Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research

ISSN: 1094-1665 (Print) 1741-6507 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rapt20

Travel motivation for Taiwanese hearing-impaired

backpackers

Chia-Huei Ho & Hsi-Hsiang Peng

To cite this article: Chia-Huei Ho & Hsi-Hsiang Peng (2017) Travel motivation for Taiwanese
hearing-impaired backpackers, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22:4, 449-464, DOI:
10.1080/10941665.2016.1276464

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2016.1276464

Published online: 06 Jan 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 44

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rapt20

Download by: [FU Berlin] Date: 03 March 2017, At: 06:27

ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH, 2017
VOL. 22, NO. 4, 449464
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2016.1276464

Travel motivation for Taiwanese hearing-impaired backpackers

Chia-Huei Ho and Hsi-Hsiang Peng
Department of Business Administration, Ming-Chuan University, Taipei City, Taiwan

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Why do hearing-impaired people desire to undertake outbound travel as backpackers Hearing-impaired;
despite their hearing and speaking limitations? To investigate the reasons, this study backpackers; travel
applied the push and pull model of travel motivation as the framework. A total of 30 motivation; push and pull
theory
hearing-impaired backpackers participated in face-to-face interviews and responded
to questions concerning their motivation to travel overseas. The results of this study
reveal many unique motivation themes in the push and pull groups; specifically,
five push themes (constraints of group tours, self-challenge, independence,
different experience, and invitation by hearing-impaired friends) and two pull
themes (enjoy local culture and lifestyle and the I have been there feeling) were
identified. Furthermore, the participants desire to travel as backpackers is based on
their previous negative experiences in group tours. Moreover, they prefer
backpacking with hearing-impaired partners than with normal-hearing partners.
Furthermore, for them, their independence enables them to their parents that they
can travel alone. In addition, the study findings suggest that communication
negotiation should be considered for inclusion in the motivation typology as a
new dimension for hearing-impaired backpackers. Finally, the current study
provides valuable insights into the behaviors of hearing-impaired backpackers and
recommendations for tourism operators.

Introduction
The rapid progress of Internet service technology has
enabled people to obtain and share travel information
and experiences through social networking. Using the
Internet, people can receive recommendations
regarding travel planning, including hotel and flight
bookings. Therefore, preparing for traveling has
become easier and more convenient. Typically, back-
packers are organized and frequently travel alone or
with another person, planning their own travel itiner-
ary and making reservations without the assistance of
others (Maoz, 2007). Consequently, backpacking has
quickly become a global travel phenomenon
(Burnett & Baker, 2001; Ooi & Laing, 2010).
Travel motivation is potentially the main driver of
tourist behavior. Among the theories on travel motiv-
ation, the push and pull model is one of the most
accepted frameworks (Chen & Chen, 2011, 2015;
Crompton, 1979; Prayag & Hosany, 2014; Sangpikul,
2008). Push themes are socio-psychological motiva-
tors and refer to travel driven by the desire to accom-
plish such goals as exploring, relaxing, and making
new friends; by contrast, pull themes are the attributes
that attract tourists to a certain destination, such as
scenic beauty and local culture (Chien, Yen, &
Hoang, 2012). Several articles have been published
on push and pull conceptual frameworks related to
the travel motivation of general tourists (e.g. Battour,
Battor, & Ismail, 2012; Hung & Petrick, 2011; Rouven,
Svein, & Katharina, 2015; Yousefi & Marzuki, 2015),
senior travelers (e.g. Galle & Valerie, 2014; Sangpikul,
2008), young tourist (e.g. Prayag & Hosany, 2014), stu-
dents (e.g. Pan, 2012), and volunteer tourists (e.g.
Chen & Chen, 2011). Shi, Cole, and Chancellor (2012)
investigated the effects of mobility impairment on
travel motivation. Although tourists with disabilities
have some limitations, they desire to travel and
enjoy their travel experiences (Ray & Ryder, 2003).

CONTACT Hsi-Hsiang Peng hhpdino@gmail.com Department of Business Administration, Ming-Chuan University, No. 130, Chiho Road,
Shihlin Township, Taipei City, Taiwan
2017 Asia Pacific Tourism Association
450 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
However, few studies have investigated the tourism
problems of hearing-impaired travelers. Hence, the
travel motivation of people with hearing impairment
warrants investigation.
Specially, people with disabilities have the same
desire and ability to travel as normal people (Bizjak,
Knezevic, & Cvetreznik, 2011; Ozturk, Yayli, & Yesiltas,
2008; Ray & Ryder, 2003; Yau, McKercher, & Packer,
2004); the strong motivation to engage in leisure
and tourism activities (Figueiredo, Eusebio, &
Kastenholz, 2012, p. 545); however, they have con-
straints during their travel. Most studies on tourism
for disabled people have included physically disabled
or visually impaired participants (e.g. Daniels, Drogin
Rodgers, & Wiggins, 2005; Daruwalla & Darcy, 2005;
Mactavish, MacKay, Iwasaki, & Betteridge, 2007;
Ozturk et al., 2008; Ray & Ryder, 2003; Small, Darcy, &
Packer, 2012). Few studies, however, have focused
on hearing-impaired individuals. Nevertheless,
despite the hearing and speech barriers that people
with hearing impairment encounter, they possess
the same physical characteristics as ordinary people
and should be treated equally. Therefore, hearing-
impaired are more able to participate in tourism
than others disabilities.
In Taiwan, approximately 1.2 million people have a
diagnosed disability. After people with physical dis-
abilities, those with hearing impairments comprise
the second largest group (Department of Social
Affairs, 2016). Hearing impairment is defined as the
inability to hear sounds at a normal level in decibels.
In other words, people with hearing impairment
have difficulties in receiving voice messages, and
they encounter communication difficulties through-
out their lives (Kim, Stonesifer, & Han, 2012; Yau
et al., 2004). However, why do people with hearing
impairment desire to undertake outbound travel as
backpackers despite their hearing and speaking limit-
ations? Therefore, to understand their desire to
become backpackers, investigating their motivation
to travel as backpacker is crucial.
The present study, therefore, investigated the
travel motivation of hearing-impaired backpackers
and the relationships among the factors in the push
and pull model. We reviewed the literature on back-
packers and hearing-impaired people and adopted a
qualitative methodology to examine the push and
pull factors, which are the theoretical aspects of
travel motivation. Content analyses are presented in
this paper in each section describing the themes. Fol-
lowing a discussion on the travel behavior of hearing-
impaired people, we provide recommendations for
tourism operators.
Literature review
Disabled tourism
The United Nations (UN, 2008) identified people with
disabilities as those who have long-term physical,
mental, intellectual, or sensory impairment that may
hinder their full and effective participation in society
on an equal basis with others. Furthermore, the UN
reported that 650 million people worldwide live with
a disability, comprising the largest minority. Ray and
Ryder (2003) emphasized that disabled people who
desire to participate in tourism have the opportunity
to travel despite related constraints and inconve-
niences. People with disabilities are still growing in
the tourism (Bizjak et al., 2011). Poria, Reichel, and
Brandt (2010a) point out that people with disabilities
travel experience difficulties in their environment.
However, the size of the disabled tourism market is
grown rapidly in recent years. Lee, Agarwal, and Kim
(2012) also indicated that even though have travel
constraints including intrinsic, environmental, and
interactive, the disabled population is no significant
influence on travel intentions. Certainly, disabled
people who desire to travel are similar to normal
people. In other words, consumers with disabilities
are an expanding market in the tourism industry;
however, disabled tourism is a potential market that
warrants further study (Ozturk et al., 2008; Shaw &
Coles, 2004).
Studies have addressed various factors affecting
disabled tourism such as constraints and barriers
(e.g. Bi, Card, & Cole, 2007; Freeman & Selmi, 2010;
Lee et al., 2012), accommodation needs (e.g. Atef,
2011; Kim et al., 2012; Poria et al., 2010a), transpor-
tation limitations (e.g. Chang & Chen, 2011, 2012;
Poria, Reichel, & Brandt, 2010b; Wang & Cole, 2014),
accessibility tourism (e.g. Darcy, 2010; Darcy &
Dickson, 2009; Figueiredo et al., 2012), attitude
toward disabled people (e.g. Bizjak et al., 2011; Kim
& Lehto, 2012; Lovelock, 2010), and social structure
(e.g. Jeans & Magee, 2012; Lundberg, McCormick, &
Tibbs, 2011; Richards, Pritchard, & Morgan, 2010).
However, to date, only a few studies have focused
on the travel motivation of people with disabilities.
Most studies on disabled tourism have focused on
people with physical disabilities (e.g. Bi et al., 2007;
Chang & Chen, 2012; Kim & Lehto, 2012), visual
 ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 451

