Use of Microorganisms as Important Household /

Industrial Products!
Microbes or microorganisms are small organisms which are
not visible to naked eye because they have a size of 0.1
mm or less. They can, therefore, be seen only under the
microscope. Microbes are present everywhere inside soil, in
all types of waters, in air, on dust particles, inside and
outside our bodies as well as other animals and plants.

They even occur in most inhospitable places where no

other life forms can exist in snow, inside thermal vents or
inside geysers (with temperature of 100 C), deep inside
soil, highly acidic habitats, Microbes belong to diverse
groups of organisms bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
microscopic plants.

Viruses, viroids and prions are also included amongst

microbes. They are infectious agents. Viruses are
nucleoprotein entities, Viroids are made up of only nucleic
acids. Prions are proteinaceous infectious agents. The
three cannot be cultured in cell free extracts. Most of the
other microbes can be grown on nutritive media where they
form colonies, e.g., bacteria, fungi. The colonies can be
seen with naked eyes. They are useful in the study of
various aspects of microorganisms.

While microbes are causal agents of most of the infectious

diseases, they have also been in use by humans and
nature in many important processes in homes, industries,
agricultures and sewage treatment. Rather, microbes
become part of many useful articles used by early humans
like fermented honey (alcoholic drink mead), wines, bread,
curd, cheese, separation of plant fibres, etc.

Household Products
1. Dairy Products:
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) like lactobacillus are added to
milk. It converts lactose sugar of milk into lactic acid. Lactic
acid causes coagulation and partial digestion of milk protein
casein. Milk is changed into curd, yoghurt and cheese. The
starter or inoculum used in preparation of milk products
actually contains millions of LAB.

(i) Curd:
Indian curd is prepared by inoculating skimmed and cream
milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus at a temperature of
about 40C or less. Curd is more nutritious than milk as it
contains a number of organic acids and vitamins including
B12. LAB present in curd also checks growth of disease
causing microbes in stomach and other parts of digestive
tract. Curd is eaten as such, salted or sweetened. Curd is
churned to prepare lassi. It is also used to obtain butter and
butter milk.
(ii) Yoghurt (= yogurt):
It is produced by curdling milk with the help of
Streptococcus thermophiles and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
The temperature is maintained at about 45C (40^6C) for
four hours. It has a flavour of lactic acid and acetaldehyde.
Yoghurt is often sweetened and mixed with fruit.

(iii) Butter Milk:

It is acidulated product which is formed by inoculating
skimmed milk with starter culture of Streptococcus
cremoris, S. lactis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Leuconostoc
species at 22C for 18 hours. Acidulated liquid left after
churning of butter from curd is also called butter milk.

(iv) Sour Cream:

Cream obtained by churning of milk is inoculated with
Sterptococcus lactis for producing lactic acid and
Leuconostoc cremoris for imparting the characteristic
flavour.
(v) Cheese:
It is one of the oldest milk products prepared with the help
of microbes. The curd is separated from liquid part or whey
to form cheese. Depending upon water content, cheese is
of three types -soft (50-80% water), semihard (about 45%
water) and hard (less than 40% water).

The method of preparing cheese with the help of microbes

was known in Asia and Europe long before Christ. There
are several varieties of cheese with different texture, flavour
and taste. Curdling is done with the help of lactic acid
bacteria and enzyme rennin (= Casein coagulase,
chymosin), rennet (from Calfs stomach) or fruit extract of
Withania coagulans. In preparation of raw cheese milk is
curdled with the help of lactic acid bacteria. The curd is
heated gently to separate cheese from whey.

Any liquid left in cheese is allowed to drain by hanging it in

cloth. Unripened or Cottage cheese is prepared by single
step fermentation which involves inoculation of skimmed
milk with cheese culture (e.g., Lac tobacillus, Acetobacter,
Saccharomyces, Rhizopus, Amylomyces) and addition of
rennin or rennet after 1-2 hours. Curd is placed in cloth
lined porous containers for draining out whey.
Ripened cheese is prepared from unripened cheese by first
dipping in brine, wiping and then maturation with different
strain of bacteria and fungi. It takes 1-16 months for
ripening. Large holed swiss cheese is ripened with the help
of CO2 producing (causing holes) bacterium called
Propionibacterium sharmanii. Roquefort cheese uses
Penicillium roqueforti while Camembert cheese employs
Penicillium camemberti for ripening.
2. Bread:
Selected strains of Bakers Yeast, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, are grown on molasses. When sufficient growth
has occurred, Bakers Yeast is harvested and converted
into either powder or cakes. A small quantity of Bakers
Yeast is added to wheat flour. The same is needed. The
kneaded flour is kept at a warm temperature for a few
hours. It swells up. The phenomenon is called leavening.
Leavening is caused by secretion of three types of enzymes
by yeast.

