Flue-gas desulfurization

Ht kh lu hunh

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained a significant amount of sulfur dioxide.

Trc khi qu trnh kh lu hunh c thit lp, lng pht thi t nh my in ny New
Mexico c cha mt lng ng k sulfur dioxide.

The G. G. Allen Steam Stationscrubber

 Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) is a set of technologies used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2)
from exhaust flue gases of fossil-fuel power plants, and from the emissions of other sulfur oxide
emitting processes.
Kh lu hunh bng kh thi (FGD) l mt b cng ngh c s dng loi b sulfur dioxide
(SO2) khi kh thi ca cc nh my in nhin liu ha thch v t pht thi cc qu trnh pht
thi oxit sulphur khc.

Contents
[hide]

1 Methods
2 History
3 Sulfuric acid mist formation
4 FGD chemistry
o 4.1Basic principles
o 4.2Scrubbing with an alkali solid or solution
4.2.1Types of wet scrubbers used in FGD
4.2.1.1Venturi-rod scrubbers
4.2.1.2Packed bed scrubbers
4.2.1.3Spray towers
4.2.2Scrubbing reagent
o 4.3Scrubbing with sodium sulfite solution
o 4.4Gas phase oxidation followed by reaction with ammonia
5 Facts and statistics
6 Alternative methods of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Methods[edit]
As stringent environmental regulations regarding SO2 emissions have been enacted in many
countries, SO2 is now being removed from flue gases by a variety of methods. Below are
common methods used:

V cc quy nh nghim ngt v mi trng lin quan n pht thi SO2 c ban hnh
nhiu nc, SO2 hin ang c loi b khi cc loi kh thi bng nhiu phng php khc
nhau. Di y l cc phng php ph bin c s dng:

Wet scrubbing using a slurry of alkaline sorbent, usually limestone or lime, or seawater to
scrub gases;

X l t bng cch s dng cht bi trn kim, thng thng l vi hoc vi, hoc nc
bin c xt kh;
 Spray-dry scrubbing using similar sorbent slurries;

Xt kh bng ch xt bng dung dch sulphur tng t;

Wet sulfuric acid process recovering sulfur in the form of commercial quality sulfuric acid;

Qu trnh axit sulfuric t thu hi lu hunh di dng axit sulfuric thng mi;

SNOX Flue gas desulphurisation removes sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates
from flue gases;

SNOX kh lu hunh kh thi loi b lu hunh dioxit, cc oxit nit v cc ht t cc kh

thi;

Dry sorbent injection systems that introduce powdered hydrated lime (or other sorbent
material) into exhaust ducts to eliminate SO2 and SO3 from process emissions.[1]

H thng phun sorbent kh gip a vi hydrat ha (hoc vt liu hp ph khc) vo ng

dn kh thi loi b SO2 v SO3 khi qu trnh thi. [1]

For a typical coal-fired power station, flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) may remove 90 percent or
more of the SO2 in the flue gases.[2]
i vi mt nh my in t than in hnh, vic kh lu hunh bng kh thi (FGD) c th
loi b 90% SO2 trong kh thi.

History[edit]
Methods of removing sulfur dioxide from boiler and furnace exhaust gases have been studied for
over 150 years. Early ideas for flue gas desulfurization were established in Englandaround 1850.
With the construction of large-scale power plants in England in the 1920s, the problems
associated with large volumes of SO2 from a single site began to concern the public.
The SO2 emissions problem did not receive much attention until 1929, when the House of
Lords upheld the claim of a landowner against the Barton Electricity Works of the Manchester
Corporation for damages to his land resulting from SO2 emissions. Shortly thereafter, a press
campaign was launched against the erection of power plants within the confines of London. This
outcry led to the imposition of SO2 controls on all such power plants.[3]
Cc phng php loi b sulfur dioxide t kh thi l hi v l c nghin cu trong hn
150 nm. Nhng tng ban u v kh lu hunh c thit lp Englandaround 1850.
Vi vic xy dng cc nh my in quy m ln Anh vo nhng nm 1920, cc vn lin
quan n khi lng ln SO2 t mt a im bt u quan tm n cng chng. Vn pht
thi SO2 khng nhn c nhiu s quan tm cho n nm 1929, khi H vin tn thnh tuyn
b ch quyn ca mt ch t i vi cc cng trnh in Barton ca Tp on Manchester v
gy thit hi cho t ai ca mnh do pht thi SO2. Ngay sau , mt chin dch bo ch
c a ra chng li s ra i ca cc nh my in trong phm vi London. S phn i ny
dn ti vic p t cc kim sot SO2 trn tt c cc nh my in nh vy [3].

The first major FGD unit at a utility was installed in 1931 at Battersea Power Station, owned
by London Power Company. In 1935, an FGD system similar to that installed at Battersea went
into service at Swansea Power Station. The third major FGD system was installed in 1938
at Fulham Power Station. These three early large-scale FGD installations were abandoned
during World War II. Large-scale FGD units did not reappear at utilities until the 1970s, where
most of the installations occurred in the United States and Japan.[3]
n v FGD chnh u tin ti mt tin ch c lp t vo nm 1931 ti Nh my in
Battersea, thuc s hu ca Cng ty in Lc Lun n. Nm 1935, mt h thng FGD tng
t nh lp t ti Battersea c a vo s dng ti Nh my in Swansea. H thng FGD
chnh th ba c lp t vo nm 1938 ti Nh my in Fulham. Ba c s FGD quy m ln
ban u b b ri trong Th chin II. Cc n v FGD quy m ln khng xut hin tr li
cc tin ch cho n nhng nm 1970, ni m hu ht cc thit b ny u xut hin Hoa K
v Nht Bn [3].