impairments (e.g. Dias de Faria, Ferreira da Silva, & Backpacker

Brantes Ferreira, 2012; Poria et al., 2010a; Richards
Through the Internet, people can share and acquire
et al., 2010), mental disabilities (e.g. Bedini, 2000),
information concerning travel planning and hotel or
and health impairments (e.g. Bergier, Bergier, &
flight bookings and they can connect with travel
Kubiska, 2010; Bergier, Kubiska, & Bergier, 2013).
experts. Social networking sites such as the Lonely
Although disabled tourism has received considerable
Planet, Rough Guides, Travel Network Group, and
attention, research on tourism for hearing-impaired
CNN Travel are a few popular travel service guides.
people is fragmented and has developed slowly
The popularization of tourism information has
(Peng, Ho, & Chan, 2013).
enabled people to travel whenever or wherever they
In Taiwan, hearing impairment is the second most
choose, supporting a report by the Tourism Bureau
common type of disability after physical disabilities
of Taiwan (2016) that independent travelers (including
(Department of Social Affairs, 2016). In other words,
backpackers) account for 65% of travelers in outbound
of the total disabled population, approximately 11%
tours. Therefore, backpacking has become a notable
(122,000) have a hearing impairment (Table 1).
tourism trend worldwide.
However, people with hearing impairments possess
Backpackers, who book air tickets through travel
the same physical characteristics as those with
agencies and reserve their accommodation through
normal hearing, and they should therefore be
the Internet (Hyde & Lawson, 2003) prefer indepen-
treated equally, despite their hearing and speech diffi-
dent traveling, taking long holidays, meeting people,
culties. Nevertheless, the literature seldom discusses
and participating in recreational activities (e.g.
hearing-impaired tourism.
Murphy, 2001; Teo & Leong, 2006); being self-orga-
Overall, few studies have been conducted on
nized, traveling with a flexible itinerary, and frequently
hearing-impaired people. For instance, Chou, Chao,
traveling alone or with one other person (Maoz, 2007);
and Chien (2009) considered that although hearing-
choosing hostel accommodation because of their
impaired people can function normally and are the
travel budget (e.g. Larsen, gaard, & Brun, 2011; Ooi
second largest group in Taiwans disabled population,
& Laing, 2010); and believing that travelers must
hearing impairment creates communication barriers
possess sufficient knowledge and skills to ensure a
during outbound travel. To feel safe, hearing-impaired
smooth and safe trip (Tsaur, Yen, & Chen, 2010). The
people require hearing assistance devices, and they
present study focused on backpackers who book
prefer travel destinations where they are familiar with
flight tickets and make hotel reservations themselves
the language and they feel secure. Darcy (2010) inves-
or through travel agencies. After departing, they
tigated accommodation accessibility for people with
travel without a tour leader. Regarding their travel
hearing, visual, and mental impairments and found
plans, backpackers arrange transportation, hotels, res-
that most travel plans are managed by families, even
taurants, and sightseeing activities. In other words,
when the traveler is an adult. Freeman and Selmi
backpackers plan their own travel itinerary and make
(2010) surveyed the accommodation needs of French
reservations themselves.
and Canadian tourists with physical, hearing, visual,
Numerous studies have highlighted differences in
psychological, and multiple impairments and found
backpacking motivations across different cultural
that the tourism industry has not developed policies
and ethnic groups. For instance, Mohsin and Ryan
to accommodate tourists with disabilities, causing
(2003) investigated backpackers from various
major barriers. Figueiredo et al. (2012) surveyed 200
countries who visited the Northern Territory in
people with hearing, motor, visual, and intellectual
Australia and found that Japanese travelers were pri-
impairments and found that overcoming physical and
marily motivated by the desire to make new friends
attitudinal barriers and constraints requires various
and interact with others, whereas travelers from the
activities, services, and equipment. Peng et al. (2013)
UK, North America, and New Zealand were motivated
examined the travel behaviors of hearing-impaired
by a long-standing desire to undertake travel and
people participating in group tours and found that
expand their knowledge of the world. Pearce and
hearing-impaired tourists with communication difficul-
Son (2004) studied the youth tourism markets in Aus-
ties trust other hearing-impaired travelers more than
tralia and identified that students, who are more likely
they trust those without a hearing impairment, and
to focus on experiencing the natural environment,
they prefer to obtain travel information from the Inter-
understood Australian culture and participated in
net or friends rather than from travel agencies.
452 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
Table 1. The disabled population in Taiwan.
Year Total Physical
2011 1,100,436 386,317
2012 1,117,518 381,127
2013 1,125,113 379,405
2014 1,141,677 378,448
2015 1,155,650 375,730
a
For example, senile dementia, autism, speech mechanism, multi-disability, losing functions of primary organs, and chronic psychosis.
various activities. Maoz (2007) compared the motiv-
ations of young Israeli backpackers with those of back-
packers from other countries and observed that the
preference to escape together is a common motiv-
ation for young Israeli and Japanese backpackers.
McNamara and Bruce Prideaux (2010) investigated
women who have traveled alone in tropical Northern
Queensland and revealed that they were primarily
motivated by safety and the ability to participate in
various activities. Paris and Teye (2010) conducted
an online survey of U.S. residents aged 2130 years
and identified 6 motivations to travel: personal and
social growth, experience, budget travel, indepen-
dence, cultural knowledge, and relaxation.
Larsen et al. (2011) studied Norwegian budget tra-
velers and determined that they are more motivated
by knowledge and cultural awareness than other tour-
ists are; however, they are less motivated by luxury.
Chen, Bao, and Huang (2014) examined the motiv-
ations of Chinese backpackers and identified four
motivating themes: social interaction, self-actualiza-
tion, destination experience and escape, and relax-
ation. In summary, travel motivations differ among
youths, students, and general visitors; thus, people
vary considerably in their travel motivations for
backpacking.
Push and pull motivation
Motivation is a critical factor in decision-making pro-
cesses and a complex socio-psychological phenom-
enon. Travel motivation is helpful for understanding
travel needs and tourist behaviors (Chen & Chen,
2015). Crompton (1979) identified two categories of
motivation to explain tourist behavior on the basis
of the push and pull model: socio-psychological
motives and cultural motives. Socio-psychological
motivators, which refer to the motivation of tourists
who are predisposed to travel according to their
desire to do something, comprise seven push
themes: escape from a perceived mundane environ-
ment, self-exploration and self-evaluation, relaxation,
prestige, regression, relationship improvement, and
Hearing Mental Vision Othersa
120,035 98,407 56,373 439,304
122,285 99,621 56,582 457,903
122,348 99,488 56,840 467,032
122,988 100,588 57,102 482,551
122,906 100,797 57,319 498,898
facilitation of social interaction. Novelty and education
are two pull themes (cultural motives) considered rep-
resent attributes that attract tourists to a destination
and satisfy their travel needs. The push themes
explain the desire and decision to take a vacation,
whereas the pull themes influence the selection of
the travel destination according to the destination
attributes. In other words, push themes motivate
people to travel, whereas pull themes affect their
selection of a travel destination. Hence, the push
and pull motivation concept has become a crucial fra-
mework for examining travel motivation.
Following Cromptons development of travel
motivation theory, several studies have attempted to
determine push and pull themes in research subjects
from various backgrounds. For example, Klenosky
(2002) studied travel decisions and revealed that pull
themes influence the destination choice for travelers.
Kim, Lee, and Klenosky (2003) examined Korean visi-
tors to national parks and identified a unique push
theme (health) and two pull themes (accessibility
and transportation). Jang and Wu (2006) surveyed Tai-
wanese senior travelers and identified five push
themes and three pull themes. Among them, knowl-
edge seeking and cleanliness/safety were the most
crucial motivations. Sangpikul (2008) investigated
Japanese senior travelers to Thailand. Of the three
push themes and four pull themes identified in that
study, novelty/knowledge seeking and cultural/his-
torical attractions were shown to be crucial factors.
Llewellyn-Smith and McCabe (2008) investigated stu-
dents who participated in an international exchange
program to Australia and revealed that fun and excite-
ment were crucial motivations; in addition to indepen-
dence, safety, and security, improving job prospects
was a unique theme identified in that study. The
study identified 12 push themes and 15 pull themes.
Chen and Chen (2011) studied the motivations of
international volunteer tourists; unique themes ident-
ified in that study include the unique style of the trip,
time and money considerations, and the goals of the
voluntary organization. Pan (2012) explored the
motivation of Taiwanese students to volunteer

