,
n (s, t ). , n = 157
:
157841 4947203 526771095761
X =
2 32 5 13 17 37 101 17401 46997 356441
22 32 5 13 17 37 101 157 17401 46997 356441
Y =
157841 4947203 526771095761
20085078913 1185369214457 9425458255024420419074801
Z =
2 32 5 13 17 37 101 17401 46997 356441 157841 4947203 526771095761
D. Zagier.
2. n , .
.
n. -
n . :
3.2.14. n
En : Y 2 = X 3 n 2 X,

.
. ,
J. Tunnel (1983) -
,
, Birch Swinnerton-Dyer.
[9],
Tunnel.
3.3 Sloane
Neil Sloane 1964
The On-Line Encyclo-
pedia of Integer Sequences https://oeis.org.
.
A000396://./000396 -
10 sage
88 3.
sage : a=sloane . A000396 ; a

P e r f e c t numbers : equal to sum o f proper d i v i s o r s .
sage : L=[ a [ i ] for i in range ( 1 , 1 0 ) ] ; L
[6 ,
28,
496,
8128,
33550336,
8589869056,
137438691328,
2305843008139952128,
2658455991569831744654692615953842176]
Sloane .
sloane_find ( [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 ] , 2) # optional internet

Searching Sloane s online database . . .
[ [ 4 0 , The prime numbers . , [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109,
113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191,
193, 197, 199, 211, 223, 227, 229, 233, 239, 241, 251, 257, 263, 269, 2 7 1 ] ] ,
[41 , a ( n ) = number o f p a r t i t i o n s o f n ( the p a r t i t i o n numbers ) . , [ 1 , 1 ,
2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11, 15, 22, 30, 42, 56, 77, 101, 135, 176, 231, 297, 385,
490, 627, 792, 1002, 1255, 1575, 1958, 2436, 3010, 3718, 4565, 5604,
6842, 8349, 10143, 12310, 14883, 17977, 21637, 26015, 31185, 37338,
44583, 53174, 63261, 75175, 89134]]]
2, 3, 5, 7
.
.
3.4
, n, n > 1
.
n.
. -
. ,
, .

. .
3.4. 89
3.4.1 Fermat
3.4.1. n, n > 1 -
n, n = ab, a b > 0
n, n = t 2 s2 , s t .

a+b ab
t= ,s= a = t + s, b = t s.
2 2
a +b 2 a b 2

. n = a b = 2
2
= t2 s2 . n = t 2 s2 = (t s)(t + s) = a b,
a = t s b = t + s, t = a +
2
b
s = a
2
b

Fermat , n = a b a, b , ,

s = a b
t n. ,
2
a b t [ n ] + 1, [ n ] + 2, . . . ,
t t 2 n = s2 , .
. n = 200819.

[ n ] + 1 = [ 200819] + 1 = 449. t = 449 4492 200819 = 782,
.
t = 450, 4502 200819 = 1681 = 412 . 200819 = 4502 412 =
(450 + 41)(450 41) = 491 409.
a b n = ab
Fermat a, b
. :

k t = k [ n ] + 1, k [ n ] + 2, . . .
t 2 k n ,
t 2 k n = s2
(t + s)(t s) = kn. t + s n ,
-, (t + s, n ).
. 14167.
Fermat, t =
377, 378, . . . ... t. t = [ 3n +
1] = 652, 653, 654, 655,
6552 3 141467 = 682
(655 + 68, 141467) = 241.

14167 241 587.
k = 3
n = a b = 241 587 b = 587 3a = 3 241 = 723.
4 t,
k = 1 38 t

, ,
90 3.
(), ,
.
-
,
. ,
. -
.
.
.
.
. ()
G.H. Hardy , ,
1991, 82:
Gauss
- - ( ),

.
3.4.1: H. Hardy, (public domain). : Wikimedia

Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ghhardy@72.jpg

[1] C. F. Gauss: Untersuchungen uber hohere Arithmetik. Chelsea Publishing Company, Sec-
ond Edition, New York, 1981.
[2] C. F. Gauss: Mathematisches Tagebuch. Ostwalds Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften

256, Akademische Verlangsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 1985.
[3] Damvid, M, Burton: Elementary Number Theory. UBS New Delhi, 1998. second edition.
[4] E. Dickson: History of the Theory of Numbers. 1, 1999.
[6] J.Silverman: A friendly Introduction to Number Theory. Prentice Hall, 2012.
[7] Kazuya Kato, Nobushgo Kurokawa, Takeshi Saito: volume 186. 2009.
[8] Leonardo Fibonacci: The Book of Squares. Academic Press, Boston, 1987. An Annotated
Translation Into Modern English by L. E. Singler.
[9] Neal Koblitz: Introduction to Elliptic Curves and Modular Forms. Springer-Verlag New
York, 1993. Second Edition.
[10] Pierre De Fermat: Bemerkungen zu Diophant. Klassiker der Exakten Wissenshaften, Aka-
demic Verlaggesellschaft M.B. U. Leipzig, 1932. Aus Dem Lateinischen ubersetzt und mit
Anmerkungen herausgegeben von Max Miller Ostwalds.
[11] R. Guy: Unsolved problems in Number Theory. Springer Verlag New York, 1994. Second
edition.

. 2005.
[13] Sir Thomas L. Heath: . ...., , 2001.
[14] W.S. Anglin: The Queen of Mathematics: An Introduction to Number Theory. Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1995.
91
92

4
4.1 ( )
.
Euler, Lagrange, Legendre Gauss,
.
1801 24- Gauss
Disquistiones Arithmeticae ( ).
, , -
, (congruence).
. a, b m m 2 a b
m ( modulo m ) m.
Gauss :
Si numerus a numeromur b, c defferentiam metitur b et c secundum a congrui dicuntur,
sin minus incongrui: ipsum a modulum appelamus
a b, c b c
a, ( ) - a .
( ), :
numero congruentiam hoc signo, , in postero denotabimus, modulum ubi opus erit in
clausulis adiungentes
,

a b modm, m |(a b).
:
Hoc signum propter magnam analogiam quae inter aequalitatem atque congruentiam
invenitur adoptavimus

.

.
Gauss
.
93
94 4.
... Gauss,
. ,

.
. 9 4 ,
1. , Gauss
1 13. Gauss
, 7 7,
49(= 7 7) 12. , 1.
Gauss
7 7 7. 49 7, -
(7 7 : 12, 1) 7,
7. , 7 7 7 ( 343),
12, 7.
Gauss
, .
799 ,
12 7.
Gauss ,
. ( -
- modular arithmetic) . ,
, 11 4
3, 11 4 3.
-
. ,
, -
, .
Gauss

... [19, . 40-41].
, 1.2.3, a a = mq + r, 0 r < m
a rmodm.
4.1.1. r amodm.
a, b m,
modm.
a = qm + r, 0 r < m
b = q0 m + r 0 , 0 r 0 < m
a bmodm m |a b(q q0 )m + r r 0 ,
m |(r r 0 ). 0 |r r 0 | < m, r = r 0 .
, .
.
m , , , m 2, a, b, c Z.
1. a amodm, a.
4.1. ( ) 95
2. a bmodm, b amodm.
3. a bmodm b cmodm, a cmodm
( ).
, .
modm. 0, 1, 2, . . . , (m
1), m .
a,
ka : = {b Z/b amodm }.
. {0, 1, . . . , m 1}
modm S(m )
.
4.1.2. ai , bi (i {1, 2, . . . , n }) ai bi modm, i = 1, 2, . . . , n

n
X n
X
ai bi modm
i =1 i =1
n
Y n
Y
ai bi modm
i =1 i =1
. (ai bi modm i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (m |(ai bi ),

i = 1, 2, . . . , n ). , ì , i = 1, 2, . . . , n
ai bi = mì i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
n
X n
X n
X
ai bi = (ai bi )
i =1 i =1 i =1
n
n
X X
= mì = m ì
i =1 i =1
n
X n
X
ai bi modm
i =1 i =1
.
n = 1 . n,
n
Y n
Y
ai bi modm
i =1 i =1
n + 1.
ai bi modm i = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1
96 4.

n
Y n
Y
ai bi = m` ` Z.
i =1 i =1
n +1
Y n +1
Y n +1
Y n
Y n
Y n +1
Y
ai bi = ai bn +1 ai + bn ai bi
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
n
n n

Y Y Y
= (an +1 bn +1 ) ai + bn +1

ai bi
i =1 i =1 i =1
= mk + m` = m (k + `),
n + 1 n, n 1.
4.1.2 :
4.1.3. m , m 2, a, b, c Z n Z. a bmodm
1. a c b cmodm
2. ac bcmodm
3. a n bn modm
-
.
;
:
2 6 2 3mod6
6 . 3mod6.
4.1.4. ac bcmodm
m
a bmod ,
d
d = (c, m ).
. ac bcmodm, ` Z
(a b)c = ac bc = m`.
(a d ) m`
= .
d d
m = dM c = dC (M, C Z)
(a b)C = M`.
4.2. 97
(M, C) = 1, M | (a b)
a
a bmod .
d

4.1.5. ac = bcmodm (c, m ) = 1
a bmodm
. 4.1.4.
c , 0 ac bcmodmc a bmodm. ac bcmodmc,

` Z ac bc = (m`)c (a b ml )c = 0 c , 0
a bmodm.
4.2 () Fermat, - -
Euler

m, m m > 1.
, m , m =
p P. . p = 5. a = 1, 2, 3, 4
modulo 5.
a = 1, 1mod5.
a = 2, a 2 4mod5, a 3 3mod5, a 4 1mod5
a = 3, a 2 4mod5, a 3 2mod5, a 4 1mod5
a = 4, a 2 1mod5, a 3 4mod5, a 4 1mod5
a, 1 a < 5
a 4 1mod5
p = 11, a,
1 a < 11,
a 10 1mod11
1. a ( a1 a2 modp
a1n a2n modp n N)
2. a 0modp, a n 0modp
, p, -
.
4.2.1 ( Fermat). p a
p - a,
a p1 1modp
98 4.
4.2.2. p a,
a p amodp
:
p - a , 4.2.1,
a p1 1modp
a p a (modp)
p|a a 0(modp) a p 0(modp), a p amodp.

. 4.2.2
4.2.1
, a p amodp p - a, 4.2.2 a p1 modp.

Fermat.
. .
a = 0, .
a 0,
a p amodp
(a + 1).

p !
X p
(a + 1 ) =
p
aj
j =0
j
p
p| j , j = 1, 2, . . . , (p 1)(a + 1)p a + 1modp (.)
modp
a
4.2.1.
.
512 1mod13 .
amod13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
5amod13 5 10 2 7 12 4 9 1 6 11 3 8
1 13
, .
:
(5 1)(5 2) . . . (5 12) 1 2 3 12mod13,
512 12! 12!mod13
(12!, 13) = 1, 512 1mod13
4.2. 99
. 4.2.1. a, 2a, . . . , (p 1)amodp
1, 2, . . . , (p 1)modp
.
(p 1), p ka lamodp
k, l {1, 2, . . . , (p 1)}, p|a (k l ). p - a, p|(k l ), k lmodp.
1 k, l p 1. |k l | < p 1. k l = 0, k = l.
(p 1) modp.
1, 2, . . . , (p 1)modp, .
a (2a ) . . . ((p 1)a ) 1 2 3 (p 1)modp ,
, a p1 (p 1)! (p 1)!modp
p - (p 1)!.
a p1 1modp
. 7|111333 + 333111 .
Fermat. p = 7 7 - 111
7 - 333. , 1116 1mod7 3336 1mod7. 333 = 6 55 + 3 111 = 6 18 + 3.
111333 = 111655+3 = (1116 )55 1113 15 1113 = 1113 mod7 , 111 =
7 15 + 6, 1113 63 mod7 (1)3 (1) 6mod7
333111 = 333618+3 = (3336 )18 3333 118 3333 3333 mod7 333 =
7 47 + 4, 3333 43 1mod7.

111333 + 333111 6 + 1 0mod7, 7|111333 + 333111 .
. 2160677 73.
73 . Fermat 272 1mod73, (2, 73) = 1.

160677 = 72 2236 + 45.
2160677 245 mod73.

45 .
45 = (101101)2 (= 25 + 23 + 22 + 1 = 32 + 8 + 4 + 1).
21 2mod73 -
:
21 2mod73
2
2 4mod73
4
2 16mod73
8
2 37mod73
16
2 55mod73
32
2 32mod73
, 245 232+8+4+1 232 28 24 2 32 37 16 2 = 74 32 16 1 512 1mod73

sage mod73:
100 4.
for i in range ( 1 , 6 ) :
i ,2^(2^ i ) , Mod(2^(2^ i ) , 7 3 )
(1 , 4 , 4)
(2 , 16, 16)
(3 , 256, 37)
(4 , 65536, 55)
(5 , 4294967296, 32)
i
22 ,
mod73.
m , m > 1.
Fermat m .
: 211 8mod12
, m a,
a, s, a s 1modm.
.
a, a s 1modm a s km = 1, k Z, (a, m ) = 1.
m = p, a Z p - a (a, p) = 1. amodp
a = 1, 2, . . . , p 1 .
m , m > 1, a
(a, m ) = 1,
{a Z|1 a < m (a, m ) = 1}
m = p P (p 1)
Fermat.

(m ) := #{a Z|1 a < m (a, m ) = 1}
m.
4.2.3. - Euler .
.
p P, (p) = p 1. (2) = 1, (3) = 2. (4) = 2, (6) = 2, (9) =
6, (10) = 4, (12) = 4.
amodm modm (a, m ) = 1
modm, -
modm R(m ).
R(m ) = {a S(m )|(a, m ) = 1}
4.2.4. {a1 , a2 , . . . a(m ) }

modm b Z (b, m ) = 1 {ba1 , ba2 , . . . , ba(m ) }
modm.
. (ai , m ) = 1 (b, m ) = 1, (bai , m ) = 1,

bai .
.
4.2. 101
bai baj modm. m |b(ai aj ) (b, m ) = 1 m |(ai aj ),

ai aj modm. i = j.
4.2.4 :
4.2.5 (Euler). a (a, m ) = 1
a (m ) 1modm
. Fermat.
, 4.2.4
{a1 modm, a2 modm, . . . , a(m ) modm } =

= {aa1 modm, aa2 modm, . . . , aa(m ) modm }
,
(aa1 )(aa2 ) . . . (aa(m ) ) a1 a2 . . . a(m ) modm
a (m ) (a1 a2 a(m ) ) a1 a2 a(m ) modm
(ai , m ) = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . (m )
(a1 a2 . . . a(m ) , m ) = 1
a (m ) 1modm.
1. m = p P, (m ) = p 1, Fermat
Euler.
2. Euler L. Redei
(1948): m > 1 a :
m |(a m a m (m ) ).
Euler
L. Redei. , m |a m (m ) (a (m ) 1). (a, m ) = 1 (a m (m ) , m ) =
1. m |(a (m ) 1), Euler.
Redei, Euler.
Euler.
. 3100 .
3100 mod100.
100 2-
100 = (1100100) = 26 + 25 + 22
3100 = 32 +2 +2 = 32 32 32 = 364 332 34

6 5 2 6 5 4
102 4.
31 3mod100
32 9mod100
34 81mod100
38 61mod100
316 21mod100
332 41mod100
364 81mod100
3100 81 41 81mod100 21 81mod100 01mod100.
01.
(100), .
(m ), m.
(100) = 40.
3100 320 21 81 01mod100.
m p, m = pl .
a, 1 a < m, p
p, 2p, 3p, . . . , (pl 1 2)p, (pl 1 1)p, pl
pl 1 .
(pl ) = pl pl 1
: (6) = 2, (2) = 1, (3) = 2. (6) = (2)(3).
(12) = 4 (3)(4) = 2 2 = 4, (12) = (3)(4). (12) = 4 ,
(2)(6) = 1 2 = 2.
,
, :
4.2.6.
(m, n ) = 1 (m n ) = (m )(n ).
, . .
.
m = 5 n = 8, m n = 5 8 = 40.
1 40 :
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36
2 7 12 17 22 27 32 37
3 8 13 18 23 28 33 38
4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(5) = 5 1 = 4. 4
5, . (8) = 8 (1 12 ) = 4.
4 8. 4 4 = 16 ,
40, (40) = 16 = 4 4 = (5)(8).
4.2.6
1 m n :
4.2. 103
1 m+1 2m + 1 ... (n 1)m + 1

2 m+2 2m + 2 ... (n 1)m + 2
3 m+3 2m + 3 ... (n 1)m + 3
.. ..
. .
r m+r 2m + r ... (n 1)m + r
.. ..
. .
m 2m 3m (n 1)m + m = m n
(m, r ) =: d > 1. r-
m,
km + r 1 k n 1
d |(km + r ).
1 m n m r-
(m, r ) = 1.
(m, r ) = 1 1 r m
m n r- .
r- m.
(km + r, m ) = (m, r ) = 1.
n r-
modn. (n ) n.
n, (n ) m n,
(m ) m n (m ) (n ),
(m n ) = (m )(n ).
s
Y
4.2.7. n =
n
pi i n, (n > 1)
i =1

s s !
Y
n 1
Y 1
(n ) = pi i (pi 1) = n 1
i =1 i =1
pi
.
s 1
Y
(pini , psns ) = 1.
i =1
,
s 1
Y n
(n ) =
n
pi i ps s
i =1
, ,
s
Y
(n ) =
n
(pi i )
i =1
n 1

,
n
( pi i ) = n
pi i pi i = n
pi i 1 1
pi
.
104 4.
4.2.8. n, n > 2 (n ) .
. :
1. n 2, n = 2l l > 1 (n ) = (2l ) = 2l 1 , .
2. n 2, , p.
n n = pl m (l 1) p - m.
(n ) = (pl )(m ) = pl 1 (p 1)(m ).
(p 1) (n ) (n ) .
1.
1 1 1 4

(100) = 22 52 = 22 52 1 1 = 100 = 40.
2 5 2 5
2. Fermat
Frenicle de Bessy 18 1640.
Fermat ( Fermat Fermat
,
).
Fermat . Frenicle :

( I would send you the demonstration, if I did not fear its being too long
).
1676 1680 Leibniz,
. ,
.
Euler, ,
1736. . [4, . 189].
Euler 1750 1760 [4, .
57].
(n ), Euler
. (n ).
(n ) Gauss [6, 38].
4.2.1
1. n N, n 1
5n 1 + 4nmod16
2. a, b (a, b) = 1
a (b) + b(a ) 1modab

4.3. 105
3.
7 | 19411963 + 19631991
4. 31000 ;
5. a 2730 | a 13 a.
6. n N, n > 2
n(n )
n n n 2 .
7.
1 71
a5 + a3 + a
5 3 15
, a.
8. n
(2n ) = (n ).
(2n ) = 2(n )

(3n ) = 3(n ) 3 | n
9. a Z (a, 10) = 1, a 2001 a .
4.3
f (X ) = cn X n + + c2 X + c ( ) n-
m N, m > 1,
f (X ) modm (4.3.1)
n- .
a f (a ) 0modm.
a bmodm f (a ) f (b)modm.
. 4.1.3 a l bl modm l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
, 4.1.3(ii ) cl a l cl bl modm l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n,
n
X n
X
l
4.1.2 cl a cl bl modm, f (a ) f (b)modm.
l =0 l =0
a (4.3.1), b, b amodm
. . , a1 a2
a1 . a2 modm.

modm, .
{0, 1, 2, . . . , m 1}.
106 4.
, n = 1. -
, ,
ax bmodm
();
. , 3x 5mod9 .
( x0 , 3x0 9k = 5 3|5, ()
, ; :
5x 7mod12
x 11mod12. ; (5, 12) = 1

12 5,
5 5 + (2)12 = 1.
7, 5 35 + (14) 12 = 7. x 35 11mod12,
.
4.3.1. ax bmodm d := (a, m ) | b.

, d.
. d | b, ` Z b = d`. d = (a, m ).
r, s Z d = ar + bs. ,
b = d` = (ar + bs)` = a (r`) + b(s`),
x0 (r`)modm, .
x0 , ax0 bmodm.
ax0 b = mk, k Z.
d = (a, m ), a m. d | b.
d.
x0 k Z, x0 + k m
d
. ,
m a

a x0 + k = ax0 + km ax0 bmodm.
d d
x0 , x1 ,
ax0 b ax1 modm.
d = (a, m ),
m
x1 x0 mod ,
d

m
x1 = x0 + k
, k Z,
d
.
m 2m (d 1)m
x0 + , x0 + , . . . , x0 +
d d m
4.3. 107
modm, k1 , k2 {1, 2, . . . , d 1}
m m m
x 0 + k1 = x 0 + k2 modm m | (k1 k2 ) d | (k1 k2 ) k1 = k2 ,
d d d
0 |k1 k2 | < d.
, . x0 + k m
d
,k Z
k = qd + r, 0 r < d
m (qd + r )m m m
x0 + k x0 + = x0 + qm + r x0 + r modm
d d d d
0 r < d.
4.3.2. (a, m ) = 1,
ax bmodm
5x 7mod12 , x 11mod12.

27x 18mod105.
(27, 105) = 3 | 18. 3

mod105. (27, 105) 27, 105:
3 = 27 4 + 105 (1).
6,
18 = 27 24 + 105 (6).

x0 24mod105.
:
m 105
x1 = x0 + = 24 + 59mod105
d 3
2m 105
x2 = x0 + = 24 + 12 94mod105.
d 3
4.3.3. Georgi Voromi [10, . 69]. (a, m ) = 1,
ax 1modm
a 1
X mk 2
x 3 2a + 6

modm
a
k =1
a -
.
108 4.
4.3.4. m, (m > 1)
r
Y
m= mi ,
i =1
(mi , mj ) = 1 i, j {1, 2, . . . , r } i , j.
f (x ) 0modm
f (x ) 0modm1 (4.3.2)
f (x ) 0modm2
.. ..
. .
f (x ) 0modmr
. x0 Z , f (x0 ) 0modm. i
{1, 2, . . . , m }, mi | m,
f (x0 ) 0modmi , i {1, 2, . . . , r }.
, x0 (4.3.4)
f (x0 ) 0modmi , i {1, 2, . . . , r }.
, mi | f (x0 ) i {1, 2, . . . , r }. m =
Qr
i =1 mi | f (x0 ), f (x0 )
0modm.
f (x ) 0modmi , i {1, 2, . . . , r }
xi ,
f (xi ) 0modmi ,
x x1 modm1 (4.3.3)
x x2 modm2
.. ..
. .
x xr modmr
(4.3.3), x0 -
(4.3.2),
f (x0 ) f (xi ) 0modmi
i {1, 2, . . . , r }.
4.3. 109
4.3.5 ( ). m1 , m2 , . . . , mr mi > 1
i {1, 2, . . . , r } ai Z, :
x a1 modm1
x a2 modm2
.. ..
. .
x ar modmr
modm, m =
Qr
i =1 mi .
.
. i {1, 2, 3, . . . , r },
m
Mi = = m 1 m 2 m i 1 m i +1 m i +2 m r .
mi
mi (mi , Mi ) = 1.
i {1, 2, . . . , n }
Mi x 1modmi
modmi . bi .
r
X
x0 ai Mi bi
i =1
. , i {1, 2, . . . , r },
ai Mi bi ai modmi
j {1, 2, . . . , r }, j , i
aj Mj bj 0modmi
x0 ai modmi .
modm. x1 ,
x1 ai x0 modm i {1, 2, . . . , r }.
mi | x1 x0 mi ,
r
Y
m= mi | (x1 x0 ), x1 x0 modm.
i =1
4.3.6. 1. 2.2.2 4.3.1.

aX + bY = c
110 4.
aX cmodb

bY cmoda.
d = (a, b)|c. x0

aX cmodb,

kb
xk = x0 + , k Z.
d
c ax0
aX + bY = c, y0 = b

c axk c a x0 + kb
d c ax0 a kb ka
yk = = = = y0
d
, k Z.
b b b b b
2. 4.3.5 Sun-Tsu, ..
( 200 470),
Suan-ching :
.
, ,
. ; ,
:
x 2mod3
x 3mod5
x 2mod7
Sun-Tsu
4.3.5. 70, 21 15
5 7, 3 7 3 5 .
270 + 321 + 215 = 233, . /
105 25. 70, 21 15
3, 5 7 .
Shun-Tsu.
R. Dickson(1919), .. , ,
A. Wylie (1897), L. Wang (1964), ..
.
13 Qin Jushao Shushu
Jiuzhan 1 (1247),
.
1
J. Tattersall Elementary Number
Theory in Nine chapters
4.3. 111
3. R. Hoche (1866)
, 1 .. , .

: ,

,
.
. -
, 6 .. -
( )

.
[20], [25], [21], [18], [23].
4. 4.3.5 Gauss [6, 36].
4.3.5 700 .. Yi Xing.
4.3.7.
x a1 modm1
x a2 modm2
.. ..
. .
x ar modmr
(mi , mj )|(ai aj ) i, j, i , j.
modulo m m = [m1 , . . . , mr ].
. mi | (x ai ) i = 1, . . . , r.
mij = (mi , mj ) i , j, mij | (x ai ) mij | (x aj ) mij | (x ai ) (x aj ) = aj ai
i , j.
, mij | (ai aj ) i, j {1, 2, . . . , r }, i , j.

.
m = p11 p22 ps s x amodm
n n n
x amodp1n1
x amodp2n2
.. ..
. .
x amodpsn2

. ,
,
mi mi . p
i {1, 2, . . . , r }, p mi
( mj ). pe .
pf | mj , f e pf | mij = (mi , mj ) | ai aj .
ai aj modpf . , x amodpe ,
x aj modpf .
112 4.
x aj modpf
x ai modpe p.
p
.
.
:
(1) :
2x 1mod5
3x 2mod7
4x 5mod9
. x 3mod5, x 3mod7
x 8mod9. , :
x 3mod5
x 3mod7
x 8mod9
, a1 = 3, a2 = 3, a3 = 8, m = 5 7 9 = 315, M1 = 63, M2 = 45 M3 = 35.

Mi x 1modmi , i = 1, 2, 3. 63x 1mod5, 45x 1mod7 35x 1mod9
b1 2mod5, b2 5mod7 b3 8mod9 . ,

x0 (a1 M1 b1 + a2 M2 b2 + a3 M3 b3 )mod315
x0 = 143mod315.
(2) :
x 13mod40
x 5mod44
x 38mod275
a1 = 13, a2 = 5, a3 = 38, m1 = 40, m2 = 44, m3 = 275 (40, 44) = 4|13 5 = 8,

(40, 275) = 5|13 38 25, (44, 275) = 11|5 38 = 33,
modm, m = [40, 44, 275] = 2200.

. :
x 13mod23
x 13mod5
x 5mod22
x 5mod11
4.3. 113
x 38mod52
x 38mod11
x 5mod8
x 13mod25
x 5mod11
x 1413mod2200.
sage :
sage : CRT_list ( [ 1 3 , 5 , 3 8 ] , [ 4 0 , 4 4 , 2 7 5 ] )
1413
, -
:
for i in range (1 ,82511):

i f (Mod( i , 8 ) == Mod( 5 , 8 ) ) and (Mod( i , 2 5 ) == Mod( 1 3 , 2 5 ) ) \
and (Mod( i , 1 1 ) == Mod( 5 , 1 1 ) ) :
i
1413

1 2200 = 8 25 11 .
4.3.8. -
Euler 4.2.4.
m = ri=1 mi Mi = m
m
, i = 1, 2, . . . , r.
Q
i

r
X
(mi )
x0 = ai Mi .
i =1
. ,
Mj 0modmi j , i
(mi )
x0 = ai Mi modmi . , (Mi , mi ) = 1, Euler,
(mi )
Mi 1modmi .
x0 = ai modmi i = 1, 2, . . . , r.
114 4.
4.3.9.
.
m1 , m2 . m = m1 m2
a (a, m ) = 1. a1 S(m1 ) a a1 modm1 .
amodm1 . a2 S(m2 ) a a2 modm2 .
(a, m1 ) = 1 i = 1, 2. (ai , mi ) = 1 i = 1, 2.
a R(m ) (a1 , a2 ) R(m1 ) R(m2 ). ,
(a1 , a2 ) R(m1 ) R(m2 ), ,
x S(m )
x a1 modm1
x a2 modm2
(ai , mi ) = 1 i = 1, 2 (x, mi ) = 1, (x, m ) = 1,
x R(m ).
R(m )
R(m1 )R(m2 ). (m ) = (m1 )(m2 ).2
4.3.1
1. :
() 25x 15mod29
() 6x 15mod21
() 34x 60mod98
2. :
()
x 4mod11
x 14mod29
x 7mod31
()
2x 1mod5
3x 6mod9
x 3mod17
3. 2, 3, 6 12 1, 2, 5
5 .
4. . -
. 83 ,
110 135 .
, 32 , 70 30 .
; ( ).
2

.
4.4. 115
4.4
4.4.1 g-
.
4.4.1 (g- ). g Z, g > 1

n
n = am gm + am 1 gm 1 + + a2 g2 + a1 g + a0 ,
ai i = 0, 1, 2, . . . m 0 ai < g i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m.
. . -
1.2.3
n = q1 g + a0 , 0 a0 < g.
q1 b , 1.2.3 q1 = q2 g + a1 , 0 a1 < g,
n = (q2 g + a1 )g + a0 = q2 g2 + a1 g + a0 .
q g, , q2 = q3 g + a2 , 0 a2 < g,
n = q3 g3 + a2 g2 + a1 g + a0 .
g ().
n > q1 > q2 > 0,
-
. (m 1)-
qm 1 = qm g + am 1 , 0 am 1 < g 0 qm < g.
am := qm ,
n = am gm + am 1 gm 1 + + a1 g + a0 .
. n , -
:
n = am gm + + a1 g + a0
n = bm g m + + b1 g + b0 ,
0 ai , bj < g i, j {0, 1, 2, . . . , m }.
m , , 0.

0 = cm gm + + c1 g + c0 , ci = ai bi , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m. (4.4.1)
,
i {0, 1, 2, . . . , m } ci = ai bi , 0.

` := min i {0, 1, 2, . . . , m }|ci , 0 ,
116 4.
(4.4.1)
0 = cm gm + + c` g` c` , 0.

c` = g cm gm `1 + + c`+1 g | c` . 0 a` < g
0 b` < g : g < a` b` < g, g < c` < g |c` | < g
g | c` c` = 0, . .
n = (am am 1 . . . a2 a1 a0 )g
n g.
g = 10 () g = 2 ( ).
() n g.
n = 1785 () 2 ( )
1785 = 2 892 + 1 = 2(2 446) + 1 =

= 22 446 + 1 = 22 (2 223) + 1 = 23 223 + 1
= 23 (2 111 + 1) + 1 = 24 111 + 23 1 + 1
= 24 (2 55 + 1) + 23 + 1 =
= 25 55 + 24 + 23 + 1 = 25 (2 27 + 1) + 24 + 33 + 1
= 26 27 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 =
= 26 (2 13 + 1)25 + 24 + 23 + 1 = 27 (2 6 + 1) + 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 =
= 28 6 + 27 + 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 = 28 (2 3) + 27 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 =
= 29 (2 + 1) + 27 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 =
= 210 + 29 + +27 25 + 24 + 23 + 1 = (11010111001)2 .
g = 2, 0 1
4.4.1,
2 .
n g,
.
g m n < g m +1 ,
m log g log n < (n + 1) log g,
log n
m < m + 1.
log g
" #
log n
m=
log g
h log n i
m + 1 log g + 1 .
g, [logg n ] + 1.
dlogg n e logg n.
4.4. 117
4.4.2
i =0 ai 10i m, s = ai , t =
Pn Pn Pn i
i =0 i =0 (1) ai ,
1. 2 | m 2 | a0 , 10k 0mod2 k 1.
2. 5 | m 5 | a0 , 10k 0mod5 k 1.
3. 4 | m 4 | 10a1 + a0 , 10k 0mod4 k 2.
4. 25 | m 25 | 10a1 + a0 10k 0 | 25 k 2.
5. 3 9 | m 3 9 | s, 10k 1mod9 10k 1mod3 k 1.
6. 11 | m 11 | t 10k (1)k mod11 k 11.
7. 7 | m 7 | b 2a0 , b = am 10m 1 + + a2 10 + a1 . ,
m = 10b + a0 7 | m 7 | 3b + a0 = 3b + 7a0 6a 0
7 | 3(b 2a0 ) 7 | b 2a0 .
8. 13 | m 13 | (b + 4a0 ) b = am 10m 1 + + a2 10 + a1 . ,
13 | m 13 | 10b + a0 13 | (13b 3b + 13a0 12a0 )
13 | 3(b + 4a0 ) 13 | b + a0 .
9. m 7, 11 13 7, 11 13
100a2 + 10a1 + a0 (100a5 + 10a4 + a3 ) + (100a8 + 10a7 + a6 ) (100a11 + 10a10 + a9 ).
7 11 13 = 1001 `
103` 1mod1001, 103`+1 10mod1001, 103`+2 100mod1001
103` 1mod10001, 103`+1 10mod1001, 103`+2 100mod1001.
4.4.3
m ( )
N ( )
Y (N = 100C + Y ).
118 4.
Y C
W = k + [2, 6 m 0, 2] 2 C + Y + + mod7
4 4
: 5 1951;
k = 5, m = 7, N = 1951, C = 19, Y = 51
51 19
W = 5 + [2, 6 7 0, 2] 2 19 + 51 + +
4 4
= 5 + 18 38 + 51 + 12 + 4mod7 52 3mod7.
( 0 6). [12, .
166-170]
: 7 2014 k = 7, m = 10, C = 20, Y = 14.
W = 7 +[2, 6 10 0, 2] 2 20 + 14 +[14/4]+[20/4] = 7 + 25 40 + 14 + 3 + 5 0mod7.
!
4.4.4
.
(b, a ) b a
X
a = (X, 19), b = (X, 4), c = (X, 7), A = (19a + 16, 30), B = (4c + 2b + 6a, 7),
E (X ) X
E (X ) = A + B + 3
: E (Q ) 30, E (X ) 30,
(E (X ) 30)- . Gauss.
: X = 2007 a = 12, b = 3, c = 5, A = 4, B = 1. E (X ) = A + B + 3 = 4 + 1 + 3 = 8
. , 2007 8 .
: Q = 2015 a = (X, 19) = 1, b = (X, 4) = 3,
c = (X, 7) = 6, A = (19a + 16, 30) = (35, 30) = 5, B = (4c + 2b + 6A, 7) = (60, 7 = 4).
E (X ) = 5 + 4 + 3 = 12 . [10]
4.5 modm

7345678912 mod18165151.
18165151
Euler.

18165151 = 3931 4621.
- Euler
(18165151) = (3931 1)(4621 1) = 18156600.