As of June 1973, there were 42 FGD units in operation, 36 in Japan and 6 in the United States,
ranging in capacity from 5 MW to 250 MW.[4] As of around 1999 and 2000, FGD units were
being used in 27 countries, and there were 678 FGD units operating at a total power plant
capacity of about 229 gigawatts. About 45% of the FGD capacity was in the U.S., 24%
in Germany, 11% in Japan, and 20% in various other countries. Approximately 79% of the units,
representing about 199 gigawatts of capacity, were using lime or limestone wet scrubbing. About
18% (or 25 gigawatts) utilized spray-dry scrubbers or sorbent injection systems.[5][6][7]
Tnh n thng 6 nm 1973, c 42 n v FGD ang hot ng, 36 Nht Bn v 6 Hoa
K, cng sut t 5 MW n 250 MW. [4] Vo khong nm 1999 v 2000, cc n v FGD
c s dng 27 quc gia v c 678 n v FGD hot ng vi tng cng sut nh my
khong 229 gigawatts. Khong 45% cng sut FGD Hoa K, 24% c, 11% Nht Bn, v
20% cc nc khc. Khong 79% n v, i din cho khong 199 gigawatt cng sut, ang
s dng ch vi hoc vi. Khong 18% (hoc 25 gigawatts) s dng cc my lc bi phun
hoc cc h thng chn sorbent. [5] [6] [7]

Sulfuric acid mist formation[edit]

Hnh thnh sulphuric axit sng [sa]
Fossil fuels such as coal and oil contain a significant amount of sulfur. When fossil fuels are
burned, about 95 percent or more of the sulfur is generally converted to sulfur dioxide(SO2).
Such conversion happens under normal conditions of temperature and of oxygen present in
the flue gas. However, there are circumstances under which such reaction may not occur.
Cc nhin liu ho thch nh than v du cha mt lng lu hunh ng k. Khi t nhin
liu ho thch, khong 95% lng lu hunh tr ln thng c chuyn i thnh SO2. S
chuyn i ny xy ra trong iu kin nhit bnh thng v oxy hin din trong kh l. Tuy
nhin, c nhng trng hp m phn ng nh vy c th khng xy ra.
When flue gas has too much oxygen, the SO2 further oxidizes into sulfur trioxide (SO3). Too
much oxygen is only one of the ways that SO3 is formed. Gas temperature is also an important
factor. At about 800 C, formation of SO3 is favored. Another way that SO3 can be formed is
through catalysis by metals in the fuel. Such reaction is particularly true for heavy fuel oil, where
a significant amount of vanadium is present. In whatever way SO3 is formed, it does not behave
like SO2 in that it forms a liquid aerosol known as sulfuric acid(H2SO4) mist that is very
difficult to remove. Generally, about 1% of the sulfur dioxide will be converted to SO
3. Sulfuric acid mist is often the cause of the blue haze that often appears as the flue gas plume
dissipates. Increasingly, this problem is being addressed by the use of wet electrostatic
precipitators.
Khi kh l c qu nhiu oxy, SO2 s b oxy ha thnh lu hunh trioxit (SO3). Qu nhiu oxy ch
l mt trong nhng cch m SO3 c hnh thnh. Nhit kh cng l mt yu t quan trng.
khong 800 C, s hnh thnh SO3 c a chung. Mt cch khc m SO3 c th c hnh
thnh thng qua xc tc bng kim loi trong nhin liu. Phn ng ny c bit ng i vi du
nhin liu nng, trong c mt lng vanadium ng k. Trong bt k cch no SO3 c
hnh thnh, n khng hot ng nh SO2 ch n to ra mt cht lng dung dch aerosol gi l
sng lu hunh (H2SO4) sng kh m loi b c. Ni chung, khong 1% lng sulfur
dioxide s c chuyn thnh SO3. Sulfuric acid sng thng l nguyn nhn ca hin tng
sng m xanh thng xut hin khi nng chn xut pht. Ngy cng c nhiu vn ang c
gii quyt bng cch s dng cc cht lng ng tnh in t.

FGD chemistry[edit]
Basic principles[edit]
Nguyn tc c bn [sa]
Most FGD systems employ two stages: one for fly ash removal and the other for SO2 removal.
Attempts have been made to remove both the fly ash and SO2 in one scrubbing vessel. However,
these systems experienced severe maintenance problems and low removal efficiency. In wet
scrubbing systems, the flue gas normally passes first through a fly ash removal device, either an
electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse, and then into the SO2-absorber. However, in dry
injection or spray drying operations, the SO2 is first reacted with the sorbent, and then the flue
gas passes through a particulate control device.
Hu ht cc h thng FGD s dng hai giai on: mt loi b tro bay v mt cho loi b
SO2. Cc n lc c thc hin loi b c tro bay v SO2 trong mt chic ty. Tuy nhin,
cc h thng ny tri qua cc vn bo tr nghim trng v hiu qu loi b thp. Trong
cc h thng ty t, kh l thng i u tin thng qua thit b loi b tro bay, hoc mt thit
b lng ng tnh in hoc mt baghouse, v sau vo cht hp th SO2. Tuy nhin, khi phun
kh hoc sy phun, SO2 ln u tin phn ng vi cht hp th, v sau kh l i qua mt thit
b kim sot ht.