They are amylase, maltase and zymase. Amylase causes

breakdown of a small quantity of starch into maltose sugar.
Maltase converts maltose into glucose. Glucose is acted
upon by zymase. Zymase is a complex of several enzymes
of anaerobic respiration which brings about fermentation.
Fermentation of glucose mainly forms ethyl alcohol and
carbon dioxide. The two cause swelling or leavening of the
dough. The leavened dough is baked. Both carbon dioxide
and ethyl alcohol evaporate making the bread porous and
soft.

3. Dosa, Uppma and Idli:

They are fermented preparation of rice and Black Gram
(vem. Urad). The two are allowed to ferment for 3-12 hours
with air borne Leuconostoc and Streptococcus species of
bacteria. CO2 produced during fermentation causes puffing
up of the dough.
4. Jalebi:
The semi-liquid dough of fine flour of Wheat is fermented
with yeast, fried in the form of coils and dipped in sugar
syrup to obtain Jalebi. Imriti is similarly prepared from Black
Gram flour.

5. Other Foods:
Tempeh (Indonesia), Tofu (Japanese) and Sufu (Chinese)
are fermented foods obtained from soyabean. Soy sauce is
brown flavoured salty sauce fermented from soyabean and
wheat. Tender bamboo shoots are used as vegetable
directly as well as after fermentation. Several types of
sausages are prepared by fermentation and curing of fish
and meat. Sauerkraut is finely chopped fermented and
pickled cabbage.

6. SCP (Single cell protein):

It is the production of microbial biomass as supplementary
food for humans and animals. The common SCP are
Spirulina, Yeast and Fusarium graminearum. Processing is
required. SCP is rich in high quality protein, vitamins and
minerals but poor in fat. Besides proving much needed
proteins, SCP is useful in reducing environmental pollution
as it is often grown over medium having organic wastes
from agriculture and industries.

7. Toddy:
It is a traditional drink of some parts of South India which is
made by fermentation of sap of palms. A common source is
tapping of unopened spadices of coconut. It is a refreshing
drink which can be heated to produce jaggery or palm
sugar. Toddy left for a few hours undergoes fermentation
with the help of naturally occurring yeast to form beverage
containing about 6% alcohol. After 24 hours toddy becomes
unpalatable. It can be now used for producing vinegar.

Industrial Products:
Fermentative activity of microbes is used industrially to
obtain a number of products. The two common ones are
alcoholic fermentation and antibiotics.

Methodology:
For any new industrial utilisation of a microbial activity, the
technology passes through three stageslaboratory scale,
pilot plant scale and manufacturing unit. The development
from laboratory scale to manufacturing unit is called scaling
up.

1. Laboratory Scale:
Soon after the discovery of use of a microorganism, the
maximum number of strains is searched and the most
suitable strain is selected and multiplied. A laboratory scale
apparatus/plant is manufactured. It has a glass fermentor
(fermenter). All the parameters of the process are worked
out like nutrients for the microbe, pH, aeration, disposal of
C02if evolved, optimum temperature, by products, product
inhibition or stimulation, time of optimum production,
separation of product and its purification. Ultimately, the
laboratory scale process is finalised.
2. Pilot Plant Scale:
It is intermediate stage where working of the laboratory
scale process is tested cost and qualities of the product are
evaluated. Glass vessels are replaced by metallic
containers. The container where fermentation is carried out
is called bioreactor or fermentor. Aeration system, pH
corrections and temperature adjustments are perfected.

3. Manufacturing Unit:
Its size is determined by the economics worked at during
the pilot plant scale process. Bioreactor or fermentor is
often large. Microorganisms are added in bioreactors in
three ways:

(i) Support growth system or on surface of nutrient medium,

(ii) Suspended growth system or suspended in nutrient

medium,

(iii) Column or immobilised growth system where

microorganisms placed in calcium alginate beads are kept
in columns.