4.5. MODM 119
(7, 181651551) = 1. Euler,
718156600 1mod18165151.
, 345678912 = 18156600 19 + 541043,
718156600 7541043 mod18165151.
541043 .
:
r
X
n= i 2r i , i {0, 1}.
i =0
h i
m 0 = 1, 0 = 0. n n
2

0.
Pr Y i
i
a n = a i =0 i 2 = a 2 modn.
e i =1
,
541043 = (11001110100000100001)2
7 = 7 mod18165151
72 = 49 mod18165151
3
72 = 2401 mod18165151
4
72 = 5764801 mod18165151
5
72 = 4796913 mod18165151
6
72 = 14438188 mod18165151
7
72 = 16179105 mod18165151
8
72 = 15991127 mod18165151
9
72 = 7879037 mod18165151
10
72 = 2156379 mod18165151
11
72 = 543208 mod18165151
12
72 = 218420 mod18165151
13
72 = 5609874 mod18165151
14
72 = 16317151 mod18165151
15
72 = 1116547 mod18165151
16
72 = 2890079 mod18165151
17
72 = 2214629 mod18165151
18
72 = 9002792 mod18165151
19
72 = 12145310 mod18165151
20
72 = 8503586 mod18165151
1
:
5 11 13 14 15 18 19
7 + 72 + 72 + 72 + 72 + 72 + 72 + 72 = 12180823.
120 4.
x n amodm,
m, a n . x.
x 157 1078mod2724. x.
2747 . , 2747 = 41 67. (2747) =
(41)(67) = 40 66 = 2640.
157b 2640c = 1
b = 1093 c = 65. Euler,
x 2640 1mod2747.
,
1095
= x 1571093 = x 1+65652640

x 157
65
= x x 2640 xmod2747
x 157 1078mod2747, x 10781093 mod2747.

x 1415 mod2747
.
Euler 2747
. ,
. .
.
4.6
(P, C, K, E, D ) :
P (plaintext)
C (ciphertext) .
K (key space) .
E . k K
k E k : P C.
D . k K
dk : C P
dk (ek (x )) = x, x P.
,
.
4.6. 121
4.6.1

.
0 25
mod26. .
(shift cipher)
P = C = K = Z26 . k K = Z26 ek (x ) (x + k )mod26 dk (y) (y k )mod26.

k = 3 (Caesar cipher).
:
I LOVE YOU
. ( .)
8, 11, 14, 21, 4, 24, 14, 20
( 3 mod26)
11, 14, 17, 24, 7, 1, 17, 23
3 .
: :
26.
.
(substitution cipher)
P = C = Z26 K
26 #K = 26!.
.
.
.
P = C = Z26
K := {(a, b) Z26 Z26 : (a, 26) = 1}.
(26) 26 = 312. k = (a, b) K

ek (x ) = (ax + b)mod26
dk (y) = a 1 (y b)mod26
a 1 amod26
ax 1mod26
122 4.
: ,
as + 26t = 1
s a 1 .
. K = (a, b) = (3, 7).
ek (x ) 7x + 3mod26
7x 1mod26, x 15mod26, a 1 = 15.

dk (y) 15(y 3) 15y 19mod26
HOT
H 7 7 ek (7) 0 mod26 0 7 A
O 7 14 ek (14) 23 mod26 23 7 X
T 7 19 ek (19) 6 mod26 6 7 G
AXG. :
A 7 0 dk (0) 7 mod26 7 7 H
X 7 23 dk (23) 14 mod26 14 7 O
G 7 6 dk (6) 19 mod26 19 7 T
.
. -
. ,
. 1000
1000
2 = 299 1000/2 = 499500 .

ek -
, dk ek .
k -
.
4.6.2
, ,
. .
n.
n . Diffie Hellman (1976),
Rivest-Shamir-
Adlemann (1978) [17]
4.6. 123
RSA
1.
2. n = p q
3. ! !
1 1
(n ) = p q 1 1
p q
4. a, b , ab 1 (n ).
5. n b.
6. a p, q
7. x x b modn, ek (x ) = x b modn
8. y ya modn, dk (y) yd modn.
4.6.1. (4), b, a
ba 1mod(n )
bx 1mod(n )
, (b, (n )) = 1. b
.
dk (ek (x )) = x x Zn .
(x, n ) = 1, Euler
x (n ) 1modn.
dk (ek (x )) dk (x b ) = x ab modn.
ab = 1 + (n )t t Z
dk (ek (x )) x 1+(n )t x (x (n ) )t xmodn.
x (x, n ) > 1. n = pq (x, n ) > 1

x = p x = q (x < pq = n). x = p.
pab = pmodpq.
pab1 1modq
124 4.

p(n )t 1modq.

pq1 1modq
(p1)t
p q 1 1modq.
: n ,
.
. n = 3 4 = 12, (n ) = 4. b = 3, (3, 4) = 1
3x 1mod4
a = 3. x = 2, (2, 12) = 2 > 1, (23 )3 29 . 2mod12, 29 8mod12.
RSA-
1. p = 3 q = 11, n = pq = 33.
(n ) = (33) = (3 1)(11 1) = 20.
b = 3, (3, 20) = 1.
3x 1mod20,
a = 7.
13, 31, 11, 11, 5
13 7 137 = 33 1 + 7
31 7 317 = 33 2 + 4
11 7 117 = 33 3 + 11
5 7 57 = 33 4 + 14

7 4 11 11 14

H E L L 0
2. p = 47 q = 59.
n = p q = 47 59 = 2773, (n ) = 2668.
b = 17, (17, 2668) = 1.
17x 1mod2668
a = 157. Its all go.

. ( - 0 1
... !
4.6. 125
IT S AL L GO
0920 1900 0112 1200 0715
092017 0948mod2713
948157 920mod2273
920 IT. .
ISBN
ISBN
International Standard Book Number
-.
.
. , 81 .
. -
Springer 540.
. Martin Aigner Gunter M. Ziegler,
Proofs from the Book, 40460.
;
.
9 a1 , a2 , . . . , a9 , a10
:
10
X
iai 0mod11
i =1

9
X
a10 iai mod11.
i =1
, , 9 3-540-40460-,

a10 13 + 2 5 + 3 4 + 4 0 + 5 4 + 6 0 + 7 4 + 8 6 + 9 0
3 + 10 + 12 + 5 + 54 + 7 + 18 0mod11.
a10 = 0.
3 540 19102
a10 13+25+34+40+51+69+71+80+92
= 3 + 10 + 12 + 5 + 54 + 7 + 18 10mod11
10 ISBN X , ISBN 3-540-

19102-X.
126 4.
ISBN ,
, aj aj0 ,
aj0 = aj + b, (9 b ),
X 10
X
iai + jaj0 = iai + jb jbmod11.
i =1 i =1
i ,j
11 - j, 11 - b X
ai + jai0 . 0mod11.
i =1
i ,j
.
:
1. ,
.
2.
ISBN ().
3. ISBN -

.
4. ISBN 978
13 .
4.7
, ,

f (x ) 0modp` ,
f (x ) deg f (x ) 2, p P ` 1.

n
X
f (x ) = ak x k
k =0
:
n
X
f 0 (x ) = kak x k 1 .
k =0
4.7.1. a, b Z
f (a + b) = f (a ) + bf 0 (a ) + b2 m,
m Z, m = m (a, b, n ).
4.7. 127
. k > 1
(a + b)k = a k + ka k 1 b + b2 mk
k
mk = ki=2 a k i b i 2 Z .
P
i

n
X
f (a + b ) = ak (a + b)k
k =0
n
X
= ak (a k + kba k 1 + b2 mk ) + a1 (a + b) + a0
k =2
n
X n
X n
X
= ak a k + b kak a k 1 + b2 ak mk
k =0 k =1 k =2
Xn
= f (a ) + bf 0 (a ) + b2 m, m = ak mk Z.
k =2
f (x ) 0modp

f (x ) 0modpi
i = 2, 3, . . . , `.
4.7.2. x0
f (x ) 0modp` , ` 2

x0 = + y0 p`1 ,

f (x ) 0modp`1
y0
f ( )
+ yf 0 ( ) 0modp
p`1
( y0 0 < p`1 0 y0 < p)
. x0 f (x ) 0modp` f (x ) 0modp`1 .
, x0 = + y0 p`1 , f (x ) 0modp`1 , 0 < p`1
y0 Z.
4.7.1
f ( + y0 p`1 ) = f ( ) + y0 p`1 f 0 ( ) + (y0 p`1 )2 m

128 4.

f ( + y0 p`1 ) 0modp`

f ( ) + y0 p`1 f 0 ( ) 0modp`
( p2`2 p` ` 2).
f (a ) 0modp`1 , () :
f ( )
+ y0 f 0 ( ) 0modp.
p`1
, + y0 p`1 f (x ) 0modp` y0

f ( )
+ yf 0 ( ) 0modp.
p ` 1

p modp p | f 0 ( ) p` | f ( ).
modp p - f 0 ( )
modp p | f 0 ( ) p` - f ( )
, y0
f ( )
+ yf 0 ( ) 0modp
p ` 1
y0 + sp, s Z . ,
+ (y0 + sp)p`1 = + y0 p`1 + sp` + y0 p`1 modp` .
y0 + sp modp` y0
y0 0 y0 < p.
. :
f (x ) := x 3 + x + 1 0mod27
f (x ) 0mod3 (4.7.1)
2
f (x ) 0mod3 (4.7.2)
f (x ) 0mod33 (4.7.3)
4.7.1 : f (0) = 1 . 0mod3, f (1) 3 0mod3

f (2) = 11 2 . 0mod3, (4.7.1) a = 1.
f (1) = 3 f 0 (1) = 4.
f (1)
+ yf 0 (1) 0mod3
3
4.7. 129

1 + 4y 0mod3
y 2mod3. y0 = 2,
x0 = a + y0 p`1 = 1 + 2 321 = 7
(4.7.2).
a = 7 (4.7.2). f (7) = 351, f 0 (7) = 148.
f (7)
+ yf 0 (7) 0mod3
9

y 0mod3
y0 = 3. (4.7.3)
x0 = 7mod27.
. :
x 3 + x + 1 0mod25
: f (x ) := x 3 + x + 1. f (0) = 1 . 0mod5, f (1) = 3 . 0mod5, f (2) = 11 . 0mod5,

f (3) = f (2) = 9 . 0mod5, f (4) f (1) = 1 . 0mod5. ,
.
.
x 3 + x + 1 0mod121
f (x ) := x 3 + x + 1. f (x ) 0mod11 a = 2. , f (2) = 11,

f 0 (2) = 13.
f (2)
+ yf 0 (2) 0mod11,
11
2y 10mod11 y0 = 5.
x 3 + x + 1 0mod121
x0 a + y0 11 = 2 + 5 11 57mod121.
. :
f (x ) = x 3 + x + 1mod3267.
: 3267 = 33 112 .

f (x ) 0mod27
f (x ) 0mod121
130 4.
x 7mod27 x 57mod121.

x 7mod27
x 57mod121
(27, 121) = 1, mod3267
2356mod3267.
.
x 3 x 2 + 7x + 1 0mod8
x x + 7x + 1
3 2
0mod25
x x + 7x + 1
3 2
0mod200
:
x 1, 3, 5, 7mod8

x 23mod25.

x 1mod8 x 3mod8 x 5mod8 x 7mod8

x 23mod25 x 23mod25 x 23mod25 x 23mod25
x 23, 73, 123, 173mod200.

f (x ) modm

f (x ) 0modp
p .
xmodp
.
;

f (x ) 0modp
f (x ) deg f (x ) < p.
() f (x ) 0modm g(x ) 0modm
.
4.7.3. ()
f (x ) 0modp
deg f (x ) p p ,
r (x ) 0modp
deg r (x ) < p.
4.7. 131
. Z[x ] 3 . f (x )
(x ) := x p x. q(x ) Z[x ] r (x ) Z[x ]
f (x ) = q(x ) (x ) + r (x )
deg r (x ) < deg (x ) = p r (x ) = 0. Fermat a p amodp

a Z. a Z
f (a ) r (a )modp
f (x ) 0modp r (x ) 0modp .
f (x ) = 0,
n , n = deg(f ) f (x ).
.
3x 6mod9
. ,
4, 1 4 .

4.7.4 (Lagrange). f (x ) =
Pn
i =0 ai x i n 1 -
an . 0modp,
f (x ) 0modp
n- modp.
. n. n = 1 f (x ) = a1 x + a0 a1 . 0modp.
, a1 modp.
f (x ) n 1
an . 0modp.
n + 1.
f (x ), n + 1 an +1 . 0modp (n + 2)- modp.
a , q(x )
n r,
f (x ) = (x a )q(x ) + r.
x n q(x ) an +1 an +1 . 0modp.
q(x ) n modp.

f (a ) 0modp
r 0modp 4
f (x ) (x a )q(x )modp.
3
1
4
f (x ), g(x ) modp
modp.
132 4.
b b . amodp f (b) 0modp, (b a )q(b) 0modp.

b . amodp q(b) 0modp, b q(x ) 0modp.
b f (x ) 0modp q(x ) 0modp.
q(x ) 0modp (n + 1)- . f (x ) 0modp
(n + 1)-.
[24, . 72-73] [14, 2.15].

Fermat x p x p- modp,
.
:
4.7.5. f (x ) 0modp, f (x ) = ni=0 ai x i p

P
n p.
. p, -
f (x ) 0modp
n. Lagrange,
n modp, ,
4.7.6. d | (p 1)
x d 1modp
d-.
. Lagrange d . -
d.
d | (p 1) ` Z d` = p 1.
x p1 1 = (x d 1)f (x ),
f (x ) = x d (`1) + x d (`2) + + x d + 1.
Lagrange
f (x ) 0modp
(p 1 d )-.
d,
x p1 1modp
p 1, (p 1)-,
x = 1, 2, . . . , p 1modp.
Lagrange
,
4.7. 133
4.7.7 (Wilson). :
(p 1)! 1modp.
p 1
Y
f (X ) = (X i ) (X p1 1)
i =1
= ap2 X p2 + ap3 X p3 + + a1 X + a0 .
f (X ) 0modp (p 1)- modp, 1, 2, . . . , (p 1). -

(p 2). , 4.7.5
ap2 ap1 a1 a0 0modp.
X = p
p 1
Y
(p i ) (pp1 1)modp,
i =1
(p 1)! 1modp

4.7.8.
4.7.9. n , n 1 (n 1)! 1modn, n .
. n , p p < n, p | n. p | (n 1)!,
p < n. p | n p | (n 1)!, p | 1, .
4.7.10. Wilson -
n ! + 1. , ,
.
Wilson
. .
Wilson:
4.7.11 (Wolstenholme 1862). p ,

( )
1 1 1
K = 1 + + + +
2 3 p1
p p > 3 p2 .
b1 + b2 + bp1
K= ,
(p 1)!
134 4.
(p1)!
bi = i
. Wilson 4.7.7 p - (p 1)!.
p 1
Y
f (X ) = (X i ) (X p1 1) = ap2 X p2 + ap3 X p3 + + a2 X 2 + a1 X + a0 .
i =1
Wilson, (p 1)-,
1, 2, . . . , (p 1) p 2. ai 0modp
i = 0, . . . , p 2. a1
(p 1)- p 2.
a1 = (b1 + b2 + + bp1 ).
p | a1 , p K , b1 + b2 + + bp1 .
f (p) = (p 1)! + 1 pp1 = ap2 pp2 + + a2 p2 + a1 p + a0

a0 = (p 1)! + 1. , pp1 = ap2 pp2 + + a2 p2 + a1 p. p
a1 = pp2 ap2 pp3 a2 p,

p2 , p | a2 .
4.7.12. n 2. n, n + 2

4[(n 1)! + 1] + n 0modn (n + 2).
. n P n + 2 P. n , 2.
Wilson,
(n 1)! + 1 0modn (n + 1)! + 1 0mod(n + 2)
4[(n 1)! + 1] + n 0modn

(n + 1)! + 1 0mod(n + 2)
(n 1)!n (n + 1) + 1 0mod(n + 2).
n (n + 1) = (n + 2)(n 1) + 2. ,
2(n 1)! + 1 0modn + 2
n, n + 2 (n, n + 2) = 1 .
, n = 2, 4. n , 2, 4. ,
(n 1)! + 1 0modn, Wilson n P.

4(n 1)! + 4 + n 4(n 1)! + n + 2mod(n + 2)
4(n 1)! + 2 0mod(n + 2). n (n + 1)
4(n + 1)! + 2n (n + 1) 0mod(n + 2)
4[(n + 1)! + 1] + 2n 2 + 2n 4 0modn (n + 2)

(n + 1)! + 1 0mod(n + 2). Wilson n + 1 P,
n n + 2 .
4.7. 135
4.7.1
Euler 1766
,
Lagrange (1736-1813).
Lagrange 1766 1787,
. .
4.7.2

Meditationes Arithmeticae (1770) Edward Waring (1741-
1793). .
John Wilson p
(p 1)! 1modp.
Waring :
...
...Theorems of this kind will be very hard to prove, because of the absense of a notation
to express prime numbers..
Leibniz
1683.
Lagrange 1771. Gauss
. Gauss
77 Disquisitiones Arithmiticae :
p = 2, (2 1)! 1 1mod2. p = 3 (3 1)! =
2! = 2 1mod3. p > 5. a
1, 2, 3, . . . , p 1, ax 1modp .
a 0 , 1 a 0 p 1 aa 0 1modp. , a 0 ,
a, 1 a p 1 aa 0 1modp.
(a, a 0 ). a = a 0 ; a = a 0 ,
a 2 1modp, p | (a 1)(a + 1). a = a 0 a = 1
a = p 1. (a, a 0 ), a , a 0 aa 0 1modp.

2 3 (p 2) 1modp
(p 2)! 1modp
p 1.
Gauss Warring :
()
4.7.3
Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytam (964-1040), 750

Wilson [9, . 32].
136 4.
4.8
Wilson.
.
().
.
Fermat, . :
n a,
a n . amodn,
n .
. 210 4modn. 210 . 2mod10 10
. 63 , 268 8mod63.
: a = 2. a = 2
.
1680 Leibniz n
2n 2. F. Sarrus,
n = 341.
341 = 11 31. Fermat 11 31

210 1mod11,
34
2340 210 1mod11
2341 2mod11. 230 1mod31, 2330 1mod31. 25 32

1mod32
2340 1mod31

2341 2mod31.
11 | 2341 2 31 | 2341 2 (11, 31) = 1.
11 31 = 341 | 2341 2.
1. 341 .
2. Leibniz
[7, . 117], [1, . 72].
4.8.1. a n
a n amodn
n a.
a a = 2.
4.8. 137
.
, 78492
245. 341 561, 645, 1105.
1610038. D. Lehmer, 1950.
.
4.8.2. .
. n 2n 1 .
,
2n 1 > n n = 341.
n , n = a b, 1 < a < n, 1 1
2a 1 | 2n 1, (2n 1) .
n
22 1 2mod(2n 1).
, n ,
2n 2modn.
2n 2 = `n.
X m 1 = (X 1)(X m 1 + X m 2 + + X + 1)
X = 2n m = `
2n 1 | 2n` 1 2n` 1mod(2n 1),
22 1 = 2n`+1 2mod(2n 1).

n
,
. 1963 [3]
an + b, (a, b) = 1, n Z .
n
4.8.3. Fermat, Fn = 22 + 1, n 0 2Fn 2modFn .
. m
X m 1 = (X + 1)(X m 1 X m 2 + 1) X + 1 | X m 1,
n n
X = 22 m = 22 n ,
22n n n n 2n
n n n
22

Fn = 22 + 1 | 22 1 = 22 1 = 22 1.
n
22 1modFn ,
n
2Fn = 22 +1 2modFn .
2

138 4.
Fermat .
Fermat a. 2n 2modn
3
3n 3modn
. n .

3441 3mod11
3341 13mod31. 3341 . 3mod341 .

G.A. Paxson [8] 1961
3F13 . 3modF13
F13 .
3341 3mod341 a = 4 .
a
. n ,
a
a n . amodn.
. R.C. Carmichael
1909 n
a n amodn
a.
561.
4.8.4. n, n > 1 Carmichael
a n amodn
a, (a, n ) = 1.
: a, 1 < a <
n, 1 < a < n (a, n ) = 1
a n 1 1modn.
4.8.5. 561 Carmichael.
. n = 561 = 3 11 17. a
:
a 561 amod3
561
a amod11
561
a amod17.
4.8. 139
(a, 561) = 1. (a, 3) = (a, 11) = (a, 17) = 1.

Fermat:
a 2 1mod3 a 561 amod3

a 10 1mod11 a 561 amod11
a 16 1mod17 a 561 amod17,
.

Carmichael. .
4.8.6. n , n = p1 p2 ps , pi , pj
i , j, pi 1 | (n 1) i = 1, 2, . . . , s n Carmichael.
. a (a, n ) = 1, (a, pi ) = 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
Fermat pi | a pi 1 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , s, a pi amodpi
a.
(pi 1) | (n 1), pi | a n 1 1, a n amodpi a.
n = p1 p2 ps | a n a.
.
561 Carmi-
chael. , 561 = 3 11 17, .
3 1 = 2 | 561 1 = 560
11 1 = 10 | 561 1 = 560
17 1 = 16 | 561 1 = 560 = 16 35.
Carmichael ; Carmichael
.
1994 W.R. Alford, A. Granville C. Pomerance
There are infinitely many Carmichael numbers [22].
Alford, Granville Pomerance
#{n N : n x, n Carmichael} > x 2/7
x (x ). .
-
Fermat.
n 3 1010 . 2n 2modn, n
, n . ( 2n . 2modn, n .)
1 2, 5 1010
, n 2n 2modn
.
R. Pinch, -
1021 20138200 Carmichael.

. Miller-Rabin. , p
140 4.
, x 2 1modp x 1modp. n
. , n = 35 x 2 1mod35 x = 6.
- 1modn.
:
x 2 1modn, - , n .
n, n > 1
n 1 = 2k m,
m k 1 Miller-Rabin :
1. a Z, 1 a n 1.
2. b := a m modn. b 1modn, : n
.
3.
2 k 1
b, b2 = a 2m , b4 = a 2 m
, . . . , b2 m
modn
i
a 2 m 1modn n
i
. a 2 m 1modn n .
n ,
. , .
Monte-Carlo.
4.8.7. Monte-Carlo
,
.
Monte-Carlo ,

.
4.8.8. Miller-Rabin Monte-Carlo

n .
. , n
n .

a m . 1modn.

k 1
a m , a 2m , . . . , a 2 m
modn.
, n
i
a 2 m . 1modn,
4.8. 141
i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k 1. n ,
Fermat
a n 1 1modn,
kq
a2 m
1modn
k 1
x := a 2 m

x 2 1modn.
n , x =
1modn.
k 1
x = a 2 m . 1modn.
,
k 1
x = a2 m
1modn.
k 2
y := a 2 m
,
y2 1modn,
, ,
k 2
y = a2 m
1modn.
a m 1modn,
. n .
4.8.9. n test Miller-Rabin

b n - b.
2 [11, . 6.6 . 226].

Carmichael -. [11, . 6.10]
4.8.10. n n Miller-Rabin test

n
4
1
- b, 1 b n 1.
, test n
4
1
, .
4.8.11. test
2047 = 23 89. 2047 1 = 2046 = 2 1023
21023 1mod2047
22046 1mod2047. 211

2048 1mod2047. 2046 = 11 86, 1023 = 11 93.
4.8.12.
= 14 , .
142 4.
4.8.13. Mollin [2, . 161] Miller-

Selfidge-Rabin Selfridge 1974 Miller.
4.8.14. k n
, < 212k .
4.8.15. -
,
. 2002, M. Agrawal, N. Kayal N.
Saxena [13] .
[15]
( http://www.
math.uoc.gr/antoniad/.
4.9
4.9.1 Dixon
4.9.1. x, y x 2 y2 modn x . y d = (x y, n )
- n.
. n | x 2 y2 = (x y)(x + y), n - (x y) n - (x + y).

d | n. 1 < d < n.
d = n n | (x y), . d = 1 n = (x + y)(x y) (x y, n ) = 1
n | (x + y), .
. 102 322 mod77, 10 . 32mod77, 10 . 32mod77.

77 (10 32, 77) = 11.
4.9.2 p-1- Pollard

n
. B, .
a = 2
= a j modn j = 2, 3, . . . , B
d = ( 1, n )
1 < d < n d n (),

n ().
p n p 1,
q, B (p 1) | B!

2B! modn

2B! modp,
4.9. 143
n. (p 1) | B! B! = (p 1)t t Z
2B! (2p1 )t modp
2p1 1modp, 2B! 1modp.

p | ( 1) p | n, p | ( 1, n ) =: d 1 < p d. d = n,
n | ( 1). 1 < n = 1.
- d n d
n/d.
4.9.2. [1, 2, . . . , B]
B! .
. n = 540143. B = 8. k := [1, 2, . . . , 8] =
840. a = 2
2840 53047modn
(53047, n ) = 421 540143 421 1283.
4.9.3. B
.
a = 2,
a = 3 a.
. n = 187. B = 15.
k = [1, 2, . . . , 15] = 360360. a = 2 (2360360 1, 187) = 187
.
a = 3 3360360 1 66mod187 (3360360 1, 187) = (66, 187) = 11.
187 = 11 17.
Bartosz
Zraler [5].
4.9.3 Pollard
:
n p n.

x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , x`
i, j {0, 1, 2, . . . , `}
xi xj modp xi . xj modn
(xi xj , n ) n p | (xi xj , n ) | n (xi xj , n ) , n.

xi
-
. (xi xj , n ) 0 i, j `
.
144 4.
x0 , x1 , . . . , x` (random) .
x0 = 2 f (x )

xi +1 f (xi )modn, 0 xi +1 < n.
(modp)
f (x ).
amodp
x1 = f (a ), x2 = f (x1 ) = f (f (a )) = f (2) (a ), . . . , x` = f (`) (a )
` modp.
- xi p -
m amodp
f (a ), . . . , f ( m ) (a )
modp. -.

f (x ) = aX + b.
a . 1modp, - amodp
p 1.
a 1modp b . 0modp, f (X ) = X + b - p,
f (x1 ) f (x2 )modp x1 x2 modp.
.
f (X ) = X 2 + 1.
xi xj modp xi +1 f (xi ) f (xj ) xj+1 modp.
, (modp) (i j). ,
r i, t i, r tmod(i j)
xr xt modp.
s (i j) i,
x2s xs modp.
(x2s xs , n ) s = 1, 2, 3, . . .
1 n.
. n = 2047. x0 = 2 f (x ) = x 2 + 1
xi +1 = f (xi )modn
x0 = 2 x1 = 5 x2 = 26 x3 = 677
x4 = 1849 x5 = 312 x6 = 1136 x7 = 887
x8 = 722 x9 = 1347 x10 = 768 x11 = 289 x12 = 1642
4.9. 145
(x2s xs , n ), s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
(26 5, 2047) = 1
(1849 26, 2047) = 1
(1136 677, 2047) = 1
(722 1842, 2047) = 1
(768 312, 2047) = 1
(1642 1136, 2047) = 23
2047 = 23 89.
4.9.4. J. Pollard 1975. -

modp
, .

x1 5mod23 x2 3mod23 x3 10mod23

x4 9mod23 x5 13mod23 x6 9mod23
x7 13mod23 x8 9mod23 x9 13mod23
x10 9mod23 x11 13mod23 x12 9mod23
1 x i +1

x4 =
O \9 x5 = 13 xi = xj xi +2
OW
x3 =O 10 x i 1 x j 1
x2 =
O 3 xO1
x1 =
O 5 x0
x0 = 2
4.9.5. R. P. Brent J. Pollard (1981) [16]

Fermat F8 . p
Fm
m +2
p 1mod22 ,
m +2
f (x ) = x 2 + 1.
4.9.6. xi x2i

xi +1 , xi +2 , . . . , x2i 1 , x2i .
146 4.
yi = x2i
y1 = x2 = f (x1 ) = f (f (x0 )) = f (f (y0 )),
y2 = x4 = f (x3 )f (f (x2 )) = f (f (y1 ))

yi = x2i = f (f (yi 1 )).
xi = f (xi 1 )modn
yi = f (f (yi 1 ))modn
4.9.7. .
(p + 1)- Williams.
[1] A. Jones, J. M. Jones: Elementary number theory. Springer N. York, 1998.
[2] A. Mollin: Fundamental Number Theory with applications. Chapman & Hall, 2008. second
Edition.
[3] A. Rotkiewicz: Sur les nombres pseudopremiers de la forme ax + b. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris,
257:26012604, 1963.
[4] A. Weil: Number theory, an approach through history, from Hammurapi to Legendere.
Birkhauser Boston, 1983.
[5] Bartosz Zraler: A deterministic version of Pollards p 1-algorithm. arXiv:0707.4102v2

30.7.2007. Math. of Comp., 79:513533, 2010.
[6] C.F. Gauss: Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Yale University Press, 1965.
[8] G. A. Paxson: The compositeness of the 13-th Fermat number. Math. of Computation,
15:420, 1961.
[9] Graham Everest, Thomas Ward: An Introduction to Number Theory, volume 232 of Grad-
uate Texts in Mathematics. Springer-Verlag London, 2005.
[11] Keneth H.Rosen: Elementary Number Theory. 2011.
[12] K.H. Rosen: Elementary Number Theory and Its Applications. Addison-Wesley Longman,
Limited, 2000.
[13] M. Agrawal, N. Kayal, N. Saxena: Primes is in p. Annals of Mathematics 160, pages

781793, 2004.
147
148
[15] Martin Dietzfelbinger: Primality Testing in Polynomial Time, from Randomized Algorithms
to Primis in P. Springer-Verlag, 2004.
[16] R. P. Brent, J. Pollard: Factorization of the 8th Fermat number. Math. Comp., 36:627630,
1981.
[17] R. Rivest, A. Shamir, L. Adleman: A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key
cryptosystems. Comm. ACM, 21:120126, 1978.
[18] Taran: Nicomachus of Gerasa. Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, (New York),
1970-1990.

. 2005.
[20] Richardus Hoche: , . 1866.
[21] Sir Thomas L. Heath: . ...., , 2001.
[22] W. R. Alford, A. Granville, C. Pomerance: There are infinitely many Carmichael numbers.
Annals of Math., 140:703722, 1994.
[23] , . .: , .
[24] , .: . , 1990.
[25] , :
, . 2001.

, ,
5
5.1
:
f (x ) 0modp, (5.1.1)
p , p , 2 f (x )
f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, a, b, c Z p - a.
.

.
(4a, p) , 1, (5.1.1)
4af (x ) 0modp (5.1.2)
(2ax + b)2 (b2 4ac )modp (5.1.3)
Y 2 Dmodp, (5.1.4)
D := b2 4ac,
2ax + b = y0 modp, (5.1.5)
y0 (5.1.4).
(5.1.5) , p - 2a,
.

x 2 amodp (5.1.6)
149
150 5.
p | a, (5.1.6) x0 0modp.

x 2 amodp a P, p , 2, p - a (5.1.7)
5.1.1. a modp,
(5.1.7) modp, (5.1.7)
.
Legendre Essai sur la

Theorie des Nombres 1798 .
5.1.2 ( Legendre). a Z p P, p , 2, Legendre

a
p
:
!
a 1,

a modp
:=
p 1,
a modp
5.1.3. amodp. ,
a, b Z, p P, p , 2 ! !
a b
a bmodp = .
p p

a
p
= 1
x 2 amodp
x 2 bmodp

, b
p
= 1.
a
modp, modp -
p 1
0, 1, . . . , p 1 ( 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2 )- a
.
. 2 mod7. -
:
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 mod7
.
x 2 0 1 4 2 2 4 1 mod7
2 mod7. x 2 2mod7
x 3mod7 x 4mod7.
. 2 mod11;
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 mod11
.
x2 0 1 4 9 5 3 mod11
2 mod11.
. 1 modp, ()
p. .
5.2. 151
,

, , 11 5
= 11
3
,
5 . 3mod11

p 1
modp 1, 2, . . . , 2 -
p +1
2
, . . . , (p 1) .
p 1
5.1.4. p 2
-
p 1
modp 2
modp.
. x 2 amodp, x0 p - x0 p - a.
1, 2, . . . , p 1modp.
(p x )2 x 2 modp
p1

1, 2, . . . , modp .
2
(p 1)2
12 , 22 , . . . , modp
4
n p 1
o
, modp. , b, c 1, 2, . . . , 2
modp
b2 = c 2 modp.
p | (c 2 b2 ) = (b c )(b + c ).
p 1
2 b + c p 1, p - (b + c ). p | (b c ), |b c | 2
,
b = c.
5.1.5. 5.1.4
p 1 !
X a
= 0.
a =1
p
5.2
Legendre .
p ap a:
!
a
p (a ) = .
p
modp p -
p.
152 5.
a Legendre
() p
!
a
a (p) := .
p
p a -
modp.
;
! .
.
.

p1
1, 2, . . . , modp
2

(p 1)2
12 , 22 , . . . , modp
4
p . -
Fermat. p - a
a p1 1modp
p 1
p 1 , 2
Z.
p 1 p 1
a 2 1 a 2 + 1 0modp
p1
a 2 1modp
p1 71

+1 1; p = 7 a = 2 a 2 =2 2 = 27 = 1,
1mod7 a
p
p1
2 mod7. a = 3 a 2 = 33 1mod7 73 = 1.
p 1 111

p = 11 a = 2, a 2 =2 2 1mod11 2
11
= 1.
p 1
a modp Legendre . -
2
Euler.
Euler.
5.2.1 ( Euler). a Z p p - a
!
a p 1
a 2 modp
p
. b, 1 b p 1, bx amodp . c,
1 c p 1 . a modp b , c.
b1 , b2 c1 , c2 . , 1, 2, . . . , p 1
p 1
2 , bi ci
p1
bi ci amodp i = 1, 2, . . . , .
2
5.2. 153

p1
(p 1)! a 2 modp

Wilson, (p 1)! 1modp, a
p
= 1,
!
a p 1
=a 2 modp
p
a modp (b0 , c0 ) b0 = c0
b02 amodp
x 2 amodp b0 modp (p b0 )modp.

Lagrange .
(p 3) 1, 2, . . . , (p 1)
,
p3
bi ci amodp, i = 1, 2, . . . , .
2

p 3 p 3 p1
1 (p 1)! b0 (p b0 )a 2 = b02 a 2 a 2 modp
p 1
a 2 1modp ap = 1
!
a p 1
a 2 modp
p
p 1

5.2.2. 1. p1 = (1) 2
2. a = ai p - ai i = 1, 2, . . . , s
Qs
i =1
! s !
a Y ai
=
p i =1
p
p 1
. : Euler p1 (1) 2 modp.
p 1
1 1modp ( p ), p1 = (1) 2 .
: Euler
! s p1
s !
a p 1
Y
2
Y ai
a 2 ai modp
p i =1 i =1
p
`
! s !
a Y ai
= ` p.
p i =1
p
154 5.
2, 2 0. p ` = 0,

! Y s !
a ai
= .
p i =1
p

5.2.3. Euler 1760.

.
Legendre, Euler.
5.2.4. Dirichlet. ,
.
5.2.5. 5.2.2.2 p () -
:
p (a b ) = p (a )p (b ).
, QR
- NQR, -
:
QR QR = QR
QR NQR = NQR
NQR NQR = QR
5.2.6. Legendre a
p
!
a
= 0, p | a.
p

, a bmodp ap = bp ab p
= a
p
b
p
. ,

!
n o a
# xmodp : x amodp = 1 +
2
.
p

p 1 !
X a
= 0.
a =0
p
5.2.7. Euler
Gauss: In praxi nullun fere usum habeat ,
Disquisitiones Arithmeticae 106.
vp (a )
5.2.8. a = a si=1 pi
Q
, a
, a {1}, 5.2.2.2
! ! s !
a a Y pi
= .
p p i =1
p

q Legendre,
p , q P.
5.2. 155
5.2.9 ( Gauss). p a , p - a. S
modp
1
a, 2a, . . . , (p 1)a.
2
p
r S 2

!
a
= (1)r ,
p
p 1 p 1
. s = 2
r, s + r = 2
S
S1 = {a1 , a2 , . . . , as } S2 = {b1 , b2 , . . . , br }
p p
ai < 2
bj > 2
,
s r p 1 p1
Y Y
ai bj !a 2 modp (5.2.1)
i =1 j =1
2
p 1
a1 , a2 , . . . , as , p b1 , p b2 , . . . , p br [1, 2
],
p 1
s+r = 2
- modp.
p 1
, ai = p bj i, j, ki , `j 1 ki , `j 2

ai ki amodp bj `j amodp

(ki + `j )a ai + bj 0modp
1 < ki + `j p 1.
p 1
{1, 2, . . . , 2 }. ,
p 1 s
Y r
Y s
Y r
Y p 1 p 1
! ai (p bj ) (1)r ai bj (1)r !a 2 modp.
2 i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
2
p 1
p - 2
!
p 1
1 (1)r a 2 modp
p1
(1)r a 2 modp
Euler !
a
(1)r modp
p

a
p
(1)r 2, 0, 2 p
!
a
= (1)r
p

156 5.
p 1
. p = 17 a = 7 2
= 8
n o
S = 7, 14 , 4, 11 , 1, 8, 15 , 5 .

r = 3 17
7
= (1)3 = 1.
. a = 2 p .
p
Gauss 2
p p

p. 4 , 2 . p
8k + `, ` = 1, 3, 5 7. ,
!
` `
2k + , 4k + ,
4 2

. 2k + 4` , 4k + `
4
(

2k, 4k + 4` , 4k + `
2

4` , 2` . ` = 1, r = 0, ` = 3 r = 1 ` = 5 r = 1 ` = 7
r = 2. :
5.2.10.
+1
!
2 p 1mod8
=

p 1
p 3mod8
:
!
2 p 2 1
= (1) 8
p
p 2 1
, 8

1 (p 1) (p + 1)
2 2 2
p 1 p + 1 . 4.
8 p 1mod8 ,
8, p 3mod8.
Gauss :
5.2.11. p a , p - a
P p21 h ka i
!
a
= (1) k =1 p
p
1
a, 2a, . . . , (p 1)a
2
p 1
p k, 1 k s
:
ka = pqk + vk qk , vk Z 0 vk p 1.
5.2. 157
,
ka vk vk
= qk + 0 < 1,
p p p
" # " #
ka ka
qk = ka = p + vk .
p p
a1 , a2 , . . . , as vk p/2
b1 , b2 , . . . , br p/2. C = si=1 ai , D = rj=1 bj
P P
p 1
2
X
C+D = vk (5.2.2)
k =1

Gauss a
p
= (1)r . a1 , a2 , . . . , as , p b1 , p b2 , . . . , p br
p 1
{1, 2, . . . , 2
}. ,
p1
s r
p2 1
X X 2
X
C + rp D = ai + ( p bj ) = k= . (5.2.3)
i =1 j =1
8
k =1
,
p 1 p 1 p1
p2 1
2
X 2
X 2
X
p qk + C + D = (pqk + vk ) = ka = a (5.2.4)
8
k =1 k =1 k =1
(5.2.3) (5.2.4)
p1
p2 1
2
X
p qk + 2D rp = (a 1). (5.2.5)
8
k =1
p 2 1
a . 8
a, p (5.2.5)
p 1
2
X
qk rmod2 (5.2.6)
k =1
P p21 h ka i
!
a
= (1) k =1 p
p

23
. Legendre 47
.