Another important design consideration associated with wet FGD systems is that the flue gas
exiting the absorber is saturated with water and still contains some SO
2. These gases are highly corrosive to any downstream equipment such as fans, ducts, and stacks.
Two methods that may minimize corrosion are: (1) reheating the gases to above their dew point,
or (2) using materials of construction and designs that allow equipment to withstand the
corrosive conditions. Both alternatives are expensive. Engineers determine which method to use
on a site-by-site basis.
Mt thit k quan trng khc c xem xt lin quan n cc h thng FGD t l kh thot ra
khi cht hp th c bo ha vi nc v vn cn cha mt s SO2. Cc loi kh ny c kh
nng n mn mnh i vi cc thit b h ngun nh qut, ng dn v ngn xp. Hai phng
php c th gim thiu s n mn l: (1) hm nng cc kh trn im sng, hoc (2) s dng
vt liu xy dng v thit k cho php thit b chu c cc iu kin n mn. C hai phng n
u t. Cc k s xc nh phng php no s dng trn c s tng trang.

Scrubbing with an alkali solid or solution[edit]

Ch xt vi dung dch kim hoc dung dch [sa]

Schematic design of the absorber of an FGD

S thit k ca cht hp th ca mt FGD
SO2 is an acid gas, and, therefore, the typical sorbent slurries or other materials used to remove
the SO2 from the flue gases are alkaline. The reaction taking place in wet scrubbing using
a CaCO3 (limestone) slurry produces CaSO3 (calcium sulfite) and may be expressed in the
simplified dry form as:
SO2 l mt loi kh axit, v do cc cht sorbent in hnh hoc cc vt liu khc c s
dng loi b SO2 khi kh l l kim. Phn ng din ra trong qu trnh ch t s dng dung
dch CaCO3 ( vi) to ra CaSO3 (calcium sulfite) v c th c th hin di dng kh gin
nh:
 CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)

When wet scrubbing with a Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) slurry, the reaction also produces
CaSO3 (calcium sulfite) and may be expressed in the simplified dry form as:
Khi ch xt bng xi mng Ca(OH) 2 (hydrat ha vi), phn ng ny cng to ra CaSO3
(calcium sulfite) v c th c th hin di dng kh gin nh sau:

Ca(OH)2(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)

When wet scrubbing with a Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) slurry, the reaction produces
MgSO3 (magnesium sulfite) and may be expressed in the simplified dry form as:
Khi ch xt bng dung dch Mg (OH) 2 (magnesium hydroxide), phn ng to ra MgSO 3
(magnesium sulfite) v c th c th hin di dng kh gin nh:

Mg(OH)2(s) + SO2(g) MgSO3(s) + H2O(l)

To partially offset the cost of the FGD installation, some designs, particularly dry sorbent
injection systems, further oxidize the CaSO3 (calcium sulfite) to produce marketable CaSO4-
2H2O (gypsum) that can be of high enough quality to use in wallboardand other products.
The process by which this synthetic gypsum is created is also known as forced oxidaton. This
technique is also known as forced oxidation:
b p mt phn chi ph lp t FGD, mt s thit k, c bit l h thng chn sorbent
kh, tip tc oxy ha CaSO3 (calcium sulfite) sn xut CaSO4-2H2O (thch cao) c th
c cht lng cao s dng trong sn phm dn tng v cc sn phm khc. Qu trnh
m thch cao tng hp ny c to ra cn c gi l oxy ha p. K thut ny cn c
gi l qu trnh oxy ha cng bc:

CaSO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) CaSO4 2H2O(s)

A natural alkaline usable to absorb SO2 is seawater. The SO2 is absorbed in the water, and
when oxygen is added reacts to form sulfate ions SO4- and free H+. The surplus of H+ is
offset by the carbonates in seawater pushing the carbonate equilibrium to release CO2 gas:
Mt alkaline t nhin c th s dng hp th SO2 l nc bin. SO2 c hp th trong
nc, v khi oxy c thm vo, phn ng to thnh cc ion sulfat SO4 v khng c H +. S
d tha H + c b p bi cacbonat trong nc bin y s cn bng cacbonat gii
phng kh CO2:

SO2(g) + H2O(l) + O2(g) SO42(aq) + 2H+

HCO3 + H+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
In industry caustic (NaOH) is often used to scrub SO2, producing sodium sulfite:
Trong ngnh cng nghip caustic (NaOH) thng c s dng ch SO2, sn xut natri
sulfite:
 2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)[8]
Types of wet scrubbers used in FGD[edit]
Cc loi my ch t c s dng trong FGD [sa]

To promote maximum gasliquid surface area and residence time, a number of wet scrubber
designs have been used, including spray towers, venturis, plate towers, and mobile packed beds.
Because of scale buildup, plugging, or erosion, which affect FGD dependability and absorber
efficiency, the trend is to use simple scrubbers such as spray towers instead of more complicated
ones. The configuration of the tower may be vertical or horizontal, and flue gas can flow
cocurrently, countercurrently, or crosscurrently with respect to the liquid. The chief drawback of
spray towers is that they require a higher liquid-to-gas ratio requirement for
equivalent SO2 removal than other absorber designs.
tng din tch b mt v thi gian lu tr ti a ca kh v lng, c mt s thit k ca
my ra t c s dng, bao gm c thp phun, venturis, thp tm, v cc bao b di ng.
Do s tch t, cng knh hay xi mn, nh hng n tin cy v hiu qu hp th FGD, xu
hng s dng cc my ch nhm n gin nh thp phun xt thay v cc loi my nghin phc
tp hn. Cu hnh ca thp c th l theo chiu dc hoc ngang, v kh l c th chy ng thi,
ngc dng hoc hin ti i vi cht lng. Hn ch chnh ca thp phun l h yu cu t l
cht lng ln kh cao hn yu cu v lng SO2 so vi cc thit k hp th khc.