overseas; the unique themes identified in that study
were a desire to give back for reciprocity, an economi-
cal means of traveling, and parental compulsion.
Battour et al. (2012) studied Muslim tourists to Malay-
sia and identified five push themes and four pull
themes; the unique push theme was achievement
and the unique pull theme was visiting a modern
environment. Prayag and Hosany (2014) investigated
young tourists from the United Arab Emirates to
Paris; the study identified 19 motivation factors, and
the unique factor was the opportunity to pamper
themselves and their families. Assiouras, Skourtis,
Koniordos, and Giannopoulos (2015) studied Japa-
nese, Chinese, and Korean tourists to Greece and
identified four push themes (knowledge, ego
enhancement, escape, and relaxation and novelty)
and four pull themes (leisure, shopping and safety;
variety and cost; culture and heritage; and travel
arrangements and facilities). Chen and Chen (2015)
surveyed international birders motivations and pre-
ferred destination attributes. The results revealed six
push themes and four pull themes, of which contri-
bution and sharing, spiritual refreshment, compe-
tition, avian resources, and professional guides were
identified as unique themes. Yousefi and Marzuki
(2015) surveyed international tourists to Malaysia
and determined that novelty and knowledge seeking
as well as cultural and historical attractions were the
most crucial motivation themes.
Different ethnic groups have reported different
travel motivation factors such as destination loyalty
(Leong, Yeh, Hsiao, & Huan, 2015; Yoon & Uysal,
2005), rural tourism (Devesa, Laguna, & Palacios,
2010; Park & Yoon, 2009), pilgrimage tourism (Hyde
& Harman, 2011), family reunion (Kluin & Lehto,
2012), and cruising tourism (Hung & Petrick, 2011). In
recent years, multiple definitions of motivation have
been proposed for different factors that influence
peoples travel motivations. Numerous studies have
contributed to the push and pull framework to eluci-
date travel motivation.
Shi et al. (2012) adopted push and pull theory to
investigate the travel motivation of people with mobi-
lity impairments and found that in addition to accessi-
bility and independence, the desire to be in a natural
environment, adventure/risk, and accomplish it
today, were unique travel factors. However, few
studies have investigated the travel motivation of
people with hearing impairments. Therefore, those
who travel have not received the attention they
require, and additional research is required (Ray &
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 453
Ryder, 2003). Moreover, thus far, relatively few
studies have focused on backpackers. Hence, the
present study was conducted to investigate the
travel motivation of backpackers with hearing impair-
ments to identify related push and pull themes.
Methodology
Research design and sampling
This study investigated the travel motivation of
hearing-impaired backpackers. Studies on travel
motivations have applied qualitative research meth-
odologies and unstructured interviews to collect
data (e.g. Maoz, 2007; Murphy, 2001; Ong & Cros,
2012; Srensen, 2003). Hence, the current study con-
ducted in-depth personal interviews to identify the
reasons for hearing-impaired travelers to become
backpackers. Data were obtained from backpacking
tourists by using the scale development procedure
and frameworks proposed by Crompton (1979).
Certain studies have applied a content analysis to
identify the core themes of the motivations under-
lying travel behaviors (e.g. Chen & Chen, 2015; Lo &
Lee, 2011; Pan, 2012). Therefore, the current study
adopted face-to-face interviews to collect data,
which were analyzed through a content analysis.
We interviewed backpacking tourists with severe
hearing loss (90 dB). Recruiting hearing-impaired
backpackers from a single origin was difficult
because of their diverse backgrounds; therefore, the
respondents were selected through a three-step
sampling method, which was adopted to construct
the motivation scales. The first step involved conven-
ience sampling; potential respondents were identified
from the Taiwanese Deaf and Hard of Hearing Welfare
Promotion Association, an organization that protects
the human rights of hearing-impaired people and
enhances their social participation. In the second
step, on the recommendations of previous intervie-
wees, a snowball sampling approach was adopted to
improve the quality of the interview data. Finally,
this study applied purposive sampling methods for a
survey. The study recruited 30 hearing-impaired back-
packers who constituted the primary sample.
Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of
the respondents. Most respondents were younger
than 45 years, more than 50% of them had 24 experi-
ences of backpacking, and 65% were women. Most of
the respondents could communicate using sign
language. A total of 80% of the respondents had a
454 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG

college degree, and 80% of them had an annual which lasted for approximately 4070 minutes, to
income of < US$15,000. To assist the respondents in increase the quality and validity of the narrative.
recalling their backpacking experiences, they were Despite these efforts to collect data, communication
asked to bring their travel itinerary and photographs barriers complicated the interviews. Therefore, in
to the interview. most cases, their descriptions were incomplete. In
other words, the narratives were highly fragmented.
The sample size was increased as much as possible
Data collection according to the interview process, which continued
An open-ended questionnaire was administered; it until theoretical saturation was reached (Lo & Lee,
included questions such as Why did you want to
travel as a backpacker? The purpose of the open-
ended questions was to allow the respondents to Table 3. The hearing-impaired backpackers travel motivation themes.
express their opinions and provide insights into their Main themes Subthemes Frequencies
concerns. Because of the study design and level of Push
Constraints of group Negative experiences from 25
detailed information, the interviews were recorded tours group tours
using a tape recorder and later transcribed. All partici- Difficult to understand tour 23
pants agreed to this arrangement. Data were collected guides explanation
Unable to talking with normal 22
individually, and the interview transcripts were used members
for subsequent coding and analysis. Avoid rush tour 19
Before the interview, the researchers explained the Freedom and flexibility travel 18
Self-challenge The feeling of improved 23
research purpose to the respondents. Because the courage
respondents had hearing and speech impairments, a A positive attitude for my self- 22
sign language teacher assisted with the interviews to arrangement
Adventure and stimulation 18
facilitate the recording process; two respondents travel
used a pen to write the answers on paper. The inter- Challenge myself to travel 17
views were conducted from October 2014 to March Ambition to do it 16
I can overcome barriers 14
2015, and each interview lasted approximately two Accept the risks 13
hours. Seven respondents were interviewed again, Just do it 10
Independence Attempted to travel alone 22
Let my parents know that I can 19
Table 2. Socio-demographic profiles of Taiwanese hearing-impaired travel independently
backpackers (n = 30). Enjoyed and did not feel 15
pressured
Socio- Different experiences Looking for new experience 22
demographic Percents Socio-demographic Percents The world is a novelty 20
variables (%) variables (%) Expected for surprises 18
Gender Narrative patterns experience
Male 35 Only sign language 55 Make foreign friends 16
Female 65 Simple speaking with 24 Increase the fun from different 15
sign language interpersonal
Age Speaking without 14 I could be different after the 12
sign language trip
2125 30 Only pen and paper 7 Invitation by I trusted my friends 23
2645 65 Frequency of hearing-impaired The hearing impairment 20
backpacking travel friends partner should have smooth
46 and above 5 One time 25 communication
Occupation Two to four times 55 My friends had backpacking 15
Government 45 Five times or more 20 experience
sector Pull
Company 30 Annual income Local culture and Enjoyed and being immersed in 28
employee lifestyle foreign cultures
Business owner 15 Less than US$10,000 25 Able to understand the foreign 25
Student 5 US$10,00115,000 55 lifestyle
Housewife 5 US$15,00120,000 15 I have been there A destination on a previous trip 14
Education level US$20,001 or more 5 feeling Ive been to the place with my 10
Senior high school 15 family before
College degree 80 Returned to previously visited 7
Master or above 5 destinations