23
23k
X
mod2
47
k =1
158 5.

h i k,
k = 22 . k = 23 2347
23
= 11. ,
23
23k
X
1mod2
47
k =1

4723
= 1.
,
. ,
, .
Gauss 1795 18
. .
5.2.12 ( ). p, q p , q,
! !
p q p 1 q 1
= (1) 2
2
.
q p
p q
. 5.2.11 , q
p
:
P q21 h jp i P q21 h kq i
! !
p q
= (1) j =1 q = (1) k =1 p .
q p

q1 q 1
2 2
" # " #
X jp X kq p1 q1
+ = . (5.2.7)
j =1
q p 2 2
k =1

p
p q
.
p q
q
(0, 0), 2 , 0 , 2 , 2 , 0, 2 . (0, 0) 2 , 2
5.2.1:
q
y= x,
p
.

p1
x = 1, 2, . . . , .
2
5.2. 159
x = j Z
x (j, 0).
q q
y = p x j, p j .
hq i P p21 h q i
p
j . j =1 p
j
P q21 h p i
, k =1 q
k .
p 1 q 1
2
2
. (5.2.7)
.
p, q p , q.
!
1 p 1
= (1) 2 ()
p
!
2 p 2 1
= (1) 8 ()
p
! !
p q p 1 q 1
= (1) 2
2
()
q p
() () () .
5.2.13. () :
p, q p , q

+1
! !
p q p 1mod4 q 1mod4
=

()
q p 1
p q 3mod4
:
p, q p , q
q
!
p p 1mod4 q 1mod4
=

p
( )
q q
p q 3mod4
p
x 2 amodp, p P, p , 2
. .

a
1. a . p

q
1 2
Legendre p
q q P, q , 2, p
p
.

2. p1 2
p
() ()
p q q
() q
p
p
.
3. pmodq .
x 2 23mod47,
160 5.
.
23 47 .
23 231 471
47 1
= (1) 2 2 = (1) = 1.
47 23 47
.
.
x 2 154mod163
. 163 154
154 = (1) 2 7 11.
154 1 2 7 11
=
163 163 163 163 163
1 1631
= (1) 2 = (1)81 = 1.
163

163 3mod8, 2
163
= 1. 7 1mod4
7 163 2
= = = (1)(+1) = 1.
163 7 7
11 3mod4
11 163 9 3 2
= = = = 1.
163 11 11 11

154
= (1)(1)(1)(1) = +1
163
.
.
x 2 42mod61
.
Legendre 61
42
= 1
.
. p
x 2 5modp
; p
p5 = 1. 5p = 1 5 = 1.
p
p 1, 4mod5 5
= 1.
p
p 2, 3mod5 5 = 1.

p 1mod5.
-
p.

q a pmodq
p .
5.2. 161
5.2.1 Jacobi
Jacobi Legendre .
b b = p1 p2 ps , pi
(i = 1, 2, . . . , s) ( = 1) a
b, Jacobi
a ! ! !
a a a
:= .
b p1 p2 ps
Jacobi Legendre.
1. a !
a
=
b |b |
2. 1
=1
b
3. a1 = a2 mod|b|, a a
1 2
=
b b
4. (ai , b) = 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , n
a a a a a a
1 2 n 1 2 n
=
b b b b
5. b1 , b2 , . . . , bn a (a, b1 b2 bn ) = 1,
! ! ! !
a a a a
=
b1 b2 bn b1 b2 bn
6. 1 |b|1
= (1) 2
b
7. 2 b 2 1
= (1) 8
b
8. b a
a 1 b1 sgna 1 sgnb1
+ 2 2
= (1) 2 2
a b
sgn(a ) a :

+1 a > 0
sgn(a ) = a = 0

0

1

a < 0
, a mod|b|,
x 2 amod|b|
162 5.

x 2 amodpi

pi b. a
pi
= 1 a
b
= 1.

. 1
15
= 1 x 1mod15
2

, = 1 x 2 2mod15 .
2
15
ab = 1, x 2 amod|b|
.
Jacobi ,
,
, Legendre.
b a b.
Jacobi
Eisenstein [32, . 329-333], [17, . 132-133], [20,
. 362-364],
.
a b a > b. A0 := a
A1 := b.
2 .
A0 = A1 q1 + 2`1 A2 , `1 0, 0 < A2 < A1 .
, A1 , A2 ..
A1 = A2 q2 + 2`2 A3 , `2 0, 0 < A3 < A2

A2 = A3 q3 + 2`3 A4 , `3 0, 0 < A4 < A3

A n 3 = An 2 qn 2 + 2`n2 An 1 , `n 2 0, 0 < An 1 < An 2
A n 2 = An 1 qn 1 + 2`n1 1
5.2.14. a, b , a > b b
a A2 1 A2 1 A 1 A 1 A A 1
1
++`n 1 n 21 + 12 22 ++ n22 n 21
= (1)`1 2
b
. Jacobi
!`1
2`1 A2
! ! !
2
a A0 A2
= = = =
b A1 A1 A1 A1
A 2 1
!
1 A1 1 A2 1 A1
= (1) `1 8 (1) 2
2
=
A2
2`2
! !
`1
A1 1 A1 1 A2 1
+ 2 2 A3
(1) 8
A2 A2
.
5.2. 163

. Jacobi 1105 231
.
a, b . 5.2.14,
1105 = 231 4 + 181, A1 = 251, `1 =0

231 = 181 1 + 2 25, A2 = 185, `2 =1
181 = 25 7 + 2 3, A3 = 25, `3 =1
25 = 3 8 + 1, A4 = 3, `4 =0
Jacobi
1105
= (1)m ,
231
2312 1 1812 1 252 1 32 1 231 1 181 1 181 1 25 1 25 1 31

m =0 + +1 +0 + + + .
8 8 8 8 2 2 2 2 2 2
1812 1
m 1 8
m 1mod2
1105
= 1.
231
a, b .
, q, r
a = bq + r, 1 r < b.
a = b(q + 1) + (b r ), 1 b r < b.
(b r ) + r = b , r, b r
.
a
a = bq + r,
= 1 r 1 r < b. q ,
a r .
, q1 r1 , r1 1 r1 < b

a = 2q1 b + 1 r1 , 1 = 1.
A0 = b Ai = ri
a = 2q1 A0 + 1 A1 , A1 1 A1 < A0 , 1 = 1
A0 = 2q2 A1 + 2 A2 , A2 1 A2 < A1 , 2 = 1
A1 = 2q3 A2 + 3 A3 , A3 1 A2 < A2 , 3 = 1

An 3 = 2qn 1 An 2 + n 1 An 1 , An 1 , 1 An 1 < An 2
An 2 = 2qn An 1 + n An , An = 1 n = 1.
(Ai )i N .
An = 1.
164 5.
Jacobi. ! ! ! !
a a 1 A1 1 A1
= = = .
b A0 A0 A0 A0
A0 1 1=1
1
A0
= (1) 2 2 . , 1 = 1
!
1 A0 1 1e1
= 1 = (1) 2 2 .
A0
1 = 1, !
1 A0 1 A0 1 1e1
= (1) 2 = (1) 2 2 .
A0
, ! !
a a A0 1 11 A0 1 A1 1 A0
+
= = (1) 2
2 2
2
.
b A0 A1
12 = 1 (1)a/1 = (1)a a,
A0 1 1 1 A0 1 A1 1 A0 1 1 1 A0 1 A1 1
+ = +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A0 1 1 A1 12 A0 1 1 A1 1
= =
2 21 2 21
!
A0 1 1 A1 1
2 A0
(1) 2 1 .
A1
:
! !
A0 A1 1 e2 A2 1 A1
= (1) 2
2
A1 A2
! !
A n 3 An 2 1 en 1 An 1 1 A n 2
= (1) 2
2
A n 2 A n 1
! !
A n 2 n An 1 1 en An 1 1 An 1 n An 1
== = (1) 2
2 = (1) 2
2
.
A n 1 A n 1
a
= (1)`
b
n
X Ai 1 1 i Ai 1
` :=
i =1
2 2
An = 1.
`
Ai 1 1 i Ai 1

2 2

Ai 1 3mod4 i Ai 3mod4
5.2. 165
5.2.15 ( Eisenstein). a, b
a
= (1)m ,
b
m = # {(Ai 1 , i Ai ) : Ai 1 3mod4 i Ai 3mod4, i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1} .

335
. Jacobi 2999 .
(335, 2999) = 1.
335 = 2999 0 + 335 A0 = 2999 1 = 1, A1 = 335

2999 = 8 335 + 319 2 = 1 A2 = 319
335 = 2 319 + (1) 283 3 = 1 A3 = 283
319 = 2 283 + (1)247 4 = 1 A4 = 247
283 = 2 247 + (1)211 5 = 1 A5 = 211
247 = 2 211 + (1)175 6 = 1 A6 = 175
211 = 2 175 + (1)139 7 = 1 A7 = 139
175 = 2 139 + (1)103 8 = 1 A8 = 103
139 = 2 103 + (1)67 9 = 1 A9 = 67
103 = 2 67 + (1)31 10 = 1 A10 = 31
67 = 2 31 + 5 11 = 1 A11 = 5
31 = 6 5 + 1 12 = 1 A12 = 1
(A0 , 1 A1 ) = (2999, 335)

(A1 , 2 A2 ) = (335, 319)
(A2 , 3 A3 ) = (319, 283)
(A3 , 4 A4 ) = (283, 247)
(A4 , 5 A5 ) = (247, 211)
(A5 , 6 A6 ) = (211, 175)
(A6 , 7 A7 ) = (175, 103)
(A7 , 8 A8 ) = (139, 335)
(A8 , 9 A9 ) = (103, 67)
(A9 , 10 A10 ) = (67, 31)
(A10 , 11 A11 ) = (31, 5)
(A11 , 12 A12 ) = (5, 1)

m = 2 335
2999
= 1.
5.2.16. 2999 Jacobi
Legendre.
x 2 335mod2999
.
166 5.
5.2.17. Eisenstein -
. Jacobi.
335 2999 319 16 1
= = = = 1 = (1) = +1.
2999 335 335 319 319
5.2.18. Jacobi
514 2 257 2 257
= = .
1573 1573 1573 1573

1573 5mod8 2
1573
= 1.
257 = 1573 0 + 257 A0 = 1573, 1 = 1, A1 = 257

1573 = 6 257 + 31 1 = 1 A2 = 31
257 = 8 31 + 9 3 = 1 A3 = 9
31 = 4 9 + (1)5 4 = 1 A4 = 5
9 = 2 5 + (1)1 5 = 1 A5 = 1
(1573, 257), (257, 31), (31, 9), (9, 5), (5, 1)

m = 0 1573
514
= (1)(1)0 = 1.
5.2.2

x 2 amodp
; p +1
x 2 amodp p 3mod4 ap = +1 x0 a 4 modp
!
p +1 p 1 p 1 a
x02 a 2 a 2 +1 a 2 a a amodp
p
p +1
x0 a 4 modp.
p 1mod4, ( )
.
.
zmodp 1 z p 1
p 1
u + vx := (1 + zx ) 2 .
v , 0, x0 , x00 :
p 1 p 1
u + vx0 := (1 + zx0 ) 2 2 - modp. 0, 1 1 modp.
x0 uv , 1v u , 1+v u modp.
u, v. uv , 1v u 1+v u modp.
.
x 2 69mod389
p = 389 1mod4. z 24mod389
(1 + 24x )194 = 1 = u + vx.

5.2. 167
v = 0 .
z = 51mod389
(1 + 51x )194 = 239x = u + vx.
u = 0, v = 239 1v = 153mod389. uv = 0, 1v u = 153, 1u u = 153. ,

153, 153mod289.
-
. Legendre ()
p, a (p)
5.2.19. p, q a 1.

p qmod4a, a (p) = a (q). (5.2.8)
. . (5.2.8) a
, a , p, q.
, a a 1
s
Y
a=2 t a
pi i
i =1
.
! s
!t Y !ai s
!t Y ! !
a 2 pi 2 pi a
a (p) = = = = = a (q).
p p i =1
p q i =1
q q
p q+4a` q
p qmod4a a
= a
= a
.
!
a (p1)(a 1)
p (p1)(a 1)
q
= (1) 4 = (1) 4
p a a
! !
(p1)(a 1) q 1 a 1 a (a 1)(b+q2) a
= (1) 4 (1) 2 2 = (1) 4 =
q q
! !
(a 1)(q1+2a`) a a
= (1) 2 = ,
q q
q-.
p qmod4a .
(5.2.8) a 1
. p > q.
p qmod4, p = q + 4a, a 1. ,
q + 4a
! ! ! ! ! p q ! !
p a a 4a q p1 q
= = = = = = = (1) 2 .
q q q p p p p
p q
p 1mod4, q 1mod4 q
= p
.
168 5.
p q
p 3mod4 q 3mod4 q = p , -
( IIa).
p qmod4, p + q = 4a, a, a 1.
q + 4a p+q
! ! ! ! ! ! !
p a a 4a q
= = = = = = .
q q q p p p p
-
p ( )
modp.
. a = 3 modp;
4a = 4 3 = 12. p qmod12 p3 = 3q .
q = 5, 7, 11 13
! ! ! !
3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3
= = 1, = = 1, = = 1 = =1
p 5 p 7 p 11 p 13
!
3
= 1 p 1mod12
p
. a = 5 modp;
4a = 4 20. p qmod20 5p = 5q .

1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19mod20
41, 3, 7, 29, 11, 13, 17, 19
Legendre
5 1 5 2 5 2
= = +1, = = 1, = = 1
41 5 3 3 7 5
5 4 5 1 5 3 2
= = +1, = = 1, = = = 1
29 5 11 5 13 5 3
5 2 5 4
= 1, = = +1
17 5 19 5

5p = 1, , p 1, 9, 11, 19mod20. 20
,
!
5
= 1 p 1mod5
p
. a 1.
p 3 5
modp;
5.2. 169
: a
s
Y
a = (1)
a
qi i
i =1
k (a ) = (1) Qs
ai 1mod2 qi ,

|k (a )|

k (a ) 1mod4
m (a ) :=
4|k (a )|
k (a ) . 1mod4
[17, . 109], [23, . 139] a = 3

12, a = 5 5.
a x02 amodp
p. ( a = b2 , x0 bmodp.)
.
5.2.20. a
x 2 amodp
p, a .
. a

p ap = 1. ,
x 2 amodp
, .

Jacobi,
` a` = 1. a
:
1. a = b2 b Z. c Z, c > 0 c 3mod4
(b, c ) = 1,
b2
!
a 1 c 1
= = = (1) 2 = 1.
c c c
2. a = 2t b, t, b Z .
x 5mod8
x 1modb
(8, b) = 1. c Z, c > 0 ( b = 1
c = 5)
2t 2t
! ! 2 c 2 1
= = = (1) 8 = 1
c c c
b c 1
= = = 1,
c b b

a
c
= 1.
170 5.
3. a = 22s qt b, b, t (q, b) = 1, 2 , q P.

x 1mod4b
x dmodq
d, (4b, q) = 1.
d > 0 - modq ` > 0, ` 1mod4b, ` dmodq.

22s 22s
! !
= =1
` `
b ! ! 1
b1 `1 ` `
= (1) 2 2 = = = 1.
` b b b
,
qt
! q ! !
` d
= = = = 1.
` ` q q

a
`
= 1.

. x 2 amodp p
p. x 2 a
Z .
p .
- (local-global principle) -
.
( 5.3.7 -
).
Jacobi :
5.2.21.
a Z, , p
p = 1.
a

. a = 1, p1 = 1 p 3mod4.
4m + 3.
a = 2, a 2 2
= = = 1.
5 5 5

, p1 , p2 , . . . , p` 3
pa = 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , `.
i
A := 8p1 p2 p3 3, a = 2.

3 - A pi - A. A 3mod8, A2 = 1 Aa = A2 = 1.
A = q1 q2 qn A (
)
a ! !
a a
= = 1.
A q1 qn
5.2. 171

a
qj
= 1 j. qj | A, qj > 3. , qj < {p1 , . . . , p` },
.
. , a
(square-free). a :
a = a 2t q1 q2 qs , a {1}, t {0, 1},
q qi , qj i , j. s 1
.
{p1 , p2 , . . . , pm } ,
q 1
qi , i = 1, 2, . . . , s. 12 modq1 . c

, qc = 1.
1

x 1mod8
x 1modpi i = 1, 2, . . . , m
x cmodq1
x 1modqj j = 2, 3, . . . , s
, . x = b .
b
p1 , p2 , . . . , pm , q1 , q2 , . . . , qs .
b 1mod8 b1 = b2 = 1.
q ! !
j qj 1 b1 b b
= (1) 2 2 =
b qj qj
j = 1, 2, . . . , s. ,
a 2 t q q q b
!
b
!
a 1 2 s
= = =
b b b b b b q1 qs
! ! ! !
c 1 1 c
= = 1.
q1 q2 qs q1

b, q aq = 1.
{p1 , p2 , . . . , pm }
a
pi
= 1, , q, .

q a
q
= 1.

ap = +1 [17, . 176-177]
p, -
- [0, p];
.
. .
:
- modp;
:
172 5.
5.2.22. p . a -

modp, a < 1 + p.
. b ab > p. a (b 1) p.
1 modp a 2. b > 1, b = 1
p 1
a > p, , 2 - modp. , p
,
a (b 1) < p 0 < ab p < a.
, a,
! ! ! ! !
ab p ab a a b
=1 =1 =1 = 1.
p p p p p
b modp, a
. b a,
(a 1)2 < (a 1)a (b 1)a < p.

a 1 < p, a < 1 + p.
: p

a< p.
[13, . 69].
5.2.3
-
-
.
5.2.23. 4m + 1, m N.
. n N, n 1
N := (n !)2 + 1.
N 1. p, p | N . p > n,
p n p | N p | n !, p | 1, .
p | N ,
(n !)2 1modp.

x 2 1modp

, p1 = 1 p 1mod4.
n p, p > n p 1mod4.
4m + 1.
:
.
5.2. 173
5.2.24. 5m 1, m N.
. n N, n > 1.
N := 5(n !)2 1.
N , p (p , 2, p , 5),
5` + 1.
p n. p | N ,
5(n !)2 = +1modp.
,
5(n !)2
! ! !
5 1
= = = 1.
p p p

!
5
p
= = 1.
5 p
p 5` 1 5` 2. p = 5` 2
p 2
= = 1,
5 5
. 5` + 1, p = 5` 1,
` N. 5m 1.
1. .
2. p 5m 1, m , p
> 2. p 10m 1.
5.2.24 9.
5.2.25. 8m 1, m N {0}.
. 8m 1

S := {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }.
N = (4p1 p2 pn )2 2 , p | N .
2
, (4p1 p2 pn ) 2modp, 2 modp.
2p = 1,
p 1mod8.
N 8k + 1, N
N = 2(8k + 1) = 16k + 2, 16k 2.
N p p = 8k 1 p = pi
i {1, 2, . . . , n }. p | N p | (4p1 pn )2 p | 2, .
, .
174 5.
: N := 2(n !)2 1
.
5.2.26. 8m + 3, m N.
. n N, n > 1. pm m- a := p2 p3 pn

N := a 2 + 2 > 1.
a , a 2 8m + 1 N
8m + 3. N 8m 1,
N . p, p | N
8m 3.
x 2 2modp x0 = a
!
2
= +1.
p
p 8m + 3. , p > pn , p | 2, .
n > 1 p 8m + 3, p > pn
.
5.2.27. 8m + 5, m N.
. n N, n > 1
a := p2 p3 pn
a ,
N := a 2 + 4

8m + 5. N 8m 3.
p4 = 1, p 8m + 5, p > pn ,
8m + 5.
5.2.28. p P {2} k N {0},

1 + 2pk m, m N.
k 1
. x := 2p . q
x p1 + x p2 + + x + 1,
q | x p 1 = (x 1)(x p + + x + 1)
k 1 k
x p 1modq. x p = (2p ) = 2p . 2,
` pk 2` 1modq.
p, ` = pt , t < k.

k 1
2p . 1modq.
5.2. 175
k 1
2p 1modq, x 1modq, x p1 + + x + 1 pmodq.
x p 1
+ + x + 1 0modq p 0modq, p = q. .
k 1
Fermat 2p 2modp 2p 2modp. ,
k 1
2p 1modq 2 1modp, .
k 1
x = 2p pk , pk | (q) = q 1. 2 | (q 1),
q-. 2pk | (q 1), m Z q = 1 + 2pk m.
. .
n N, n > 5, q
q = 1 + 2pn m.
, pn > n q > n q
q = 1 + 2pk (pn k )m = 1 + 2pn m
1 + 2pk m.
( ) Dirichlet. m > 1 a
(a, m ) = 1, m` + a, ` N.
a = 1, Euler
1775. Legendre 1785.

. .
Dirichlet 1837 [33].

5.2.29. (a, m ) = 1, m` + a, ` Z,
.
Dirichlet 5.2.29.
. , `1 , m`1 + a
. (a, m`1 + a ) = 1 `2
m`2 + (m`1 + a ) = m (`2 + `1 ) + a .
m` + a `.
5.2.4 -
1. 3mod4
( V 9).
Fermat.
Mersenne :
Tout nombre premiere, qui surpasse de lunite un multiple du quaternaire, est une seul
fois la somme des deux carres
4

.
p P {2}
( p ) (p 1mod4) (
x 2 1modp )
176 5.
Euler
. Dirichlet ( Crelle 3 (1828)
390-393).
Euler -
, 1744. Kronecker Be-
merkungen zur Geschichte des quadratischen Reciprocitatgesetzes Berl. Monatber. (1872)
846-848.

Euler Goldbach 1742.
Lagrange 1773/75,
, Euler , Euler
.
, .
, 1783.
A. M. Legendre , 1788 (
1785)
. 1798 ,
( Legendre). -
. .

, ,
. Legendre Dirichlet -
!
Essai sur la theorie des nombres 1798, 1808, 1830 (1955!). ,

p : ( p P, p 1mod4, -
q 3mod4 q = 1) , ,
.
18- Gauss.
Disquisitiones Arithmeticae 131-144.
[5],

.
Ein ganzes Jahr qualte mich dieser Satz und entzog sich den angestregtesten Bemuhungen,
bis ich endlich den in vierten Abschnitt jenes Werkes gegebenen Beweis erlangte".
, Euler
Legendre.
Es moge nur zur Bestatigung des im vorigen Paragraphen Behaupteten gestattet sein, auf
meine eigenen Versuche Bezug zu nehmen. Auf den Satz selbst kam ich vollig selbstandig
im Jahre 1795, zu einer Zeit, da ich mich in volliger Unkenntniss uber Alles befand, was
in der hoheren Arithmetik bereits erreicht worden war, und zugleich nicht die mindesten
litterarischen Hilfsmittel besass
, -
. 1795,
, ,
.
Gauss -
;
5.2. 177

1000 -
3 503. 16000
.
. ( )
Legendre.
:
8 1796
Numerorum primorum non omnes numeros infra ipsos residua quadratica esse posse de-
monstratione munitum"
5.2.2: Gauss, 70
.
Legendre Loi le reciprocite, . Gauss Theorema

fundamentale theorie residuorum quadraticorum, -
, Zu den
hochsten Wahrheiten der hoheren Arithmetik zu rechnen ist
Gauss . -
. Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, [1].
Ezra Brown, The First proof of quadratic reciprocity Law, [14]
.
, 27 1796, Gauss
[ 262][7], .
. , , .
. ,
Euler, Gauss. 1807
. ,
Eisenstein (1844), Gauss.
.
. Minkowski
.
Eisenstein.
200 .
.
1963 M. Gesterhaber [22] 152
. ; !
A. Weil Inst. for Advanced Studies
178 5.
Princeton 50
. 150.
Kubota 151 .
152! Lemmermyer 149,
A. Weil!
:
1. Franz Lemmermeyer, Reciprocity Laws from Euler to Eisenstein, Springer Monographs in

Mathematics, Springer, Berlin 2000 [16]
2. Herbert Piper Variationen uber ein zahlentheoretishen Thema von Carl Friedrich Gauss
[18] 14 .
3. Horst Knorrerm Claus-Gunther Schmidt, Joachim Schwermer, Peter Soloday Mathema-

tische Miniaturen Arithmetik und Geometrie [19]
4. Winfried Scharlau, Hans Opolka, From Fermat to Minkowski, Lectures on the theory of
Numbers and its Historical Development [31]
5. Andre Weil, Number Theory An approach through history, from Hammurapi to Legendre
[2]
-
.
200 .
-
. Fermat .

Fermat, [16].
Gauss x 3
amodp x 4 amodp .
.

a + bi, a, b Z,
Gauss. 1825 -
, [7, 510-533,534-586].
1844 Gauss, G. Eisenstein. Jacobi -
1827 . (1844)
Eisenstein.
1900, Hilbert
Mathematische Probleme. 23
. 9
. [9], [10].
Takagi 1920, Hasse 1926, Artin 1928, Shafa-
revitch, Serre .
- 1960 Langlands -
.
5.3. 179
5.3
, .

x 2 amodm m Z, m 1;
5.3.1. a Z p , p , 2, p - a
x 2 amodps , s 1

a
p
= 1,
x 2 amodp
2 s 2
x amodp , x amodp.
.
p = 1.
a

a
p
= 1, x 2 amodp .
x 2 amodps s 1 .
s. s = 1 . s = t 1
s = t + 1. , x 2 amodpt .
x0
x02 amodpt ,
,
x02 = a + `pt
`. 2x0 y `modp modp (2x0 , p) = 1.
y0 , p | (2x0 y0 + `).
x1 = x0 + y0 pt
x 2 amodpt +1 .
x12 = x02 + 2x0 y0 pt + y0 p2t

= a + `pt + 2x0 yy pt + y0 p2t
= a + (` + 2x0 y0 )pt + y0 p2t amodpt +1

a
p
= 1, x 2 amodp modp. modp
x 2 amodps ; 5.3.1 x1 .
, x2 .
x22 x12 modps ps | (x2 x1 )(x2 + x1 ).
p | (x2 x1 )(x2 + x1 ), p | (x2 x1 ) p | (x2 + x1 ).

p | 2x1 , .
180 5.
x2 x1 modps x2 x1 modps
x 2 amodps .
!
a
#{xmodp : x amodp , p P, p , 2, p - a } = 1 +
s 2 s
.
p
x 2 amodp x 2 amodps ;
, 4.7.2.
.
:
x0 x 2 amodp.
{bn }n 0 {cn }n 0 : b0 = 1, c0 = 0,
bs := x0 bs1 + a cs1
cs := x0 cs1
s 1. x1
cs x bs modps ,
x 2 amodps . [34, . 46],[11].

.
x 2 51mod343 = 73 .
x 2 2mod7 , 3, 4mod7. x0 = 3, a = 51,
b1 = 3 1 + 51 0 = 3
c1 = 1+30=1
b2 = 3 3 + 51 1 = 60
c2 = 3+31=6
b3 = 3 60 + 51 6 = 486
c3 = 60 + 3 6 = 78

78x 486mod342
78x 143mod324
x 59mod343. 592 3481 51mod343. x 2 51mod343
x 59, 284mod343. :
bs2 acs2 = (x02 a )s (5.3.1)

bs2 acs2 0modp s
(5.3.2)
s s
c s +1 (2x0 ) modp (5.3.3)
p - cs (5.3.4)
5.3. 181
, cs xmodbs modps , x1 cs x1 modps .

(ps , cs ) = 1
cs2 x12 acs2 modps
cs2 x12 bs2 modps
cs2 x12 bs2 modps
(5.3.2)
bs2 acs2 modps
( Silverman oddest ) 1
a
x 2 amod2
, x 1mod2.
x 2 amod4 a 1mod4. x0
4m + 1. a 1mod4,
x 1, 3mod4.
5.3.2. a
x 2 amod2s
s 3 , a 1mod8. 4.
. , x0 x0 x02 1mod8.
a 1mod8.
a 1mod8. s. s = 3
x 2 1mod8 4 x 1, 3, 5, 7mod8.

x 2 amod2s
s, s 3 , x0 .
x 2 amod2s+1
. x02 = a + ` 2s , ` Z. a , x0
.
x0 y `mod2
, y0 .
x1 = x0 + y0 2s1 x 2 amod2s+1 . , (2s 2 s + 1
s 3)
x12 = (x0 + y0 2s1 )2 = x02 + x0 y0 2s + y02 22s2 =
1
Silverman odd 2.
182 5.
= a + (` + x0 y0 )2s + y02 22s2 amod2s+1

x2 ,
x22 x12 mod2s
x1 , x2 . (x2 + x1 )(x2 x1 ) 0mod2s2 x2 + x1 , x2 x1 .

x2 + x1 x2 x1
0mod2s2
2 2
x +x x x
s 3, 2 | 2 2 1 2 2 1 . 2 ,
x1 .

x2 + x1 x2 x1
0mod2s2 0mod2s2
2 2

x2 x1 mod2s1
x2 , x2 = x1 + `2s1 `.
` , x2 x1 mod2s .
` , x2 x1 + 2s1 mod2s .
x2 x1 , x1 , x1 + 2s1 , x1 + 2s1 .
- mod2s .
.
a 1mod8 x 2 amod2s xs x3 = 1
1
xt +2 xt + (xt2 a )mod2t +1
2
.
x 2 17mod32
x3 = 1, x4 1 + 21 (12 17)mod24 , x4 7mod24 .

x5 x4 + 12 (x42 a )mod25 x5 (7) + 12 (49 17) 7 + 21 32 7 + 16 9mod25 .
9mod25 9, 9 + 24 7mod25 .
a 1mod8 x 3 1mod23 x3 = 1. s > 3
: xs x 2 amod2s . , xs2 = a + `2s
` Z.
` , ` = 2t
1
x s +1 x s + (xs2 a ) xs + t2s mod2s+1
2
xs2+1 xs2 + t2s+1 + t 2 22s xs2 a + t2s+1 amod2s+1
` , ` = 2t + 1,
1 1
xs+1 xs + (xs2 a ) xs + (2t + 1) 2s xs + 2s t + 2s1 mod2s+1
2 2
5.3. 183
, s 3 xs
xs2+1 xs2 + 2xs (2s t + 2s1 ) + (2s t + 2s1 )mod2s+1

xs2 + 2s xs a + 2s (2t + 1) + 2s xs
a + 2s (1 + xs ) amod2s+1
5.3.3. a 1mod8
mod2s 5, 52t . 5t
s 2
x 2 amod2s . 52 , 54 , . . . , 52
amod2s .
54 17mod25 . .
m Z, m > 1
t
Y
m = 2a2
`
pi i
i =1
m , x 2 amodm

x2 amod2a2
x2 amodp1`1

x 2
amodpt`t
.

5.3.4. a Z, m N (a, m ) = 1
x 2 amodm

a
pi
= 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , t
a 1mod4 4||n a 1mod8 8|n.
,

0 4 - n
f +t

N(m ) = 2 , f =

1 4||n

2 8 | n

5.3.5. . a Z, m N
m > 1 (a, m ) = 1 x 2 amodm
t !!
Y a
2f 1+
i =1
pi

. a
pi
= 1, 0 .
184 5.
x 2 453mod1236. (5.3.5)
(453, 1236) = 3
3y2 151mod412 (5.3.6)
3mod412 275mod412. (5.3.6) -

x 2 151 275 325mod412

412 = 22 103 325 1mod4. 325
103
= 1.

=
325
103
= +1. x 16mod103,
16
103
2
99, 107mod412 x 297, 321mod1236.

f = 1, t = 1, a = 315 p = 103 21 1 + 103
315
=
2 2 = 4.
5.3.6. Gauss Disiquisitiones Arithme-

ticae 146.
5.3.7. f (x ) = (x 2 2)(x 2 + 7)(x 2 + 14),
f (x ) 0modn
n, n 1 .
.
n = p` , p P ` 1.
2, 7 14
modp` .
7 1mod8, x 2 1mod8 ` 1, 5.3.2.
, 27 = +1 x 2 2mod7` ` 1, 5.3.1.

p , 2, 7 14 2 (7), p14 = p2 p7 .
Legendre 1,
2, 7, 14 modp x 2 amodp`
a {2, 7, 14},
, f (x ) = 0 .
5.3.8. 5.3.7 -
.
5.4 n- ,
.

x n amodm, (5.4.1)
n 2, m 2 (a, m ) = 1.
5.4. N- , 185
5.4.1. a n- modm (5.4.1)

.
(5.4.1) ; a = 1 n = (m )
x (m ) 1modm . , a m
.
a m
s := s(a, m ) m a
a s 1modm (5.4.2)
5.4.2. a Z, m N, m 2 (a, m ) = 1,
s := s(a, m ) 1 (5.4.2) amodm
ordm (a ).
1. m = 5 a = 2, s = 4.
2. m = 5 a = 3, s = 4
3. m = 12 a = 5, 7 11 s = 2.
5.4.3. s := ordm (a )
a ` 1modm,
s | `.
. `
` = sq + u, 0 u < s.
a ` = (a s )q a u a u 1modm
s - . v = 0,
s | `.
5.4.4. 5.4.3 4.2.5 Euler

s := ordm a | (m ). , m = p , s | (p 1).
5.4.5. s := ordm (a ), :
1. a k a ` modm
2. k `mods
186 5.
. 1 2. a k a ` modm.
` < k. 1.5.5 (a ` , m ) = 1 (a, m ) = 1. a
a k ` 1modm. 5.4.3 s | (k `),
k `mods
2 1. k `mods. t k = ` + t s.
a k = a `+ts = a ` (a s )t a ` modm.
5.4.6. s := ordm (a ) s0 := ordm (a ` ) = s

d
, d = (`, s).
s1 := ordm (a ), s2 := ordm (b) (s1 , s2 ) = 1, s := ordm (ab) = s1 s2 .
. a s 1modm. (a s )`/d = (a ` )s/d

1modm. 5.4.3
s s
ordm (a ` ) | , s0 | .
d d
0
(a ` )s 1modm,
0
a `s 1modm

, 5.4.3, s | `s0 , s
d
| ` 0
d
s. s `
,
d d
= 1, (s, `) = d.
1.5.5 ds | s0 . s0 = ds .
a s1 1modm
s2
b 1modm
s
(ab) 1modm

bss1 = 1bss1 (a s1 )s bss1 (ab)ss1 1modm
, 5.4.3 s2 | ss1 . (s1 , s2 ) = 1 1.5.5 s2 | s.

s1 | s. s1 s2 | s.

(ab)s1 s2 = (a s1 )s2 (bs2 )s1 1 1 1modm
5.4.3 s | s1 s2 , s = s1 s2 .

5.4.7. 5.4.6.1 amodm,

ordm (a ) = st, a s modm t, (s, st ) = s.
, 5.4.6.2 s := ordm (a )
ordm (a ` ) = s (`, s) = 1.
5.4. N- , 187
5.4.8. a Z m N, m 2 (a, m ) = 1. a
modm ordm (a ) = (m ).
5.4.9. a modm
a, a 2 , . . . , a (m )
modm.
: a (a, m ) =
1.
. a modm. (a i , m ) = 1
i = 1, 2, . . . , (m ) (a, m ) = 1, 1.5.5.6. a
(m ), modm. ,
a k a ` modm 1 k < ` (m ) ( 5.4.5) k `mod(m ), (m ) | k `,
. , {a, a 2 , . . . , a (m ) }
modm. a (m ) 1modm,
a ` . 1modm `, 1 ` < (m ), a modm.
. mod43.
a Z, 43 ord43 (a ) {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.
a mod43 ord43 (a ) = 42.
a = 2, 27 1mod43, 214 1mod43. a = 2
mod43. a = 3.
37 6mod43
14
3 36mod43
21
3 1mod43
42
3 1mod43
a = 3 mod43.
. , , mod47.
a = 2,
212 4096 7mod47

24
2 2mod47
23
2 1mod47
2 mod47.
a = 1, (1)2 1mod47. ord47 (2) = 23 ord47 (1) = 2.
5.4.6.3 ord47 (2) = 2 23 = 46. 45
mod47.
:
1. modm. ;
;
188 5.
2. modm m; .
mod12. :
3. m Z, m 2 modm;
4. a Z. m Z a modm;

5.4.9:
5.4.10. modm, modm
((m )).
. a modm. 5.4.9
{a, a 2 , . . . , a (m ) }.
(m ) a, a ` ordm (a ` ) = (m ).
(`, (m )) = 1. `, 1 ` (m ) (`, (m )) = 1 ((m )).
. m = 43, (m ) = 43 1 = 42 a = 3
mod43.
a = 3, 35 , 311 , 313 , 317 , 319 , 323 , 325 , 329 , 331 , 337 , 341 mod43
(42) = (2 3 7) = 12
a = 3, 5, 12, 18, 19, 20, 26, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34mod43
5.4.11. a = 3.
.
(3) .
modp p.
:
5.4.12. p , ` q
q ` | (p 1 )
a modp q` , ordp (a ) = q` .
. Lagrange 4.7.4
p 1
x q 1modp
p 1 p 1
s = q
< p 1 .
2
b {1, 2, . . . , p 1}
p 1
b q . 1modp, (b, p) = 1
p 1
a := b q` q` .
`
a q = bp1 1modp ( 5.4.3), t := ordp (a ) | q` .
t = ordp (a ) < q` t | q`1 ,
q 1 `1
b q = aq 1modp,
. t = q` .
5.4. N- , 189
5.4.13. p modp.
. p = 2 a = 1 mod2.
p
r
Y
p1=
`
pi i
i =1
p 1 . 5.4.12 i =
1, 2, . . . , r ai ordp (ai ) = pi i . a := ri=1 ai
` Q
( 5.4.6.2)
r
Y r
Y
ordp (a ) = ordp (ai ) = pi i = p 1.
`
i =1 i =1
a modp.
5.4.14. 5.4.13 5.4.10

p (p 1) .
,
d | (p 1) (d ) modp
modp d. .
5.4.15. n 1,
X
n= (d )
d |n
d n.
Sd := {m N : 1 m n (m, n ) = d }.
, 1.5.5
m n
(m, n ) = d , = 1.
d d
Sd
dn dn , (n/d ). Sd
{1, 2, . . . , n }, n = d |n (n/d ).
P
d n, n/d
X n X
= (n ),
d
d |n d |n
X
n= (d ).
d |n

190 5.
5.4.16. p d p 1. (d )
modp modp d.
. S
modp, a S, ordp (a ) | (p 1).
d p 1
(d ) = #{a S : ordp (a ) = d }.
X
(d ) = p 1.
d |(p1)
(d ) :
(d ) = 0 (d ) , 0.
(d ) = 0, (d ) (d ).
(d ) , 0, a S ordp (a ) = d.
a, a 2 , . . . , a d modp
x d 1 0modp
Lagrange 4.7.4 . ,
a, a ` modp, ` = 1, 2, . . . , d.
d. d
a ` (`, d ) = 1, (d ).
, (d ) , 0, (d ) = (d ). , p 1
(d ) (d ).
5.4.15
X X
p1= (d ) (d ) = p 1,
d |(p1) d |(p1)
(d ) = (d ) d p 1.
(3).
5.4.17. m, n Z (m, n ) = 1, m, n > 2 modmn.