FGD scrubbers produce a scaling wastewater that requires treatment to meet discharge
regulations.[9] However, technological advancements in ion exchange
membranes and electrodialysis systems has enabled high efficiency treatment of FGD
wastewater to meet recent EPA discharge limits.[10] The treatment approach is similar for other
highly scaling industrial wastewaters.
My lc bi FGD sn xut mt lng nc thi quy m i hi phi x l p ng cc quy
nh thi b. [9] Tuy nhin, nhng tin b cng ngh trong mng trao i ion v cc h thng
tch in phn cho php x l c hiu qu cao nc thi ca FGD p ng cc gii hn
x thi gn y ca EPA. Phng php tip cn iu tr tng t nh i vi cc quy trnh x l
nc thi cng nghip khc.

Venturi-rod scrubbers[edit]
Chi qut bi Venturi [sa]

Main article: venturi scrubber

Bi chi tit: my lc venturi

A venturi scrubber is a converging/diverging section of duct. The converging section accelerates

the gas stream to high velocity. When the liquid stream is injected at the throat, which is the
point of maximum velocity, the turbulence caused by the high gas velocity atomizes the liquid
into small droplets, which creates the surface area necessary for mass transfer to take place. The
higher the pressure drop in the venturi, the smaller the droplets and the higher the surface area.
The penalty is in power consumption.
For simultaneous removal of SO
2 and fly ash, venturi scrubbers can be used. In fact, many of the industrial sodium-based
throwaway systems are venturi scrubbers originally designed to remove particulate matter. These
units were slightly modified to inject a sodium-based scrubbing liquor. Although removal of both
particles and SO
2 in one vessel can be economic, the problems of high pressure drops and finding a scrubbing
medium to remove heavy loadings of fly ash must be considered. However, in cases where the
particle concentration is low, such as from oil-fired units, it can be more effective to remove
particulate and SO
2 simultaneously.
Packed bed scrubbers[edit]
A packed scrubber consists of a tower with packing material inside. This packing material can be
in the shape of saddles, rings, or some highly specialized shapes designed to maximize contact
area between the dirty gas and liquid. Packed towers typically operate at much lower pressure
drops than venturi scrubbers and are therefore cheaper to operate. They also typically offer
higher SO
2 removal efficiency. The drawback is that they have a greater tendency to plug up if particles
are present in excess in the exhaust air stream.
Spray towers[edit]
Main article: spray tower

A spray tower is the simplest type of scrubber. It consists of a tower with spray nozzles, which
generate the droplets for surface contact. Spray towers are typically used when circulating a
slurry (see below). The high speed of a venturi would cause erosion problems, while a packed
tower would plug up if it tried to circulate a slurry.
Counter-current packed towers are infrequently used because they have a tendency to become
plugged by collected particles or to scale when lime or limestone scrubbing slurries are used.

Mt my lc venturi l mt phn hi t / phn i ca ng. Phn hi t lm tng tc dng kh

n vn tc cao. Khi dng cht lng c tim vo c hng, l im vn tc ti a, s hn
lon gy ra bi vn tc kh cao lm nguyn t lng vo cc git nh, to ra din tch b mt cn
thit cho s di chuyn khi lng. p sut cng gim trong venturi, cc git nh hn v din tch
b mt cng cao. Hnh pht l trong in nng tiu th.

loi b ng thi SO2 v tro bay, c th s dng cc my lc venturi. Trn thc t, nhiu h
thng x l da trn natri cng nghip l cc my lc venturi c thit k loi b cc ht
bi. Cc n v ny c sa i mt cht tim mt loi nc xt da trn natri. Mc d
loi b c hai ht v SO2 trong mt chic tu c th l kinh t, cn phi xem xt cc vn v
git p lc cao v phi tm ra mi trng xi x loi b lng nng ca tro bay. Tuy nhin,
trong trng hp nng ht thp, chng hn nh t cc n v du, c th hiu qu hn
loi b ht v SO2 ng thi.

My ch sn ging [sa]

Mt my ch sn bao gm mt thp vi vt liu ng gi bn trong. Vt liu ng gi ny c th

c hnh dng ca yn nga, vng, hoc mt s hnh dng chuyn dng c thit k ti a
ha din tch tip xc gia kh bn v cht lng. Cc thp ng gi thng hot ng nhng
git p lc thp hn nhiu so vi cc my lc venturi v do r hn vn hnh. H cng
cung cp cao hn SO2 hiu qu loi b. Hn ch l chng c khuynh hng tch t nu cc ht
c trong di kh thi.

Thp phun [sa]

Bi chi tit: Thp phun

Thp phun l loi ty ra n gin nht. N bao gm mt thp vi vi phun, to ra cc git

tip xc b mt. Thp phun thng c s dng khi lu thng bn (xem bn di). Tc cao
ca mt venturi s gy ra cc vn xi mn, trong khi mt thp ng gi s ni ln nu n c
gng lu thng bn.

Thp ng ngc dng hin ti thng c s dng v chng c khuynh hng b cm bi cc

ht thu gom hoc gia tc khi s dng vi vi hoc vi.

Scrubbing reagent[edit]
Cht ty ra [sa]