2011); finally, 30 interviews were transcribed. The
researchers established the accuracy of the transcripts
through reconfirmation by the interviewees, thereby
enhancing the internal validity.
Data analysis
In this study, content analysis was conducted using
NVivo software to explore the magnitude of the inter-
viewees motivations and to sort the motivations into
groups. The detailed analysis of the processes
included coding, classification, induction, and theme
identification (Lo & Lee, 2011; Pan, 2012). Coding
was performed after the text was entered into the soft-
ware. Two examiners (who had experience working in
a travel agency for more than 20 years) independently
coded the transcriptions from the 30 respondents and
guided them where necessary to reach agreement on
what their travel motivations were according to the
push and pull framework. A third person was con-
sulted when the two examiners disagreed on the
coding results.
The main themes were identified in the form of tree
nodes according to the NVivo 9 qualitative software
program, from which emerging themes became
clear (Wong & Musa, 2014). Notably, the main
themes were derived from the subthemes (Table 3).
Each author reconfirmed the main themes and sub-
themes ensure mutual agreement in the themes.
This was accomplished through analysis and greater
emphasis on the thought processes.
Results and discussion
Table 3 presents the study results including 7 main
themes and 30 subthemes that were identified
through applying the push and pull framework to
the 30 interview transcriptions. The push themes
included the constraints of group tours, self-chal-
lenges, independences, different experiences, and
being invited by hearing-impaired friends. Pull
themes included enjoy local culture and lifestyle and
the I have been there feeling. These themes are
described and discussed in the following subsections.
Push themes
Constraints of group tour
Several interviewees emphasized that their desire for
backpacking was based on negative experiences
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 455
that had previously had in group tours. Many respon-
dents indicated that they could not understand their
tour guides explanations and that the guides did
not use sign language or other effective communi-
cation methods to help them understand. One
respondent stated, I knew nothing about the attrac-
tions and was too embarrassed to ask, I could only
look at them; hence, I chose backpacking, and
many other interviewees made similar statements.
Another respondent stated, I was on a group tour in
Thailand 3 years ago. I could not read the tour
guides lips to understand the introduction, because
he used a microphone, which obstructed my view of
his mouth. This lead to most respondents being
unable to understand when their pick-up times were
or what the announcements were related to.
In addition, most of the respondents reported that
communication with people with normal hearing they
met at restaurants or on buses was impossible during
their group tours. Therefore, the hearing-impaired
people were silent while dining at restaurants and
focused on the scenery while on the bus. It appears
that the hearing-impaired tourists encountered diffi-
culty interacting with others and were often met
with indifference.
Moreover, they were also tempted on many
occasions to stay longer at certain attractions for
observation and picture taking instead of listening to
the tour guides. Some respondents preferred to
travel with a more flexible itinerary that offered
them more freedom. The interviewees experienced a
change of emphasis in their travel considerations
from travel content to travel communication. In
other words, most of the respondents needed flexible
journey plans without any restrictions and to travel
slowly and to join various in-depth group tours.
Several respondents reported that they did not want
wake up calls and bedtime curfews, and needed
their free time to travel without being rushed in
group tours. One respondent said, I am worried
about the influence of group tours because they
limit me such as when morning pick up times are
delayed.
Research in the literature has verified that group
tours can have a powerful constraints to people with
disabilities (McKercher, Packer, Yau, & Lam,
2003).Therefore, because of the constraints and incon-
veniences that hearing-impaired people encounter on
group tours, such as communication barriers with
other tourists and tour guides, many of them prefer
to travel as backpackers, despite the likelihood of
456 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
encountering considerable difficulty communicating
with people during their trip.
Self-challenge
Some people with disabilities often fail to view their
social status positively, suppress their self-esteem,
and constrain their potential (Daniels et al., 2005).
However, some interviewee are brave, confident,
and willing to take up challenges stemming from
new external environments, and engage in self-
encouragement and self-affirmation. They choose to
become backpackers to encourage themselves and
show others that they are capable of being a back-
packer. In other words, they do not measure them-
selves and compare with others by their hearing
ability; by challenging themselves, they seek to recog-
nize themselves in positive light. Hence, Although
people with a hearing impairment experience difficul-
ties in understanding foreign languages while travel-
ing, most of the respondents affirmed that, despite
their hearing impairment, they could do various
things that people with normal hearing could not,
such as understanding others or speaking clearly in
a foreign country; thus, they did their best and did
not feel pressured on their trip. They described the
feeling of having their courage improved because
they could express their ideas to others by using
body language or other methods. Some of the respon-
dents claimed that backpacking was a good method
for practicing courage. A respondent said, Despite
having a hearing impairment, I think that traveling
alone or as a backpacker is not that difficult. Although
people with a hearing impairment have encountered
barriers to traveling as a backpacker, it was their
powerful motivation that pushed them to overcome
these hurdles and improve their courage.
Many of the respondents mentioned that although
they have a hearing impairment, they wanted to chal-
lenge themselves to travel. Another respondent said,
I had more experiences from traveling alone. Although
this was more challenging than traveling with a group, I
think I can remember everything I experienced with a
positive attitude, particularly because I arranged every-
thing myself. I needed to change myself and have a
more positive attitude to face backpacking.
Several respondents mentioned that they were
reserved and embarrassed before traveling; however,
they were lled with the ambition to use body
language while traveling as a backpacker. A
respondent expressed, I practice handling everything
by myself, which shows that I can overcome barriers
and undertake backpacking. Moreover, they used
various methods to overcome barriers they encoun-
tered while traveling.
Some backpackers with hearing impairment turn to
backpacking because of previous unpleasant touring
experiences with tour groups. After completing their
first backpacking trip, they gain behavioral health
benefits, enhance their self-identification, and build
up their self-confidence. These results generate posi-
tive perceptions on self-challenging their abilities.
This approach is in line with that of Ting and Kahl
(2016) who argue that backpacker passes through
states of adventure and recreational activities, to
arrive at the next level of self-discovery and self-actua-
lization journeys which they perceive to deliver a pro-
moting growth. Hence, although people who have a
hearing impairment experience more barriers when
traveling than those with normal hearing, the intervie-
wees maintained that they had the desire for adven-
ture and were stimulated to travel as a backpacker.
One respondent said, Travel uncertainties, such as
bus delays or flight cancelations, meant finding a sol-
ution to the problem by my-self. Many of the respon-
dents considered that being a backpacker was more
stimulating than traveling with a tour group. Although
they have hearing limitations, they were willing to
prove themselves and accept the risks of an adventur-
ous and stimulating travel.
Some of the participants explained that they can
travel and would not give up backpacking when tra-
veling abroad; and Just to travel better than I want
to travel. The interviewees demonstrated a highly
positive attitude. A participant explained her
concern: I was unable to travel when I was young
[I was] waiting to explore the new world
without considering the hearing and language bar-
riers, [I just wanted] travel right now. In other
words, backpackers with hearing impairment who
desire to travel not just for leisure, but to find personal
accomplishment meaning.
Independence
Independence in particular was confirmed to motivate
the study participants. Although they had a hearing
impairment, they attempted to travel alone or
without their families to show their parents that they
can travel independently. A participant explained,
Both my parents worry that I cannot take care of