. a Z (a, mn ) = 1 1.5.5, (a, m ) = (a, n ) = 1.
Euler
a (m ) 1modm
n > 2, (n ) .
(m )(n )
a 2 1modm
(m ) (n )
a 2 1modn
Euler 1.5.5,
(mn )
a 2 1modmn
ordmn (a ) < (mn ) a modmn.
5.4. N- , 191
5.4.18. m 4
, modm. ,
modm, m m = 2` pa , a, ` N, ` {0, 1}.
m = 2` , (a = 0). m = 2 m = 4 a = 1
a = 3 . m = 23 = 8 mod8 1, 3, 5 7.
2, (8) = 4, mod8.
5.4.19. ` 3 mod2` .
. a
`2
a2 1mod2`
` = 3 . ` 3
` + 1.
`2
a2 = 1 + 2` t, t Z.
,
= (a 2 )2 = (1 + 2`t )2 = 1 + t2`+1 + t 2 22` .
`1 `1
a2
` 3, 2` ` + 1.
1mod2`+1 .
`1
a2

(2` )
a 2 1mod2m
` 3, ord2 (a ) < (2` ). a mod2` .
5.4.20. :
m Z, m 2 modm m {2, 4, p` , 2p` }.
p` 2p` .
5.4.21. p modp` ` 1.
. modp, 5.4.13.
a modp. Fermat
a p1 1modp
t Z a p1 1 = tp. b,

a

p - t
b := .
a + p
p | t
b modp` ` 2.
p | t a p1 1modp2
bp1 = (a + p)p1 a p1 + (p 1)pa p2 1 + (p 1)pa p2 modp2

192 5.
bp1 = 1 + pm p - m. p - t,
bp1 = a p1 = 1 + pt.

bp1 = 1 + pt1 p - t1 .
bp1 . 1modp2 , ordps (p) = p(p 1) = (p2 ) b

modp2 .
` 1
`
b(p1)p = 1 + p` t` , p - t` ,

. 1modp`+1 .
`1
b(p1)p
s` := ordp` (b) s` | (p` ) = p` (p 1).

bs` 1modp` bs` 1modp, (p 1) | s` .
s`
s` = (p 1)pd , 0 d ` 1.
s` , (p 1)p`1 , s` | (p 1)p`2
`2
b(p1)p 1modp`
`2
b(p1)p = 1 + p`1 t`1
p - t`1 .
`2
b(p1)p . 1modp`
d < ` 1. , d = ` 1, s` = (p 1)p`1 = (p` )
b modp` .
:
` = 1 . ` 1. ` + 1.
`:
`1
b(p1)p = 1 + p` t` p - t` .
p-
b(p1)p 1 + pp` t` modp`+2

`
b(p1)p6` = 1 + p`+1 t`+1 p - t`+1 .
2p` 5.4.21.
5.4.22. p ` 1 mod2p` .
5.4. N- , 193
. b modp`

b

b
c :=
b + p `
b
b + p` modp` . c (c, 2p` ) = 1.

s` := ord2p` (c )
s` | (2p` ) = (2)(p` ).
c s` 1mod2p`
c s` 1modp`
(p` ) | s` . s` = (2p` ).
5.4.23. m m > 1 modm m

2, 4, p` , 2p` ` 1.
modm ((m )). a modm
a t , 1 t < (m ) (t, (m )) = 1.
a modp a p1 1 = pt

a

p - t
b :=
a + p
p | t
modp` ` 1

b

b
c :=
b + p `
b
mod2p` .
5.4.24. 5.4.23 (3).

modp, p .

a = 2, 3, 5, 6, . . .
modp.
b = a ` a .
.
Shoup, [30] a (log p)6
. -
Riemann.
E. Bach
modp log p log log p [12]
a
p 1
p1
a q . 1modp
194 5.
p 1
q p 1. a q 1modq
a.
5.4.1
modp p < 1000 C.G. Jacobi 1839

Canon Arithmeticus. Akademie-Verlag Berlin
1956.
R. Osborn Tables of all primitive roots of odd primes less than 1000 Austin
1961 [3]. A.E. Western J.C.P. Miller [8]
p 50021.
(4). a = 2 m = p .
p 2 modp; 4000
p = 3, 5, 19, 29, 37, 53, 59, 61, 67, 83, 101, 107, 131, 139, 149, 163173, 179, 181, 197,
211, 227, 269, 293, 317, 347, 349, 373, 379, 389, 419, 421, 443, 461, 467, 491, 509,
523, 547, 557, 563, 587, 613, 619, 653, 659, 661, 677, 701, 709, 757, 773,
787, 797, 821, 827, 829, 853, 859, 877, 883, 907, 941, 947.
; . Artin . 129
1000. , 67 2.
Artin :
Artin (1920) p 2
modp.
, a = 2 .
Hasse 27 1927:
Artin :
a, a , 1, 0 a modp
p.
Artin;
1967 C. Holley [6] -
Riemann.
R. Gupta M. Ram Murty [28] ,
Artin a. R. Heath- Brown [29]

. .
2, 3, 5
2.
, Pieter Morre, [26] a p
ordp (a ) p 1.
5.4.1 n-
n- modm. a Z, m N, m > 1
(a, m ) = 1, :
5.4. N- , 195

x n amodm
n 2; ; ;
m .
p. n = 2,
Euler:
p1
x 2 amodp a 2 1modp.
2 = (p 1, 2).
x n amodp
, bmodp (b, p) = 1. d := (n, p 1)

p 1 p 1 n
n
a d b d (bp1 ) d 1modp
Euler
n, n 2. .
:
5.4.25. p , a Z, p - a g
modp.
x n amodp
a = gkd modp, k Z d = (p 1, n ).
. 5.4.9
g, g2 , . . . , gp1
modp. p - a
a g` modp, 1 ` p 1.
b Z , p - b b gs modp 1 s p 1.
s N
gsn g` modp
( 5.4.5)
sn `mod(p 1) (5.4.3)
d = (p 1, n ) | `, ` = d k
k Z. (5.4.3) d ,
x n amodp

196 5.
5.4.26 ( Euler). 5.4.25.
x n amodp

p 1
a d 1modp, d := (p 1, n ).
. .
,
p 1
a d 1modp d := (p 1, n ).
p - a, t Z
a gt modp, g modp
t (p1) p 1
g d a d 1modp
g modp.
t
ordp (g) = (p 1) | (p 1) .
d
t
d
t = kd, k Z.
a gkd modp
( 5.4.25) x n amodp .
:
x 8 16modp
p.
. p = 2 x0 = 0 . p , 2. p . 1mod8
d = (p 1, n ) = (p 1, 8) < 8. d {1, 2, 4}
p 1 p 1
a d = 16 d = 2(p1)k 1modp
k = 4, 2, 1 d = 1, 2, 4 .
Euler ( 5.4.26) x 8 16modp .
p 1mod8, 2 modp y0
y2 2modp, x 8 16modp x0 = y04 .
5.4.27. x 8 = 16 . -
.
5.4.28. p , g modp, n Z,
n 2 d := (n, p 1). n- modp
d (p1)
gd , g2d , . . . , g d
5.4. N- , 197
. 5.4.25
d (p1)
gd , g2d , . . . , g d
n- modp. - modp.
p1
gid qjd modp 1 j < i .
d
( 5.4.5)
id jdmod(p 1).
. b
n- modp. 5.4.25
b gkd modp
p 1
k Z. t := d
. k k = st + r, 0 < r t. ,
p1

+r
b gkd g(st +r )d g s d
d
g(p1)s grd grd modp
b grd .
5.4.26 5.4.28
, .
5.4.23, 5.4.26 5.4.28
5.4.29. m = 2, 4, p` 2p` , a Z (a, m ) = 1.

x n amodm

(m )
a d 1modm,
d = (n, (m )). , d n-
modm
(m )
gd , g2d , . . . , gd d ,
g modm.
m, m 2.
m
m = 2` p11 p22 pss ,

` ` `
pi i = 1, 2, . . . s , `, ì > 0. ,
x n amodm
198 5.
xn amod2`
xn amodp1`1

x n
amodps`s
.
5.4.29
`
modpi i .
( 5.4.19, mod2` ` 3.
modulo m a
modulo m b (b, m ) = 1,
modulo (m ) k
b = a k modm
m = 2n , n 3 modulo m.
-
mod2` .
a = 5.
5.4.30. a ,
.
1. ord2` (a ) = 2`2 ` 3,
2. a 3mod8
. (1) (2) (2) . a

`3
a 1mod8. a 2 1mod16 a 2 1mod2`
` 4. ord2` | 2`3 , ord2` (a ) < 2`2 , .
(2) (1) a 3mod8. , k 1
a 2 1 = 2k +2 b, (b ).
k
k = 1, 8||a 2 1, .
k 1.
a 2 + 1 = 2k +2 b + 1 + 1 = 2k +2 b + 2 = 2(1 + 2k +1 b).
k

1 + 2k +1 b .
k +1
1 = a 2 1 a 2 + 1 = 2k +2 b 2 1 + 2k +1 = 2k +3 b0 ,
k k
a2
b0 . 5.2.26
`2
a2 1mod2`
` 3. ord2` (a ) = 2t t ` 2 ` 3.
a 2 1mod2` , 2` | a 2 1. a 2 1 = 2t +2 s, s
t t t
`2
. ` t + 2, ` 2 t. a 2 1mod2` t = ` 2, ` 3.
5.4. N- , 199
5.4.31. ` 3 a 3mod8,
`2 `2
{a, a 2 , . . . , a 2 , a, a 2 , . . . , a 2 },
mod2` .
. (2` ) = 2`1 2` .
mod2` .
5.4.30, 2`2 mod2` .
2`2 .
,
a i a j mod2`
1 i, j 2`2 j i,
a i j 1mod2` .
a 2(i j) 1mod2`+1 .
( 5.4.30), ord2`+1 (a ) = 2`1 . 2`1 | 2(i j), 2`2 | (i j).
0 i j < 2`2 i = j.
a i a i mod2`
(a i , 2` ) = 1 1 1mod2` , ` 3.
5.4.32. `, ` 3 a,
a 3mod8, b, s, t mod2
mod2`2 :
b (1)s a t mod2`
5.4.33. a = 5. b 1mod4 b
5t mod2` , t {0, 1, . . . , 2`2 1}, b 3mod4, b 5t mod2` ,
t {0, 1, . . . , 2`2 1}.
n- mod2` , ` 3,
.
5.4.34. ` 3 a . n

x n amod2`
. n
x n amod2`

a 1mod2k +2
k 2k = (n, 2` ). , ,
2k +1 .
200 5.
. 5.4.32 s, t
a (1)s 5t mod2`
x x n amod2` , x . ,
5.4.32
x (1)u 5v mod2`
(1)nu 5nv (1)s 5t mod2` .
nu smod2 nv tmod2`2 .
n , nu smod2 u, mod2
nv tmod2`2 mod2`2 .
.
n s 0mod2 nu smod2 .
s . 0mod2, . t 0mod2k , nv tmod2`2
2k , (n, 2`2 ) = 2k |t. .
, 2k
a 5t mod2`
t 0mod2k
.
5.4.31 ord2k +2 (5) = 2k . 5t 1mod2k +2
k +2
2k | t. 2k +2 | 2` a 1mod2 .
5.4.2
m, m 2, gmodm. a Z (a, m ) = 1,
` (0 ` < (m ))
a = g` .
5.4.35. ` a gmodm -
Ig (a ). g,
I (a ).
a gIg (a ) modm
. m = 19. g = 2
mod19.
I (3) = 13 213 3mod19
I (4) = 2 22 4mod19
5.4. N- , 201
I (5) = 16 216 5mod19
I (7) = 6 26 7mod19
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
I (a ) 18 1 13 2 16 14 6 3 8 17 12 15 5 7 11 4 10 9
I (a ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
a 2 4 8 16 13 7 14 9 18 17 15 11 3 6 12 5 10 1
I (8) = 3, I (14) = 7
a. I (a ) = 12,
a = 212 11mod19

I (1) = 0 I (g) = 1.
a, b Z (a, m ) = (b, m ) = 1
a bmodm gI (a ) = gI (b) modm
5.4.5
I (a ) I (b)mod(m ) I (a ) = I (b).
0 I (a ), I (b) (m ) 1.
I (a ) amodm a.
.

mod(m ).
5.4.36. g modm, a, b Z (a, m ) = (b, m ) = 1 n Z, n 1,
1. I (ab) I (a ) + I (b)mod(m ) ( )
2. I (a n ) nI (a )mod(m ) ( )
3. g0 modm, ( )
Ig (a ) Ig (g0 )Ig0 (a )mod(m )
(m )
4. I (1) = 2
, m > 2.
. : a gI (a ) modm, b gI (b) modm
ab gI (a )+I (b) modm
ab gI (ab) modm.
202 5.

gI (ab) gI (a )+I (b) modm,
5.4.5
I (ab) I (a ) + I (b)mod(m )
: (1) .
(2) (1):
I (a n ) = I (a ) + I (a ) nI (a )mod(m ).
(3).
a gIg (a ) modm, a g0Ig0 (a ) modm

0
g0 gIg (g ) modm
0
Ig (a ) a gIg (g )Ig0 (a ) modm
( 5.4.5)
Ig (a ) Ig (g0 )Ig0 (a )mod(m )
(4) m > 2 (m ) . m = 4 g = 3 (m ) = 2. ,
I (1) = I (3) = 1 = (4)/2 .
m = p` , p 3
(m )
(m )
g 2 + 1 g 2 1 = g(m ) 1 0modm.
(m )
(m )
g 2 + 1 g 2 1 0modp
p , p | 2
p 3. m = p` . g
modm
(m ) (m )
g 2 + 1 0modm g 2 1modm
I (1) = (m )/2.
m = 2p` , p 3,
(m )
(m )

g 2 +1 g 2 1 0modm.
(m ) (m )
g ( (g, m ) = (a, m ) = 1), g 2 + 1 g 2 1
. m p` , p`
(m ) (m )
g 2 + 1 g 2 1. g modm. ,
(m ) (m )
g 2 + 1 0modm g 2 1modm
m = 2p` I (1) = (m )/2.

5.4. N- , 203
5.4.37. 1. a n 1modm nI (a ) 0mod(m )
2. Ig (g0 )Ig0 (g) 1mod(m )

(m )
3. I (m a ) I (a ) 2
+ I (a )mod(m )
. .
a gI (a ) modm
a n 1modm gnI (a ) g0 modm.

5.4.5
nI (a ) 0mod(m )
(2) (3) 5.4.36
Ig (g0 )Ig0 (g) = Ig (g) 1mod(m ).
(3) m a gI (m a ) modm (1)a gI (m a ) modm

(m )
+I (a )
g 2 gI (m a ) modm

(m )
I (m a ) + I (a )mod(m )
2

5.4.29.
. :
5.4.38.
x n amodm
d | I (a ), d = (n, (m )).
. 5.4.29
(m )
a d 1modm
5.4.37
(m ) (m )I (a )
I (a ) 0mod(m ) (m ) |
d d
d | I (a ).
5.4.39. p a Z p - a, a
modp I (a ) 0mod2.
204 5.
. a modp x0
x02 amodp. 5.4.36.2
2I (x0 ) I (a )mod(p 1).
p 1 , I (a ) .
I (a ) , I (a ) = 2s, s Z.
a = gI (a ) modp
(gs )2 amodp
a modp, x 2 amodp, x0 =
gs .
5.4.40. 5.4.39 modp

modp.
5.4.41. 5.4.39 n 3 . p = 5
n = 3 3 ( modp
g = 2), 1, 2, 3, 4 mod5,
1 1mod5, 2 33 mod5, 3 23 mod5, 4 43 mod5
m a, b Z (a, m ) = (b, m ) = 1.
ax bmodm

I (a ) + I (x ) I (b)mod(m )
I (x ) I (b) I (a )mod(m ).
.
5x 12mod19

I (x ) I (12) I (5)mod18
I (12) = 15, I (5) = 16, I (x ) = 1 17mod18 x

10mod19.
5.4. N- , 205
5.4.3
m a, b Z (a, m ) = (b, m ) = 1.
ax n bmodm

I (a ) + nI (x ) I (b)mod(m )

nI (x ) I (b) I (a )mod(m )
d = (n, (m )) | (I (b) I (a )).

, d-.
5.4.4
m a, b Z (a, m ) = (b, m ) = 1.
a x bmodm
xI (a ) I (b)mod(m )
(I (a ), (m ) |
I (b). (I (a ), (m ))
.
5.4.5 a mod m, (a,m)=1.

s := ordm (a ). a s 1modm a t . 1modm t, 0 < t < s.
a s 1modm
sI (a ) 0mod(m )
(m ) (m )
d := (I (a ), (m )), s 0mod d . s = d , s
. 5.4.37.2
modm .

(Ig (g0 ), (m )) = (Ig0 (g), (m )) = 1.
(Ig (a ), (m )) = (Ig (g0 )Ig0 (a ), (m )) = (Ig0 (a ), (m )).

. 3mod25. g = 2 mod5.
24 1 = 15 = 5 3 5 - 3. 5.4.23 2 mod25.
a = 3, I2 (3) = 7, d = (I2 (3), (25)) = (7, 40) = 1. s = ord25 (3) = 40. a = 7
I2 (7) = 5, (5, 40) = 8, s = 40/8 = 5.
206 5.
5.4.42.
. m
modm.
m, a
g. .
4.8.6 Carmichael
.
Carmichael.
a Z, a 1.
(1) = 1,
(p )`
= (p` ), p P, p 3, ` 1

(2` )
` = 1 2
(2 ) =
`

1 (2` ), ` 3

2
m = 2` p11 p22 pss ,

` ` `
(m ) = [(2` ), (p11 ), . . . , (pss )].

` `
universal modulo m.
:
5.4.43. m Z, m 2, (m ) 1
a (m ) 1modm
a m. , m a
modm (m ) modm.
. m = 2` p11 p22 pss ` N ` 1 m

` ` `
.
i = 1, 2, . . . , s (pi i ) (pi i ).
` `
Euler
ì
`
a (pi ) 1modpi i
i = 1, 2, . . . , s. (pi i ) | (m ),
`
`
a (m ) 1modpi i , (5.4.4)
i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
m , a (a, m ) = 1. a 1mod2
a (2) 1mod2.
, a
a 2 1mod4

a (4) 1mod4
5.4. N- , 207
, ` 3 ( 5.4.19)
`
a (2 ) 1mod2`

`
a (2 ) 1mod2`
` 1. (2` ) | (m ),
a (m ) 1mod2` (5.4.5)
(5.4.4), (5.4.5)
a (m ) 1modm
a m.
(m ) . a
(m ) . 1modm.
ordm (a ) = (m )
.
gi modpi i , i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
`
x 3mod2`
x g1 modp1`1

x gs modps`s

modm. a Z, ordm (a ) = (m ).
n N, n 1
a n 1modm

`
a n 1modpi i
i = 1, 2, . . . , s
a n 1mod2`
a . a gi modpi i , i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
`

ordpì (a ) = ordpì (gi ) = (pi i ) = (pi i ),
` `
i i
i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
`
( pi i ) | n (5.4.6)
i = 1, 2, . . . , s. , a 3mod2`
ord2` (a ) = ord2` (3) = 2`2 = (2` )/2 = (2` ).
` = 1, a 3 1mod2 ord2 (a ) = ord2 (5) = 1 = (2) = (2) ` = 2

a 2 32 1mod4 ord4 (a ) = ord4 (3) = 2 = (4) = (4).
208 5.

(2` ) | n. (5.4.7)
(5.4.6) (5.4.7)
(m ) = [(2` ), (p11 ), . . . , (pss )] | n

` `
(5.4.8)
n := ordm (a )
n | (m ). (5.4.9)
(5.4.8) (5.4.9) (m ) = ordm (a ).
4.8.6.
5.4.44. m, m > 2 Carmichael m = p1 p2 ps ,

(pj 1) | (m 1) j =
1, 2, . . . , s.
. Carmichael
bm 1 1modm,
b (b, m ) = 1. 5.4.43 , a Z
ordm (a ) (m ).
a m 1 1modm.
5.4.3 (m ) | (m 1). m , m 1 .
m > 2 (m ), , . . m
.
.
, p, p` | m, ` 2,
(p` ) = (p` ) = p` (p 1) | (m 1).
p | (m 1), ` 2. p | m. p | 1, .
m = p1 p2 . . . ps , pi , 2 i = 1, 2, . . . , s pi , pj i , j.
(pi ) = (pi ) = pi 1 | (m ) | (m 1).
5.4.45. Carmichael m
.
. m . m = pq, p, q P\{2}, p , q
p > q
(p 1) | (m 1) = pq 1 = (p 1)q + (q 1),
(p 1) | (q 1), p > q.
5.4. N- , 209
5.4.6 -
1 modp, p ( 5.4.13
J.H. Lambert 1769. Euler 1773
. modp.
Gauss Disquisitiones Arithmeticae,
55.
Da der Beweis dieses Satzes keineswegs so auf der Hand liegt, als es auf den ersten
Anblick scheinen konnte, so wollen wir wegen der Bedeutung des Satzes noch einen andern von
dem vorigen etwas verschiedenen Beweis anfugen, zumal die Verschiedenheit der Methoden
gewohnlich sehr viel zur Erlauterung etwas schwerer verstandlicher Dinge beitragt.
( ,
. ,
,
.)
55 :
Der letztere Beweis scheint etwas weitlaufiger als der erste, dieser aber dafur weniger direct
zu sein als jener.
( ,
).
57
Radics primitivae bases, indices , , .
52,
Irgent eine Zahl a welche zum Exponenten d gehort, d.h. deren dte Potenz den Einheit
congruent ist, wahrend alle niedrigeren Potenzen derselben nicht congruent sind
( ( ) a d-
d- 1modn
a ).
57
Die zum Exponenten p 1 gehorigen Zahlen werder wir mit Euler primitive Wurtzeln nennen
( p 1 , Euler
).
5.4.9

Deise ausgezeichnete Eigenschaft ist von dem grossten Nutzen und kann die arithmetischen
auf die Congruenzen bezuglichen Operationen sehr erheblich erleichtern, etwa in derselben
Weise, wie die Einfuhrung der Logarithmen die Operationen der gemeinen Arithmetik
(

).
53,54 55 5.4.16.
73 modp
Die Methoden, die primitiven Wurzeln zu finden, beruhen zum grossen Teil auf Vesuchen
Euler .
Euler gesteht, da es ausserst schwierig zu sein scheine, solche Zahlen zu finden und da
ihr eigentliches Wesen zu den tiefsten Geheimnissen der Zahlen zu rechnen sei.
210 5.
( Euler
).
Gauss Euler 1783,
p 41.
Gauss modm. -
5.4.19 90. 92
5.4.23. Gauss
[4].
5.4.7
Wilson
5.4.46. Sm
modm, m N, m > 2,
Y
a 1modm
a S m
+1modm m = 4, p` , 2p` ,
p P {2} ` 1, 1modm.
. -
Wilson 5.3.4. a Sm ,
( (a, m ) = 1) b Sm
ab 1modm
Sm . a , b,
1modm.
(a, b) b = a,
x 2 1modm
a , a .
a 2 1modm
m > 2,
a . amodm
modm.
+1modm
(a, a ) , 4.
5.3.4 4
m = 4, p` , 2p` , p P {2} ` 1.
1. m = p P {2}, (p 1)! 1modp,

Wilson.
5.4. N- , 211
2. 5.3.4 ( m = 4, p` , 2p` , p ) -
Y
a 1modm
a S m
x 2 1modm 2
x 1modm
3. m = 2 5.4.46 +1 1mod2
4. 5.4.46 () 78 Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae Gauss.
Man kann aber den Wilsonshen Satz allgemeiner so aussprechen"
5.4.8

:
5.4.47. 1. p q = 2p + 1 ,
p 1
(1) 2 modq.
2
2. p q = 4p + 1 , 2 modq.
3. p , :
- modp modp.
p p = 2` + 1, ` 1.
. 1. :
p 1mod4, (q) = q 1 = 2p ordq (2) | 2p. Euler
!
2 q 1
2 2 2p modq
q

q 3mod5, = 1. ordq 2 , p. 1 2 (
2
q
2 1modq q | 1, 22 1modq q | 3 q 2 3 + 1 = 7,
1
). ordq 2 = 2p, 2 modq.

p 3mod4, Euler
!
2 q 1
(2) 2 (2)p modq.
q

q 7mod8, q1 = 1 = 1. (2)p 1modq, ordq (2) ,
2
q
p. 1 2. (2 1modq q | 3, , (2)2 1modq
q | 3, .) ordq (2) = 2p, (2) modq.
212 5.
2. (q) = q 1 = 4p ordq (2) {1, 24 , p, 2p, 4p}. 2 1modq q | 1, .

22 1modq q | 3, .
24 1modq q | 15 q = 3, 4, .
q 1
2
q
2 22p modq.
2

q 5mod8 27 = 1. ordq (2) , 2p ordq (2) , p.
ordq (2) = 4p = q 1, 2 modq.
p 1
3. 2
- modp (p 1) modp.
- modp modp
p 1
(p 1) = 2 . (n ) = n2 n = 2` , ` N, ` 1. ()
modp
modp, p = 2` + 1, ` N, ` 1.

5.4.9
test , -
.
5.4.48. p , h < p, n = hp + 1 n = hp2 + 1 2h . 1modn,

2n 1 1modn, n .
. n = hpb + 1, b = 1 2. s := ordn (2). 5.4.3

5.4.5, s - h, s | n 1 = hpb . p | s.
, s = ordn (2), s | (n ) p | (n ).

` 1 ` 1 ` 1
n = p11 p22 pkk , (n ) = p11 p22 pkk (p1 1) (pk 1).
` ` `
p | s | (n 1), p - n. p , pi , (i = 1, 2, . . . , k ).
p | (pi 1) i {1, 2, . . . , k } n q := pi
q 1modp. n = qm. , q 1modp n 1modp, m 1modp.
m > 1 n = (a1 p + 1)(a2 p + 1), 1 a1 a2 . hpb1 = a1 a2 p + a1 + a2 .
, b = 1, h = a1 a2 p + a1 + a2 . p a1 a2 p < h < p, .
m = 1, n .
b = 2, hp = a1 a2 p + a1 + a2 p | (a1 + a2 ).
p
a1 + a2 p, 2a2 a1 + a2 p, a2 2 . a1 a2 < h < p. (a1 a2 h 1
h 1 p 2)
p2 2(p 2)
a1 a2 p 2 a1 < 2.
a2 p
a1 = 1 1 + a2 p a2 p 1 a1 a2 p 1. ,
m = 1 n .
5.4.47.1 q =
2p + 1 p . 5.4.48
5.4. N- , 213
5.4.49. ` > 1 p = 4` + 3 q = 2p + 1
2p 1modq.
. q := 2p + 1 . q 2(4` + 3) + 1 7mod8.
2 modq. Euler
!
q 1 2
2 2 =2
p
1modq.
q
, 2p 1modq 5.4.48 h = 2 n = 2p + 1,
h 3
Mp = 2p 1 > 2p + 1 = q.
23 | M11 , 47 | M23 , 167 | M83 , 263 | M131

359 | M179 , 383 | M191 , 479|M239 , 503 | M251
719 | M359 , 839 | M419 , 863 | M431 , 887 | M447
983 | M491 , 1319 | M659 , 1367 | M683 , 1439 | M719
1487 | M743 , 1823 | M911 , 2039 | M1019
p 2p + 1
Sophie Germain.

Mersenne.
5.4.51. p , Mersenne Mp = 2p 1,
2`p + 1, ` 1.
. q Mp
2p 1modq.
q . (2, q) = 1. s := ordq (2). 5.4.3,

s | p ( s > 1, s = 1 2 1modq, ). s = p.
Fermat
2q1 1modq.
5.4.3, s | (q 1), p | (q 1).

t Z q = pt + 1. t , t ,
qp Mp = 2p 1, . t = 2`, ` 1,
q = 2`p + 1.
, Mp .
214 5.
5.4.52.
n Mersenne Mp , p p, n 1modp.
5.4.53. p , n Mersenne Mp
n 1mod8.
. n = q, . q
Mp , 5.4.51
q = 2`p + 1, ` 1 (2p 1modp)
Euler
!
2 q1 `
2 2 2`p 2p 1modq
q
q 1mod8, Legendre.

Mersenne.
; .
5.4.54 ( Lucas-Lehmer).
S0 = 4, Sn +1 = Sn2 2, n 0.
Mersenne Mn = 2n 1 Mn | Sn 2 .
5.4.54 .
.
5.4.48.
5.4.55. m 2, h < 2m n := h2m + 1, modp,

p . n
n 1
p 2 1modp
. n .
m 2, n 1mod4. n
modp, np = 1.
p
n
= n
p
= 1. Euler
n 1
p
p 2 1modn.
n
n . q
n s := ordq (p).
n 1
p 2 1modp,
5.4. N- , 215
pn 1 1modp, Fermat pq1 1modq. s - n 2

1
,
m 1 m
s | (n 1) s | (q 1), s - h2 , s | h2 s | (q 1).
5.4.48 2m | s | (q 1). t, q = t2m + 1
q 1mod2m . n 1mod2m . nq 1mod2m . n
n = (a1 2m + 1)(a2 2m + 1) a1 1, a2 0.
2m a1 a2 < 2m a1 a2 + a1 + a2 = h < 2m .
a2 = 0, n
q
= 1, n = q
n .
n
5.4.56 ( Pepin). n- Fermat Fn = 22 + 1

Fn 1
3 2 1mod3 (5.4.10)
F
. Fn 2mod3, n 1. 3n = 23 = 1
Fn - mod3.
5.4.55, Fn (5.4.10).
5.4.57. Fn , 3
modFn .
Fermat
5.4.51 Mersenne.
:
5.4.58. Fermat
n
Fn = 22 + 1, n > 1
2n +2 ` + 1 ` 1.
. p Fn
n
22 1modp

n +1
22 1modp.
n +1
s := ordp (2). s | 2 . s = 2n +1 . s = 2k
1 k n, 2s 1modp
n
22 1modp.
1 1modp, p = 2, .
Fermat
2p1 1modp.
s | (s) = p 1, 2n +1 | (p 1). n 2, p 1mod8

2
p
= 1.
p 1
n +1
p 1 p 1
2
Euler 2 2 p
1modp. s | 2
, 2 | 2
.
p = `2n +2 + 1, ` 1.
216 5.
Fermat Lucas
(1891).
5.4.59. a
1. a n 1 1modn
n 1
2. a p . 1modn, p n 1,
n .
. 1. 5.4.3 s := ordn (a ) | (n 1).

s = n 1. s , n 1. , ` Z, ` > 1 n 1 = s `.
p `,
n 1 s` `
a p = a p = (a s ) p 1modn,
, 2. s = n 1. , s (n ) n 1 = s,
(n ) = n 1, n . , n d
(1 < d < n), (n ) (n ) n 2, .
p a p
!
a p 1
a 2 modp
p
, n N, n > 1 b Z (b, n ) = 1,
b p1
.b 2 modp
n
n .
Euler.
.
. b = 10 n = 91
10 911
= 1 10 2 mod91
91
5.4.60. n b (b, n ) = 1

b n 1
b 2 modn
n
n Euler - b.
. n = 1105, b = 2,
n 1
b 2 2552 1105

= 1, 1105 1mod8.
2
1105
n = 341 b = 2
. 2170 1mod341. 341 3mod8,
341 = 1. 341 . 341 mod341. 341 .
2 2
5.4. N- , 217
5.4.61. n Euler b, n -
b.
n 1
b
b 2 modn
n
b
b n 1 1modn
n

[20, 454-460].
5.4.62. . 341 2,
Euler .
- Euler -.
5.4.63. n - b
Euler - .
. Euler
. :
5.4.64. n 3mod4 n Euler b

n .

5.4.65. n Euler b b
n
= 1, n
.
5.4.66. n , , b,

1 b < n (b, n ) = 1 n Euler b, 2 .
.
n. t- b1 , b2 , . . . , bt
{1, 2, . . . , n 1} (bj , n ) = 1 j = 1, . . . , t.
!
n 1
2
bj
bj modn
n
, n () .
( n ).
n ,
21t . n , .
.
() ;
.
( ) 6 2002
Maninda Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal Nitin Saxena Primes is in P.
218 5.
15
. ,
.
-
.
:
n
(1 x )n (1 x n )modn
( Sieve theory). -
Annals of Mathematics [21]
Folkmar
Bornemann Ein Durchbruch fur Jedermann, DMV-Mitteilungen, 4/2002,
PRIMES is in P Breakthrough for Everyman [15]
Paulo Ribenboim Die Welt der Primzahlen, Geheimnisse und Rekorde [25] . 120-122
Richard Crandall, Carl Pomerance Prime Numbers, a computational Perspective [27]

. 200-207
Martin Dietzfelbinger Primality Testing in Polynomial Time from Randomized Algorithms

to Primes in P [24]
AKS-
.
,
.

[1] A. Venkov: Elementary Number Theory, Translation Eng. Holland. 1932.
[3] Alexander Aigner: Zahlentheorie. Walter De Gruyter, Berlin, 1975.
[5] C. F. Gauss: Untersuchungen uber hohere Arithmetik. Chelsea Publishing Company, Sec-
ond Edition, New York, 1981.
[6] C. Hooley: On Artins Conjecture. J. Reine Angew Math., 225:209220, 1967.
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Press Cambridge, 1968.
[9] D. Hilbert: Mathematical Problems. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 8, no.
10:437479, 1902. Earlier publications (in the originalGerman) appeared in Goettinger
Nachrichten, 1900, pp. 253-297, and Archiv der Mathematik und Physik, 3dser., vol. 1,
(1901), pp. 44-63, 213-237.
[10] D. Hilbert: Die Hilbertsche Probleme. Ostwalds Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften,
Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1976.
[11] Don Redmond: Number Theory, An Introduction. Marcel Dekker, 1996.
[12] E. Bach: The complexity of number-theoretic constants. Inf. Process. Lett., 62:145152,
1997.
[13] E. Rose: A course in number theory. Oxford science publications, Oxford, 1996. 2nd
edition.
219
220
[14] Ezra Brown: The First proof of quadratic reciprocity Law. The American Mathematical
Monthly, 88:257264, 1981.
[15] Folkmar Barnemann: Primes is in p, Breakthrough for Everyman. Notices of the AMS, 50
(7):545553, 2003.
[16] Franz Lemmermeyer: Reciprocity Laws from Euler to Eisenstein. Springer Monographs in
Mathematics, Springer, Berlin, 2000.
[17] H. Hasse: Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie. Springer-Verlag Berlin, 1964.
[18] Herbert Piper: Variationen uber ein zahlentheoretishen Thema von Carl Friedrich Gauss.
Birkhauser, Basel und Stuttgart, 1977.
[19] Horst Kn"orrer, Claus Gunther Schmidt, Joachim Schwemer, and Peter Soloday: Math-
ematische Miniaturen Arithmetik und Geometrie. Birkhauser Basel, 1986.
[20] K.H. Rosen: Elementary Number Theory and Its Applications. Addison-Wesley Longman,
Limited, 2000.
[21] M. Agrawal, N. Kayal, N. Saxena: Primes is in p. Annals of Mathematics 160, pages

781793, 2004.
[22] M. Gesterhaber: The 152nd proof of the law of quadratic reciprocity. The American Math.
Monthly, 70:397398, 1963.
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[33] , .: , L-. , 1999.
[34] , .: 2. 1965.
II
221

.
.
.
.
1, 2

5.4.67. 2 .