As explained above, alkaline sorbents are used for scrubbing flue gases to remove SO2.
Depending on the application, the two most important are lime and sodium hydroxide (also
known as caustic soda). Lime is typically used on large coal- or oil-fired boilers as found in
power plants, as it is very much less expensive than caustic soda. The problem is that it results in
a slurry being circulated through the scrubber instead of a solution. This makes it harder on the
equipment. A spray tower is typically used for this application. The use of lime results in a slurry
of calcium sulfite (CaSO3) that must be disposed of. Fortunately, calcium sulfite can be oxidized
to produce by-product gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) which is marketable for use in the building
products industry.
Caustic soda is limited to smaller combustion units because it is more expensive than lime, but it
has the advantage that it forms a solution rather than a slurry. This makes it easier to operate. It
produces a "spent caustic" solution of sodium sulfite/bisulfite (depending on the pH), or sodium
sulfate that must be disposed of. This is not a problem in a kraft pulp mill for example, where
this can be a source of makeup chemicals to the recovery cycle.
Nh gii thch trn, cht hp th kim c s dng chi cc kh l loi b SO2. Ty
thuc vo ng dng, hai iu quan trng nht l vi v natri hydroxyd (cn gi l soda caustic).
Vi thng c s dng trn ni hi than hoc du ln nh trong cc nh my in, v n rt
r hn so vi soda caustic. Vn l n kt qu trong mt bn c lu thng qua ty ra thay
v mt gii php. iu ny lm cho thit b kh hn. Thp phun thng c s dng cho ng
dng ny. Vic s dng vi kt qu trong mt hn hp ca canxi sulfite (CaSO3) phi c x
l. May mn thay, canxi sulfite c th c oxy ha to ra thch cao sn phm ph (CaSO4
2H2O) c th bn c s dng trong ngnh cng nghip sn phm xy dng.
Caustic soda c gii hn trong cc n v t nh hn v n t hn vi, nhng n c li th
l n to ra mt gii php ch khng phi l mt bn. iu ny lm cho n d dng hn hot
ng. N to ra dung dch mui natri sulfite / bisulfit (ty thuc vo pH), hoc natri sulfat cn
phi x l. y khng phi l vn trong mt nh my bt giy kraft chng hn nh ni y c
th l ngun ho cht trang im cho chu trnh phc hi.
Scrubbing with sodium sulfite solution[edit]
It is possible to scrub sulfur dioxide by using a cold solution of sodium sulfite, this forms a
sodium hydrogen sulfite solution. By heating this solution it is possible to reverse the reaction to
form sulfur dioxide and the sodium sulfite solution. Since the sodium sulfite solution is not
consumed, it is called a regenerative treatment. The application of this reaction is also known as
the WellmanLord process.
In some ways this can be thought of as being similar to the reversible liquidliquid extraction of
an inert gas such as xenon or radon (or some other solute which does not undergo a chemical
change during the extraction) from water to another phase. While a chemical change does occur
during the extraction of the sulfur dioxide from the gas mixture, it is the case that the extraction
equilibrium is shifted by changing the temperature rather than by the use of a chemical reagent.

Ra bng dung dch natri sulfite [sa]

C th lm sch lu hunh dioxit bng cch s dng dung dch natri sulfite lnh, y l dung
dch natri sulfat. Bng cch nung nng dung dch ny c th o ngc phn ng to thnh
sulfur dioxide v dung dch natri sulfite. V dung dch natri sulfite khng c tiu th nn c
gi l phng php ti to. p dng phn ng ny cn c gi l qu trnh Wellman-Lord.

Trong mt s cch, iu ny c th c coi l tng t nh vic tch lng cht lng thun
nghch ca mt kh tr nh xenon hoc radon (hoc mt s cht tan khc khng tri qua s thay
i ha hc trong qu trnh chit xut) t nc sang pha khc. Mc d s thay i ha hc xy
ra trong qu trnh chit xut sulfur dioxide t hn hp kh, nhng trng hp s cn bng chit
xut c thay i bng cch thay i nhit hn l bng cch s dng mt cht phn ng
ha hc.

Gas phase oxidation followed by reaction with ammonia[edit]

A new, emerging flue gas desulfurization technology has been described by the IAEA.[11] It is
a radiation technology where an intense beam of electrons is fired into the flue gas at the same
time as ammonia is added to the gas. The Chendu power plant in China started up such a flue gas
desulfurization unit on a 100 MW scale in 1998. The Pomorzany power plant in Poland also
started up a similar sized unit in 2003 and that plant removes both sulfur and nitrogen oxides.
Both plants are reported to be operating successfully.[12][13]However, the accelerator design
principles and manufacturing quality need further improvement for continuous operation in
industrial conditions.[14]
No radioactivity is required or created in the process. The electron beam is generated by a device
similar to the electron gun in a TV set. This device is called an accelerator. This is an example of
a radiation chemistry process[13] where the physical effects of radiation are used to process a
substance.
The action of the electron beam is to promote the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur(VI)
compounds. The ammonia reacts with the sulfur compounds thus formed to produce ammonium
sulfate, which can be used as a nitrogenous fertilizer. In addition, it can be used to lower the
nitrogen oxide content of the flue gas. This method has attained industrial plant scale.[12][15]
Oxy ho pha kh, sau phn ng vi amoniac [sa]
Mt cng ngh kh lu hunh mi ang ni ln c IAEA m t. [11] y l mt cng ngh
bc x ni m mt chm electron mnh c phng vo kh l cng lc khi thm amonia vo
kh. Nh my in Chendu Trung Quc khi ng mt n v kh lu hunh trn quy m
100 MW vo nm 1998. Nh my in Pomorzany Ba Lan cng khi cng mt n v c kch
thc tng t vo nm 2003 v nh my ny s loi b c sulfur v nit oxit. C hai nh my
u hot ng thnh cng [12] [13] Tuy nhin, cc nguyn tc thit k my gia tc v cht
lng sn xut cn c ci tin hn na hot ng lin tc trong iu kin cng nghip.
[14]
Khng cn phng x hoc to ra trong qu trnh ny. Chm electron c to ra bi mt thit b
tng t nh sng in t trong mt chic TV. Thit b ny c gi l my gia tc. y l mt
v d v quy trnh ha hc bc x [13], ni cc hiu ng vt l ca bc x c s dng x l
mt cht.
Tc ng ca chm electron l thc y qu trnh oxy ha sulfur dioxide vi cc hp cht lu
hunh (VI). Amoniac phn ng vi cc hp cht lu hunh do hnh thnh to ra sulfat
amoni, c th c s dng lm phn bn nit. Ngoi ra, n c th c s dng h thp
hm lng nit xit trong kh l. Phng php ny t c quy m nh my cng nghip
[12] [15]