myself, but I can. The participants considered that
they could not only travel, but they could travel inde-
pendently. Although hearing-impaired people experi-
ence barriers to understanding foreign languages
during their travels, most of the participants affirmed
that, despite their hearing impairment, they enjoyed
their trip and did not feel pressed during their
travels. Hence, independence was identified as a
theme in this study. However, the meaning of inde-
pendence differs from that used in previous studies
(e.g. Teo & Leong, 2006).
Clearly, most parents with hearing-impaired chil-
dren worry about them traveling alone because of
their hearing and speech difficulties, and their
parents fear that their children might encounter
obstacles and danger while traveling. This is similar
to the results of Darcy (2010) who mention that
parents tried to stop them from traveling alone and
the management of travel plans by their families. In
other words, without familys support, it is difficult
for a person with a disability to travel (Yau et al.,
2004). However, people with hearing disabilities
believe that this does not affect their ability in
normal activities, such as staying in a hostel, taking a
bus, and visiting attractions. Those with confidence
believe that traveling in foreign countries without
their families is not difficult, and they are proud of
their independence. Furthermore, this finding explains
why certain parents might not support their child to
undertake backpacking.
Different experience
A luxurious lifestyle does not go with a disability in
Chinese culture (Yau et al., 2004). On the other hand,
they should live a simple life. Hence, the hearing-
impaired tourists expected new experiences and the
excitement of an unknown journey through backpack-
ing. Most of the external world is a novelty for people
with disabilities. One participant said, Because of the
barriers I encounter in daily life, I desire to experience
new and different things. For example, I like to join
foreigners parties and observe the uniqueness of
their houses and cars during my travel. Another par-
ticipant emphasized the excitement of new experi-
ences: My life is boring in Taiwan as long as I can
encounter something new when abroad, I am very
excited. Some respondents hoped that they would
have surprising experiences and would review their
future after the trip. Most respondents said that they
expected surprises during their travels, such as
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 457
getting free transportation or a bigger discount at
outlets, more than in Taiwan. One respondent said,
I went to Vancouver for the Olympics and Canada
was an amazing place the world is great. In other
words, they may be limited by their hearing impair-
ment and may have a boring life in Taiwan.
Similarly, with positive travel experience, people
with disabilities become motivated to engage in tra-
veling again (Smith, 1987). Thus, experience plays a
vital role in determining whether a person would
engage in future tour trips as well as the content of
and preferences for future trips. Additionally, pleasant
travel experiences build the confidence and motiv-
ation of people with hearing disabilities, inducing
them to want to travel more (Chou et al., 2009). Travel-
ing becomes a motive to relieve work stress and a
channel for them to relax. From these viewpoints,
the participants desired to interact with local people
to form new relationships during their travels, and
they looked forward to the other pleasures in future
travels. Hence, they expected different experiences
and enjoyed being in a foreign country when
backpacking.
Invitation by hearing-impaired friends
Participants also reported that they became backpack-
ers after being asked by friends to travel. This empha-
sizes the importance of a partner for hearing-impaired
people during travel. Several participants mentioned
that their hearing-impaired friends had backpacking
experience. A participant said, For almost all of my
backpacking travels, I was invited by friends, and I
trusted them including those who had a hearing
impairment. In addition, they traveled with a friend
who confirmed the travel plans beforehand. One par-
ticipant commented, My friend handled all the
details, including the flight and hotel bookings and
travel documents. The vacation enhanced our friend-
ship. Certain interviewees indicated that they chose
backpacking with friends because they cared about
spending time together. Three interviewees believed
that inviting a friend backpacking is a good idea;
even a person with a hearing disability can be
accepted. The hearing-impaired partner should have
smooth communication through sign language and
lip reading (Peng et al., 2013). This finding is similar
to what Ray and Ryder (2003) referred to as trust pro-
cessing by disability together as like them. The results
revealed a clear and strong relationship between the
458 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
participants and their friends, even if they had a
hearing impairment.
When engaging in tourism activities, travel compa-
nions are an effective catalyst and can be viewed as a
potential motivating factor for people with hearing
disabilities. When choosing travel companions,
people with hearing disabilities may consider people
with similar conditions their top choice. In addition,
they prefer those with abundant experiences
because the latter can communicate favorably, under-
stand each others physiological conditions, and is
more tolerant and empathetic of each other (Peng
et al., 2013). Therefore, travel companions who
people with hearing disabilities are familiar with and
who have travel experiences provide practical assist-
ance for hearing-impaired individuals and are a
source of a sense of safety during tour trips (Chou
et al., 2009). On the other hand, the disabled people
who strong interdependencies exist between self
and people of homogeneity (Blichfeldt & Nicolaisen,
2011).
Additionally, they also expected to make new
friends while backpacking. One interviewee said, In
Berlin, Germany, I met some foreigners and friends
who invited me to a pub. Two interviewees said
that they wanted to make new friends on their trip
so that they could improve their interpersonal
relations in a foreign country. Several participants
mentioned that they hoped to meet new friends to
have more fun while traveling, and that unexpected
and exciting events might occur. Certain participants
described how they met foreign friends at youth
hostels and made more friends and asked them
where they could find fun activities and eat delicious
food.
Although backpackers hail from varying countries,
a homogeneous sense of self-identity forms when
they meet in a foreign land. Through shared imagin-
ations, they quickly identify themselves and engage
in conversation, establishing dynamic relationships
(Chen & Yen, 2008). Thus, people with hearing impair-
ment can expand their interpersonal relationships,
bolster their friendship, and enrich their lives
through backpacking.
Pull themes
Enjoy local culture and lifestyle
Some of the respondents reported that they enjoyed
experiencing and being immersed in foreign cultures
and local lifestyles. Two respondents reported that
they liked Japans local culture, and many of the art
centers there enabled them to have their own histori-
cal memories. Another respondent said, I admire
British culture, and I particularly enjoy the campuses
of the University of Cambridge and the University of
Oxford. Furthermore, one respondent noted, In
Rome, I made some foreign friends who invited me
to their homes and I was able to understand the
local lifestyle. Numerous respondents described
how they met some foreign friends at a youth hostel
and were able to make more friends who could rec-
ommend places to visit for delicious food and fun
activities.
Consequently, foreign cultures and lifestyles were a
main theme among the interviewees, which is consist-
ent with the findings of previous studies (e.g.
Assiouras et al., 2015; Sangpikul, 2008; Yousefi &
Marzuki, 2015). In other words, there are certain simi-
larities between people with hearing impairment and
ordinary people are curious and have a desire for
knowledge. Some of them would thus like to
engage in an unconventional form of backpacking
to experience in depth the cultures of different
countries.
I have been there feeling
Disabled tourists how to face constraints as well as
value related to holidays depends on the former
travel experiences (Blichfeldt & Nicolaisen, 2011).
Hence, more respondents became backpackers after
visiting a destination with a group tour on a previous
trip. One respondent said, I have been to Tokyo on a
group tour. Hence, I understand how to visit these
places by myself. Three respondents mentioned
that the last time they traveled, they went with
friends; thus, they felt able to travel alone or with
someone else as a guide. One respondent indicated,
As long as I have been to the place with my family before,
I would not worry about how to travel in the local area. I
can take a bus, visit attractions, and look for a restaurant. I
do not think it is difficult for me.
As mentioned, it appears that hearing-impaired
people tend to become backpackers after participat-
ing in a group tour or having been to a destination
before. Certain participants reported that they
returned to previously visited destinations because
of their familiarity with the destinations and to
reduce the risks involved traveling to an unknown