( x, 117). . 2
, 2 = a/b, a, b N (a, b) = 1 b
. 2 = a/b 2b2 = a 2 a ,
a = 2c, c N. (a, b) = 1, b . , (2c 2 ) = 2b2 ,
4c 2 = 2b2 b2 = 2c 2 b , .

m, n m > 1 n > 1 n m
m n- .

, m = a n , n m . n m , n m = a/b,
a, b Z. (a, b) = 1. b > 1, p, p | b, bn m = a n
p | a, (a, b) > p, .

m m ,
m .
, ,
. -
.
() ,
, . Fibonacci
Lucas,
.
7
.
i
ii
Euler-Lagrange,
e .
8 Pell
.
9 , -
() ,
.
10 ,
-
. , ,
. -
.
6
Fibonacci
6.1 Fibonacci
6.1.1
Leonardo Pisano (1170-1250),
, Fibonacci,
filius Bonacci, ( Bonacci).
, , ,
. . 1202
Liber Abaci, ( ).
.
Quot paria coniculorum in uno anno ex uno pario germinentur.
,
;
() Fibonacci
F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn +1 = Fn + Fn 1 , n 1.

. Fibonacci As-
sociation The Fibonacci Quarterly.
[6],[11],[3].
6.1.1. n 1 :
1. F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = Fn +2 1
2. F1 + F3 + ... + F2n 1 = F2n
3. F2 + F4 + ... + F2n = F2n +1 1
4. F12 + F22 + ... + Fn2 = Fn Fn +1
5. Fn +m = Fn 1 Fm + Fn Fm +1
6. Fn2+1 = Fn Fn +2 + (1)n ( Cassini).
225
226 6. FIBONACCI
6.1.1: Fibonacci, (public domain),

70 .
. 1. F1 = F3 F2 , F2 = F4 F3 , ..., Fn = Fn +2 Fn +1
: F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = Fn +2 F2 = Fn +2 1.
2. F3 = F4 F2 , F5 = F6 F4 , . . . , F2n 1 = F2n F2n 2 .

F1 = F2 = 1.
3. 2. 1.( 2n) .
4.
Fk Fk +1 Fk 1 Fk = Fk (Fk +1 Fk 1 ) = Fk2 .
k = 1, 2, . . . , n : F12 = F1 F2 ,
F22 = F2 F3 F1 F2 , . . . Fn2 = Fn Fn +1 Fn 1 Fn .
.
5. m. m = 0, .
m, m k + 1. Fn +k = Fn 1 Fk + Fn Fk +1 Fn +k +1 =
Fn 1 Fk +1 + Fn Fk +2 . Fn +k +2 = Fn 1 Fk +2 + Fn Fk +3 ,
k + 2 m.
6. n. n = 0, .
k, Fk2+1 = Fk Fk +2 + (1)k . Fk2+1 + Fk +1 Fk +2 =
Fk Fk +2 + Fk +1 Fk +2 + (1)k Fk +1 Fk +3 = Fk2+2 + (1)k ,
Fk2+2 = Fk +1 Fk +3 + (1)k +1 . n.

6.1. FIBONACCI 227
6.1.2: Jacques Binet, (public domain). : Wi-

kimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_Binet.
jpg
n- -
Fn . , , 1843,
Binet Binet.

x2 x 1 = 0

a = 1+2 5
b = 12 5 .
a 2 = a + 1 b2 = b + 1
n 1,
a n +1 = a n + a n 1 , bn +1 = bn + bn 1 .
(a b):
a n +1 b n +1 a n bn a n 1 b n 1
= + .
ab ab ab
a n b n
n N, An := a b
, n 1 :
An +1 = An + An 1 A0 = 0, A1 = 1.
An Fibonacci, An = Fn n N.
Binet:
n
n
1 + 5

a n bn
1 1 5
Fn = =

,

ab 2 2

5

: .
[6], [4, . 62, Satz 34].
, Binet,
( ), .
228 6. FIBONACCI
6.1.1

= 1+2 5

1
1+ = .

, , -
, .
6.1.3: (Anthemis tinctoria), 21

13 . Fibonacci
. (public do-
main). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
FibonacciChamomile.PNG
.
()
6.1.4:
6.1. FIBONACCI 229
6.1.5: Lucas, (public domain). : Wikimedia

Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elucas_1.png
[10, . 135].
8 64 .
13
5, 65 64 ,
. ;
!.
,
= 1o 310 4000 , .

. Fibonacci.
Cassini,
Fn Fn +2 Fn2+1 = (1)n +1 .
n = 2k 1 :
2
F2k 1 F2k +1 F2k = 1.
k = 3.
k. , k = 4, 21
34 13.
Fibonacci
1876 Lucas.
230 6. FIBONACCI
1
1
1 1
1
1 2 1
2
1 3 3 1
3
1 4 6 4 1
5
1 5 10 10 5 1
8
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
13
1 7 211 35 35 21 7
21
1 8
56 70 56 28 28 8 1
34
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
55
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
89
6.1.6: Fibonacci Pascal,

(public domain). : Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:PascalTriangleFibanacci.svg
6.1.2. m 0
m
mi
X
Fm +1 = ,
i =0
i
u
v
= 0, u < v.
.
m
mi
X
Am +1 := .
i =0
i
1 0
m = 0 A1 = 1 m = 1 A2 = 0
+ 1
= 1 + 0 = 1. m 0
m +2 m +2
m+2i
X X m + 1 i m + 1 i !
A m +3 = = + =
i =0
i i =0
i i1
m +1 m
m+1i
!
mj
X X
= + = Am +2 + Am +1 .
i =0
i j =0
j
m 0 Fm +1 = Am +1 .

Pascal. Lucas
Pascal ,
Fibonacci.
6.1.2
Fibonacci.
6.1. FIBONACCI 231
6.1.3. m, n N :
1. m |n , Fm |Fn .
2. ...(Fn , Fn +1 ) = 1.
3. ...(Fn , Fm ) = F...(m,n ) .
. 1. m |n, n = mm1 m1 N.
m1 . m1 = 0, n = 0, F0 = 0
Fm . ( m1 = 1 m = n Fm = Fn |Fn .)
m1 , Fm |Fmm1 .
m1 + 1.
Fm (m1 +1) = Fmm1 +m = Fmm1 1 Fm + Fmm1 Fm +1 .
Fm |Fm (m1 +1) .
2. (Fn , Fn +1 ) = d > 1. d |Fn 1 = Fn +1 Fn .

d |Fn 2 , , d |F1 = 1, .
d = 1.
3. m > n.
:
m = nq0 + r1 , 0 r1 < n,
n = r1 q1 + r2 , 0 r2 < r1 ,
r1 = r2 q2 + r3 , 0 r3 < r2 ,
...
rt 2 = rt 1 qt 1 + rt , 0 rt < rt 1
rt 1 = rt qt rt = (m, n ).
Fibonacci ,
(Fm , Fn ) = (Fnq0 +r1 , Fn ) = (Fnq0 1 Fr1 + Fnq0 Fr1 +1 , Fn ) =
= (Fnq0 1 Fr1 , Fn ) = (Fr1 , Fn ),

, 2.,
(Fn , Fnq0 1 )|(Fnq0 , Fnq0 1 ) = 1.

(Fr1 , Fn ) = (Fr2 , Fn ),
(Fr2 , Fr1 ) = (Fr3 , Fr2 ),

...
(Frt 1 , Frt 2 ) = (Frt , Frt 1 ).

232 6. FIBONACCI
1., Frt |Frt 1 , (Frt , Frt 1 ) = Frt .

(Fm , Fn ) = (Frt , Frt 1 ) = Frt = F(m,n ) .

1. 6.1.3 m, n N m 3
m |n Fm |Fn .
. 6.1.3.
. Fm |Fn . (Fm , Fn ) = Fm . 3).
6.1.3 (Fm , Fn ) = F(m,n ) . F(m,n ) = Fm .
Fibonacci , m 3, , m = (m, n ), m |n.

2|Fn 3|n,
3|Fn 4|n,
5|Fn 5|n,
8|Fn 6|n,
...
2. Fibonacci
, , .
Fn = (1)n 1 Fn 6.1.3
m n .
6.1.4. Fn +1 Fn +2 ( n > 1) Fibonacci,

n (Fn +1 , Fn +2 ) = 1.
. ,
Fn +2 = Fn +1 1 + Fn 0 < Fn < Fn +1 ,
Fn +1 = Fn 1 + Fn 1 0 < Fn 1 < Fn ,
...
F4 = F3 1 + F2 0 < F2 < F3 ,
F3 = F2 2 + 0

( ) Fn
.
6.1.5. m 1 4 5
Fibonacci m.
6.1. FIBONACCI 233
. m. m = 1
Fibonacci 1, 2, 3, 5 8. m. Fn
Fibonacci m, :
Fn = Fn 1 + Fn 2 < 1 10m + 1 10m = 2 10m ,
Fn +1 = Fn + Fn 1 < 2 10m + 1 10m = 3 10m ,
Fn +2 = Fn +1 + Fn < 3 10m + 2 10m = 5 10m
Fn +3 = Fn +2 + Fn +1 < 5 10m + 3 10m = 8 10m .
, Fn , Fn +1 , Fn +2 , Fn +3 (m + 1)- .
, 10m Fn = Fn 1 + Fn 2 < 2Fn 1 ,
Fn 1 > 21 10m .
1 3
Fn +1 = Fn + Fn 1 > 10m + 10m = 10m ,
2 2
3 5
Fn +2 = Fn +1 + Fn > 10m + 10m = 10m ,
2 2
5 3 8
Fn +3 = Fn +2 + Fn +1 > 10m + 10m = 10m ,
2 2 2
8 5 13
Fn +4 = Fn +3 + Fn +2 > 10m + 10m = 10m ,
2 2 2
13 8 21
Fn +5 = Fn +4 + Fn +3 > 10m + 10m = 10m .
2 2 2
Fn +5 > 10m +1 . Fn +5 (m + 2)
, Fibonacci (m +
1).
6.1.5
6.1.6. n- Fibonacci m, n 5m + 1.
. m. m = 1 F6 = 8 F7 = 13, .
m. Fn
(m + 1)- Fn 5 , 6.1.5, m- ,
, n 5 5m + 1, n 5(m + 1) + 1.
Fibonacci -
.
Lame, 19 , (
1840) Fermat 7.
6.1.7. a, b N, a > 0, b > 0 (a, b)

a, b , (a, b) 5(b),
(b) b.
234 6. FIBONACCI
. Fibonacci ,
n Fn b < Fn +1 . ,
b, (a, b) n 1. b = 1, F2 = 1 b < F3 = 2 . b > 1
a = bq + r, 0 r b = q1 r + s r + s Fn + Fn 1 = Fn +1 ,
. , , (r, s) n 3

(a, b) = (r, s) + 2 (n 3) + 2 = n 1.
Fn b < Fn +1 Fn m ,
,
(a, b) n 1 5m 5(b).

Fibonacci
m, m , 0.
6.1.8. Fibonacci (modm ), -

m. F1 , F2 , ..., Fm 2
m.
. k, k (modm )
k k (modm ).
hF 1 , F 2 i, hF 2 , F 3 i, hF 3 , F 4 i, ..., hF n , F n +1 i, ...
, , m 2 . hF k , F k +1 i
.
h1, 1i. , hF k , F k +1 i k > 1 l > k

hF l , F l +1 i = hF k , F k +1 i.
Fl 1 = Fl +1 Fl Fk 1 = Fk +1 Fk F l 1 = F k 1
hF l 1 , F l i = hF k 1 , F k i.
, hF k , F k +1 i
. h1, 1i
.

hF t , F t +1 i = h1, 1i.
Ft 1(modm ) Ft +1 1(modm ). Ft 1 = Ft +1 Ft 0(modm ),
m |Ft 1 .

6.1. FIBONACCI 235
6.1.9. t () Fibonacci Ft
m |Ft , (entry point) m.
m .
6.1.10. p > 5 p|Fp1 p|Fp+1 .
. Binet

a n bn 1 1+ 5 1 5
Fn = = {( n
) ( )n },
ab 5 2 2

1+ 5
a n bn , a = 2
b = 1 5
2
.
. ,
n n 2 n n
" ! ! ! #
1
Fn = 1+ 5+ 5 + ... + 5 +
2n 5 1 2 n
n n 2 n n
" ! ! ! #
1
1 5+ 5 ... + (1)n 5 .()
2n 5 1 2 n
(*) n = p :
" ! ! ! ! #
1 p p p p p 1
Fp = + 5+ 5 + ... +
2
5 2 .
2p1 1 3 5 p
p
, , k
0(modp) k, 1 k p 1 ,
p 1
Fermat, 2 1(modp)
!
p 1 p p 1 p1
Fp 2 Fp 5 2 5 2 (modp).
p
p 1
, Euler, 5 2 ( 5p ) 1(modp), Fp2
1(modp). Cassini
Fp2 = Fp1 Fp+1 + (1)p1 = Fp1 Fp+1 + 1
Fp1 Fp+1 0(modp), p|Fp1 p|Fp+1 .

p , (Fp1 , Fp+1 ) = F(p1,p+1) =
F2 = 1, .
. p 1 p + 1
p. , 13|F14 = 377 13|F7 = 13.
. ;
; .
(*) n = p + 1
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1

" ! ! ! ! #
p 1
2 Fp+1 =
p
+ 5+ 5 + ... +
2
5 2 .
1 3 5 p
236 6. FIBONACCI
, p| p+k 1 k, 3 k p 1,

5
2p Fp+1 1 + ( )(modp).
p
5
p|Fp+1 ( ) = 1.
p
p
6.1.11. p , , Fpp 0(modp), p := ( 5 ).
. 6.1.8,
p
p = 2, 3, 5. ( p = ( 5 )
Kronecker, p Legendre p = 2,
5
2
= 1.)
. , ,
. . 323
6.1.11.
6.1.12. n Fibonacci,
6.1.11 .
,
.
.
6.1.13. -
m
m.
6.1.14. Fibonacci Fn , (n 1) .
. 6.1.1,1.
Fn 1 = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn 2 .
3 n 6 m = 1, 2, 3, ..., Fn 1
Fibonacci. n = 3
Fn = F3 = 2, Fn 1 = F2 = 1, Fn 2 = F1 = 1,
n = 4
Fn = F4 = 3, Fn 1 = F3 = 2, Fn 2 = F2 = 1,
F1 = 1, F1 + F2 = 2 .... n = 5 n = 6.
m = 1, 2, 3, ..., Fk 1, (k 3)
Fibonacci F1 , F2 , ..., Fk 2 . m =
6.2. LUCAS 237
1, 2, 3, ..., Fk +1 1, F1 , F2 , ...Fk 1 , (k 4).

Fk 1
1 + Fk 1 , 2 + Fk 1 , ..., Fk 1 + Fk 1 = Fk +1 1.
1, 2, 3, ..., Fk 1 1 +
Fk 1 , 2 + Fk 1 , 3 + Fk 1 , ..., Fk +1 1. Fk 1 1 + Fk 1
k = 3 Fk 1 = 1 1 + Fk 1 = 2, k = 4 Fk 1 = 2 1 + Fk 1 = 3,
k 5 Fk 1 1 + Fk 1 , Fk Fk 1 2.

6.2 Lucas
Fibonacci L0 = 2
L1 = 1,
Francois Edouard Lucas (1842-1891).
.
6.3.1. L0 = 2, L1 = 1 Ln +2 = Ln +1 + Ln
n N, Lucas.
. Lucas
, Fibonacci.
Lucas Fibonacci. -
, .
. n Z.
Binet.
n n
1 + 5

1 5
Ln = a + b =
n n
+ , (6.3.1)
2 2
F2n = Fn Ln , (6.3.2)
Ln = Fn 1 + Fn +1 , (6.3.3)
Ln = (1) Lnn
(6.3.4)
(Ln +2 , Ln +1 ) = 1, (6.3.5)
2 | Ln 3 | n, (6.3.6)
L1 +L2 + ... + Ln = Ln +2 3, (6.3.7)
L12 +L22 + ... + Ln2 = Ln Ln +1 2, (6.3.8)
Ln2 = L2n + 2(1) , n
(6.3.9)
(
1, 3 - n
(Fn , Ln ) = (6.3.10)
2, 3 | n
Lucas Ln 1 , n 0 .
6.3.2. n, ,
Ln2 5Fn2 = (1)n 4. (6.3.11)

238 6. FIBONACCI
. Binet Ln = a n + bn Fn = 1 (a n bn ) a n = 1
(L
2 n
+
5
Fn 5) b =
n 1
(L
2 n
Fn 5). 1
(L 2
4 n
5Fn2 ) = (ab)
n
Ln2 5Fn2 = 4(1) .
n
. :
(Ln , Fn ), n Z
X 2 5Y 2 = 4(1)n .
Pell,
.
,
.
Fibonacci
0, 1, 144. J.H.E.Cohn [2], [1]
1964. Fibonacci
Lucas.
2Fm +n = Fm Ln + Fn Lm , (6.3.12)
2Lm +n = 5Fm Fn + Lm Ln , (6.3.13)
2 | Lm 3 | m, (6.3.14)
3 | Lm m 2(mod4), (6.3.15)
2 | k 3 - k
Lk 3(mod4), (6.3.16)
Lm +2k Lm (modLk ), (6.3.17)
Fm +2k Fm (modLk ), (6.3.18)
Lm +12 Lm (mod8). (6.3.19)
. .
Binet.
Fibonacci. 3 - k, 2 - Lk . 2 | k (6.3.9)
k
L 2k = Lk + 2(1) 2 , Lk 3(mod4). n = 2k
2
2Fm +2k = Fm L2k + F2k Lm = Fm (Lk2 + (1)k 1 2) + Fk Lk Lm 2Fm (modLk ).
2 - k,
Fm +2k Fm (modLk ).
(6.3.18). , (6.3.19)
Lucas (mod8) 12.
6.3.3. 1. Ln , n = 1 n = 3.
2. Ln , n = 0 n = 6.
6.2. LUCAS 239
. 1. n (6.3.9)
Ln = y2 2 , x 2 .
n 1(mod4), L1 = 1, n , 1, n = 1 + 2 3r k
(6.3.17)
Ln L1 1(modLk ),
Ln = x 2 x 2 1(modLk ), , (6.3.16),
.
n 3(mod4), n = 3 L3 = 22 n > 3
n = 3 + 2 3r k
Ln L3 4(modLk ),
, , Ln .
2. n Ln , (6.3.12) , n 3(mod12).
(6.3.16), (6.3.4), Ln 4(mod8). Ln = 2x 2
2x 2 4(mod8), x 2 2(mod4), .
n 0 (mod 4), n = 0 L0 = 2, n , 0
n = 2 3r k
2Ln 2L0 4 (mod Lk ).
Ln = 2x 2 2Ln = (2y)2 ,
, (1.14), .
n 6 (mod 8) n = 0, L6 = 2 32 , n , 6
n = 6 + 2 3r k ( 4 | k, 3 - k)
2Ln 2L6 36(modLk )
, , Ln , 2x 2 .
n 2(mod8) = n 6(mod8), (3),
n = 6 n.

6.3.4. 1. Fn , , n = 0, 1, 2 12.
2. Fn = 2x 2 , n = 0, 3, 6.
. 1. n 1 (mod 4), n = 1 F1 = 1 n , 1
n = 1 + 2 3r k
Fn F1 1 (mod 4),
Fn , x 2 .
n 3(mod4) Fn = (1)n 1 Fn n 1 (mod 4)
n = 1.
n , (1.1) Fn = F n2 L n2 (1.9) Fn = x 2 3|n F n2 = 2y2
L n2 = 2z 2 . n2 = 0, 6, n = 0, 12.
n = 0, 12 F n2 = 2y2 n = 12 . n
240 6. FIBONACCI
3 n, (1.9) F n2 = y2 L n2 = z 2 .
n2 = 1, 3, n = 2, 6. n = 2 F n2 = y2 , n = 6 .
2. n 3(mod4). n = 3 F3 = 2, n , 3
n = 3 + 2 3r k 2 | k 3nok
2F2n 2F3 4(modLk ).
Fn = 2x 2 . n ,
(1) Fn = F n2 L n2 Fn = 2x 2 F n2 = y2 L n2 = 2z 2 . (
n = 0)
F n2 = 2y2 L n2 = z 2 , n2 = 1 3.
n = 2 F n2 = 2y2 n = 6.
6.3.5. Fibonacci Fn = c 2 + 1
n = 1, 2, 3, 5.

Fibonacci . :
6.3.6. Fibonacci ,
0, 1, 3, 21, 55.
. [5].
1969 H.M. Stark : Fibonacci

Fn = 21 (X 3 Y 3 ).
. .
6.3.1
1. 2 | Fn , 4 | (Fn2+1 Fn21 ) 3 | Fn 9 | (Fn2+1 Fn21 )
2. n 3
Fn2+1 = Fn2 + 3Fn21 + 2(F12 + F22 + Fn22 ).
3. m 1, n 1 (m, n ) = 1, Fm Fn | Fmn .
4. n 1
2n 1 Fn nmod5.
5.
F2n +2 F2n 1 F2n F2n +1 = 1, n 1.
6.
() Fn2+1 4Fn Fn 1 = Fn22 n 3

() Fn +1 Fn 1 Fn +2 Fn 2 = 2(1)n , n 3
() Fn2 Fn +2 Fn 2 = (1)n , n 3
6.4. LUCAS. 241
() Fn2 Fn +3 Fn 3 = 4(1)n +1 , n 4
() F2n 1 = Fn2 + Fn21 , n 2
7. p P, p = 4k + 3 a 2 + b2 0modp p | a p | b (
!). p P, p 3mod4, n 1 p - F2n 1 .
8. F2n 1 F2n +5 .
9. Fibonacci
4k + 1.
10.
(Fn Fn +3 )2 + (2Fn +1 Fn +2 )2 = F2n

2
+3 .
5 .
Fn Fn +1 Fn +2 Fn +3 .
6.4 Lucas.
. Binet,

Fibonacci Lucas, = 1+2 5

= 1 5
2
2
x x 1.
,

a,b . x 2 ax + b = 0
= a +2 D = a 2 D , D = a 2 4b .
, D , 0.
, + = a, = D = b. n 0 ,
Un = Un (, )n N Vn = Vn (, )n N :
n n
Un = Un (, ) = Vn = Vn (, ) = n + n

U = (Un (, ))n N V = (Vn (, ))n N (

) Lucas (, ).
, U0 (, ) = 0, V0 (, ) = 2 U1 (, ) = 1, V1 (, ) = + .
n 2 :
Un (, ) = aUn 1 bUn 2 , Vn (, ) = aVn 1 bVn 2 .
Fibonacci Lucas (
) Lucas (a, b) = (1, 1).

: Un = b1n Un Vn = b1n Vn , n 1.
, ,
242 6. FIBONACCI
Lucas, Fibonacci Lucas.
Vn2 DUn2 = 4bn , (6.4.1)

DUn = Vn +1 bVn 1 , (6.4.2)
Vn = Un +1 bUn 1 , (6.4.3)
Um +n = Um Vn b Um n
n
(6.4.4)
V m +n = Vm Vn b Vm n ,
n
(6.4.5)
2Um +n = Um Vn + Un Vm , (6.4.6)
2Vm +n = Vm Vn + DUm Un , (6.4.7)
n
2b Um n = Um Vn Un Vm , (6.4.8)
U2n = Un Vn , (6.4.9)
V2n = Vn2 2b , n
(6.4.10)
U3n = Un (Vn2 b ) =
n
Un (DUn2 + 3n ), (6.4.11)
V3n = Vn (Vn2 3bn ), (6.4.12)
Um , 1, Um | Un m | n. Vm , 1, Vm | Vn
n
(m | n m ). ,
(, ) = 1.
(Um , Un ) = Ud , d = (m, n ), (6.4.13)

V d ,
m dn
(Vm , Vn ) =
d
, (6.4.14)
1 2, ,

V d ,
m dn
(Um , Vn ) =
d
, (6.4.15)
1 2, ,

d = (m, n ).

m n
Vd ,

(Um , Vn ) =
d d
,
1 2,
,
d = (m, n ).
n 1, (Un , b) = 1 (Vn , b) = 1.
Lucas,
6.3.3, 6.3.4 Fibonacci Lucas.
6.4.1. a 1, a, b , (a, b) = 1 D =
a 2 4b > 0.
Un , , n = 1, 2, 3, 6, 12.
Vn , , n = 1, 3 5.
Un , n = 3, 6.
Vn , n = 3, 6.
, Lucas . -
, , .
6.4. LUCAS. 243
6.4.2. U = (Un (, ))n N V = (Vn (, ))n N Lucas

(a, b). p P, p 2D, ,
Upp 0(modp),
p := ( Dp ).
6.1.11.
.
6.4.3. p ( Dp ) = 1, p | Up+1 .
. 6.1.8.

n n
a + D n n k k
X !
=
n
= 2 n
a D
2 k
k =0
n n

!
a D X n n k
=
n
= 2 n
a (1)k D k .
2 k
k =0
Binet ,
n n
!
n +1
X n k 1
Un = =2 a n k D 2 .
0 k n
k
k 1mod2
2n 1 n = p + 1
p+1
!
a p +1 k D
X k 1
2 Up+1 =
p 2 .
0k n
k
k 1mod2
p +1
k
0modp k, 2 k p 1. ,
p1
() Fermat, : 2Up+1 a (1 + D 2 )modp.
Euler, ( Dp ) = 1 p | Up+1 .
: Lucas U = (Un (, ))n N

V = (Vn (, ))n N (a, b) p .
6.4.4. 1. p a b, p Un
n 1.
2. p a b, p Un n
.
3. p ab D, p Un p | n.
4. p abD, p Up(p) .
. Crandall, Pomerance [8] Song Y. Yan [9]

p
bD.
244 6. FIBONACCI
5.
6.4.2 . n

Un n 0mods (6.5.16)
6.5.5. n (6.5.16),
Lucas (a, b).
Lucas (a, b) = (1, 1) Fermat.
Fermat 323,377,1159,...
Lucas
Carmichael ( 2-).
: n n > 1 test Lucas
test , n .
620 .
6.5.6. Lucas (a, b). n

(n, 2bD ) = 1, (n ) := (a,b) (n )
U(n ) 0modn, n () Lucas.
6.4.2, p (p, 2bD ) = 1 (p) |

p p . test :
test Lucas. Lucas
n , (n, 2b) = 1 ( D
n
) = 1. s n + 1
q s
Un +1 0modn (U n+1 , n ) = 1,
q
p n
!
D
p mods.
p

, s > n + 1, n .
. n | Uk (n ) | k. Un +1 0(modn )
(n ) | n + 1. p n (p) | n + 1.
(U n+1 , n ) = 1 q s, p | n, ,
q
(p) n +q 1 . qf ks | n + 1.
U n +1
q s p q
.
f
q | (p). q s,
, s | (p).
6.4.2, Upp (D ) modp. (p) | p p (D ).

!
D
s | p p (D ) = p ,
p
!
D
p mods.
p
6.4. LUCAS. 245

s > n + 1 , p n
!
D
p+1p s> n + 1,
p

p > n. n p n.
n .
test
Mersenne. Lucas 1876
Lehmer 1930.
6.5.7. (Sn )n N S1 = 4
Sn +1 = Sn2 2 Lucas-Lehmer.
6.5.8 (Test Lucas-Lehmer Mersenne Mn ). p

,
Mp := 2p 1 Mp | Sp1 .
.
Lucas. . -
(
Un )n N , (Vn )n N (, ) = (2, 2). , D = 12,
a = 1 + 3 b = 1 3.
!
3
Up modp
p
Vp 2modp,
[7, . 49]. p 3 Mp = 2p 1 .
Sp1 0modMp . Mp ,

p 2
22 Sp1 0modMp .
i 1 0
i 1 Ti = 2(2 ) Si . ,T1 = 22 S1 = 2 4 = 8
(i +1)1 )
Si +1 = (22 )2 [Si2 2] = (22 Si )2 2(2 +1) = Ti2 2(2 +1) .
i 1 i 1 i i
Ti +1 = 2(2
,
p2
Tp1 = 2(2 ) Sp1 0modMp .
Tp = Tp21 4 2(2 +1) . Mp = 2p 1 7mod8) ( M2 ) = 1.

p1
p
Euler !
p1 Mp 1 2
22 1 = 2 2 1modMp .
Mp
Tp 4modMp .
246 6. FIBONACCI
i 1 Ti = V2i .
. i = 1 T1 = 8 = 22 + (2)2 = V2 , .
Tk 1 = V2k 1 Tk = V2k . ,
k 1
+1) k 1
+1)
Tk = Tk21 2(2 = V22k1 2(2 .
Vn2 2(2)n = V2n Tk = V22k 1 + (2)2

k 1
+1 = V22k1 = V2k .

2Vm +n = Vm Vn + DUm Un ,

2Tp = 2V2p = 2V(2p 1)+1 = 2VMp +1 = VMp V1 + 12UMp U1 = 2VMp + 12UMp .
p Mp 1mod3) Mp 1mod4. UMp ( M3 ) ( M3 )

p p
( 31 ) 1modMp VMp 2modMp . ,
Tp VMp + 6UMp 2 6 4modMp .
. n
Sn 1 0modMn , Mn = 2n 1 .
n 1
Mn | Sn 1 Mn = 2n 1 | Tn 1 = 2(2 1) Sn 1 . p
p | 2n 1 t := (Mn ) p Lucas (Un )n N .
p | Ut . U2n = Un Vn U2n = U2n1 V2n1 = U2n1 Tn 1 .
2n 1 | Tn 1 , 2n 1 | U2n . p | U2n t | 2n .
t = 2n . t | 2n 1 , p | U2n1 , , p | Tn 1 = V2n1
n 1
p | V22n1 12U22n1 = (2)2 + 2 = 2, p 3.
t := (Mn ) = 2n . , t := (Mn ) = 2n p + 1 2n ,
p = 2n 1 .
Lucas-Lehmer
Mersenne sage.
p =11
M = 2^p 1; M
s = 4
for i in range ( p 2):
s = mod( s^2 2,M)
print ( i +1 ,s )
p = 11
(1, 14)
(2, 194)
(3, 788)
(4, 701)
(5, 119)
(6, 1877)
(7, 240)
(8, 282)
(9, 1736)
6.4. LUCAS. 247
M11 = 211 1 = 2047 . 2047 = 23 89.

p = 13
(1, 14)
(2, 194)
(3, 4870)
(4, 3953)
(5, 5970)
(6, 1857)
(7, 36)
(8, 1294)
(9, 3470)
(10, 128)
(11, 0)
M13 = 8191 .
:
Mersenne .
Lucas 1876 M127 , M67 .
Perwuschin, M61 , Lehmer 1932
M257 . Mersenne .
: q
Mersenne Mq = 2q 1
.
.
127. ,
, 12830000. q
p := 2q + 1, , , p | Mq , Mq .
Project The GIMPS, Great Mersenne Prime Search -

-
Mersenne.
q = 7. Si i = 1, 2, ..., q 1 = 6 : S1 = 4,
S2 14mod127, S3 67mod127, S4 42mod127 S5 11mod127, S6 0mod127.
M7 .
q = 11 M11 = 2047. S10 1736(mod2047)

M11 .
q = 13.
. S12 0modM13 ) M13 .
:
27/9/2008, (GIMPS),
248 6. FIBONACCI
. 243112609 1 -
13 6 .
100.000 Electronic Frontier Foundation,
10 .
, 11 ,
http://primzahlen.de.
6.6. 249
6.6
1. (6.3.1) (6.3.9)
2. (6.3.12) (6.3.15)
3. (6.3.16) (6.3.19)
4. n 2
L2n 7mod10
5. n 1
2n Ln 2mod10
6. Ln +1 + Ln 1 = 5Fn n 2. 5 - Ln n 1.
7. m = n 13 n n > 1 30290 | Fm . ( :
a 13 amod2730).
8. n 1 18 | Fn +11 + Fn +7 + 8Fn +5 + Fn +3 + 2Fn .

250 6. FIBONACCI

[1] E. Cohn, J. H.: On square Fibonacci numbers. J. London Math. Soc., 39:537540, 1964.
[2] E. Cohn, J. H.: Eight Diophantine equations. Proc. London Math. Soc., (3):16:153166,
1966.
[3] E. Hoggatt: Fibonacci and Lucas numbers. Houghton Mifflin mathematics enrichment
series. Houghton Mifflin, 1969.
[4] Frommer, H. Scheid and A.: Zahlentheorie. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
[5] Luo Ming: On triangular Fibonacci Number. The Fibonacci Quarterly, 27, 1988.
[6] Moss, N. Vorobev and H.: Fibonacci Numbers. Popular lectures in mathematics, Pergamon
Press, 1961.
[7] Paulo Ribenboim: The Little Book of Bigger Primes. Springer, 2004.
[8] R. Crandall, C.B. Pomerance: Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective. 2005.
[9] S. Y. Yan: Number Theory for Computing. U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002.
[10] T. Koshy: Elementary Number Theory with Applications. Elsevier Science, 2007.
[11] Worobjow, N.: Die Fibonacci Zahlen. D.V.W Berlin, 1954.
251
252
7

7.1
a = 543 b = 314 . :
543 = 314 + 229 543

314
=1+ 229
314
314 = 229 + 85 314

229
=1+ 85
229
229 = 2 85 + 59 229
85
=2+ 59
85
85 = 59 + 26 85
59
=1+ 26
59
59 = 2 26 + 7 59
26
=2+ 7
26
26 = 3 7 + 5 26
7
=3+ 5
7
7=5+2 7
5
=1+ 2
5
5=22+1 5
2
=2+ 1
2
543
, 314
:
543 1
=1+
314 1
1+
1
2+
1
1+
1
2+
1
3+
1
1+
1
2+
2
253
254 7.
543
314
. :
543
= [1; 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2].
314
7.1.1.
1
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
1
a3 +
1
+
1
a n 1 +
an
ai , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ai > 0, i 1.
a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
7.1.2. .
.
.
7.1.3.
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [a0 ; a1 , . . . , an 1 , an 1, 1].
, 2, 1 + 11

543
= [1; 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1].
314

.
7.1.4.
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [a0 , [a1 ; a2 , . . . , an ]]
7.1.2 :
7.1.5.
. n.
n = 1
1 a0 a1 + a1
[a0 ; a1 ] = a0 + = Q,
a1 a1
.
7.1. 255
n = k,
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ] Q.
1
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak +1 ] = a0 + .
[a1 ; a2 , . . . , ak +1 ]

r
[a1 ; a2 , . . . , ak +1 ] =: Q,
s
.
1 a0 s + r
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak +1 ] = a0 + = Q.
r/s r

. [1; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
1393
972
.
7.1.6. x
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ],

ck := [a0 ; a1 , . . . , ak ],
0 k n k- x.
F8 21
= = [1; 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1].
F7 13
c0 = [1] = 1
1
c1 = [1; 1] = 1 + =2
1
1 3
c2 = [1; 1, 1] = 1 + = = 1, 5
1+ 1
1
2
5
c3 = [1; 1, 1, 1, 1] = 1, 66
3
8
c4 = [1; 1, 1, 1, 1, 1] = = 1, 60
5
13
c5 = [1; 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1] = = 1, 625
8
21
c6 = [1; 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1] = = 1, 6153846154
13
256 7.
7.1.7. pk , qk , 0 k n,
p0 := a0 , q0 := 1
p1 = a1 a0 + 1, q1 := a1
pk = ak pk 1 + pk 2 qk = ak qk 1 + qk 2
pk
k, 2 k n, ck = qk
, 0 k n.
p0
. k = 0, = = [a0 ] = c0 .
a0
q0 1
k = 1,
p1 a1 a0 + 1 1
= = a0 + = [a0 ; a1 ] = c1 .
q1 a1 a1
k, 2 k < n,
pk ak pk 1 + pk 2
ck = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ] = = .
qk ak qk 1 + qk 2
k + 1.
1
ck +1 = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , ak +1 ] = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak 1 , ak + ],
ak +1
,

ak + 1
a k +1
p k 1 + p k 2
ck +1 = =
ak + 1
ak +1
qk 1 + qk 2
ak +1 (ak pk 1 + pk 2 ) + pk 1
= =
ak +1 (ak qk 1 + qk 2 ) + qk 1
ak +1 pk + pk 1 p k +1
= = .
ak +1 qk + qk 1 qk +1

. x = 52
23
[2; 3, 1, 5]. :
k 0 1 2 3
ak 2 3 1 5
pk 2 7 9 52
qk 1 3 4 23
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ]
ai R, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , ai > 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , n. qn > 0 n 1.
7.1.8. ai R i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ai > 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , n. k N,
1 k n rk := [ak , ak +1 , . . . , an ]
rk pk 1 + pk 2
[a0 ; a1 , . . . , an ] = [a0 , a1 , . . . , ak 1 , rk ] = .
rk qk 1 + qk 2
7.2. 257
7.1.9. ai , bi R, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ai 1, bi 1 i =
0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1. ai , bi Z, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n 1),
[a0 ; a1 , . . . , an ] = [b0 ; b1 , . . . , bn ],
ai = bi , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
1
r1 := [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = a1 + .
[a2 , a3 , . . . , an ]
r1 1.
s1 = [b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ]
s1 1.
1 1
a0 + = b0 + .
r1 s1
r1 = 1 a0 + 1
r1
Z b0 + s11 Z s1 = 1 a0 = b0 .
r1 > 1 a0 + r1 < Z, , b0 + s1 < Z. s1 > 1. a0 = b0
1 1
[a0 ; a1 , . . . , an ]. a0 = b0
r1 = s1 .
n. n = 1 a0 = b0 r1 = a1 = s1 = b1 .
(n 1).