Facts and statistics[edit]

The information in this section was obtained from a US EPA published fact sheet.[16]
Flue gas desulfurization scrubbers have been applied to combustion units firing coal and oil that
range in size from 5 MW to 1500 MW. Scottish Power are spending 400 million installing FGD
at Longannet power station, which has a capacity of over 2 GW. Dry scrubbers and spray
scrubbers have generally been applied to units smaller than 300 MW.
FGD has been fitted by RWE npower at Aberthaw Power Station in south Wales using the
seawater process and works successfully on the 1580MW plant.
Approximately 85% of the flue gas desulfurization units installed in the US are wet scrubbers,
12% are spray dry systems, and 3% are dry injection systems.
The highest SO
2 removal efficiencies (greater than 90%) are achieved by wet scrubbers and the lowest (less
than 80%) by dry scrubbers. However, the newer designs for dry scrubbers are capable of
achieving efficiencies in the order of 90%.
In spray drying and dry injection systems, the flue gas must first be cooled to about 1020 C
above adiabatic saturation to avoid wet solids deposition on downstream equipment and plugging
of baghouses.
The capital, operating and maintenance costs per short ton of SO
2 removed (in 2001 US dollars) are:

S tht v thng k [sa]

Thng tin trong phn ny c ly t mt t thng tin c xut bn ca US EPA [16]

Thit b lc bi kh lu hunh c p dng cho cc n v t chy khai thc than v du c

kch c t 5 MW n 1500 MW. Scottish Power ang chi 400 triu bng lp t FGD ti nh
my in Longannet vi cng sut trn 2 GW. My lc kh v my lc phun thng c p
dng cho cc n v nh hn 300 MW.

FGD c trang b bi RWE npower ti Nh my in Aberthaw Nam Wales s dng qu

trnh nc bin v hot ng thnh cng trn nh my 1580MW.

Khong 85% cc my ht kh lu hunh c ci t Hoa K l my lc nc t, 12% l h

thng phun kh, v 3% l h thng phun kh.

Cc SO cao nht

2 hiu qu loi b (ln hn 90%) t c bng my ch lau m v thp nht (di 80%) bng
my lc kh. Tuy nhin, cc thit k mi hn cho my lc kh c kh nng t c hiu qu
theo th t l 90%.

Trong cc h thng phun kh v phun kh, kh l phi c lm mt trc tin nhit

khong 10-20 C trnh s lng ng ca cht rn t trn thit b h lu v cm ti.

Vn, chi ph vn hnh v bo tr mi tn ngn ca SO

2 loi b (nm 2001 l la M) l:

For wet scrubbers larger than 400 MW, the cost is $200 to $500 per ton
For wet scrubbers smaller than 400 MW, the cost is $500 to $5,000 per ton
For spray dry scrubbers larger than 200 MW, the cost is $150 to $300 per ton
For spray dry scrubbers smaller than 200 MW, the cost is $500 to $4,000 per ton
i vi my ch t ln hn 400 MW, chi ph l 200 n 500 USD / tn
i vi my lc bi t nh hn 400 MW, chi ph t 500 n 5.000 USD / tn
i vi my lc kh phun c cng sut ln hn 200 MW, chi ph t 150 n 300 USD /
tn
i vi my lc kh kh nh hn 200 MW, chi ph t 500 n 4.000 USD / tn
Alternative methods of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions[edit]
An alternative to removing sulfur from the flue gases after burning is to remove the sulfur from
the fuel before or during combustion. Hydrodesulfurization of fuel has been used for treating fuel
oils before use. Fluidized bed combustion adds lime to the fuel during combustion. The lime
reacts with the SO2 to form sulfates which become part of the ash. This elemental sulfur is then
separated and finally recovered at the end of the process for further usage in, for example,
agricultural products. Safety is one of the greatest benefits of this method, as the whole process
takes place at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature. This method has been developed
by Paqell, a joint venture between Shell Global Solutions and Paques.[17]
Cc phng php thay th gim lng kh thi sulfur dioxide [sa]

Mt gii php thay th loi b lu hunh t kh l sau khi t l loi b lu hunh ra khi
nhin liu trc hoc trong qu trnh t. Hydrophosphor ha nhin liu c s dng x
l du nhin liu trc khi s dng. Vic t chy cht lng lm tng thm vi cho nhin liu
trong qu trnh t. Vi phn ng vi SO2 to thnh sulfat tr thnh mt phn ca tro. Lu
hunh nguyn t ny sau c phn tch v cui cng c thu hi vo cui qu trnh tip
tc s dng v d nh cc sn phm nng nghip. An ton l mt trong nhng li ch ln nht
ca phng php ny, v ton b qu trnh din ra p sut kh quyn v nhit mi trng
xung quanh. Phng php ny c pht trin bi Paqell, mt lin doanh gia Shell Global
Solutions v Paques. [17]

What is a Method Statement and How do

I Write One?
What is a Method Statement?

A work method statement, sometimes called a "safe system of work", is a document

that details the way a work task or process is to be completed. The method statement
should outline the hazards involved and include a step by step guide on how to do the
job safely. The method statement must also detail which control measures have been
introduced to ensure the safety of anyone who is affected by the task or process.

Mt tuyn b v phng php lm vic, i khi c gi l "mt h thng an ton lao

ng", l mt ti liu chi tit cch lm vic hoc qu trnh lm vic s c hon
thnh. Bn tuyn b v phng php nn phc tho cc mi nguy him lin quan v
bao gm mt hng dn tng bc v cch thc hin cng vic mt cch an ton.
Bn tuyn b v phng php cng phi nu r cc bin php kim sot no c
a ra m bo s an ton cho nhng ngi b nh hng bi nhim v hoc quy
trnh.