destination. This also removes anxiety during travel.
When visiting places they have been to before,
because they may have had experiences with the
local transportation systems, they are able to, by
themselves, use travel books effectively to travel
within the region and look for places to dine and
visit. In addition, they can avoid awkward situations
arising from communication problems by not having
to ask stranger for directions. Furthermore, they are
highly reliant on locally spoken and written language.
A respondent said, I go to Japan because they use
Kanji characters, which are similar to Chinese charac-
ters so I can read them. Even if the characters are
accompanied by Japanese characters, I can still
guess what they mean. Another respondent stated,
When making accommodation bookings for my first
backpacking trip, I saw Chinese characters. The owner
in South Korea said he was Chinese, and could speak
and write Chinese. In addition, he told me where to
visit and gave me various travel directions Thus, I
decided to go to South Korea and stay at his place.
Evidently, place familiarity mitigates risks related to
visiting unfamiliar countries or regions (Chou et al.,
2009). For people with hearing impairment, familiarity
includes images and local languages of the target
region. Familiarity imparts a sense of security, miti-
gates fear, and induces them to become backpackers
in the target region.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this study was to explore the
motivations of hearing-impaired Taiwanese travelers
to become backpackers. The study results reveal that
the hearing-impaired backpackers always had a posi-
tive outlook, despite them encountering more com-
munication barriers than people with normal hearing
typically would; in other words, their hearing impair-
ment did not hinder their aspiration for backpacking.
Notably, they preferred to travel with a hearing-
impaired backpack partner rather than a person with
normal hearing. People with hearing impairments
tend to communicate in a similar manner, such as
through sign language or lip reading, which does
not cause them any additional inconveniences. Simi-
larly, while backpacking, the participants preferred to
trust and rely on hearing-impaired friends rather
than people with normal hearing. Moreover, they
chose to travel with certain friends because they
cared about each other, specifically because friends
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 459
with similar characteristics (i.e. those with a hearing
impairment in this case) can communicate smoothly.
Peng et al. (2013) indicated that hearing-impaired tra-
velers are concerned for each other and at ease when
traveling together because of the exclusive inter-
actions in their silent relationship on their journey.
In addition, hearing-impaired people can be back-
packers despite the barriers they encounter. In
addition to being unafraid of being independent
and inconvenienced, they were also courageous and
adventurous. Overall, leaving their home and a fam-
iliar environment was often an adventure. This
finding is consistent with that of Bi et al. (2007),
whom mentioned that travelers with physical disabil-
ities also encounter barriers away from home.
However, numerous difficulties increased the barriers
they encountered during their travel. Specifically, the
difficulties encountered by hearing-impaired tourists
differ considerably from those encountered by tourists
with normal hearing. Therefore, they considered tra-
veling as a backpacker as a means for challenging
themselves and maintaining their self-confidence.
Although communication between hearing-
impaired people and other people is a major barrier
(Kim et al., 2012), those with hearing impairments
still want to enjoy traveling. They employ various
methods to communicate with people and are
encouraged to overcome any barriers during their
trips. They tend to use many communication styles,
including body language, paper and pen, iPads,
iPhones, sign language (if needed), and simple speak-
ing with new friends and service employees. They con-
sider that communicating with strangers is not
difficult and that their experiences while traveling
improve their communication skills. They would like
to communicate more effectively with other people
when negotiating to overcome constraints and enjoy
their travel experiences. Hearing-impaired tourists
are not incompetent while participating in tourist
activities and can have a relationship with other
people (Ozturk et al., 2008). These findings are consist-
ent with those of previous studies (Daniels et al., 2005;
Figueiredo et al., 2012). As mentioned, accessible com-
munication is crucial for hearing-impaired individuals.
This highlights the importance of communication
negotiation, which could be included in the motiv-
ation typology as a new dimension for hearing-
impaired backpackers. In this typology, Kimmm
(2012) defined leisure activity constraint negotiation
as leisure activity participation constraint manage-
ment: negotiating or managing constraints. Three
460 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG

constraint categories that are barriers to participation Recommendations

for people with physical disabilities are intrapersonal,
This research has provided greater understanding of
interpersonal, and structural or environmental com-
hearing-impaired backpacker behaviors. In particular,
munication (Daniels et al., 2005). Travel planning,
it has highlighted the information required for
accommodation, transportation, and activities
hearing impairment to make informed motivations
involve unique travel constraints. While backpacking,
about their backpacking. Hence, the finding of this is
people with a hearing impairment try to overcome
study also have recommendations of implications for
communication constraints that affect their pleasure
tourism operators.
through negotiating with fellow tourists. In other
Based on negative experiences of group tour, travel
words, they choose to participate in backpacking
agents should tailor-made the tour for hearing-
and overcome constraints through negotiation
impaired people. In other words, tourism operators
processes.
should offer unique services for eliminate constraints
In particular, their wish to experience something
experiences in group tour, such as service providers
new appears to be unaffected by numerous limit-
and tour guides with flexible communication skills
ations. Hearing loss or a lack of language narrative
(e.g. sign language, body language, or writing), to
limits travelers while they are on their journey.
create a pleasurable travel experience. Ray and
However, they have high expectations, a desire to par-
Ryder (2003) also indicated that hearing-impaired
ticipate in activities, and look forward to a new life fol-
tourists need sign language service for interpreters
lowing their travel experiences. Although similar
and communication in the trip; furthermore, service
points have been made in previous studies (e.g.
providers should offer positive attitude, smiling and
Bond & Falk, 2013; Uriely, Yonay, & Simchai, 2002),
using the same body language for both normal-
such studies have explained the desire for new experi-
hearing and hearing-impaired tourists in group
ences among tourists with normal hearing; however,
tours. These suggestions are consistent with those
expecting a new experience has a specific meaning
offered by Peng et al. (2013), in which the communi-
for hearing-impaired tourists. This may be explained
cation is a major barrier in group tours. Also, volun-
by their limited desire to pursue a new life at home.
teers are welcome to join this tour for help them
In the present study, the participants were considered
smoothly in the travel process. Generally, people
psychologically similar to people with normal hearing,
with hearing impairment live within their income
despite their hearing impairment; however, their
and a very hard life. Hence, governments and NGOs
courage and optimism regarding traveling as a back-
should provide financial and non-financial supports
packer exceeded those of people with normal hearing.
for these kinds of tours, enhance their opportunities
In summary, we present the travel motivation of
for self-challenge and to obtain different experiences.
Taiwanese hearing-impaired backpackers traveling
Moreover, Internet access is closely associated with
overseas. The data collected through in-depth inter-
communication for hearing-impaired people. Hence,
views and the push and pull framework (Crompton,
tourism operators (e.g. accommodation, transpor-
1979) revealed the themes of travel motivations. The
tation, restaurant, shopping mall, and attractions)
7 motivation themes derived from the comments of
should offer free Internet access enabling hearing-
the 30 hearing-impaired Taiwanese backpackers
impaired people to contact their family because
demonstrate that those with disabilities experience
hearing-impaired people want to show the indepen-
similar travel disbursements and have the same
dence during the trip to their family immediately.
desire to travel as those without disabilities. Five
Further, they can contact their co-travelers by using
push themes (constraints of group tour, self-challenge,
LINE application. The use of LINE helps them to
independence, different experience, and invitation by
strength up the friendship. They will feel that they
hearing-impaired friends) and two pull themes (enjoy
are not alone and have support from co-travelers.
local culture and lifestyle and the I have been there
Furthermore, many travel destinations attempt to
feeling) were identified. The findings of this research
enlarge the participation in disabled tourism.
contribute to the existing studies by presenting the
However, most of them only focus on removing the
travel behaviors of hearing-impaired people.
physical barriers (Lee et al., 2012). Regarding travel
Hearing-impaired tourists seem unaffected by travel
destination for hearing-impaired is associated with
activities, which may contribute to the increase in
communication and a place image of safety. Hence,
their travel frequency.