[a0 ; a1 , . . . , an ] = [b0 ; b1 , . . . , bn ]

[a0 , [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ]] = [b0 , [b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ]]
a0 = b0 [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [b1 ; b2 , . . . , bn ].
ai = bi i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
7.1.10. 7.1.9 -
, , .
.
7.1.7.
7.2
p1 := 1 q1 := 0.
7.2.1. n 0,
qn pn 1 pn qn 1 = (1)n .
. n. n = 0,
q0 p1 p0 q1 = 1.
258 7.
7.1.7
qn 1 pn = qn 1 (an pn 1 + pn 2 ) = an pn 1 qn 1 + qn 1 pn 2
pn 1 qn = pn 1 (an qn 1 + qn 2 ) = an pn 1 qn 1 + pn 1 qn 2 .

qn pn 1 pn qn 1 = (qn 1 pn 2 pn 1 qn 2 ).
qn 1 pn 2 pn 1 qn 2 = (1)n 1 .
,
qn pn 1 pn qn 1 = (1)n .

7.2.2. n 0,
p n 1 pn (1)n
= .
qn 1 qn qn qn 1
[a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] ,
ai Z, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
7.2.3. 1. n 0, (pn , qn ) = 1.
2. (qn )n N .
.
1. pn , qn Z, n N.
7.2.1.
2. 7.1.7.

7.2.4. = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an +2 ],
(1)n +1
qn +1 pn +1 = .
an +2 qn +1 + qn
. 7.2.1
qn +2 pn +1 pn +2 qn +1 = (1)n +2 .
pn +2 qn +1 qn +2 pn +1 = (1)n +1 .
qn +2 > 0
p n +2 (1)n +1
qn +1 pn +1 = .
qn +2 qn +2
pn + 2
, qn +2
= qn +2 = an +2 qn +1 + qn . .
7.2. 259
7.2.5. n 1,
qn pn 2 pn qn 2 = (1)n 1 an .
. n. n = 1,
q1 p1 p1 q1 = a1 1 p1 0 = (1)0 a1 ,
.
n = k,
qk pk 2 pk qk 2 = (1)k 1 ak .
n = k + 1,
qk +1 pk 1 pk +1 qk 1 = (1)k ak +1 .
pk +1 = ak +1 pk + pk 1 qk +1 = ak +1 pk + pk 1 .
qk +1 pk 1 pk +1 qk 1 = (ak +1 qk + qk 1 )pk 1 (ak +1 pk + pk 1 )qk 1 =
= ak +1 (qk pk 1 pk qk 1 ).
7.2.1
qk pk 1 pk qk 1 = (1)k ,
k + 1.
7.2.6. n, n 2,
p n 2 pn (1)n 1 an
=
qn 2 qn qn qn 2
np o
2k
7.2.7. a1 , a2 , . . . , , q2k k N
-
np o
2k +1
, q2k +1 k N
. , 7.2.2
p2k p2`+1
q2k
< q2`+1
, k, `.
. 7.2.6.
7.2.8. = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an +2 ]
(1)n an +2
qn pn = .
an +2 qn +1 + qn
.
p n +2 qn pn +2 pn qn +2
qn pn = qn pn = .
q n +2 qn +2
( 7.2.5)
qn pn +2 pn qn +2 = (pn qn +2 qn pn +2 ) = (1)n +1 an +2 = (1)n an +2 .
,
qn +2 = an +2 qn +1 + qn
.
260 7.
7.2.9. n 1,
qn
= [an ; an 1 , . . . , a1 ].
qn 1
. n.
q
n = 1, q0 = 1, q1 = a1 , q1 = a1 = [a1 ].
0
n > 1. (n 1),
qn 1
= [an 1 ; . . . , a1 ].
qn 2
qn = an qn 1 + qn 2 .
qn qn 2 1
= an + = an + = [an ; an 1 , . . . , a1 ].
qn 1 qn 1 [an 1 ; an 2 , . . . , a1 ]

7.3

7.3.1. a, b, c Z,
ax + by = c d := (a, b) | c.
, . (x0 , y0 ) ,
:
b a
(xk = x0 + t, yk = y0 t) t Z.
d d
.

aX + bY = 1,
b > 0 (a, b) = 1.
ab Q. [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] .
pn a
= pn b = aqn .
qn b
a | pn b (a, b) = 1 a | pn . b | aqn (a, b) = 1 b | qn .

7.2.3 (pn , qn ) = 1, pn | a qn | b.
pn = a, qn = b. b > 0 qn > 0 qn = b
pn = a.
pn qn 1 qn pn 1 = (1)n 1 , aqn 1 bpn 1 = (1)n 1 . :
n , aX + bY = 1 (x0 , y0 ) = (qn 1 , pn 1 ).
n , aqn 1 + bpn 1 = 1 aX + bY = 1
(x0 , y0 ) = (qn 1 , pn 1 ).
7.4. 261
aX + bY = c. (cx0 , cy0 ), (x0 , y0 )

aX + bY = 1.
.
63x 23y = 7.
63x + 23y = 7, b = 23 > 0. 63/23

63/23 = [3; 3, 1, 5]. p2 /q2 = 11/4. p2 = 11 q2 = 4. ,
p3 /q3 = 63/23, p3 = 63, q3 = 23.
p3 q2 q3 p2 = (1)31 (63) 4 + 23 11 = 1.
(63)x + 23 y = 1 (x0 , y0 ) = (4, 11).

(x1 , y1 ) = (28, 77).
sage :
sage : a=continued_fraction (31/35)
sage : a
[ 0 ; 1 , 7 , 1 , 3]
a . convergents ( )
[ 0 , 1 , 7/8, 8/9, 31/35]
31/35,
.
7.4
, -
.
R\Q. = a0 + 1 , a0 = [ ]
1
1 > 1.
1
n = an + ,
n +1
an = [n ] n +1 > 1. < Q, a1 , a2 , . . . .
, n 0,
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an , n +1 ]

= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . .]
pn , qn , (pn , qn ) = 1 qn 1.
pn
qn
n- n n- .
(7.2.8), (7.2.9) (7.2.5)
an < n < an + 1
an 1 n 1.
0 < q1 < q2 < < qn < qn +1 <

262 7.
7.4.1. n n-
.
n, n-
.
1 1 1
< < |qn pn | < .
2qn +1 qn +1 + qn qn +1
np o
2n
. q2n n N
-
np o
2n +1
q2n +1 n N

p2k p2`+1
,
q2k q2`+1

n p o k, `. n p o
, q2n q2n+1
2n n N 2n +1 n N
. .

p2n
lim =
n q2n
p2n +1
lim = .
n q2n +1
= = . ,
p2n +1 p2n (1)(2n +1)1 1 1

= < < 2
0.
q2n +1 q2n q2n +1 q2n q2n +1 q2n q2n
p2n +1 p2n
= lim = lim = .
n q2n +1 n q2n

1
|qn pn | = .
n +1 qn + qn 1
n +1 qn + qn 1 > [n +1 ]qn + qn 1 = an +1 qn + qn 1 = qn +1 .
1
|qn pn | < .
qn +1

pn > pn +2 pn = an +2 = an +2
.
qn qn +2 qn qn +2 qn (an +2 qn +1 + qn )qn
an +2 = [n +2 ] 1. ,
1 1 1
|qn pn | > > > ,
qn +1 + 1
an +2
qn qn +1 + qn 2qn +1
qn +1 > qn .
7.4. 263
7.4.2.
1
|qn pn | < , qn +1 > qn .
qn
7.4.3. n, n 2
|qn 1 pn 1 | = an |qn pn | + |qn +1 pn +1 |,
|qn pn | < |qn 1 pn 1 |

" #
|qn 1 pn 1 |
an =
|qn pn |
qn +1 pn +1 = (an +1 qn + qn 1 ) (an +1 pn + pn 1 ) = an +1 (qn pn ) + (qn 1 pn 1 ).
(qn 1 pn 1 ) = (qn +1 pn +1 ) an +1 (qn pn ).

7.2.4 (qn +1 pn +1 ) an +1 (qn pn ) .
,
|qn 1 pn 1 | = |qn +1 pn +1 | + an +1 |qn pn |.
7.4.1
qn +1 + qn qn +1 + qn

0 <
qn +1 pn +1 < 1/qn +2
= = 1,
qn pn 1/(qn +1 + qn ) qn +2 an +2 qn +1 + qn
an +2 1. " #
|qn +1 pn 1 |
an = .
|qn pn |

7.4.4. ()
.
= [1; 1, 1, 1, . . .],
1 1
=1+ =1+ ,
[1; 1, 1, 1, . . .]

1+ 5
= .
2
pn Fn +2
qn
Fibonacci Fn +1
.
p
, n = 0, q0 = 10 = 11 = F2 .
a F
0 1
k k 1, ,
pk Fk +2 p k 1 Fk +1
= = .
qk Fk +1 qk 1 Fk
264 7.
7.4.1: .
(pk , qk ) = 1 (Fk +2 , Fk +1 ) = 1, pk = Fk +2 qk = Fk +1 pk 1 = Fk +1
qk = Fk . ,
p k +1 ak +1 pk + pk 1 Fk +2 + Fk +1 F(k +1)+2
= = = ,
qk +1 ak +1 qk + qk 1 Fk +1 + Fk F(k +1)+1
(k + 1), n.

Fn +2 1+ 5
lim = ,
n Fn +1 2

sage 1+2 5
.
c=continued_fraction ( (1+ sqrt ( 5 ) ) / 2 )
v = [ ( i , c . convergent ( i ) ) for i in range ( 1 0 ) ]
P = point ( v , rgbcolor = ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) , p o i n t s i z e =40)
L = l i n e ( v , rgbcolor = ( 0 . 5 , 0 . 5 , 0 . 5 ) )
L2 = l i n e ( [ ( 0 , c . value ( ) ) , ( 1 0 1 , c . value ( ) ) ] , \
thickness =0.5 , rgbcolor = ( 0 . 7 , 0 , 0 ) )
( L+L2+P ) . show ( xmin=0 ,ymin=1)
7.4.5. () -
.
. .
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .], ai Z ai 1, i 1.
. 7.4.1

pn 1
0 < < .
qn qn +1 qn
, = b
c
, b, c Z, (b, c ) = 1
c
0 < |bqn cpn | < .
qn +1 qn
7.5. 265
{qn }n N , n N c <
qn +1 qn , 0 < |bqn cpn | < 1, .
7.4.6. 7.1.9 .
.

3 = [1; 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, . . .] = [1; 1, 2].
e. -

e = [2; 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, . . .]
a0 = 2 m 1, a3m = a3m 2 = 1 a3m +1 = 2m.
7.4.7 (Dirichlet). R\Q, p/q

p 1
< 2 .
q q
np o
n
. 7.4.2 qn
.
7.5

.
( Diophantine Approximation).

Farey Dirichlet
.
p
7.5.1. q (q > 0) R, q0 ,
1 q0 < q p0 , :
|q0 p0 | > |q p|.
7.5.2. p/q p/q .
. d := (p, q) > 1 p = dp0 , q = dq0 1 < q0 < q
|q0 p0 | < |q p| = d |q0 p0 |
, d > 1.
np o
n
7.5.3. R\Q qn n N

.
, n 1,
|b a | < |qn pn |,
b qn +1 .
266 7.
.
.
ab (a, b Z) b > 0
. n N
a pn
= .
b qn
p0
a
b
< q0
= a0 ,

a
| a0 | < |q0 p0 | < |b a |,
b
ab .
p
ab > q1 .
1

a > a p1 1 |b a | > 1 .
b b q1 bq1 q1
p1 1 1 p1 p1 p0 p1 q0 p0 q1 1
= [a0 ; a1 ] = a0 + = a0 = = = .
q1 a1 a1 q1 q1 q0 q0 q1 q0 q1

1
= a0 + .
a1 + 1
2
1 1
|b a | > | a0 |,
q1 a1
.
p n 1 a pn
< < ,
qn 1 b qn

1 a pn 1 pn p 1
< n 1 = .
bqn 1 b qn 1 qn qn 1 qn qn 1
, b > qn . ,

1 pn +1 a a 1

|qn pn | <
|b a |,
bqn +1 qn +1 b b qn +1
.
.
.
p
n = 0, q0 = a0 Z q0 = 1, q, 1 q < q0 .
0
n = 0.
p
, n 0, qn .
n
pn + 1
qn + 1
. q > qn ,
p,
|q p| < |qn pn |.
1 < q0 < q .
7.5. 267
q0 < qn , p0 ,
|q 0
p0 | > |q p|. qn q0 < q, |q0 p0 | |qn pn | > |q p|.
p
q .
p
q
. q,
p pn + 1
q = qn +1 q
= qn + 1
.
p
7.5.4. q
R\Q m Z, 1 m < q,
1
< |m m 0 |,
2q
m 0 Z.
. q = qn . 7.4.1
1
< |qn 1 pn 1 |.
2qn
p
7.5.3, qn1 . 1 m < qn ,
n 1

|qn 1 pn 1 | < |m m 0 |,
m 0 Z.
a
7.5.5. b
, b > 0

a < 1 ,
b 2b2
a
b
.
a
. 7.5.3 b

. dc , d > 0, dc , ab
1
|d c | |b a | < .
2b
b+d

1 c a c a 1 1
+ <
+ 2 = .
bd d b d b 2bd 2b 2b2 d
,
1 b+d
< b < d,
bd 2b2 d
a
b
.

() , .
:
a
7.5.6 (Hurwitz). R\Q, b

a < 1
.
b b2 5
268 7.
. , -
, .
qn
`n := .
qn 1
pn 1 pn
qn 1
qn
,
,

`n + ` 1
n < 5.
pn 1 pn
qn 1
qn
, :

pn 1 + pn 1 1
+ .
qn 1 qn qn21 5 qn2 5
pn 1 pn
, qn 1
qn
.

pn 1 + pn = pn 1 pn = 1
.
qn 1 qn qn 1 qn qn 1 qn
:
1 1 1
+ ,
qn 1 qn qn21 5 qn2 5

qn qn 1
+ 5.
qn 1 qn
, .

`n + ` 1
n < 5.
pn 1 pn pn +1
, ,
qn 1 qn qn +1
.

`n + ` 1
n < 5 `n +1 + ` 1
n +1 < 5.
`n > 1 n,
1 1
` 1
n > ( 5 1) `n +1 < ( 5 + 1).
2 2
,
qn +1 an +1 qn + qn 1
`n +1 = = = an +1 + `n 1 .
qn qn
,
1 1 1 1
( 5 + 1) > `n +1 = an +1 + `n 1 > an +1 + ( 5 1) 1 + ( 5 1) = ( 5 + 1),
2 2 2 2
.
7.5. 269

7.5.7. 5 .

. 5
. , = 12 ( 5 + 1).
[1; 1, 1, 1, 1 . . .]. n 0,
5+1
= [1; 1, . . . , 1, n ], n = 2
.
1
5 + 1 1
n +1 = (n an ) 1
= 1 = ( 5 + 1).

2 2
p0 = q0 = q1 = 1 p1 = q2 = 2.
pn = pn 1 + pn 2 qn = qn 1 + qn 2 .
n 1 qn = pn 1 . ,

qn 1 qn 1 1 51
lim = lim = =
n qn n p n 1 2

5+1
!
qn 1 51
lim n +1 + = + = 5.
n qn 2 2

c , c > 5,
qn 1
n +1 + > c,
qn
( ) n. , 7.1.9
pn n +1 pn + pn 1 pn (qn pn 1 pn 1 qn ) (1)n +1
= = =
qn n +1 qn + qn 1 qn qn (n +1 qn + qn 1 ) qn (n +1 qn + qn 1 )

pn = 1 1
<
cqn2
qn 1
qn q2 n +1 +

qn
n.
a
b

a < 1 .
b cb2
1
cb2
< 2b1 2 7.1.9, a
b
-
pn
qn
.
7.5.8. Hurwitz

x < c
y yn
R\Q, n = 2 c = 1 . n > 2;
5

.
270 7.
7.6

( ! )
a b
M = = a, b, c, d Z, det = 1 .
c d
!
a b
M . R\Q := M
c d
a + b
= .
c + d
! !
a2 b2 a1 b1
= =
c2 d2 c1 d1
a1 + b1
!
( ( )) =
c1 + d1
a1 +b1
a2 c +d + b2
= 1 1
a 1 +b 1
c2 c +d
1
+ d2
1
(a2 a1 + b2 c1 ) + (a2 b1 + b2 d1 )
= = ( )( )
(c2 a1 + c1 d2 ) + (c2 b1 + d2 d1 )
!
1 0
I = , I = .
0 1
7.6.1. R\Q R\Q. ,

M = . .
. R\Q.
= [a0 ; a1 , . . . , an 1 , n ].

pn 1 n + pn 2
= .
qn 1 n + qn 2
!
p n 1 p n 2
n 1 := .
qn 1 qn 2
n 1 (n 1)- .
= n 1 n .
n 1 M. n , n 1, n
.
!
an 1
An := det An = 1.
1 0
7.6. 271
+ p n 2
! !
pn p n 1 a p pn 1
n = = n n 1 =
qn qn 1 an qn 1 + qn 2 qn 1
! !
p n 1 p n 2 an 1
= n 1 A n .
qn 1 qn 2 1 0
n = A0 A1 An .
!
a b
7.6.2. , R\Q = M,
c d
a + b
= = .
c + d
> 1 c > d > 0. b/a a/c

p p
, qn2 , qn1 = n .
n 2 n 1
. M, det = 1 ad bc = 1. (a, c ) = 1.
a/c .
a p n 1
= [a0 ; a1 , . . . , an 1 ] = ,
c qn 1
a = pn 1 c = qn 1 , a/c .
ac n (
, )
pn 1 qn 2 pn 2 qn 1 = ,
ad bc = , = 1.
ad bc = pn 1 d qn 1 b = pn 1 (d qn 2 ) = qn 1 (b pn 2 ). ,
, (pn 1 , qn 1 ) = 1 qn 1 | (d qn 2 ).
qn 2 qn 1 d < qn 1 = c.
|d qn 2 | < qn 1 d qn 2 = 0 d = qn 2
b = pn 2 .
a + b p n 1 + p n 1
= =
c + d qn 1 + qn 2
= [a0 ; a1 , . . . , an 1 , ].
> 1 ,
= n a/c b/d .
272 7.
7.6.3 (Serret). , .
n = m n, m 1,
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . .], = [b0 ; b1 , b2 , . . .]
an = bn +` ` n.
. k, ` 1 k = `
= [a0 , a1 , . . . , ak 1 , k ]
= [b0 , b1 , . . . , b`1 , ` ],
k = ` . k ` .
. ,
a + b
!
a b
= = , := M.
c + d c d

! c + d > 0, !
a b p n 1 p n 2
= . = n 1 n , n 1 =
c d qn 1 qn 2
= n 1 n ! !
a b p n 1 p n 2
n 1 = =
c d qn 1 qn 2
a 0 b0
! !

= = 0 .
cpn 1 + dqn 1 cpn 2 + dqn 2 c d0
!
p n 1
cpn 1 + dqn 1 = qn 1 c + d = c0
qn 1
!
p n 2
cpn 2 + dqn 2 = qn 2 c + d = d0.
qn 2
p p
n , qn1 qn2 .
n 1 n 2
c + d > 0 , n, c 0 > 0 d 0 > 0.
(n n- ) n > 1.
n , c 0 > d 0 . 7.6.2 n =
m , m.
.
. = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . .].
(1)( ) + 0
= ( )
0( ) + 1
,

[(a0 1); 1, a1 1, a2 , a3 , . . .]
1 > 1
=

.
[(a0 1); a2 + 1, a3 , a4 , . . .]
1 = 1
7.6. 273
0 1 + 1 1
=
1 1 +0
,

1 [0; a0 , a1 , . . . , ]
> 1
=

[a1 ; a2 , a3 , . . . , ] 0 < < 1
1879 A. Markoff -
[1], [2].
R\Q 1 = 1+2 5 , / 1 .
p
q ,

p 1
<
q 8q2

1 2 = 1 + 2.
8
p
a /, 1 , 2 , q

p 5
<
q 221q2

9+ 221
5 3 := 10
.
221
Markoff (1879):
7.6.4. ( Markoff )
1, 2, 5, 13, 29, 34, . . .
Q( Di ) = {a + b Di |a, b Q},
p p
Di := 9mi2 4 mi i- Markoff :
R\Q, / i , mi < mj ,
p
q

mj

p
< p .
q Dj q2
m
j h , h
Dj
mh = mj .
(mi , i )
(p, q, r ), ,
p2 + q2 + r 2 = 3pqr.
274 7.
(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (2, 1, 5)
(p, q, r ) (r, q, 3rq p) (p, r, 3rp q).

Markoff r.
. [6].
7.7

29+ 15
= 7
. :
= [4; 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, . . .].
2, 3, .

=1+ 2 = [2; 2, 2, 2, . . .].
, ,
7.7.1. [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ]
, n k
am = am +k m n.
[a0 ; a1 , a1 , . . . , an 1 , an , an +1 , . . . , an +k 1 ].

29+ 15
= 7

= [4; 1, 2, 3].
k
an +k = an n,
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak 1 ].

= 1 + 2 = [2]. , k
, .

.
7.7.2.

Ax 2 + Bx + C,
(A, B, C) = 1 A > 0.
7.7. 275

29+ 15
= 7

49x 2 406x + 826.
Ax 2 + Bx + C

D ( ) = B2 4AC > 0
D ( ) . D ( ) = f 2 d , d > 1

= a + b d, a, b Q.

0 = a b d
.

K = Q( d ) = {a + b d |a, b Q}
7.7.3. , (
reduced) > 1 1 < 0 < 0.
7.7.4. , 10 .
7.7.5. D D = f 2 d d , -

K = Q( d ) D.
. K .
Ax 2 + Bx + C = 0,
D (a ) = B2 4AC = D.

B + D
= >1
2A

B D
1 < < 0,
2A

= 1. = 1 B D > 0 B + D < 0, . = 1,

B + D > 2A > B + D.

2B > 0 B < 0 B2A D
< 0 0 0
. , m Z = + m,
D () = D ( ) = D.
276 7.
. .
7.7.7. .
:

= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 , n ]
n n 1.
, n n 1.
n0 N n n0 n
.
. (1) n n 1.
7.7.6.
(2) , n 1, n > 1. .
> 1 1 < 0 < 0. > 1 a0 = [ ] 1. = a0 + 1 ,
1
1 > 1 10 = a0 0 = a0 + ( 0 ) > 1. 1 .
1
n n 1.
(3)
pn 1 n + pn 2
= .
qn 1 n + qn 2
n
pn 2 qn 2 qn 2 pn 2
n = = .
qn 1 pn 1 qn 2 pn 1
,
0
pn 2
0 qn 2 pn 2 qn 2 qn 2
n = 0 =
0

pn 1
.
qn 2 pn 1 qn 1 0 qn 1
pn 2 pn 1
n, qn 2
qn 1

0
0
, n0 < 0.
qn > 0 n.
n0 > 1.
qn 2 0 pn 2 qn 1 (qn 2 0 pn 2 )
n0 = = =
qn 1 0
pn 1 qn 1 (qn 1 0 pn 1 )
qn 1 qn 2 0 qn 1 pn 2 qn 1 qn 2 0 pn 1 qn 2 (1)n 1
= = =
qn 1 (qn 1 0 pn 1 ) qn 1 (qn 1 0 pn 1 )
qn 2 (qn 1 0 pn 1 ) (1)n 1 qn 2 (1)n 1
= = =
qn 1 (qn 1 0 pn 1 ) qn 1 qn 1 (qn 1 0 pn 1 )
(1)n 1
!
1
= qn 2 =
qn 1 qn 1 0 pn 1
1 1
= (1)n 1
pn 1
= .
qn 1 qn 1 0 qn 1
qn 1 qn 2
7.7. 277

n 1
1 ( 1)
n0 + 1 = n 1 + qn 2
q p

qn 1 qn 1 0 qn1

n 1
n, 1 p . n0 + 1 > 0.
qn 1 0 qn 1
n 1
7.7.8. a Z = a + 1
1
.
:
1. 1 .
2. a = [ ].
. 2 1 a = [ ] a < < a + 1 0 < a < 1 1 < 1a = 1 . ,

a 1 0 < 0.
1
10 = 0 < 0.
a
0 a < 1,
1
1 < = 10 ,
0 a
1 .
1 2. < a
1
= a < 0 1 < 0,
1
. a + 1 < 1 = a > 1 1 > 1, .

1
a < < a + 1, = [a ].
7.7.9. 7.7.8 , 1 .
. -
Euler 1737 Lagrange 1770,
7.7.10 (Euler-Lagrange). R\Q.

,
.
.
.
. ( ).
7.7.7 n0 N , n n0 , n .
7.7.5 n . ,
n N k > 1, n = n +k , .
m -
m +k ,
m = m +k m > 0 k 1.
278 7.
7.7.8 7.7.9, m 1
m . m 1 = m +k 1 , m.
m = 0 . ,
,
= [a0 ; a1 , . . . , am ] = [a0 ; a1 , . . . , am , ].
= m . ,
p m 1 + p m 2
= ,
qm 1 + qm 2

qm 1 2 (pm 1 qm 2 ) pm 2 = 0.

D ( ) = (pm 1 qm 2 )2 + 4pm 2 qm 2 > 0.
. ( 7.7.7) = n
n n .
,
= [a0 ; a1 , . . . , ar , ar +1 , . . . , ar +k ],

r +1 = [ar +1 , . . . , ar +k ]
. = r +1 r +1 , r +1
.
7.7.11. R\Q .
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 ],
1
= [an 1 ; an 2 , . . . , a1 , a0 ]
0
np o n p0 o
. = [an 1 ; an 2 , . . . , a1 , a0 ] n
qn n N
, n
qn0 n N
, ,
.

= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 , ]
= [an 1 ; . . . , a1 , a0 , ].
,
pn 1 + pn 2
=
qn 1 + qn 2
pn0 1 + pn0 2
= .
qn0 1 + qn0 2
7.7. 279
, ,
qn 1 X 2 + (qn 2 pn 1 )X pn 2 = 0
qn0 1 X 2 + (qn0 2 pn0 1 )X pn0 2 = 0,
. ,
!2 !
1 1
pn0 2 + (qn0 2 pn0 1 ) qn0 1 = 0.

, : , R, , 0,
pn 1 + pn 2
! ! ! !
p p n 2
= = n 1
1 qn 1 + qn 2 qn 1 qn 2 1
pn0 1 + pn0 2 pn0 1 pn0 2

! ! ! !

= .
1 qn0 1 + qn0 2 qn0 1 qn0 2 1
! ! ! !
pn 1 p n 2 a 1 a1 1 a 1
= 0 n 1
qn 1 qn 2 1 0 1 0 1 1
pn0 1 qn0 1
! ! ! !
an 1 1 an 2 1 a 1
0 .
pn0 2 qn0 2 1 0 1 0 1 0
,
!t
p0 pn0 2
!
p n 1 p n 2
= n0 1
q n 1 qn 2 qn 1 qn0 2
,
pn 1 = pn0 1 , pn 2 = qn0 1 , qn 1 = pn0 2 qn 2 = qn0 2 .
1 .
0 . 1 0 .
. a0 = an 1 , > 0 1 < 0. ,
0 = 1 , = 10 .
7.7.12. D N, .
D ,
D = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 , 20 ]
an i = ai i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1.

. a0 = [ D ]. = a0 + D. D

. D a0 = a0 + D
[a0 + D ] = 2a0 .
, > 1,

1 < 0 = a0 D < 0.
280 7.
= [2a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 ].

1
:= = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 , 2a0 ]
2a0
7.7.11:
1
[2a0 ; an 1 , . . . , a2 , a1 ] = = ( 2a0 )0 =
0

= ( 0 2a0 ) = 0 + 2a0 = a0 + D + 2a0 = a0 + D=
ai = an i i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
. (1) :

19 = [4; 2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8]

73 = [8; 1, 1, 5, 5, 1, 1, 16]

94 = [9; 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 5, 1, 8, 1, 5, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 18]

(2) D, D , 1
D = a 2 + 1 a .

. , D 1, [a0 ; 2a0 ].
1
D = a0 +
1
2a0 +
1
2a0 +

1
:= 2a0 + ,
1
2a0 +
2a0 +

1
= 2a0 + 2 2a0 + 1 = 0.

q
2a0 4a02 + 4 q
1,2 = = a0 a02 + 1.
2
q
> 0, = a0 + a02 + 1.
q
1 a0 a02 + 1 q
= = a02 + 1 a0 ,
a02 (a02 + 1)
7.7. 281
1
q q
D = a0 + = a0 + a02 + 1 a0 = a02 + 1,

a0 = [ D ] 1.
, D = a 2 + 1,

D = a + ( a2 + 1 a) =
1
= a+ =
a2 + 1 a
1 1
= a+ =a+
2a + ( a 2 + 1 a ) 1
2a + .
2a +

2 = [1, 2], 5 = [2, 4], 10 = [3, 6], 50 = [7, 14].
(3) a, b, c N,
1
= [a, b, c ] = a + = a + .
1
b+
c+
,
1 c+
= =
1 bc + b + 1
b+
c+
b2 + bc c = 0.

r
c c 2 c
1,2 = + .
2 2 b
,
r
c c 2 c
=a + + .
2 2 b
c = 2a, = [a, b, 2a ]. , b = 1, 2 a

= a 2 + 2a = [a ; 1, 2a ],

= a 2 + a = [a ; 2, 2a ],

= a 2 + 2 = [a ; a, 2a ],
.

. = 63, = [7; 1, 14], = 132
= [11; 2, 22] = 225, = [15; 15, 30].
282 7.
7.8
n
Fermat, x, y
x 2 y2 = n x y , 1.
, , n x, y
:
x 2 y2 modm, 0 < y < x < n x + y , n. (7.8.1)
, (7.8.1)
n | (x + y)(x y) = x 2 y2 ,
n x y x + y, x + y , n x + y < 2n. n - (x + y),

y < x x y < n n - (x y). , (n, (x y)) (n, x + y)
n 1 n.
.
.
12542 4202 mod4309.
(1254 420, 4309) = 31 (1254 + 420, 4309) = 139. 4309 =

31 139. , n, x, y
x 2 y2 modn;
.
:
7.8.1. n , .

Pk + n
k := ,
Qk
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , ak = [k ],
Pk +1 = ak Qk Pk
n Pk2+1
Qk +1 =
Qk

k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 0 := n.
p
qk k- n,
k
pk2 nqk2 = (1)k 1 Qk +1 .
.

0 = n = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , k +1 ].
, 7.1.8,
k +1 pk + pk 1
n= .
k +1 qk + qk 1
7.8. 283

Pk + 1 + n
k +1 = Qk +1

Pk + 1 + n
Qk +1
pk + p k 1
n=
Pk + 1 + n
Qk +1
qk + qk 1

nqk + (Pk +1 qk + Qk +1 qk 1 ) n = Pk +1 pk + Qk +1 pk 1 + pk n.
n .

nqk = Pk +1 pk + Qk +1 pk 1 nqk = Pk +1 pk qk + Qk +1 pk 1 qk
( )
2

Pk +1 qk + Qk +1 qk 1 = pk p2 = Pk +1 pk qk + Qk +1 pk qk 1

k

pk2 nqk2 = Qk +1 (pk qk 1 pk 1 qk ) = (1)k 1 Qk +1 .
7.8.1
n.
7.8.1 ,
k, k 0,
pk2 (1)k 1 Qk modn.
k Qk +1 Qk +1 = s2 , s 1.

pk2 s2 modn.
n.

7.8.2. ak k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

n.
0+ n
, k = 0, 0 = n. 0 = 1
P0 = 0, Q0 = 1 a0 = [0 ] = [ n ].
k,
#
Pk +
"
n
ak = [k ] = = [xk ].
Qk

P k +1 + n P k +1 + n
k +1 = = =
Q k +1 n Pk2+1
Qk
Qk Qk 1
= = = = x k +1 .
n P k +1 n ak Qk + Pk n +P k
ak
Qk
ak +1 = [k +1 ] = [xk +1 ].
: xk , , -

n.
284 7.
. (1) n = 7729.
.

n= 7729 = [87; 1, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 21, . . .],

0+ 7729
0 = , P0 = 0, Q0 = 1, a0 = [0 ] = 87
1
7729 P12
P1 = a0 Q0 P0 = 87, Q1 = = 7729 7569 = 160.
Q0

P1 + 7729
1 = .
160
a1 = [1 ] = 1,
P2 = a1 Q1 P1 = 1 160 87 = 73,

7729 P22 7729 732 7729 5329
Q2 = = = = 15.
Q1 160 160
Q2 .

P2 + 7729 73 + 7729
2 = = , a2 = [2 ] = 10.
Q2 15
7729 P32 7729 772

P3 = a2 Q2 P2 = 10 15 73 = 77, Q3 = = = 120.
Q2 15

P3 + 7729 77 + 7729
3 = = ,
Q3 120
a3 = [3 ] = 1.
7729 P42 7729 432

P4 = a3 Q3 P3 = 1 120 77 = 43, Q4 = = = 49.
Q3 120
Q4 .
P32 (1)31 Q4 mod7729
p3 ,
p0 = a0 = 87
p1 = a0 a1 + 1 = 87 1 + 1 = 88
p2 = a2 p1 + p0 = 10 88 + 87 = 880 + 87 = 967
p3 = a3 p2 + p1 = 1 967 + 88 = 1055
, 10552 72 mod7729. -
(1048, 7729) = 131. 7729 = 59 131.
. (2) 1000009 = 293 3413.
7.9. E 285
7.8.3. . , ,
n = 731 Qk k = 0, 1, 2 1, 2, 1 .

n

n = [27; 27, 54]
Qk .

mn, m (
).
k Qk = s2 , s 1, Qk

mn,
pk2 mnqk2 = (1)k 1 Qk +1 .

pk /qk mn.
pk2 (1)k 1 Qk +1 modmn
, , n, (pk
s, mn ) > 1. , m = 6,

mn = 6 731 = 4386
Q2 = 72 p1 = 265.
2652 72 mod4386
(265 7, 4386) = 6 43.

43 | 731 731 = 17 43.
M.
A. Morrison John Brillahart [9]
7
Fermat, F7 = 22 + 1. 13300000 Qk

127F7 . :
7
F7 = 22 + 1 = 59649589127497217 5704689200685129054721.
7.9 e

e. .
7.9.1. e
e = [2; 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, 1, . . .]
a0 = 2 a3m = a3m 2 = 1, a3m 1 = 2m, m 1.

286 7.
. Taylor e x
x x2 x3 x4 x5
ex = 1 + + + + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x x2 x3 x4 x5
e x = 1 + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2x 3 2x 5
e x e x = 2x + + + =
3! 5!
x2 x4
!
= 2x 1 + + + =
3! 5!

X x 2n
= 2x
n =0
(2n + 1)!
1 1
= =
(2n + 1)! 3 5 (2n + 1) 2 (2 2) (2 3) (2n )
1
= =
3 5 (2n + 1)n !2n
1
= 35(2n +1)
=
2n
n !4n
1
= .
3
2
3
2
+1 3
2
+2 3
2
+ 3 32 + n 1 n !4n
3 x2
!
e ex x
= 2xf , ,
2 4
x 1 x2 1 xn
f (c, x ) = 1 + + + + + =
c c (c + 1) 2! c (c + 1) (c + n 1) n !