Alcoholic Fermentation:
Louis Pasteur found for the first time that beer and butter
milk are produced due to activity of Yeast and Yeast-like
microorganisms. Yeast species used in alcoholic
fermentation are Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brewers
Yeast), S. ellipsoidens (Wine Yeast), S. sake (Sake Yeast)
and S. pireformis (Ginger Beer/Ale Yeast). The nutrient
medium is barley malt for beer, fermented rye malt for gin,
fermented rice for sake, cashew-apple for fenny, potato for
vodka, fermented cereals for whisky, fermented molasses
for rum and fermented juices for wines and brandy.

1. Yeast does not possess sufficient diastase/amylase.

Therefore, either 1% malt or Rhizopus is used when the
nutrient medium consists of complex carbohydrates as
present in cereals and Potato. Hydrolysis of starch is
carried out in separate tank at high temperature (55C) for
30 minutes. The crushed food mixed with hot water for
obtaining malt is called mash. The sweetened nutrient
medium prior to alcoholic fermentation is called wort.

2. Bioreactor/fermentation tank is sterilised with the help of

steam under pressure. The liquid nutrient medium or wort is
added into the tank and sterilised similarly. It is then
allowed to cool.

3. When the liquid nutrient medium is cooled down to

appropriate temperature, it is inoculated with appropriate
strain of Yeast through support growth system (on the
surface) or suspended growth system (inside the wort).
Fermentation occurs in three ways:

(i) Batch Process:

Bioreactor is very large (capacity up to 2,25,000 litres of
medium). Yeast and nutrient are allowed to remain there till
maximum alcohol content is achieved (6-12%). It is called
wash. The same is removed and the tank sterilised for the
next batch,

(ii) Continuous Process:

There is a regular removal of a portion of fermented
liquor/wash and addition of more nutrient,

(iii) Fed Batch Process:

Nutrient is regularly fed in small quantities in the fermenter
so as to optimise the working of the fermenting microbe
without any inhibition,

(iv) Immobilised Yeast:

Lately Yeast is being used in immobilised state in calcium
alginate beads. The technique is 20 times more efficient.
4. Both Beer and Wine are filtered, pasteurised and bottled
without further distillation. Beer has an alcoholic content of
3 6% while in wines the alcoholic content is 9-12%.
Higher alcoholic content is generally achieved through
direct addition of alcohol. Hops are added to wort during
preparation of beer. Distillation of the fermented broth is
carried out in case of other alcoholic beverages called hard
liquors, e.g., gin (40%), rum (40%), brandy (60-70%).
Rectified spirit is 95% alcohol. Absolute alcohol is 100%
alcohol.

5. Bye-products of alcoholic fermentation are CO2 and

Yeast. A number of other chemicals can be formed with the
change of nutrient medium, pH and aeration n-propanol,
butanol, amyl alcohol, phenylethanol, glycerol, acetic acid,
pyruvic acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, caproic acid, caprylic
acid, ethyl acetate, acetaldehyde, diacetyl, hydrogen
sulphide, etc.
Antibiotics:
The term was coined by Waksman (1942). Antibiotics (Gk.
anti against, bioslife) are chemical substances
produced by some microbes which in small concentration
can kill or retard the growth of harmful microbes without
adversely affecting the host. Penicillin was the first antibiotic
to be discovered by Alexander Fleming (1928). He found
that fungus Penicillium notatum or its extract could inhibit
the growth of bacterium Staphylococcus aureus.

The antibiotic was however, commercially extracted by

efforts of Chain and Florey. The chemical was extensively
used in treating wounded American soldiers in World War
II. Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded Nobel Prize in
1945. Waksman and Woodruff isolated actinomycin in 1941
and streptothricin in 1942. Waksman and Albert (1943) and
Waksman (1944) discovered streptomycin. Burkholder
(1947) isolated chloromycetin.