the destination is composed of a number of tourism
industry, such as accommodation, transportation, res-
taurant, and attractions, information should be readily
available, for example a sign language video of
responses and announcement of similarity words
(e.g. Chinese language), convenient booking on web-
sites (e.g. featuring pictures), and immediate network
responses by familiar words. This is in complete agree-
ment with Nikjoo and Ketabis (2015) results that tour-
ists considering familiar place to be their major
motivation for the trip tended to travel. In other
words, those who travel for more safety destinations
place great value on tourism accessibility. It is impor-
tant to provide detailed and accurate information
regarding the tourism industry improving the factors
that can have a powerful impact on destination
choices. These suggestions are consistent with those
offered by Darcy (2010), in which the accommodation
preferences of hearing-impaired people were
explored, indicating that these travelers expect
hotels to offer digital information and illustrations of
their accommodation. Hence, tourism operators can
tailor destination images for hearing-impaired target
markets, and designing advertising and promotional
programs. Destinations can then offer services accord-
ing to the particular needs of each traveler, encourage
participation with hearing-impaired backpackers.
The aforementioned concept of lending support
(Kim et al., 2012) leads to differences in the needs of
disabled people.
Finally, tour trips that involve conquering environ-
mental and social barriers are beneficial for people
with disabilities (Poria et al., 2010a). Accessible
tourism is understanding dimensions of access,
including the destination environmental and social
structural factors (Darcy, Cameron, & Pegg, 2010), for
hearing-impaired tourists need accessable communi-
cation (Peng et al., 2013). More understanding of
accessible tourism experiences is needed by tourism
operators. For instance, a light up instead of the door-
bell ring in the room, a broadcasting notice should be
display on the television screen on the plane simul-
taneously. Darcy et al. also indicated that emphasis
should be on the considerable size and multi-niche
markets served by accessible tourism. Tourism oper-
ators should become collaborative partners of the
hearing-impaired community and differentiate pro-
ducts by focusing on the motivations of these
people (Peng et al., 2013). Apart from these inclusions,
tourism operators also identified the importance of a
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 461
positive customer service attitude, clear signage, and
having an evacuation orientation. Specifically,
tourism operators should follow closely the percep-
tion of motivation by people with hearing impairment
rather than focus on product images or discounts. By
providing a tourism mode featuring communication
functions and marked advantages and satisfying the
needs of people with hearing impairment, related
business opportunities can be realized.
Even though this study has the undeniable merit of
offering valuable insights into the travel motivation for
hearing-impaired backpackers, it has some limitations.
While the sample was satisfactory for the purposes of
this research, a larger sample size of a number of the
different groups should be the focus of further
research. This research was largely taken place in
Taiwan with few of limited participation of respon-
dents from other nations. In other words, there has
a cross-cultural as different hearing-impaired that
should be researched further in disabled tourism.
Perhaps future research will provide more detailed
results which may differentiate these views from one
another.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
References
Assiouras, L., Skourtis, G., Koniordos, M., & Giannopoulos, A.
(2015). Segmenting East Asian tourists to Greece by travel
motivation. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 20(12),
13891410.
Atef, T. M. (2011). Assessing the ability of the Egyptian hospitality
industry to serve special needs customers. Managing Leisure,
16(3), 231242.
Battour, M. M., Battor, M., & Ismail, M. (2012). The mediating role
of tourist satisfaction: A study of Muslim tourists in Malaysia.
Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 29(3), 279297.
Bedini, L. A. (2000). Just sit down so we can talk: Perceived stigma
and community recreation pursuits of people with disabilities.
Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 34(1), 5568.
Bergier, B., Bergier, J., & Kubiska, Z. (2010). Environmental deter-
minants of participation in tourism and recreation of people
with varying degrees of disability. Journal of Toxicology and
Environmental Health, Part A, 73(1718), 11341140.
Bergier, B., Kubiska, Z., & Bergier, J. (2013). Interests and needs
for participation in tourism among disabled from eastern
regions of Poland. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental
Medicine, 20(4), 807811.
Bi, Y., Card, J. A., & Cole, S. T. (2007). Accessibility and attitudinal
barriers encountered by Chinese travelers with physical
462 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
disabilities. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(3),
205216.
Bizjak, B., Knezevic, M., & Cvetreznik, S. (2011). Attitude change
towards guests with disabilities reflections from tourism stu-
dents. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(3), 842857.
Blichfeldt, B. S., & Nicolaisen, J. (2011). Disabled travel: Not easy,
but doable. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(1), 79102.
Bond, N., & Falk, J. (2013). Tourism and identity-related motiv-
ations: Why am I (and not there). International Journal of
Tourism Research, 15(5), 430442.
Burnett, J. J., & Baker, H. B. (2001). Assessing the travel-related
behaviors of the mobility-disabled consumer. Journal of
Travel Research, 40(1), 411.
Chang, Y. C., & Chen, C. F. (2011). Identifying mobility service
needs for disabled air passengers. Tourism Management, 32
(5), 12141217.
Chang, Y. C., & Chen, C. F. (2012). Meeting the needs of disabled
air passengers: Factors that facilitate help from airlines and
airports. Tourism Management, 33(3), 529536.
Chen, G., Bao, J., & Huang, S. S. (2014). Segmenting Chinese back-
packers by travel motivations. International Journal of Tourism
Research, 16(4), 355367.
Chen, H. D., & Yen, J. H. Y. (2008). Gender and travel: Literature
review of female mobility and their body practices in back-
packing travels. Journal of Outdoor Recreation Study, 21(2),
2341.
Chen, L. J., & Chen, J. S. (2011). The motivations and expectations
of international volunteer tourists: A case study of
Chinese village traditions. Tourism Management, 32(2),
435442.
Chen, L. J., & Chen, W. P. (2015). Push-pull factors in international
birders travel. Tourism Management, 48(June), 416425.
Chien, C. L., Yen, I. Y. & Hoang, P. Q. (2012). Combination of theory
of planned behavior and motivation: An exploratory study of
potential beach-based resorts in Vietnam. Asia Pacific Journal
of Tourism Research, 17(5), 489508.
Chou, S. H., Chao, W. C., & Chien, Y. C. (2009). Beyond silence: A
journey into the travel world of the deaf. Journal of Outdoor
Recreation Study, 22(3), 129.
Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals
of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408424.
Daniels, M. J., Drogin Rodgers, E. B., & Wiggins, B. P. (2005). Travel
tales: An interpretive analysis of constraints and negotiations
to pleasure travel as experienced by persons with physical dis-
abilities. Tourism Management, 26(6), 919930.
Darcy, S. (2010). Inherent complexity: Disability, accessible
tourism and accommodation information preferences.
Tourism Management, 31(6), 816826.
Darcy, S., Cameron, B., & Pegg, S. (2010). Accessible tourism and
sustainability: A discussion and case study. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, 18(4), 515537.
Darcy, S., & Dickson, T. J. (2009). A whole-of-life approach to
tourism: The case for accessible tourism experiences. Journal
of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 16(1), 3244.
Daruwalla, P., & Darcy, S. (2005). Personal and societal attitudes to
disability. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(2), 549570.
Department of Social Affairs. (2016). The disabled population-bar-
riers, county & age. Retrieved May 25, 2016, from http://sowf.
moi.gov.tw/stat/month/list.htm
Devesa, M., Laguna, M., & Palacios, A. (2010). The role of motiv-
ation in visitor satisfaction: Empirical evidence in rural
tourism. Tourism Management, 31(4), 547552.
Dias de Faria, M., Ferreira da Silva, J., & Brantes Ferreira, J. (2012).
The visually impaired and consumption in restaurants.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
24(5), 721734.
Figueiredo, E., Eusebio, C., & Kastenholz, E. (2012). How diverse
are tourists with disabilities? A pilot study on accessible
leisure tourism experiences in Portugal. International Journal
of Tourism Research, 14(6), 531550.
Freeman, L., & Selmi, N. (2010). French versus Canadian tourism:
Response to the disabled. Journal of Travel Research, 49(4),
471485.
Galle, M. U., & Valerie, A. T. (2014). The spiritual benefits of travel
for senior tourists. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 13(6),
453462.
Hung, K., & Petrick, J. F. (2011). Why do you cruise? Exploring the
motivations for taking cruise holidays, and the construction of
a cruising motivation scale. Tourism Management, 32(2),
386393.
Hyde, K. F., & Harman, S. (2011). Motives for a secular pilgrimage
to the Gallipoli battlefields. Tourism Management, 32(6),
13431351.
Hyde, K. F., & Lawson, R. (2003). The nature of independent travel.
Journal of Travel Research, 42(1), 1323.
Jang, S. C. S., & Wu, C. M. E. (2006). Seniors travel motivation and
the influential factors: An examination of Taiwanese seniors.
Tourism Management, 27(2), 306316.
Jeans, R., & Magee, J. (2012). Can we play on the swings and
roundabouts?: Creating inclusive play spaces for disabled
young people and their families. Leisure Studies, 31(2),
193210.
Kim, S. E., & Lehto, X. Y. (2012). The voice of tourists with mobility
disabilities: Insights from online customer complaint websites.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 24(3), 451476.
Kim, S. S., Lee, C. K., & Klenosky, D. B. (2003). The influence of push
and pull factors at Korean national parks. Tourism
Management, 24(2), 169180.
Kim, W. G., Stonesifer, H. W., & Han, J. S. (2012). Accommodating
the needs of disabled hotel guests: Implications for guests
and management. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 31(4), 13111317.
Kimmm, J. (2012). How to pleasure travelers manage their travel
constraints? Tourism Review, 67(3), 3040.
Klenosky, D. B. (2002). The pull of tourism destinations: A
means-end investigation. Journal of Travel Research, 40(4),
385395.
Kluin, J. Y., & Lehto, X. Y. (2012). Measuring family reunion
travel motivations. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 820
841.
Larsen, S., gaard, T., & Brun, W. (2011). Backpackers and main-
streamers realities and myths. Annals of Tourism Research, 38
(2), 690707.
Lee, B. K., Agarwal, S., & Kim, H. J. (2012). Influences of travel con-
straints on the people with disabilities intention to travel: An
application of Seligmans helplessness theory. Tourism
Management, 33(3), 569579.