X 1 xn
=1+ ,
n =1
c (c + 1) (c + n 1) n !
c R\{0, 1, 2, . . .}.
1 x2
!
e +ex x
= 2f , ,
2 4

3 w2

e w e w f ,
2 4
=w . (7.9.1)
e w + e w f 1 w2
,
2 4
x 1 x2 1 xn
f (c, x ) f (c + 1, x ) = 1 + + + + +
c c (c + 1) 2! c (c + 1) (c + n 1) n !
7.9. E 287
x 1 x2 1 xn
1
c+1 (c + 1)(c + 2) 2! (c + 1) (c + n 1)(c + n ) n !
x 2 x2 n xn
= + + + + =
c (c + 1 ) c (c + 1)(c + 2) 2! c (c + 1) (c + n 1)(c + n ) n !
x2 x n 1
!
x x 1 1
= 1+ + + + +
c (c + 1) c+2 (c + 2)(c + 3) 2! (c + 1) (c + n ) (n 1)!
x
= f (c + 2, x ).
c (c + 1 )
x
f (c, x ) f (c + 1, x ) = f (c + 2, x ),
c (c + 1)
f (c, x ) f (c + 1, x ) x f (c + 2, x )
= .
f (c + 1, x ) f (c + 1, x ) c (c + 1) f (c + 1, x )
f (c + 1, x ) x f (c + 2, x )
=1+
f (c, x ) c (c + 1) f (c + 1, x )

f (c + 1, x ) 1
= f (c +2,x )
.
f (c, x ) 1+ x
c (c +1) f (c +1,x )
x = z 2
z f (c + 1, z 2 ) 1
= f (c +2,z 2 )
c f (c, z 2 ) c
+ z
z c +1 f (c +1,z 2 )
z f (c + 1, z 2 ) 1
=
c f (c, z 2 ) c
z
+ 1
c +1 f (c +1,z 2 )
z f (c +2,z 2 )
z f (c + 1, z 2 ) c c+1 c+n

= 0; , ,..., , n +2 ,
c f (c, z 2 ) z z z
c + n + 1 f (c + n + 1, z 2 )
n +2 = .
z f (c + n + 2, z 2 )
, n = 0, . n 1,
z f (c + 1, z 2 ) c c+1 c+n+1
= [0, , ,..., , n +1 ] .
c f (c, z 2 ) z z z
1 1 z f (c + n + 1, z 2 )
= = =
n +1 c +n f (c +n,z 2 ) c+n f (c + n, z 2 )
z f (c +n +1,z 2 )
1
= f (c +n +2,z 2 )
=
c +n
z
+ z
c +n +1
f (c +n +1,z 2 )
288 7.
1
= c +n
.
z
+ 1
c +n +1 f (c +n +1,z 2 )

z f (c +n +2,z 2 )
n.
c z c +zn
1, n +2 1, n 0. , , c = 12
z = 2y
1
, y 1.
e w e w
(7.9.1) w = 1
y
e w +e w

3 w2
1

1y f ,
e e
y w
e e w 2 4
= =w
1
1y e w + e w

1 w2
e +e
y f ,
2 4
1
!
3 y2 2
f ,
2 4 1 f 3
, 1
1 2y 2 2y
= 1
!= 1
2
y 1 y2 1 1
f , 2 f 2
, 2y
2 4

1 1
+1 1
+2
= 0; 2
1
,
2
1
,
2
1
, . . . = [0; y, 3y, 5y, . . .]
2y 2y 2y
y = 2
1 1
e 2 e 2
1 1
= [0, 2, 6, 10, . . .].
e 2 + e 2

e 1e
= [0; 2, 6, 10, . . .]
e + 1e

e1
= [0; 2, 6, 10, . . .].
e+1

e + 1e
= [2; 6, 10, . . .]
e 1e
+1
= ee 1

+1
e = e + 1 e = .
1
:= [2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, 1 . . .]
p
qn rn /sn .
n
, n 0, :
p3n +1 = rn + sn q3n +1 = rn sn (7.9.2)
n = 0, r0 = 2 s0 = 1. p30+1 = p1 = a0 a1 + 1 = 2 1 + 1 = 3
q30+1 = q1 = a1 = 1 p1 = 3 = 2 + 1 = r0 + s0 q1 = 1 = 2 1 = r0 s0 .
7.9. E 289
(7.9.2) n.
n + 1.
, rn = an rn 1 + rn 2 rn = 2(2n + 1)rn 1 + rn 2 sn = 2(2n +
1)sn 1 + sn 2 .
pn ,

p3n 3 = 1 p3n 4 + p3n 5 +1

p3n 2 = 1 p3n 3 + p3n 4 1
p3n 1 2n p3n 2 + p3n 3 +2
p3n = 1 p3n 1 + p3n 2 +1
p3n +1 1 p3n + p3n 1 +1
p3n +1 = 2(2n + 1)p3n 2 + p3n 5
p3(n +1)+1 = 2(2(n + 1) + 1)p3(n +1)2 + p3(n +1)5

= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)p3n +1 + p3n 2 ( )
= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)(rn + sn ) + rn 1 + sn 1
= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)rn + rn 1 + 2(2(n + 1) + 1)sn + sn 1 =
= rn +1 + sn +1 .
, qn ,
q3n +1 = 2(2n + 1)q3n 2 + q3n 5
q3(n +1) = 2(2(n + 1) + 1)q3(n +1)2 + q3(n +1)5

= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)q3n +1 + q3n 2
= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)(rn sn ) + rn 1 sn 1
= 2(2(n + 1) + 1)rn + rn 1 2(2(n + 1) + 1)sn sn 1
= rn +1 sn +1 .
(7.9.2) ,
p3n +1 rn + sn
rn
sn
+1 1
= lim = lim = lim = = e.
n q3n +1 n rn sn r
n n
sn
1 +1
Lang [10].
[7].
-
.
= [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, . . .]

.
sage
e :
290 7.
c o n t i n u e d _ f r a c t i o n _ l i s t ( e , b i t s =70)
[ 2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 4 , 1 , 1 , 6 , 1 , 1 , 8 , 1 , 1 , 10, 1 , 1 , 12, \
1 , 1 , 14, 1 , 1 , 16, 2]
7.10
-
. ( 300
..) .

Aryabhata (6 ..) Bhaskara (12 ..).
.
Rafaell Bombelli
( 1530). Bombelli
, Cataldi (1548-1626) . Bombelli
, 1572, 13 = [3; 4, 6].

a 2 + b = [a ; b, 2a ].
Cataldi (1548-1626) 1613

18 = [4; 2, 8].
1653 John Wallis

Arithmetica infinitorum.
Christian Huygens
Descriptio Automati Planetarii.
1680 1687, . 1703
.
, .
, , Euler
(1707-1783) Lagrange (1736-1813). 1737, Euler
.
1770, Lagrange ,
.
. -
3 .
3
2.
R 3
.
Pell (
) Euler
1759. 1767.
.
.
7.10. 291
7.10.1.
b1
a0 + ,
b2
a1 +
b3
a2 +
b4
a3 +

ai , bj R.
, , William Brouncker
Wallis
4 3 3 5 5 7 7
=
2 4 4 6 6 8

4 12
=1+
32
2+
52
2+
72
2+
2 +
Gauss (24 1796),
1 2 + 8 64 +

1
2
1+
2
1+
8
1+
12
1+
32
1+
56
1+

Carl Lindemann
.
S. Ramanujan (1887-1920) .

q

5 + 5 1 + 5

2 1
e 5

=
2 2 e 2

1+

e 4
1+
e 6
1+
1 +
-
.
[3], [5], [4], [8].
292 7.

[1] A. Markoff: Sur les formes quadratiques binaires indefinies. Math. Annalen, 15:381409,
1879.
[2] A. Markoff: Sur les formes quadratiques binaires indefinies. Math. Annalen, 17:379399,
1879.
[6] Enrico Bombieri: Continued fractions and the Markoff tree. Expositiones Mathematicae,
25:187213, 2007.
[7] H. Cohn: A Short proof of the simple continued fraction of e. Am. Math. Monthly, 113:57
62, 2006.
[8] Jay R. Goldman: The Queen of Mathematics:A Historically Motivated Guide to Number
Theory. A. K. Peters Massachussets, 1998.
[9] M. A. Morrison, J. Brillhart: A method of factoring and the factorization of F7 . Mathematics

of Computation, 29:183205, 1975.
[10] S. Lang: Introduction to Diophantine Approximation. Springer, 1995.
293
294
8
Pell
8.1

, Pell. ,
.
. 10 1 = 32 10 2
1 = 22 .
;
290. , 290 1 = 172 290 2
1 = 122 .
; ;
, x, y

1 = x 2 1 = y2 .
2
x, y
X 2 2Y 2 = 1.
2uv xy = 16
xv uy = 12
x u
24v + 16y 16v + 12y

x= , u= .
2v2 y2 2v2 y2
2v2 y2 , x > 0, u > 0 .

2(xv uy)2 (2uv xy)2 = (x 2 2u 2 )(2v2 y2 ).
(x 2 2u 2 )(2v2 y2 ) = 2 122 162 = 32.
295
296 8. PELL
(2v2 y2 ) | 32,
2v2 y2 = 2s , 0 s 5.
s , s := 2k + 1,
2v2 y2 = 22k +1
2,
v = 2k v0 , y = 2k +1 y0 v02 2y02 = 1.
s , s := 2k,
y02 2v02 = 1.
8.2 Pell
8.2.1. d N\{0},
X 2 dY 2 = 1
Pell.
8.2.2.
X 2 dY 2 = N, N Z.
X 2 dY 2 = 1.
8.2.3. d = t 2 , t > 0
(X tY )(X + tY ) = 1

(x, y) = (1, 0), (1, 0). (8.2.1)
d .
(8.2.1) Pell.
8.2.4. Pell
X 2 dY 2 = 1,
p
- , (p, q), q
-

d.
8.2. PELL 297

. p2 dq2 = 1 p > q d

(p dq)(p + dq) = 1.

p 1 1 d 1
0< d= < < = .
q q (p + q d ) q(q d + q d ) q(q d + q d ) 2q2
7.5.5 267.

8.2.5. d,
Pell
X 2 dY 2 = 1.

, 113
13,
Pell X 2 13Y 2 = 1, 112 13 32 = 4. 649
180

.
pn
. qn
-

d, (pn dqn );

8.2.6. p/q d, (p, q)
Pell
X 2 dY 2 = N,

|N | < 1 + 2 d.
p
. q
d,
p d < 1 .

q q2
1
|p q d | < q
.
1
|p + q d | = |(p q d ) + 2q d | |p q d | + |2q d | < + 2q d (1 + 2 d )q.
q
1
|p2 dq2 | = |p q d ||p + q d | (1 + 2 d )q = 1 + 2 d,
q

p2 dq2 = N |N | < 1 + 2 d.

. 13

13 = [3; 1, 1, 1, 1, 6].
298 8. PELL
X 2 13Y 2 .
p0 = 3, q0 = 1, 32 13 12 = 4
p1 = 4, q1 = 1, 42 13 1 = 3
p2 =7 q2 = 2, 72 13 22 = 3
p3 = 11 q3 = 3, 112 13 32 = 4
p4 = 18, q4 = 5, 182 13 52 = 1
p5 = 119, q5 = 33, 1192 13 332 = 4
p6 = 137, q6 = 38, 1372 13 382 = 3
p7 = 256, q7 = 71, 2562 13 712 = 3
p8 = 393, q8 = 109, 3932 13 1092 = 4
p9 = 649, q9 = 180, 6492 13 1802 = 1.

7.7.12 d

d = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an 1 , 2a0 ].

d < 100 94 16.

d
Pell.
p
8.2.7. qk d n
k
:
1 dqkn 1 = (1) ,
2 kn
pkn
k = 1, 2, 3, . . .

. k 1, d

d = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , akn 1 , rkn ],

rkn := [2a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , akn 1 , 2a0 ] = a0 + d.
7.1.8
rkn pkn 1 + pkn 2
d= .
rkn qkn 1 + qkn 2
rkn

d (a0 qkn 1 + qkn 2 pkn 1 ) = a0 pkn 1 + pkn 2 dqkn 1 .
a0 qkn 1 + qkn 2 = pkn 1

a0 pkn 1 + pkn 2 = dqkn 1
pkn 1 qkn 1
1 dqkn 1 = pkn 1 qkn 2 qkn 1 pkn 2 .

2 2
pkn
, 7.2.1,
pkn 1 qkn 2 qkn 1 pkn 2 = (1)kn 2 = (1)kn ,
.
8.2. PELL 299
p
8.2.8. qk d n
k
, :
1. n , Pell
X 2 dY 2 = 1,
x = pkn 1 , y = qkn 1 , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2. n , Pell
x = p2kn 1 , y = q2kn 1 , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
. 8.2.4, Pell

d. 8.2.7 :
1. n , Pell
:
x = pkn 1 , y = qkn 1 , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2. n :
x = p2kn 1 , y = q2kn 1 , k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
8.2.9.

x = p(2k +1)n 1 y = q(2k +1)n 1 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
X 2 dY 2 = 1. ( X 2 dY 2 = 1
).

8.2.10. d = 13
n = 5. Pell
X 2 dY 2 = 13
x = p10k 1 , y = q10k 1 , k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
, k = 1 x = p9 = 649, y = q9 = 180.
8.2.11. 4 | d p | d p P, p 3mod4, X 2 dY 2 = 1
. , (x, y) , x 2 1mod4
x 2 1modp . .

d .
8.2.12. (x1 , y1 ) Pell X 2 dY 2 = 1

. ( x1 < x y1 < y
(x, y) .)
300 8. PELL
8.2.13. n , x1 = pn 1 , y1 = qn 1 .
n , x1 = p2n 1 , y1 = q2n 1 . ( n

d.)
8.2.14. (x1 , y1 ) X 2 dY 2 = 1, (xn , yn )

xn + yn d = ( x 1 + y1 d )n , n N
. , n N,

x n yn d = (x1 y1 d )n .
xn , yn , x1 , y1 . (x1 , y1 )
X 2 dY 2 = 1. ,

xn2 dyn2 = (xn + dyn )(xn dyn ) =

= ( x 1 + y1 d ) ( x 1 y1 d ) n =
n
= (x12 dy12 )n = 1n = 1.

. 2 = [1; 2]. n = 1.
2 Pell X 2
2Y 2
= 1 x 1 = p 3 = 3, y1 = q3 = 2.

( x 2 , y )
2 x 2 + y 2=
2
(3 + 2 2) . (x3 , y3 ) x3 + y3 2 = (3 + 2 2) = 99 + 70 2. 3
8.2.14
Pell
X 2 dY 2 = 1.
8.2.15. (x1 , y1 ) Pell X 2 dY 2 = 1.

xn + yn d = (x1 + y1 d )n , n N.
. (u, v) Pell
.

x1 y1 , (x1 + y1 d )n n . ,
n0 ,

(x1 + y1 d )n0 0 xn20 dyn20 = 1.

1 < (xn0 yn0 d )(u + v d ) < x1 + y1 d.
8.3. PELL 301
,

(xn0 yn0 d )(u + v d ) = (xn0 u yn0 vd ) + (xn0 v yn0 u ) d.
a := xn0 u yn0 vd b := xn0 v yn0 u,
a 2 db2 = (xn20 dyn20 )(u 2 dv2 ) = 1.
(a, b) Pell X 2 dY 2 = 1. 1 <

a + b d < x1 + y1 d. a, b .

1 < a + b d

a 2 b2 d = (a b d )(a + b d ) = 1

0 < a b b < 1.
,

2a = (a + b d ) + (a b d ) > 1 + 0 > 0

2b d = (a + b d ) (a b d ) > 1 1 = 0. (a, b)
a < x1 b < y1 , . .
8.2.16.
Pell. , ,

d. :
y2
(x, y) Pell X 2 dY 2 = 1 x > 2
1, (x, y)
. , d = 2, (3, 2) .
8.3 Pell
d , , .

X 2 3Y 2 = 1,

31 = 1. X 2 5Y 2 = 2 ,

2
5
= 1.
8.3.1. X 2 dY 2 = N , (a, b), (x, y)

- Pell X 2 dY 2 = 1,
N = N 1 = (a 2 b2 d )(x 2 y2 d ) = (xa dyb)2 d (xb ay)2 .
(r, s) r := xa dyb s := xb ay X 2 dY 2 = N.
X 2 dY 2 = 1, .
8.3.2. X 2 dY 2 = N .

8.3.3. pn /qn d N

|N | < d (x, y) X 2 dY 2 = N (x, y) = 1
x = pn y = qn , n N, n , 0.
302 8. PELL
. N > 0.

(x + y d )(x y d ) = n

x y d > 0, x > y d. xy d > 0. 0 < N < d

x (x y d ) x 2 dy2 N d 1
d= = < < 2 = 2.
y y y (x + y d ) y(2y d ) 2y d 2y
,
x 1
0< d< ,
y 2y2
7.5.5 x, y
d.
N < 0. x 2 dy2 = N d
1 N
y2 x2 = .
d d
N x, y
1 . ,
d
a
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . .],
1

1
= [0; a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ].
a
n- 1/ (n 1)-
.
, xy = y/x
1
11 =
d
d.
8.3.4. N

d.
(a, b) X 2 Y 2 b = N (x, y) X 2 dY 2 = 132 = 1,

u + v d = (a + b d )(x + y d ) X 2 dY 2 = N.
8.3.5.
X 2 dY 2 = N,
(a, b) X 2 dY 2 =
1 .
.

8.3.6. u1 + v1 d u2 + v2 d
X 2 dY 2 = N

u1 u2 v1 v2 d v1 u2 u1 v2
, ,
N N
.
8.4. 303
8.3.7. N ,
X 2 dY 2 = N .
8.3.8. d .
Pell
X 2 991Y 2 = 1

x = 379516400906811930638014896080,
y = 12055735790331359497442538767

X 2 1000099Y 2 = 1
1118-. 2174.
8.3.9. d .
d = 60, x = 31, y = 4. d = 61
x = 1766319049, y = 226153980. d = 62 x = 63, y = 8,
d = 1621 x 76-.
M.J. Jacobson H.C. Williams [8]

(x0 , y0 ) Pell X 2 (d 1)Y 2 = 1
(x1 , y1 ) X 2 dY 2 = 1,
log(x1 )
(d ) :=
log(x0 )
8.4
8.4.1
1773 G.E. Lessing 14
4 .

.

.

.
.
4 (, , ).
304 8. PELL
W, X, Y, Z , , -
w, x, y, z . ,
.
1 1

W = + X +Z
2 3
1 1

X = + Y +Z
4 5
1 1

Y = + W +Z
6 7
1 1

w = + (X + x )
3 4
1 1

x = + (Y + z )
4 5
1 1

y = + (Z + z )
5 6
1 1

z = + (W + w )
6 7
W +X =
Y +Z =
: W + X
Y + Z .
Pell,
T 2 dU 2 = 1,
d = 410286423278424. Pell

d,
203254 [5].
A. Amthor [1] d = (9314)2 4729494
T 2 d0 U 2 = 1,

d0 = 4729494 d0 ,
92.
t = 109931986732829734979866232821433543901088049
u = 50549485234315033074477819735540408986340.
, . (x1 , y1 )
A. Amthor

x 1 + y1 d = (t + u d0 )2329 .
y1
,
1, 83 10103265 .
8.4. 305
1965 H.C. Williams, R.A.

German C. R. Zarnke [3].
, H.L. Nelson [4] 12
.
[6],
[5].
-
[10].
8.4.2
Pell .
.
2 .
, , 3
:
265 1350
< 3< .
153 780
265

153 1350
780
8 11 3.
628 Brahmagupta :
X12 dY12 = a X22 dY22 = b

(X1 X2 + dY1 Y2 )2 d (X1 Y2 + Y1 X2 )2 = ab.
, ad hoc
Pell:
X 2 92Y 2 = 1.
102 92 = 8 ,
,
1922 92 202 = 64.
2
242 92 5
2
= 1
11512 92 1202 = 1.
Pell
12 [2], [7].

- A. Weil.
P. de Fermat, 1657 Frenicle,
:
() d .
d
.

d = 109, 149, 433.
Brounker Wallis [2], [9].
306 8. PELL
, Brouncker, Wallis, Frenicle

Pell -
.
Brouncker Euler, -

Pell.
Lagrange.
John Pell (1611-1685),
. Euler. !
.

[1] A. Amthor: Das Problema bovinum des Archimedes. Zeitschrift fur Math. u. Physik (Hist.
Litt. Abtheilung), 25:153171, 1880.
[3] H. C. Williams, R. A. German, C. R. Zarnke: Solution of the cattle Problem of Archimedes.

Math. Comp., 19:671674, 1965.
[4] H. L. Nelson: A solution to Archimedes cattle problem. J. Recreational Math., 13:162176,

1981.
[5] H. W. Lenstra: Solving the Pell equation. Notices of the AMS, 49:182192, 2002.
[6] I. Vardi: Archimedes cattle problem. Amer. Math. Monthly, 105:305319, 1998.
[7] J. Jacobson, H.C. Williams: Solving the Pell equation. Springer New York, 2009.
[8] M. J. Jacobson, H. C. Williams: The size of the fundamental solutions of consecutive Pell
equations. Experimental Mathematics, 9:631640, 2000.
[9] S. Mahoney: The Mathematical career of Pierre de Fermat. Princeton University Press New
York, 1994. 2nd edition.
[10] , : . 1952, 1992.

, . . . -
. .
307
308

9
9.1
(binary quadratic forms).
.
9.1.1. -
, :
f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 .
:
1 n
f (X, Y ), n, x, y
f (x, y) = n.
2 n f (X, Y ),
;

f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 : f = [a, b, c ].
, , . -
, .
9.1.2. [a, b, c ],
D := b2 4ac.
9.1.3. D = 4ac b2 .
9.1.4. D 0mod4 b D 1mod4 b .
9.1.5. D , -
.
D , -
, ,
.
309
310 9.
9.1.6.
f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 ,
D = b2 4ac , 0 , a , 0, c , 0
f (X, Y ) = 0 (x, y) = (0, 0).
. a = 0 c = 0 D D = b2 .
(x, y) f (X, Y ) = 0. y = 0 ax 2 = 0 a , 0,
x = 0. x = 0, y = 0.
x , 0 y , 0
4af (x, y) = (2ax + by)2 Dy2 .
D Dy2 , 0, .
D , 0. :
1 : D < 0, a c > 0, a > 0 c > 0 a < 0
c < 0.
9.1.7. [a, b, c ]
D = b2 4ac < 0 a > 0,
.
D < 0 a < 0, .
9.1.8. [a, b, c ] ,
- ,
0.
9.1.9. [a, b, c ] [a, b, c ]

. D < 0,
.
D < 0
.
2 : D > 0,
(indefinite).
.
9.2
:
:
f (X, Y ) = 2X 2 + 5XY + 3Y 2
g(X 0 , Y 0 ) = 21(X 0 )2 + 29X 0 Y 0 + 10(Y 0 )2 .

9.2. 311
, (x, y) = (1, 1), f (X, Y ) 10. , g(X 0 , Y 0 )

(x 0 , y0 ) = (0, 1) 10. , (x 0 , y0 ) = (1, 1), g(X 0 , Y 0 )
60 f (X, Y ), (x, y) = (3, 2), 60.
.
n f (X, Y ) (x, y) Z Z,
g(X 0 , Y 0 ) (x 0 , y0 ) Z Z
x0
! ! ! !
x y 1 1 x
= =
y0 x + 2y 1 2 y
, n g(X 0 , Y 0 ) (x 0 , y0 ) n
f (X, Y )
2x 0 + y0 2 1 x0
! ! ! !
x
= = .
y x 0 + y0 1 1 y0
:
9.2.1. f (X, Y ) g(X 0 , Y 0 )
g(X 0 , Y 0 ) = f (aX + bY, cX + dY ),

!
a b
M := , a, b, c, d Z det M = 1.
c d
9.2.1 ().
:
! !!
a b X
g(X , Y ) = f |M (X, Y ) = f
0 0
c d Y

( ! ! )
a b a b
SL2 (Z) := , a, b, c, d Z, det =1
c d c d
.
M, N SL2 (Z) f (X, Y ), g(X 0 , Y 0 ) ,
! !
X X
f |MN = (f |M ) |N .
Y Y
9.2.2. f (X, Y ) M SL2 (Z),

f (X, Y )
f |M (X, Y ).
. f (x, y) = n, M 1 SL2 (Z),

!
1 x
M Z Z,
y
!! !! !
x x x
f |M M 1
= f MM 1
=f = n.
y y y
! !!
x x
, f |M = n, f M = n, f (X, Y ) n.
y y
312 9.
f (X, Y ) = 65X 2 + 224XY + 193Y 2 ,
. ,
g(X, Y ) = X 2 + Y 2 ,
! !
X 7 12
f (X, Y ) = g|M , M = .
Y 4 7
9.2.3.
1. ,
4.
9.2.4. f (X, Y ), g(X 0 , Y 0 ) ,

f, g , D (f ) = D (g).
. M SL2 (Z),
D (f |M ) = D (f ) (det M )2 = D (f ).
f g, M SL2 (Z) g = f |M .
! .
X 2 + 10Y 2 2X 2 + 5Y 2
40. ,
1 .
9.2.5.
D, D 0 1mod4.
. -
.
D D 0 1mod4

D
4 ,

D 0mod4
C :=
D 1
D 1mod4
4
[1, 0, C] [1, 1, C]
D.
9.2.6.
D
X2 Y 2 , D 0mod4
4
1D
X 2 + XY + Y 2 , D 1mod4
4
D.
9.2. 313
: D 0, 1mod4, D
.
D;
9.2.7. D Z D .
D.
f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2
a 0 X 2 + b0 XY + c 0 Y 2
|b0 | |a 0 | |c 0 |.
,

|D | = |(b0 )2 4a 0 c 0 | |b0 |2 4|a 0 ||c 0 | 4|a 0 ||c 0 | |b0 |2 4|a 0 |2 |b0 |2 ,
|c 0 | |a 0 |. ,
|b0 | |a 0 |,
4|a 0 |2 |b0 |2 4|a 0 |2 |a 0 |2 = 3|a 0 |2 .
, r
|D | (b0 )2 D
0
|a | , |b0 | |a 0 |, |c 0 | =
3 4a 0
! . !
0 1 1 m
S = f = [a, b, c ], f |S = [c, b, a ]. m Z Tm = ,
1 0 0 1
f |TM = [a, b + 2md, c + mb + m 2 a ]. :
f = [a, b, c ].
1. |a | < |b|, m Z |a | |c 0 |, S [a, b0 , c 0 ]
f |S = [c 0 , b0 , a ].
|c 0 | < |a | 1.
3. |a | |c 0 |, , [a, b0 , c 0 ]

|b0 | |a | |c 0 |.

f = [a, b, c ] -
D < 0, (D .) , a > 0 c > 0.
314 9.
9.2.8. f = [a, b, c ]
(reduced), |b| a c
, |b| = a a = c, b 0.
9.2.9. -
D .
. 47 [9].
. D = 12. |D | 3a 2 , a = 1 a = 2.
a = 1, |b| 1, b = 1 b = 0. b = 1, c < Z. b = 0, c = 3.
[1, 0, 3]. a = 2, |b| 2. b = 0, 1, c < Z. b = 2,
c = 2. , [2, 2, 2].
9.2.10. ,
.
: [2, 1, 3] [2, 1, 3] -
. !
1 0
, 1.
0 1
23.
9.2.11. f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2

D. ( D , a , 0).

Pf (z ) = az 2 + bz + c.

b + D b D
r1 = r2 = .
2a 2a
f (X, Y ) . D < 0 r2
r1 .
|D |
a > 0, Im(r1 ) = 2a > 0.
f (X, Y ) . |b| a
1 1
Rer1 .
2 2
|b| = a b 0, Rer1 = 21 ,
1 1
Rer1 < .
2 2

b2 D 4ac c
|r1 |2 = r1 r1 = = = .
4a 2 4a 2 a
a c c
a
1, |r1 | 1 c = a, b 0 |r1 | = 1
Rer1 0.
9.2. 315
-1 -1/2 1/2 1
9.2.1:
, r1 Pf (z ), (Imr1 >
0)
1 1

D= zC: Rez < |z | > 1 |z | = 1 Re(z ) 0 .
2 2
f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 D (a, b, c ) =: d,

f (X, Y )
f (X, Y ) = dg(X, Y ),
g(X, Y ) = a 0 X 2 + b0 XY + c 0 Y 2
(a 0 , b0 , c 0 ) = 1 D 0 = dD2 .
f = [a, b, c ] (a, b, c ) = 1,
(primitive).
9.2.12. D Z , h (D ) D
D,
D > 0
D, D < 0.
9.2.13. D < 0,
h (D ) . D = 23,
, h (23) = 3.
9.2.14. D > 0, , ,

.
316 9.
9.3 -
.
9.3.1. n (properly)
f = [a, b, c ], x, y (x, y) = 1 f (x, y) = n.
9.3.2. n f = [a, b, c ] f (x, y) = n

x, y (x, y) := d, (x/d, y/d ) = 1, d 2 | n n 2 /d
f = [a, b, c ].
, P f ,
f
A := {`d 2 | ` P d Z}.
n f ,
.
!
a b
9.3.3. f = [a, b, c ] g = [n, k, `] g = f |M , M = det(M ) = 1,
c d
n = f (a, c ) (a, c ) = 1.
9.3.4. n f , n = f (a, c ) (a, c ) = 1, !

a b
b, d ad bc = 1. , f |M , M =
c d
f n.
9.3.5. f
X 2
f .
n
f .
9.3.6. 1. n f = [a, b, c ] -
D, D mod4|n |.
2. D f = [a, b, c ]
mod4|n |, n f .
. 1. 9.3.5 n
f = [a, b, c ] D,
g = [n, k, `] f = [a, b, c ].

9.2.4.
k 2 4n` = D,
D mod4|n |.
9.3. 317
2. ` ,
`2 Dmod4|n |,
k ,
D = `2 4|n |k.
g(X, Y ) = nX 2 + `XY + kY 2 ,
D n g(1, 0) = n.
9.3.7. D ,

x 2 Dmod4|n |
n .
. .
f (X, Y ) = X 2 + Y 2
D = 4.
9.3.8. p 1mod4 .
. ,
p = x 2 + y2 , x, y Z,
d 2 | p, d := (x, y), .
h (4) = 1, 9.3.7.
p 1mod4, X 2 1modp ,
Y 2 4mod4p.
-
.
9.3.9. n , n = a 2 b b . n
, p 3mod4,
b.
. p 3mod4, n n
n = x 2 + y2 . , x 2 y2 modp.
y . 0modp, (xy1 )2 1modp, x 2 1modp .
p | y x 2 y2 modp p | x p2 | n
!2 !2
n x y
= + .
p2 p p
318 9.
p | pn2 .
p n, p - b.
p, p 3mod4 b.

(a 2 + b2 )(c 2 + d 2 ) = (ac bd )2 + (ad + bc )2
n = 2r q1 qk2sk p1 p2 pm
2s1
n , pi 1mod4 i = 1, 2, . . . , m,
pi , pj , i , j. 2 = 12 + 12 , 2r .
2
2si
qi = qisi + 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
, pi n -
.
p
X 2 + 2Y 2 p 1 3mod8.
9.4
n -
f = [a, b, c ].
.
9.4.1.
1. D 1mod4, D .
D D
2. D 0mod4, 4
4
2 3mod4.
9.4.2. Dirichlet modN , N N, N 2,
:ZC
1. (n ) = 0 (n, N ) > 1.
2. ,
(mn ) = (m ) (n )
m, n Z.
3. (n ) nmodN .
9.4. 319
N1 | N , N1 < N Dirichlet modN1 ,
Z / Z
/ C ,

NZ N1 Z 8

Dirichlet modN .
modN1 .
Dirichlet
( primitive) modN .
, D ,
D : N Z
:

1. p P, p , 2, D (p) = D
p
,

0 D 0mod4
2. (2) =

1 D 1mod8

1

D 5mod8
3. D (p11 p22 ps s ) = D (p11 )D (p22 ) D (ps s ).

a a a a a a
mod|D |
modulo |D |, :

1,
D > 0
D (1) =

1,
D < 0
Dirichlet modN ,
0, 1, 1. Dirichlet
D , [5, . 33-40]. !
a b
f (X, Y ) D M = SL2 (Z)
c d
f |M = f . f (x, y) = n ,
X0
! !
X
=M
Y0 Y
f (X, Y ) = n.
9.4.3. f .

( ! )
a b
Uf := M = SL2 (Z) : f |M = f
c d
SL2 (Z).
320 9.
f (X, U ) D, D ,
[5, . 63] , D > 0, Uf = Z Z/2 , D < 0, Uf

6 D = 3

w= D = 4 .

4

2 D < 4

R (n, f ) n f (X, Y )
Uf . R (n )
n D.
:
9.4.4. D (D ) , n Z\{0}
R (n ) n D
: X
R (n ) = D (m ).
m |n
. [5, 3, . 65].
m n D -
.
9.4.1
f (X, Y ) = X 2 + Y 2 . D = 4 h (4) = 1.
X
R (n ) = R (m, f ) = D (m ).
m |n
, m , D D (m ) = 0,
X X 4
R (n ) = 4 ( m ) = =
m |n m |n
m
2-m 2 -m
X 1 X m 1
= = (1) 2 =
m |n
m m |n
2-m 2-m
X X
= 1 1=
m |n m |n
m 1mod4 m 3mod4
= r (1, n ) r (3, n ),
r (k, n ) n
kmodn. w(f ) = 4,
n
4{r (1, n ) r (3, n )}.
9.4.5.
[4, 312-318] [7, . 163-176].
9.4.6. G.J. Jacobi,
.
9.5. 321
9.5
Fermat .
, Mersenne, 1640,
p 1mod4
.
( )
1659 Huygens. 1742 1747 Euler
Fermat.
X 2 + 2Y 2
X + 3Y 2 , 1659 Fermat Pascal.
2
Euler
p , 5
p = x 2 + 5y2 p = 1, 9mod20
n o
p = x 2 + 27y2 p 1mod3 z 3 2modp .
Lagrange Recherches d arithmetique (1773)

-
Fermat X 2 + 2Y 2
X 2 + 3Y 2 .
, Gauss, [2].
[10], [3], [6], [8], [1].
322 9.

[3] David A.Cox: Primes of the Form x 2 + ny2 . John Wiley and Sons New York, 1989.
[4] Don Redmond: Number Theory, An Introduction. Marcel Dekker, 1996.
[5] Don Zagier: Zetafunktionen Und Quadratische Korper, eine Einfuhrung in die hohere
Zahlentheorie. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1981.
[6] Jay R. Goldman: The Queen of Mathematics:A Historically Motivated Guide to Number
Theory. A. K. Peters Massachussets, 1998.
[8] Sharlau, H. Opolka: From Fermat to Minkowski, Lectures on the theory, of Numbers and
its Historical Development. Springer, New York, 1985.
[9] J. Hunter: ( . ). -
, , 1980.
[10] , .: 17 18 . , 1999.
323
324
10

, , ()
.
.
, , 9.3.8
.
n N, , x, y
x 2 + y2 = n,
(x + iy)(x iy) = n.
a + ib a, b Z,

(a + ib)(a ib) = n.

Z[i ] := {x + iy x, y Z}.
10.0.1. Z[i ] Gauss.
-
(Z[i ], +, ) . ,
Z[i ] Gauss.
10.1 Gauss
= x + iy , 0 = x iy.
( norm) , N ( ) = 0 .
:
(i) N ( ) - .
(ii) N ( ) = 0 = 0.
(iii) N () = N ( )N (), , Z[i ].
325
326 10.
(iv) Z[i ] N ( ) Z.
(v) Z[i ] Z[i ], N ( ) = 1.
(vi) Z[i ] E (Z[i ]) = {1, i } ().
-
Gauss, .
, Z[i ]. ( |), Z[i ]
= , ( - ), .. 2 + i |7 + i.
Gauss . -
:
10.1.1. , Z[i ], , 0. , Z[i ]
= + , 0 N ( ) < N ().
: = a + bi, = c + di, a, b, c, d Z.
a + bi c di ac + bd bc ad
= = + i = e + fi
c + di c di c2 + d2 c2 + d 2
e, f Q
ac + bd bc ad
e= , f = .
c2 + d2 c2 + d 2
g, h Z |g e | 1
2
, |h f | 21 . = g + hi

= + (e g) + (f h )i = = + {(e g) + (f h )i }.

:= {(e g) + (f h )i }. = + . Z[i ], = Z[i ]. :
N ( ) = N ((e g) + (f h )i )N () = N () {(e g)2 + (f h )2 }
1 1 1
N ({ + } = N ( ) < N ( )
4 4 2
N () , 0 , 0.
, , Gauss
: = (, )
| |
Z[i ], |, | |.

Z . Z[i ]
Z[i ] .
Gauss , E (Z[i ])
= ,
, , i, i.
: .
10.1. GAUSS 327
10.1.2. , Z[i ], , 0, ,
.
: , 0 1 , 2 .

1 |, 1 |, 2 |, 2 |
1 |2 , 2 |1 . , 0,
1 , 0, 2 = h1 , 1 = 2 , h, Z[i ].
1
1 = h1 , h = 1 = Z[i ]. , h, E (Z[i ]), 1 , 2
h
.
.
, Z[i ], , , 0
S = { + h | , h Z[i ]}.
= 1 + 0 = 0 + 1 S, S - .
S N ( ) (
;). .
, S, 0 , 0 Z[i ] =
a0 + 0 .
| |, = , = , = (0 + 0 ), |.
S ( , ) .
, S Z[i ] S.
: = 1 + 1 , = 2 + 2 .
= (1 2 ) + (1 2 ) S.
S. = + , , Z[i ], 0 N () < N ( ).
S, S, S , , N () = 0
= 0. = , ( ) |.
, Z[i ], , 0
, Z[i ]
= + .
Gauss.
Gauss 1, i
, i.
Gauss ,
Z[i ] .
Gauss N ( ) = p, p .
.
, |. = , Z[i ].
N ( ) = N ( )N ( ) = p = N ( )N ( ) = N ( ) = 1, N ( ) = 1.
, = , i, 1, i.
:
328 10.
10.1.3. Z[i ] , Gauss
( | = |a |).
. , |, - . |.
1, i, i. - , (, )
Z[i ], (, ) = 1, , Z[i ]
1 = + , = ( ) + (). |, |.
Gauss .
0, 1 Z 0, 1, i Z[i ].