Over 7000 antibiotics are known. Every year some 300 new
antibiotics are discovered by means of hypersensitive
microorganisms (started in 1970). Streptomyces griseus
produces more than 41 antibiotics while Bacillus subtilis
forms about 60 antibiotics. Antibiotics can be broad
spectrum or specific. Broad Spectrum Antibiotic. It is an
antibiotic which can kill or destroy a number of pathogens
that belong to different groups with different structure and
wall composition. Specific Antibiotic. It is an antibiotic which
is effective only against one type of pathogens.
Action:
Antibiotics function either as bactericides (killing bacteria) or
bacteriostatic (inhibiting growth of bacteria). This is done by
(i) Disruption of wall synthesis, e.g., penicillin,
cephalosporins, bacitracin, (ii) Disruption of plasmalemma
repair and synthesis, e.g., polymyxin, nystatin,
amphotericin, (iii) Inhibition of 50 S ribosome function, e.g.,
erythromycin. (iv) inhibition of 30 S ribosome function, e.g.,
streptomycin, neomycin, (v) Inhibition of aa-tRNA binding to
ribosome, e.g., tetracycline, (vi) Inhibition of translation,
e.g., chloramphenicol.

Characteristics of a Good Antibiotic:

(a) Harmless to host with no side effect,

(b) Harmless to normal microflora of alimentary canal,

(c) Ability to destroy pathogen as well as broad spectrum,

(d) Effective against all strains of pathogen,

(e) Quick action.

Resistance to Antibiotics:
Pathogens often develop resistance to existing antibiotics
so that newer antibiotics are required to be produced. The
resistance is generally produced due to extrachromosomal
genes present in plasmids. They can pass from one
bacterium to another due to transformation and
transduction. As a result of repeated transformation, certain
strains of bacteria have become multiresistant or super
bugs, e.g., NDM-1.

Resistance to antibiotics comes from (i) Development of

copious mucilage, (ii) Alteration of cell membrane so that
antibiotic cannot recognise the pathogen, (iii) Alteration of
cell membrane which prevents antibiotic entry, (iv) Change
to L-form by pathogen, (y) Mutation in pathogen. (vi)
Development of pathogen enzyme capable of modifying
antibiotic.

Production of Antibiotic:
Suitable strain of microorganism is cultivated on a sterilised
nutrient medium provided with optimum pW, aeration,
temperature, antifoaming agent and antibiotic precursor (if
any). When sufficient antibiotic has diffused into medium,
the microorganism is separated and the antibiotic is
extracted from medium by precipitation, absorption or
solvent treatment. It is purified, concentrated and bio-
assayed before packing.
Antibiotics are obtained from lichens, fungi, eubacteria and
actinomycetes. The common antibiotic from lichens is usnic
acid (Usnea and Cladonia). Amongst eubacteria, two
account for most antibiotics, Bacillus (70%) and
Pseudomonas (30%). Fungi yield a number of antibiotics
like penicillin, patulin and griseofulvin (Penicillium species),
cephalosporins (from marine fungus Cephalosporium
acremonium), antiamoebin (Emericellopsis), polyporin
(.Polystictus sanguineus), clitocybin (Clitocybine gigantea),
citrinin (Aspergillus clavatus, Penicillium citrinum), clavacin
(Aspergillus clavatus), etc.

Most famous drugs are got from actinomycetes, especially

Streptomyces, e.g., streptomycin, chloramphenicol,
tetracyclin, terramycin, erythromycin. Other antibiotic
yielding actinomycetes are Streptosporangium,
Streptoverticillium, Micromonospora, Nocardia and
Actinoplanes, etc. Some antibiotics are modified to enhance
their potential. They are semisynthetic, e.g., ampicillin,
oxocillin.

Uses:
Antibiotics are used:
(i) As medicines for treatment of a number of pathogenic or
infectious diseases. Because of antibiotics and their newer
more potent forms, a number of formidable diseases are
now curable, e.g., plague, typhoid, tuberculosis, whooping
cough, diphtheria, leprosy, etc.

(ii) As preservatives in perishable fresh food articles (e.g.,

meat and fish), pasteurised and canned foods,

(iii) As feed supplement for animals, especially poultry birds

because they enhance growth.

Chemicals, Enzymes and Other Bioactive

Molecules:
Microbes are being used for commercial and industrial
production of certain chemicals like organic acids, alcohols,
enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Bioactive
molecules are those molecules which are functional in living
systems or can interact with their components. A number of
them are obtained from microbes.