Method Statements are frequently requested as part of a tender process which allows
the company to gain an insight into your organisation and the way it operates. They
allow your company to demonstrate how it can provide goods and services in a safe
and high quality manner. For this reason Method Statements become another
brochure for your company and it is necessary to have well presented documentation
to gain a competitive advantage over your competition.

Bo co Phng php thng c yu cu nh l mt phn ca qu trnh u thu

cho php cng ty c c mt ci nhn su sc vo t chc ca bn v cch n
hot ng. Chng cho php cng ty ca bn th hin cch thc cung cp hng ho v
dch v mt cch an ton v cht lng cao. V l do ny, Bo co v Phng php tr
thnh mt cun sch nh khc cho cng ty ca bn v cn phi c ti liu trnh by
tt t c li th cnh tranh i vi cnh tranh ca bn.

Writing a Method Statement may seem like a daunting task, but this article will guide
you through the process and enable you to approach Method Statements with
confidence.

Vit mt Bo co Phng php dng nh l mt nhim v kh khn, nhng bi vit

ny s hng dn bn qua quy trnh v cho php bn tip cn Phng php Tuyn b
vi s t tin.

How do I write a Method Statement?

Click here now to download a free Method Statement Example

The first task is to carry out a Risk Assessment, for details of how to do this please
click Here. A Risk Assessment will highlight the significant hazards and control
measures required to prevent injury or ill health whilst carrying out the task and will
provide details to add to your method statement document.

Nhim v u tin l thc hin nh gi ri ro, bit chi tit v cch thc hin, vui
lng nhp vo y. nh gi ri ro s lm ni bt cc nguy c ng k v cc bin
php kim sot cn thit ngn nga thng tt hoc bnh tt khi thc hin nhim
v v s cung cp chi tit thm vo ti liu tuyn b phng php ca bn.

You will also hear many people refer to risk assessments and method statements as
RAMS. If you hear health and safety professionals referring to RAMS Health and
Safety they are referring to your businesses risk assessments and method statements.

Bn cng s nghe nhiu ngi tham kho cc nh gi ri ro v cc cu lnh phng

php nh RAMS. Nu bn nghe cc chuyn gia v sc kho v an ton cp n
'RAMS Health and Safety', h cp n cc nh gi ri ro ca doanh nghip v cc
tuyn b phng php.

HS Direct Ltd has a blank method statement template and a variety of example
method statements. Please click Here for a list of available documents.

HS Direct Ltd c mt mu biu mu phng thc trng v mt lot cc cu lnh v

d. Vui lng nhp vo y c danh sch cc ti liu c sn.

The first section of your method statement document is the header information and
should be used to provide information to your staff or prospective clients, this section
might include;

Phn u tin ca ti liu tuyn b phng php ca bn l thng tin tiu v nn

c s dng cung cp thng tin cho nhn vin hoc khch hng tim nng ca
bn, phn ny c th bao gm;

A Title e.g. Work Method Statement, or Standard Operating Procedure

A brief description of the works, task or process
Your company details, logo, name, address etc
Start date, completion date
Site address
Site contact details including emergency numbers etc
Document author, H&S contact
Document number, issue date, revision date, revision number etc

Section 2 can be used as a summary of the main hazards that are present and the control
measures that must be implemented, this section should also be used to list the Personal
Protective Equipment that must be worn, the information for this page will be extracted from
your risk assessment document. Section 2 can also be used to detail any Environmental or
Quality procedures that must be taken during the task.
Phn 2 c th c s dng nh l mt bn tm tt v cc mi nguy him chnh c mt v cc
bin php kim sot phi c thc hin, phn ny cng nn c s dng lit k cc thit b
bo v c nhn m bn phi mang, thng tin cho trang ny s c trch t Ti liu nh gi ri
ro ca bn. Phn 2 cng c th c s dng xem chi tit cc th tc Mi trng v Cht
lng phi c thc hin trong sut nhim v.

Section 3 is used to describe the task in more detail and relevant generic information such as;

Phn 3 c s dng m t nhim v c th hn v cc thng tin chung chung c lin quan

nh;

Staff, Training, and PPE

Permits to work
Machinery shutdown and lock off procedures
Site Access and Egress
Material Handling
Scaffold & Access to height
Background and preparation
Welfare and first aid

Section 4 is the step by step guide, use this section to explain in detail the steps that must be
taken to ensure the task is carried out safely, include all relevant details in the order that you
expect them to be carried out

Section 4 is the step by step guide, use this section to explain in detail the steps that must be
taken to ensure the task is carried out safely, include all relevant details in the order that you
expect them to be carried out