10.1.4. Gauss , 0, 1, i -
.
. , N ( ). N ( ) 2.
N ( ) = 2 ( ) .
N ( ) > 2 Gauss
, . , .
. , Z[i ] = .
1 < N ( ), N () < N ( ) , ,
= 1 2 s , = 1 2 t ,
i , j Z[i ].
= = 1 2 s 1 2 t .
(). ,
, ,
. ,
. :
10.1.5. Gauss 0, 1, i.
.
= 1 2 s = 1 2 t
, s = t ,
1 , 2 , , s , 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , , s , s -
.
. N (). , 0, 1, i. N ( ) 2. N ( ) = 2
= 1 = 1 , . N ( ) > 2
Gauss norm N ( ).
s > 1. 1 |1 2 s 1 |1 2 t ,
1 |j j. 1 , 1 |1 . 1
1 = 1 , Z[i ], 1 , 1 . = 1 2 s = 1 2 t
2 3 s = (2 )3 t .
10.1. GAUSS 329
N (1 ) 2 s > 1
1 < N (2 3 s ) < N (1 2 s ) = N ( ).
s 1 = t 1 ,
, (2 , 2 ), . . . , (s , s ) .
,
.
x 2 + y2 = n. (x + iy)(x iy) = n, :
Gauss
N (x + iy) = x 2 + y2 = n.

Z[i ]. ,
.
10.1.6. Z[i ]. p Z,
|p.
. N ( ) Z, N ( ) = p1 p2 pt , pi Z, . N ( ) = 0 ,
|p1 p2 pt |pi i. , |p
1
|q p , q, 1 = px + qy |px + qy = 1, = 1 =

Gauss, , .
Z[i ]. p = 2 2 =
i (1 + i )2 1 + i Z[i ], N (1 + i ) = 2. Z[i ], |2
1 + i.
p = x + iy|p, p p = , Z[i ].
p2 = N (p) = N ( )N ( ) = N ( ) = p p2 .
x 2 + y2 0, 1, 2 (mod p), x 2 + y2 = p, p 3 (mod 4).
x 2 + y2 = p2 ,
p2 = N (p) = N ( )N ( ) = p2 N ( ) = N ( ) = 1,
Z[i ]. , p 3 (mod 4) p .
p 1 (mod 4). z 2 1 (mod p) (1) . z0
(1).
p|z02 + 1 |z02 + 1 |(z0 i )(z0 + i ) |z0 i |z0 + i.
1 1
p - (z i ) p - (z + i ), z
i < Z[i ].
p p
p 1 (mod 4), p . N ( ) , N (p) = p2 ,
N ( ) = p, 0 = p p 0 .
Z[i ], 0 .
= x + iy N ( ) = x 2 + y2 = p. 0
, = 0 , = 1, i, 0 = x iy.
330 10.
= 1 x + iy = x iy, y = 0 x 2 = p, . = 1, x = 0
y = p, .
2
= i x + iy = i (x iy) = y + ix, x = y p = x 2 + x 2 = 2x 2 , . = i,
x = y, 2x 2 = p, .
:
10.1.7. p . p Gauss :
p = 2, p = i 2 , Z[i ] N ( ) = 2.
p 3 (mod 4), p = N ( ) = p2 .
p 1 (mod 4), p = 0 , 0 - N ( ) = N ( 0 ) = p.

Gauss. , 0, 1, i. -
Z[i ]. = 1 2 s , i Z[i ]. N ( ) =
N (1 )N (2 ) N (s ). i |pi , i = 1, 2, , s, pi . N ( ) =
a a a
p11 p22 ps s ,
ai = 2, pi 3 (mod 4)
( )
ai = 1, pi = 2 pi 1 (mod 4)
N ( ) = m 2 q1 q2 qt , m Z q1 , q2 , , qt
2 1 (mod 4).
,
. 9.3.8
Gauss.
.
Y 3 = X 2 + 1.
(x, y) Z Z
y3 = x 2 + 1.
y3 = (x + i )(x i ), x i Z[i ].
Z[i ]
. .
(x + i, x i ) 1. , x + i 3 ,
Z[i ], x + i = 3 , Z[i ].
Z[i ] E (Z) = {1, i }.
( )
E (Z[i ]) E (Z[i ])
:
7 3
E (Z[i ]).
u 3 , u E (Z[i ]),
x + i = (u )3 = 3 , = a + bi, a, b Z.
10.1. GAUSS 331
x + i = (a 3 3ab2 ) + i (3a 2 b b3 ),
x = a 3 3ab2 1 = 3a 2 b b3 = b(3a 2 b2 ).
b = 1 a = 0.
x = a 3 3ab2 = 0, y = 1.
10.1.8. :
1. Z[i ] -
.
2. Z[i ].
2Y 3 = X 2 + 5.
(x, y) Z Z ,
2y3 = x 2 + 5.
.

2y3 = (x + 5)(x 5).

Z[ 5] = {a + b 5|a, b Z},

. Z[ 5]

E (Z[ 5]) = {1}. 2 Z[ 5]. , 2 = a b
a, b Z[ 5] , N (a )N (b) = 4, N (a ) = N (b) = 2.

a = + 5, , Z, N (a ) = 2 + 52 , 2.

2 | (x + 5) 2 | (x 5)

x+ 5 x 1
= + 5 Z[ 5]
2 2 2

x 5 x 1
= 5 Z[ 5],
2 2 2
.

2Y 3 = X 2 + 5
.
332 10.
! ,
(x, y) = (7, 3). ;
: 2 Z[ 5] .
Gauss.
;

: Z[ 5] .

6 = 2 3 = (1 + 5)(1 5)

Z[ 5].
Fermat 2.3.1 -
A. Wiles.

Xn + Yn = Zn
n 3, - .
n = 4 p. n = 4
Fermat.
p = 3 Euler 1753 1770,
1770. Legendre 1830.
p = 5 1825 1828 Dirichlet Legendre,
.
1837 E. E. Kummer p > 5 p-
p = e 2i/p
p 1
Y
Z =X +Y =
p p
(X + p Y ).
p
=0
Z[p ] := Z + p Z + pp2 Z
! Fermat.
1843 Dirichlet Z[p ]
p .
p = 23.
Kummer
Fermat
(regular) . p < 100
37, 59 67.
Dedekind (1831-1916),
, .
module.

.
Fermat -
, .
10.2. 333
10.2

f (x ) Q[x ].
10.2.1.

f (x ) = x n + bn 1 x n 1 + + b0 Z[x ], f (x ) , 0.
,
f (x ) = x Q[x ].
10.2.2.
Z. ,
f (x ) = x Z[x ].
, Q\Z = ab , a, b Z, (a, b) = 1 b > 1.
.
f (x ) = x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a0 Z[x ]
n + an 1 n 1 + + a0 = 0.
bn
a n + ban 1 a n 1 + bn a0 = 0,
b | a n , , (a, b) = 1.
10.2.3.
Q = { C }
. , Q.
[Q(, ) : Q] = [Q(, ) : Q( )] [Q( ) : Q]
: [Q( ) : Q] < . -
Q( ), [Q(, ) : Q( )] < . [Q(, ) : Q] < ,
Q(, )/Q .
, , , 0, / . Q
.
10.2.4. [4] .
, .
334 10.
A := { Q | }
A , Q.
, :
10.2.5.
,
1, , 2 , . . .
f (x ) := x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a1 x + a0 = 0,
.
, F ( ), F (x ) Z[x ].
F (x ) = (x )f (x ) + u (x ),
u (x ) deg(u ) < n. F ( ) = u ( ),
1, , . . . , n 1 .
, z1 , . . . , zn Z[ ].
1 i n 1 ij Z
n 1
X
zi = ,i zi .
=0

x
.1
In i,j ..

xn
(z1 , . . . , zn )t . det(In ()i,j ) = 0

x n + b1 x n 1 + + b1 x + b0 = 0, bi Z
, .

A Q.
, A. + A.
10.2.5,
G , C.
G .
+ i j ,
G G .
10.2. 335
+
C.
+ A, A Q.
-
Q. , , ...
!
10.2.6. K C
K/Q .
K/Q , , K Q.
10.2.7. Q/Q .
K/Q . ,
K K = Q().
10.2.8. Q, m m A.
, Q
f (X ) = X n + an 1 X n 1 + + a1 X + a0 Q[X ],
f ( ) = 0. m, mai Z, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m
1.
(m )n + man 1 (m )n 1 + + m n a0 = 0,
m A.
K ,
A K = Q().
, K = Q(h ) h Q. m Z := mh A. K = Q(h ) =
Q().
K R := K A K.
,
K [K : Q] = 2.
, Q, .

.
K, K = Q().
[K, Q] = 2 Irr(, Q) ,
Q
Irr(, Q) = X 2 aX b.
a = 0,
= a2
X 2 b0 ,
2
b0 = a4 + b K = Q( ). b0 Q, X 2 b0
Q[X ].
336 10.
b0 = mr 2 , r Q m Z
. m , 1, b0 = r 2 . r , 1
0
00 := K
r

X 2 m.

10.2.9. K Q
m , 1 .

K = Q( m ) = Q[ m ] = {a + b m, a, b Q}.

m > 0, K = Q( m ) R K . ,
, m < 0, K
.
K X 2 m. K/Q
Galois. Galois
G = Gal(K/Q) = {1, },

(a + b m ) = a b m a, b Q.

= a + b m
SK ( ) = + ( ) = 2a

NK ( ) = ( ) = a 2 mb2 .

= a + b m Q
(X )(X ( )) = X 2 SK ( )X + NK ( ). (10.2.1)
: SK ( ), NK ( ) -

a + b m, (10.2.1).
:

10.2.10. Q( m ). SK ( )
Z NK ( ) Z.

= a + b m 2a = , 2b = ,
.
2 2 2 m 2
a 2 mb2 = m = .
4 4 4

, Z 2 m 2 mod4.
10.3. 337
m 2, 3mod4, x Z x 2 0, 1mod4 2 m 2 mod4

0mod2, , Z.
m 1mod4, 2 m 2 mod4 ,
mod2

2
Z

1+ m
=a+b m = + m= + .
2 2 2 2
. K = Q(i ),
K RK =
Z[i ]. K = Q( 5), RK = Z[ 5].
10.3
10.3.1. R (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) n- .
n- R R
:
= a1 1 + a2 2 + + an n
ai Z i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
. , R -
.

K = Q( m )

2 (1 + m ) m 1mod4
1
m =

m
m 2, 3mod4
10.2
.
10.3.2. RK {1, m }.
10.3.3. .
10.3.4. K , [K : Q] = n RK
K. RK n.
, .

K = Q( m ) {1, m }
10.3.2.

10.3.5. DK K = Q( m )

!!2
1 1 m
m 1mod4
DK = det =

.
m m 4m
m 2, 3mod4
338 10.
10.3.6.
.
RK
(unimodular) ,
1 ().
10.3.7.

K = Q( m ).
10.3.8. . -

.
10.4

K = Q( m ) RK -
. RK .
RK RK norm
NK/Q () = 0 = 1, 0 .
= a + bm RK
a 2 b2 m = 1 m 2, 3mod4
1m
a 2 + ab + b2 = 1 m 1mod4.
4
:

m < 0 K = Q( m ) .
m 2 3mod4. a 2 b2 m > 0
a 2 + |m |b2 = 1.
|m | > 1, b = 0, a = 1 = 1.
m = 1
a 2 + b2 = 1,
a = 1, b = 0 a = 0, b = 1, = 1, i.
m 1mod4.
1m |m |
a 2 + ab + b2 = (a + b/2)2 + b2 0
4 4

1m |m |
a 2 + ab + b2 = (a + b/2)2 + b2 = 1.
4 4
|m | > 4 b = 0, a = 1 = 1. |m | 4 m 1mod4,
m m = 3.
1m 3
a 2 + ab + b2 = (a + b/2)2 + b2 = 1.
4 4
10.4. 339
|b| 2 . b = 1 a 2 + a + 1 = 1,
a = 0 a = 1.
b = 0 a = 1 b = 1 a = 0.

1+ 3 1 3 1 + 3 1 3
1, , , , .
2 2 2 2

10.4.1. K = Q( m ) .
RK

{1} m < 4
E (RK ) = m = 4

{1, i }

{1, 1 3 } m = 3

2
m > 0, K .
.
RK
Pell
X 2 mY 2 = 1
, K

x + y m, x, y Z .
10.4.2. B R. RK
1 < < B.
X 2 SK ()X 1.
> 1 NK () = 1, 0
|0 | = 1 < 1,
|SK ()| = | + 0 | || + |0 | 1. 1
RK , , 0 ,
1 < 0 .

10.4.3.
E (RK ) = 0n : n Z .

340 10.
. 1 RK . 0 > 1 0n n .
n,
0n < 0n +1 .
1 0n < 0 0 1 , 0n = 1,
= 0n .
RK , , 1
0n n Z.

; ;
K , [K : Q] = n, K = Q(). f (X )
Q deg f (X ) = n
f (X ) = (X (1) )(X (2) ) (X (n ) ),
(1) = . r1 f (X ) 2r2
.
. r1 +2r2 = n.
10.4.4 ( Dirichlet). r := r1 + r2 1
1 , 2 , . . . , r E (RK ) RK -

= 11 22 rsr ,
s s
si Z i 1, 2, . . . , r .

: K = Q( m ) , f (X ) = X 2 m
r1 = 0 r2 = 1. r = r1 + r2 1 = 0.

K = Q( m ) , r1 = 2 r2 = 0,
r = r1 + r2 1 = 1.
:
;
. -
, RK , K
, .
10.4.5. K D. K = Q( D )

D+ D
RK = Z 2

. K = Q( m ), D {m, 4m }. K = Q( m ) = Q( D ).

4m + 4m

D+ D = 2m + m, m 2, 3mod4
=

2
2 m + m = m 1 + 1+ m , m 1mod4

2 2 2

1+ m
modulo Z m 2
, .
10.5. 341
10.4.6. K D RK = Z[],
= D +2 D , .
:= [1 ] . ( reduced) .
= [a0 , a1 , . . . , ar 1 ] .
0 := qr 1 + qr 2 RK . qk
.
. .
[2].
10.5
10.5.1

K = Q( m ), RK .
(), ,
.
, , K, n,
, N ( ) = 0 , , () p | p.
p .
10.5.1. | p p
p K.
| p N ( ) | p2 , N ( ) p p2 .
N ( ) p, p 0 , 0 K. .
0 0 .
N ( ) p2 , p2 = 0 p 0 .
p , 0 (
0 ) K.

p 0 , N ( ) = N ( 0 ) p
p 2, N ( ) = N ( 0 ) p
p , N ( ) = N ( 0 ) = p2 ,

. K = Q( m )

.
, -
K

a+b D
= ,
2
a, b Z
a Dbmod2,
D .
Legendre.
342 10.
10.5.2.
D ,
Kronecker Dp , p, :

D
p , 2 p - D, p
Legendre.

p | D D
p
= 0.

D 1mod4, D
2
= 2
D
= Jacobi

1 D 1mod8
D
=

2 1 D 5mod8

10.5.3 ( K). K = Q( m ), RK
.
p 0 , p 2, p
Kronecker
! ! !
D D D
= 1, = 0, = 1.
p p p
.

1. p 2 = 0
D
p

2. p 0 Dp = 1

1. Dp = 0, p 2 . p | D.
p , p K . ,

p = 2 m 3mod4, p | m p2 | m, , m
.
p = 2 m 3mod4

2 | 1 m = (1 m )(1 + m ),

2 | (1 m ) 2 | (1 + m ). 4 | (1 m ) m 1mod4, .
p 0 0 .

a+b D
= , a, b Z, a bDmod2
2

ab D
=
0
, a, b Z, a bDmod2,
2

0 = b D.

| p | D = D D, | D | ( 0 ), | 0
0 , p 2 .
10.5. 343

p 2 0 , | 0 | ( 0 ) | ( 0 ) | b D
p | b2 D.
p - b. p , 2 p | b
a 2 b2 D a 2 b2 D
p p | a p2 | p,
4 4
.
p = 2 p | b
a 2 Db2
2
4
D 0mod4
a 2
2 mod4
2
, D 1mod4
a 2 b 2
2 mod4
2 2

. p - b p | D D
p
= 0.

2.
Dp = 1. p , 2,
x 2 Dmodp,
. | p K,

(x D )(x + D ) 0mod
, ,

x D 0mod.
p

x D
< RK ,
p
p , p 0 . 0 , 1. p | D,
.
p = 2, Dp = 1 D 1mod8,

1 + D

1 D 1 D
=

1 1 0mod2,
2 2 4
, 2 K,

1+ D
1 0mod,
2

, , 2 - 1 1+2 D
K , 2 0 0 .
344 10.
, p 0 0 ,

a+b D ab D
= =
0
.
2 2
1. p - b.
a 2 Db2 a 2 Db2
p 0modp K,
4 4
p , 2
Db2
! !
D
2 2
a Db modp = = 1,
p p
p - b. p = 2
D
a 2 Db2 mod8 D 1mod8 = 1.
2

10.5.4. RK
, ( ) = RK ,
10.5.3 .
RK .
10.6
10.6.1. A K K
:
1. a1 , a2 A a1 a2 A
2. RK a A a A
3. A , (0)
4. RK 3 , 0, A RK .
A RK , .
:
RK , K , ,
.
10.6.2. K RK
, A K
,
A = P1 1 P2 2 Ps s ,

Pi RK i N i = 1, 2, . . . , s.
10.6. 345
RK Dedekind.
.
: pZ Z
pRK RK , ;
:
10.6.3 ( , , ).

pRK Q( m )
RK :
D
pRK = Q 2 , N (Q ) = p K
=0
Dp
pRK = Q, N (Q ) = p2 K
= 1
Dp
pRK = Q1 Q2 , N (Q1 ) = N (Q2 ) = p p
K
=1
. .
(p , 2)
X 2 m Legendre. p = 2
.
[3].
10.6.1
( ) :
A B K 3 , 0, A = ( ) B
A B K 3 , N ( ) > 0, A = ( ) B
10.6.4. h (D ) (
h (D )) -
.
10.6.5. K K
.
( ) IK K
.
IK HK .
IK
RK = ,
HK
.
.
346 10.
, K,
.
K , D,
, K -
( ) D, :

10.6.6. K = Q( m ) D. -
( )
D
K.
0 0
: A = Z + Z > 0
D

f (X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 ,
0 0 + 0 0
a= , b= , c= .
N (A ) N (A ) N (A)

f (X, Y ) = ax 2 + bXY + cY 2 ,

b+ D
Z + Z ,
2a
K N ()a > 0.
. [1].
10.6.7.
,
K .
h RK = IK /HK
K , A RK Ah .
10.6.8. A K (, hK ) = 1, A
K
. 1 = x + yh, x, y Z. :
A = Ax +yh = (A )x (Ah )y HK .
10.7
:
2Y 2 = X 2 + 5, (10.7.1)
10.7. 347
.
(x, y) = (7, 3)
(10.7.1). -
K = Q( 5), RK = Z + Z 5

2RK = P22 P2 = (2, 1 + 5)

5RK = P32 P3 = ( 5)
hQ( 5) = 2. (x0 , y0 ) Z Z (10.7.1),

2y03 = (x0 + 5)(x0 5).

(2)(y0 )2 = (x0 +

5) (x0 5)

(x0 + 5), (x0 5) = (x0 + 5)R + (x0 5)R = P2 .

P22 (y0 )3 = (P2 A)(P2 A),
(A, A) = A + A = RK
(y0 )3 = AA.
A RK , A = B3 . A = B3 ,

(2)(x0 + 5) = P22 P2 A = (P2 B)3 ,

P2 B RK , Z[ 5].

(2)(x0 + 5) = ()3

2(x0 +
5) = 3 ,

E (Z[ 5]) = {1}.

0 = a + b 5, a, b Z.

2(x0 + 5) = a (a 2 15b2 ) + b(3a 2 5b2 ) 5,
2x0 = a (a 2 15b2 ) 2 = b(3a 2 5b2 ) b | 2 1, 2.
b = 1 a = 1, x0 = 7, y0 = 3.
(x0 , y0 ) = (7, 3)
.
348 10.

[1] Don Zagier: Zetafunktionen Und Quadratische Korper, eine Einfuhrung in die hohere Zahlen-
theorie. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1981.
[2] Stefan Muller-Stach, Jens Piontkowski: Elementare und algebraische Zahlentheorie.

Vieweg, 2006.
[3] , .: . , , 1986.
[4] , .: . , 1990.
349
350

11.1
-
.
. ,
,
.
[5], [4], [3], [2], [1].
11.2
11.2.1. - G
( )
GG G

(x, y) 7 x y
G1 x, y, z G ( ):
(x y ) z = x (y z ).
G2 e G g G (
):
e g = g e = g.
G3 g G g G ( -
):
g g = e = g g
11.2.2. (G, ),
g G g .
g g1 .
351
352
11.2.3. (G, ) x, y G
x y = y x.
11.2.4. (G, ) G
. G , (G, )
.
1. Z () -
. (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +).
2. modulo n, n N, n > 1:
Zn = {a := amodn |a Z}
( )
( )
Zn Zn Zn

(a, b) 7 a b
, , .
3. Mn (R) n n
.
2i
4. := e n .
{1, , 2 , . . . , n 1 }
, .
n- .
5. modn, n N, n > 1
Zn = {a := amodn |a Z, (a, n ) = 1}
( )
Zn Zn Zn
( )

(a, b) 7 a b
, .
6. Q , R , C - Q, R C
, .
7. Mn (R) n n
, n n
. Mn (R)
GLn (R) := {A Mn (R)| det(A) , 0},
. ,
n > 1, A B = B A.
11.2. 353
11.2.1
11.2.5. (G, ) H G, H -
G, (H, ), G, .
H G H G.

11.2.6. H (G, ),
:
1. (H, ) (G, ).
2. H G :
() e G H.
() x, y H, x y H.
() x H, x 1 H
3. H :
() e G H
() a, b H, ab1 H.
:
1. Z Q R C Q R C .
2.
SLn (R) := {A GLn (R)| det(A) = 1}
GLn (R).
11.2.2
11.2.7. (G, )
x G, G x.
.
: g G n Z, gn :

g g g n 1

| {z }
n

g =
n
n = 0

e

g 1 g n g 1

n < 0

|

{z }
n
G g, G = hgi.
: 4 5 .
11.2.8. , .
11.2.9. G n, G = hgi, -
gd (d, n ) = 1.
354
11.2.3 Lagrange
(G, ) H G . G G
: a, b G,
a b a 1 b H.
. a
aH := {ah |h H }.
11.2.10. H G, H
G [G : H ]. (G, ) |G |.
Lagrange .
11.2.11 (Lagrange). G H G.
|G | = [G : H ] |H |. ,
.
11.2.4
G H G .
, {aH |a G }.
, .
.
11.2.12. G H G. H G
aH = Ha a G, Ha = {ha |h H }.
G H G,
G/H := {aH |a G }
( )
(aH )(bH ) = ab(H ),

.
Lagrange G/H
|G |/ |H |.
G , H
G/H.
11.3
11.3.1
11.3.1. - R () ,
( )
RR R
+
(a, b) 7 a + b
( )
RR R

(a, b) 7 a b
, :
11.3. 355
R1 (R, +) .
R2 x, y, z R ( )
(x y ) z = x (y z ).
R3 x, y, z R ( )
x (y + z ) = x y+x z
(x + y) z = x z + y z.
R4 1R R, 1R , 0, x R
1R x = x 1R ,
R .
R5 x, y R :
x y = y x,
R .
(R4) (R5) R
.
1. Z -
.
2. m N, m > 1, modm, Zm , (
)
( )
Zn Zn Zn

(a, b) 7 a b
Zn Zn Zn
( )

(a, b) 7 a b
3. Gauss
Z[i ] = {a + bi |a, b Z}

.
356
11.3.2. R . x R, x , 0,
y R, y , 0 x y = 0.
11.3.3. -
, .
1. (Z, +, ) .
2. (Zm , +, ) m .
3. Z[i ] .
11.3.4. R1 R -
R
R.
11.3.5. R1 R, -
R x, y R1
x y R1 x y R1 .
11.3.2
11.3.6. R I -
R.
I :
1 I ,
2 r R x I rx I.
11.3.7. R, R ,
h i := {r |r R }.
R R , R
.
: (Z, +, )
Gauss .
11.3.8. R , p R , -
R, R,
, , p = a b, a, b R.
11.3.9. R ,
a , 0 R
R () .
11.4. 357
11.3.10. .
11.3.11. , .

Z[ 5] = {a + b 5|a, b Z}
6 , , -
:
6 = 2 3 = (1 + 5)(1 5).
11.4
11.4.1
11.4.1. -
, .
1. (Q, +, ), (R, +, ), (C, +, ) .
2. p , (Zp , , ) .
3. d Z\{0, 1} ,

K = Q( d ) = {a + b d |a, b Q},
4. K x ,
( )
f (x )
K (x ) = |f (x ), g(x ) K [x ], g(x ) , 0
g(x )
K.
K () Q Zp
p.
p.
11.4.2
11.4.2. L K, L
K L/K.
11.4.3. L/K , L K-
.
358
11.4.4. L/K L K-
[L : K ].
[L : K ] < , .
L/K L, K
, -, f (x ) K [x ], .
L/K L
K.
11.4.5. L/K .
11.4.6. . .
11.4.3
11.4.7. L/K a1 , a2 , . . . , an L, K (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) -
L K a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
K a1 , a2 , . . . , an .
11.4.8. a1 , a2 , . . . , an L
K
K (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = {f (a1 , . . . , an )|f (x1 , . . . , xn ) K [x1 , . . . , xn ]}.
11.4.9. L/K L,
K, [K ( ) : K ] = deg Irr(, K ), Irr(, K ) ()
K.
11.4.4
11.4.10. L/K , L
f (x ) K [x ] K, f (x ) L [x ],
f (x ) = (x 1 )(x 2 ) (x n ),
L = K (1 , . . . , n ).
11.4.11. f (x ) K
Lf .
11.4.5 Galois
11.4.12. f (x ) K [x ] K,
L/K f (x ) K [x ]
L [x ] .
L K,
K f (x ) K [x ] .
L/K L
K.
11.4. 359
11.4.13. L K
K.
11.4.14. L/K Galois ,

L K f (x ) K [x ].
K- L,
L/K Galois,
Galois L/K.
11.4.15. K- L, K L
L K .
11.4.16. L/K L
L = K (). K, L/K .
11.4.17. L/K .
11.4.18. L K ,
L/K .
360

[1] Hungerford, T.W.: Algebra. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer New York, 2012,
ISBN 9781461261018.
[2] Jacobson, N.: Basic Algebra I: Second Edition. Dover Books on Mathematics. Dover Publi-
cations, 2012, ISBN 9780486135229.
[3] Lang, S.: Algebra. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer New York, 2012,
ISBN 9781461300410.
[4] Fraleigh B. John: . , 1995, 2011,

960-7309-71-5.
[5] , ,
: . 2012, 978-960-6706-37-0.
361
362
, Sage
Sage1 , -

Magma2 , Maple3 , Mathematica 4 Matlab5 .
:
sage : 2 + 2
4
f a c t o r ( 2015)
1 5 13 31
prime_range (100)
[ 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53,
59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97]
106 .
prime_pi (10^6)
78498
,
:
i n t e g r a t e (1 + x + x^2 , x )
1/3x^3 + 1/2x^2 + x
numerical_integral (1 + x + x^2 , 0 , 3 ) [ 0 ]
16.500000000000004
1
http://www.sagemath.org/
2
http://magma.maths.usyd.edu.au/magma/
3
http://www.maplesoft.com/
4
http://www.wolfram.com/mathematica/
5
http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/
363
364 , Sage
.
python6 .
() .
1000
:
sum=0
for i in prime_range (1000):
sum=sum+ i ^2
print sum
49345379
sage.
Q[t ]
sage : R = PolynomialRing (QQ, t )
sage : R
Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational F i e l d
()
. t
,
t 2 + 2t + 1.

sage : S = QQ[ t ]
sage : S == R
True
S ( ==
) S, R , () .
.

sage : R. < t > = PolynomialRing (QQ)

sage : R. < t > = QQ[ t ]
<div >

sage : R. < t > = QQ[ ]
-
, :
sage : poly = ( t +1) ( t + 2 ) ; poly
t ^2 + 3 t + 2
sage : poly in R
True
6
https://www.python.org/
365
(),
R.

:
sage : R = PolynomialRing (QQ, t )

sage : t = R.0
sage : t in R
True

.
i
sage : CC
Complex F i e l d with 53 b i t s o f precision
sage : CC.0 # 0th generator o f CC
1.00000000000000 I
Q[t ]
sage : R, t = QQ[ t ] . objgen ( )

sage : f = 2 t ^7 + 3 t ^2 15/19
sage : f ^2
4 t^14 + 12 t ^9 60/19 t ^7 + 9 t ^4 90/19 t ^2 + 225/361
sage : cyclo = R. cyclotomic_polynomial ( 7 ) ; cyclo
t ^6 + t ^5 + t ^4 + t ^3 + t ^2 + t + 1
sage : g = 7 cyclo t ^5 ( t ^5 + 10 t + 2)
sage : g
7 t^16 + 7 t^15 + 7 t^14 + 7 t^13 + 77 t^12 + 91 t^11 +
91 t^10 + 84 t ^9+ 84 t ^8 + 84 t ^7 + 84 t ^6 + 14 t ^5
sage : F = f a c t o r ( g ) ; F
( 7 ) t ^5 ( t ^5 + 10 t + 2)
( t ^6 + t ^5 + t ^4 + t ^3 + t ^2 + t + 1)
sage : F . unit ( )
7
sage : l i s t ( F )
[ ( t , 5 ) , ( t ^5 + 10 t + 2 , 1 ) , ( t ^6 + t ^5 + t ^4 + t ^3 + t ^2
+ t + 1, 1)]
.
,
:
sage : x = QQ[ x ] . 0
sage : f = x^3 + 1; g = x^2 17
sage : h = f /g ; h
( x^3 + 1 ) / ( x^2 17)
sage : h . parent ( )
Fraction F i e l d o f Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over
366 , Sage
Rational F i e l d
sage : R. <x> = PolynomialRing (QQ)

sage : S. <y> = PolynomialRing (QQ)
sage : x == y
False
sage : R == S
False
sage : R( y )
x
sage : R( y^2 17)
x^2 17
.
.
sage : R = PolynomialRing (QQ, " x " )

sage : T = PolynomialRing (QQ, " x " )
sage : R == T
True
sage : R is T
True
sage : R.0 == T.0
True
sage : R. <T> =PolynomialRing (GF ( 7 ) ) ; R

Univariate Polynomial Ring in T over F i n i t e F i e l d o f s i z e 7
sage : f = sum(1/ var ( n%s %i )^ i for i in range ( 1 0 ) )

1/n1 + 1/n2^2 + 1/n3^3 + 1/n4^4 + 1/n5^5 + 1/n6^6 +
1/n7^7 + 1/n8^8 + 1/n9^9 + 1

- Euler, 100 , 359

g- , 115 Carmichael, 138
n- , 185 , 345
- Fibonacci, 225
, 22 , 310
, 352 , 3
, 13 modm, 187
Euler -, 216 Bertrand, 26
ISBN, 125
RSA , 123 , 337
test , 212 , 303
Goldbach, 20 , 17
Solovay-Strassen, 217 , 354
, 355
, 352 , 200
, 121 , 8
, 356 , 309
, 333 , 358
, 3 , 358
Lucas, 237 , 55
Markoff, 274
Pollard, 143 Artin, 194
, 43 Catalan, 68
Monte-Carlo, 140 Euler, 67
, 358 , 79
, 335 , 39
, 333 Galois, 359
, 275 , 357
, 314 , 331
, 355 Pell, 296
, 355
, 359 , 76
367
368
, 3 Gauss, 155
, 38
Artin, 194
Pell, 301 , 34
Euler, 196 , 3
, 56 , 122
Fermat, 97
, 356
modulo m, 93 , 341
, 85, 270
m, 93 (p 1)- Pol-
, 106 lard, 142
, 126 , 158
, 149 , 351
, 354
Dirichlet, 340 , 338
, 9
Fermat, 89
Dirichlet -
, 352
, 176
, 274
Dirichlet -
, 356
, 21
, 331, 356
Dirichlet -
, 83
, 265
modm, 100
Euler, 101
, 13
Hurwitz, 267
Fermat, 82
Lagrange, 131, 354
( ) Mersenne, 81
Lucas, 216
, 36
Wilson, 133
, 320
Wolstenholme, 133
, 61
, 109
Serret, 272 , 228
Euler-Lagrange, 277
, 27 Legendre, 150
, 47 Jacobi, 161
, 318 , 13
, 314 Gauss, 325
, 357
, 16 , 235
Eisenstein, 165 , 255
, 354 , 121
, 117 , 254
Miller-Rabin, 139
Euler, 152 , 78
, 89 Lucas-Lehmer, 214
, 120 , 335
, 121 , 309
, 121 , 150
, 353 Pepin, 215
369
, 121
Fermat, 63
, 356
, 118
, 353
, 136
Lucas, 244
Fibonacci, 236
Fermat, 244

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2

1.3.1 Magicada (public domain). -

2.2.2 Aryabhata Brahmagupta Copyright:Public Domain, -

3.1.1 , (public domain). : Wikime-

6.1.1 Fibonacci, (public domain),

(n + 1)! > n 2 (n + 1) > (n + 1)2 .

5. b|a bk |ak k , 0. , bk |ak b|a

9. b1 |a1 b2 |a2 , b1 b2 |a1 a2 .

r, r 0 [0, |b|) |r 0 r | < |b|. q , q0

0 |r 0 r | < |b| < |b(q q0 )| = |r 0 r |.

1.2.5. a = 145 b = 23, q = 6 r = 7. a = 61 b = 7

11, 111, 1111, 11111, . . .

7. a, b b > 0, 1.2.3 a = bq + r, 0 r < b.

1.3.1: Magicada (public domain). -

C. Caldwell The prime pages.

1.3.3: Euler, : J.E. Handmann (1718-1781),

1.3.10. 3 5 , 29 31, 71 73, 4967 4969.

1849 A. Prince de Polignac n

(p, p+4) (p, p+6)

1.3.4: Yitang Zhang, (public domain).

Yitang Zhang, , 2013 ,

Christian Goldbach (1690-1764),

N. Pipping , 1938, () Goldbach n 105 .

A : = {77, 177, 277, . . .}

1.3.5: T. Tao, (public domain). : Wikimedia

1.3.17. d 2 a, a + d, . . . , a + (n 1)d n > 2 ,

1.3.18 ((N 2 + 1)- ). (N 2 + 1).

x = 1, 2, . . . , 15, 16. Euler

41 x < 40 x = 40. f (40) =

1.3.20 (Euler, Goldbach).

f (m0 + t p) = an (m0 + t p)n + + a1 (m0 + t p) + a0

1.3.22 ( Bertrand). n > 1

x 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

2.5, 4.0, 8.1, 10.4, 12.7, 15.0

Erdos Alte Selberg, .

1.3.6: P. Erdos A. Selberg. (public

1.3.7: (x ) () x/ log(x ) () 1000

N. Levinson, A motivated account of an elementary proof of the prime number theorem,

H. G. Diamond, Elementary methods in the study of the distribution of prime numbers,

1.3.8: Arecibo, Arecibo, -

1. (p, p + 2) p > 3 6|(p + 1)

pr (p) 2n < p(r (p)+1)

r (p) (" # " #) r (p)

2n + 1 < (2n )2 , 42n/3

1.5 ... ...

1. (0, b) = |b| (a, 0) = |a |.

2. a = 76 b = 190. a 1, 2, 4, 19, 38, 76.

. S := {ax + by|x, y ax + by > 0}. S

d = ax0 + by0 > 0.

r = a d q = a (ax0 + by0 )q = a (1 qx0 ) + b(y0 q).

, (a, b) a b d = ax0 + by0 ,

(1.5.1) (1.5.2) d = (a, b).

( 1. (1) 1.5.1. 2., d 0 5 d, d 0 |d,

2. a |bc (a, b) = 1, a |c.

4. m (ma, mb) = m (a, b).

7. a |c, b|c (a, b) = 1 ab|c.

ax0 + by0 = 1 d = (a, b) d |a d |b, d |ax0 + by0 = 1.

(ac )x0 + (bc )y0 = c.

a | bc a | (ac )x0 + (bc )y0 = c.

d2 = (ma )x2 + (mb)y2 = m (ax2 + by2 )

d1 |a d1 |b, d1 |ax2 + by2 .

md1 |d2 . (1.5.4)

(1.5.3) (1.5.4), d2 = md1 .

1.3.2 d , p. p|d |a p|d |b1 b2 . . . bn .