Leong, A. M. W., Yeh, S. S., Hsiao, Y. C., & Huan, T. C. (2015).
Nostalgia as travel motivation and its impact on tourists
loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 68(1), 8186.
Llewellyn-Smith, C., & McCabe, V. S. (2008). What is the attraction
for exchange students: The host destination or host univer-
sity? Empirical evidence from a study of an Australian univer-
sity. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10(6), 593607.
Lo, A. S., & Lee, C. Y. S. (2011). Motivations and perceived value of
volunteer tourists from Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 32
(2), 326334.
Lovelock, B. A. (2010). Planes, trains and wheelchairs in the bush:
Attitudes of people with mobility-disabilities to enhanced
motorised access in remote natural settings. Tourism
Management, 31(3), 357366.
Lundberg, N. R., McCormick, B. P., & Tibbs, C. (2011). Identify
negotiating: Redefining stigmatized identities through adap-
tive sports and recreation participation among individuals
with a disability. Journal of Leisure Research, 43(2), 205225.
Mactavish, J. B., MacKay, K. J., Iwasaki, Y., & Betteridge, D. (2007).
Family caregivers of individuals with intellectual disability:
Perspectives on life quality and the role of vacations.
Journal of Leisure Research, 39(1), 127155.
Maoz, D. (2007). Backpackers motivations: The role of culture and
nationality. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1), 122140.
McKercher, B., Packer, T., Yau, M. K., & Lam, P. (2003). Travel
agents as facilitators or inhibitors of travel: Perceptions
of people with disabilities. Tourism Management, 24(4), 465
474.
McNamara, K. E., & Bruce Prideaux, B. (2010). A typology of solo
independent women travellers. International Journal of
Tourism Research, 12(3), 253264.
Mohsin, A., & Ryan, C. (2003). Backpackers in the northern terri-
tory of Australia-motives, behaviors and satisfactions.
International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(2), 113131.
Murphy, L. (2001). Exploring the social interactions of backpack-
ers. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(1), 5067.
Nikjoo, A. H., & Ketabi, M. (2015). The role of push and pull
factors in the way tourists choose their destination. An
International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 26
(4), 588597.
Ong, C. E., & Cros, H. D. (2012). The post-Mao gazes: Chinese
backpackers in Macau. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2),
735754.
Ooi, N., & Laing, J. H. (2010). Backpacker tourism: Sustainable and
purposeful? Investigating the overlap between backpacker
tourism and volunteer tourism motivations. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, 18(2), 191206.
Ozturk, Y., Yayli, A., & Yesiltas, M. (2008). Is the Turkish tourism
industry ready for a disabled customers market? The view
of hotel and travel agency managers. Tourism Management,
29(2), 382389.
Pan, T. J. (2012). Motivations of volunteers overseas and what
have we learned The experience of Taiwanese students.
Tourism Management, 33(6), 14931501.
Paris, C. M., & Teye, V. (2010). Backpacker motivations: A travel
career approach. Journal of Hospitality Marketing &
Management, 19(3), 244259.
Park, D. B., & Yoon, Y. S. (2009). Segmentation by motivation in
rural tourism: A Korean case study. International Journal of
Tourism Research, 30(1), 99108.
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 463
Pearce, P., & Son, A. (2004). Youth tourism markets in Australia:
Comparing the travel behaviours of international English
language students and backpackers. Tourism, 52(4), 341
350.
Peng, H. H., Ho, C. H., & Chan, D. Y. (2013). Hands-eyes versus
mouth-ears: Exploring the consumer value of hearing-
impaired tourists in an outbound group package tour.
Journal of Outdoor Recreation Study, 26(2), 103127.
Poria, Y., Reichel, A., & Brandt, Y. (2010a). Dimensions of hotel
experience of people with disabilities: An exploratory study.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 23(5), 571591.
Poria, Y., Reichel, A., & Brandt, Y. (2010b). The flight experiences
of people with disabilities: An exploratory study. Journal of
Travel Research, 49(2), 216227.
Prayag, G., & Hosany, S. (2014). When Middle East meets west:
Understanding the motives and perceptions of young tourists
from United Arab Emirates. Tourism Management, 40(1),
3545.
Ray, N. M., & Ryder, M. E. (2003). Ebilities tourism: An exploratory
discussion of the travel needs and motivations of the mobi-
lity-disabled. Tourism Management, 24(1), 5772.
Richards, V., Pritchard, A., & Morgan, N. (2010). (Re)envisioning
tourism and visual impairment. Annals of Tourism Research,
37(4), 10971116.
Rouven, D., Svein, L., & Katharina, W. (2015). Different but
similar: Social comparison of travel motives among
tourists. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(6),
555563.
Sangpikul, A. (2008). Travel motivations of Japanese senior trave-
lers to Thailand. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10
(1), 8194.
Shaw, G., & Coles, T. (2004). Disability, holiday making and the
tourism industry in the UK: A preliminary survey. Tourism
Management, 25(3), 397403.
Shi, L., Cole, S., & Chancellor, H. C. (2012). Understanding leisure
travel motivations of travelers with acquired mobility impair-
ments. Tourism Management, 33(1), 228231.
Small, J., Darcy, S., & Packer, T. (2012). The embodied tourist
experiences of people with vision impairment: Management
implications beyond the visual gaze. Tourism Management,
33(4), 941950.
Smith, R. W. (1987). Leisure of disabled tourist: Barriers to travel.
Annals of Tourism Research, 14(3), 376389.
Srensen, A. (2003). Backpacker ethnography. Annals of Tourism
Research, 30(4), 847867.
Teo, P., & Leong, S. (2006). A postcolonial analysis of backpacking.
Annals of Tourism Research, 33(1), 109131.
Ting, A. E., & Kahl, C. (2016). Self discovery and backpackers: A
conceptual paper about liminal experience. International
Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 4(1), 4958.
Tourism Bureau of Taiwan. (2016). 2015 Civilian tourism survey
report. Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://admin.taiwan.
net.tw/statistics/year.aspx?no=134
Tsaur, S. H., Yen, C. H., & Chen, C. L. (2010). Independent tourist
knowledge and skills. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4),
10351054.
United Nations. (2008). Convention on the rights of persons with
disabilities. Retrieved December 29, 2015, from http://www.
un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=150
464 C.-H. HO AND H.-H. PENG
Uriely, N., Yonay, Y., & Simchai, D. (2002). Backpacking experi-
ences: A type and form analysis. Annals of Tourism Research,
29(2), 520538.
Wang, W., & Cole, S. (2014). Perceived onboard service needs of
passengers with mobility limitations: An investigation among
flight attendants. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19
(11), 12391259.
Wong, K. M., & Musa, G. (2014). Retirement motivation among
Malaysia my second home participants. Tourism
Management, 40(1), 141154.
Yau, M. K., McKercher, B., & Packer, T. L. (2004). Travelling with a
disability: More than an access issue. Annals of Tourism
Research, 31(4), 946960.
Yoon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of the effects of
motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: A structural
model. Tourism Management, 26(1), 4556.
Yousefi, M., & Marzuki, A. (2015). An analysis of push and pull
motivational factors of international tourists to Penang,
Malaysia. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Administration, 16(1), 4056.