Method Statement for FGD Supply Water Pipe Making Holes

1. PURPOSE:
To ensure that the 1# FGD absorber area is carried out safely, efficiently and in accordance
revised design calculation to minimize SOX issues.
2. SCOPE:
This Method Statement covers the 1# FGD absorber area for SEPCO III IPP Project.
3. DEFINITIONS:
Definitions are as given in the Contract Terms & Conditions unless modified here in.
3.1. Owner Rabigh Electricity Company
3.2. Consultant Black & Veatch International Company
 3.3. Contractor Sepco III Electric Power Construction
3.4. IFC Issued For Construction
3.5. ITP Inspection Test Plan
3.6. QCP Quality Control Plan
4. REFERENCES:
References shall consist but not be limited to the following:
4.1. Project Specifications and Procedures
4.2. General Arrangement of Top Steel Structural Drawing.
4.3. Steel Structural Fabrication Drawings.
4.4. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
4.5. Steel Structure Technology Center (SSTC)
4.6. Structural welding code (AWS D1.1)
4.7. High Strength Bolt in Slip-critical Connections (AISC360-05)
4.8. Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC)
4.9. Issued for construction (IFC)
5. EQUIPMENT & TOOLS:
Tools and equipment shall be made available to support continuous work. Defective tools
and equipment shall not be used and returned to the tool room to prevent from inadvertent use
Tools and Equipment shall include but not limited to the following:
5.1 Drill Machine
5.2 Inside Grinding Machine
5.3 Socket spanner
5.4 Portable Hand Tools
5.5 Light
5.6 Axial flow fan
6. MANPOWER:
6.1 Erection Superintendent
6.2 Erection General Foreman
6.3 Surveyor
6.4 Erector/Ironworkers
6.5 Welder
6.6 Helpers
7. RESPONSIBILITY:
 Erection Superintendent: Overall in-charge of GRP pipe drilling holes. Ensure that all
workers, equipment operator, and other craftsmen associated with the work are properly
oriented and in compliance to this work procedure, Quality control manuals and related ITP,
and other related work procedures and project specifications. Ensure that work is done in a
safely manner.
Quality Control Inspector: Responsible in ensuring that IFC drawing is available prior to
commencement of the work and all materials to be used are in compliance with the approved
project specification and submittals. Control the erection inspection in accordance with
procedure, ITP and QCP, and keep a proper documentation. Raise the RFI and coordinate all
the inspection to the client.
Safety Department: Ensure that all safety requirements have been adequately addressed and
work is being carried out in safely manner. Conduct Safety inspection and monitoring, and
address any unsafe acts and conditions.
Engineering Department: Engineering Department is responsible for providing IFC drawing
s, material and technical specifications and standards necessary in the execution of works.
Provide technical support and resolve any technical problem that may arise during the
execution of work.
Ware House Department: Complete all receiving documents as per procedure; raise RFI for
material receiving and inspection. Make available the permanent materials requested and
scheduled for erection.
8. METHOD STATEMENT:
(1) Remove the demister and the base
to make space to allow people arriving at the work location.
(2) Layout and mark the line and the holes location on the GRP pipe with following the draw
ing strictly.
(3) Drill the holes as 14 with following the marking.
(4) Open the man hole and clean the GRP pipe inside.
(5) Clean the work area and recover the demister and base.
9. QA/QC ISSUES:
(1) Drilling works will be closely monitored and QC Inspector to make sure it is done correct
ly as per approved procedure and specification to avoid re-works.
 (2) Inspection and schedule must be co-
ordinated promptly to client to make sure the satisfactory outcome of quality requiremen
ts.
(3) QC personnel will produce all the documents and signed by owner and contractor attestin
g to the acceptability of the works and submit to owner / contractor.
(4) Quality Control (QC) personnel will be assigned to attend to the quality control and Quali
ty assurance requirement of this work.
(5) He will coordinate with his counterpart of owner & contractor.
10. SAFETY ISSUES
(1) Assessment of Risks
1. What risks will the work place present?
Falls from height, falling objects from height, tripping hazards.
2. What risks will the activity present?
Hand injuries, falling from height of persons and materials and lifting equipment
failure.
(2) Control Measures
1. Tool box meeting before commence of work to discuss importance of fall protection
& correct rigging procedures.
2. Discussions of lifting plan with operators, riggers, and structural crew.
3. To make sure to collect daily crane inspection check list from operator & rigger.
4. Load chart and operation manuals are available for reference of lifting activity.
5. Colour coding / tagging and inspection of tools, jigs & fixtures.
6. Tools shall be certified for use and valid for the period required.
7. The area of the site affected by erection activity will be a restricted area, barrier and n
otices will be installed to prohibit entry to non-erection personnel.
8. No simultaneous activity below any erection work will be allowed.
9. Strict enforcement of 100% tie-off policy.
10. Scaffolds are erected by trained scaffolders and inspected safe for use and proper acce
ss shall be provided.
11. Work Permit System is exercised and maintained.
(3) Personnel Protective Equipment, PPs
PPEs shall consist but not limited to Safety Helmet, Safety Glass, Yellow Hi-vest,
Safety Shoes, Welding Shield, Safety Harness, Hand Gloves.
(4) Emergency Arrangement
1. First Aider available at site. The contact mobile number is 0542295133.
 2. Ambulance on standby and available on call basis, the plate number of the ambulance
is 3893 VVA
3. Emergency contact numbers are posted at work areas

(5) Temporary Amended System

Route plan are posted, access and ingress to work areas are clean & clear of
obstruction.
(6) Information to
1. Workers are informed through their respective supervisor / foreman that
acquired the methods from safety officers and site engineers.
2. Construction Manager shall advice the concern personnel on any
circumstances and changes.
(7) Monitoring and Compliance
1. Safety Supervisor will be in-charge in overall coordination, information and
monitoring for compliance with the method statement. Construction supervisor prior
execution of the works will study the plan and proceed accordingly.
2. The Construction Manager will also assist in monitoring compliance.

Refer to Attachments for Risk assessments

11. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
(1) Hazardous Substances.
GRP dust
(2) Records the Possible Environmental Risk
Noise
Rubbish
(3) Identified Environment Impact Issue
Noise
Rubbish
(4) State The Control Methods
1. Refer to Materials Safety Data Sheet, MSDS for prescribe outfit and proper handling
of materials.
2. Periodic inspection by tender on equipment using maintenance checklist specific to e
quipment.
 3. Waste shall be stored in skips with in the work area. Solid waste skips shall be fenced
and labelled as per waste segregation.
(5) Responsible Person
The assigned HSE officer will be responsible to manage the HSE issues.
12. ATTACHMENTS
Attachment 1
Task Analysis 6 pages
Project Job Observation Report 1 page
Attachment 2
Drawing of modification 1 sheets

.
.