Organic Acids:
A number of organic acids are being manufactured with the
help of microbes. The important ones are as follows:

1. Acetic Acid:
It is prepared from fermented alcohols with the help of
acetic acid bacteria, Acetobacter aceti. Alcoholic
fermentation is anaerobic process, but the conversion of
alcohol to acetic acid is aerobic one.

As soon as 10-13% acetic acid is formed, the liquid is

filtered. It is used after ripening as vinegar. The type and
quality of vinegar depends upon substrate used for
alcoholic fermentation and ripening. For other purposes,
acetic acid is purified. The organic acid is employed in
pharmaceuticals, colouring agents, insecticides, plastics,
etc.

2. Citric Acid:
It is obtained through the fermentation carried out by
Aspergillus niger and Mucor species on sugary syrups.
Yeast Candida lipolytica can also be employed, provided its
nutrient medium is made deficient of iron and manganese.
Citric acid is employed in dyeing, engraving, medicines,
inks, flavouring and preservation of food and candies.

3. Lactic Acid:
It was the first organic acid to be produced from the
microbial fermentation in starchy and sugary medium.
Lactic acid fermentation is carried out by both bacteria (e.g.,
Streptococcus lactis, Lactobacillus species) and fungi (e.g.,
Rhizopus). The acid derived from fungal sources is costlier
but is of high purity. Any starchy or sugary medium is used.

Lactic acid is used in confectionery, fruit juices, essences,

pickles, curing of meat, lemonades, canned vegetables and
fish products. It is also employed as mordant in tanning,
printing of wool in the preparation of plastics and
pharmaceuticals.

4. Gluconic Acid:
The acid is prepared by the activity of Aspergillus niger and
Penicillium species. Calcium gluconate is used widely as a
source of calcium for infant, cows and lactating mothers. It
is also used in preparation of pharmaceuticals.

5. Butyric Acid:
The acid is produced during fermentation activity of
bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum. Rincidity of butter is
also due to its formation.

6. Alcohols:
Ethanol, methanol, propanol and butanol are alcohols that
can be produced commercially by fermentation activity of
some fungi (e.g., Yeast, Mucor, Rhizopus) and bacteria
(e.g., Clostridium acetobutylicum, C. saccharotobutylicum).
The alcohols are important industrial solvents.

Enzymes:
Enzymes are proteinaceous substances of biological origin
which are capable of catalysing biochemical reactions
without themselves undergoing any change. The word
enzyme was coined by William Kuhne (1867) after the fact
the yeast provided the most well studied bio-catalytically
controlled reactions of alcoholic fermentation (Gk. en- in,
zyme- yeast). Buchner (1901) found yeast extract to have
enzymatic activity. The number of enzymes now runs into
several thousands.

All of them are macromolecules (large sized molecules)

with a specific three-dimensional shape. Enzymes are
substrate specific and carry out a specific catalytic action.
They work best at room temperature and near-neutral pH
with the exception of several digestive enzymes. Use of
enzymes in biotechnology had a number of problems which
have been largely overcome by the technique of
immobilisation of enzymes inside artificial cells or gels.
About 300 enzymes are being used in industry and
medicines. Most of them are obtained from microbes.

1. Proteases:
They are enzymes that degrade proteins and polypeptides.
Proteases are obtained from Mortierella renispora,
Aspergillus and Bacillus species. The enzymes are used in:

(i) Clearing (Chill proofing) beer and whisky,

(ii) Cleaning of hides,

(iii) Softening of bread and meat,

(iv) Degumming of silk,

(v) Manufacture of liquid glue,

(iv) Manufacture of detergents capable of removing

proteinaceous stains.

2. Amylases:
They degrade starches. Amylases are obtained from
Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Bacillus species. The enzymes
are employed for:

(i) Softening and sweetening of bread,

(ii) Production of alcoholic beverages (e.g., beer, whisky)
from starchy materials,

(iii) Clearing of turbidity in juices caused by starch,

(iv) Separation and desizing of textile fibres.

Amylase, glucoamylases and glucoisomerases are

employed in conversion of com starch into fructose rich
com syrup. Incidentally fructose is the sweetest of the
sugars. Therefore, com syrup is sweeter than sucrose
solution. It is used in sweetening and flavouring soft drinks,
biscuits, cakes, etc.

3. Rennet:
It is an extract from the stomach of calf that contains
enzyme rennin. Rennet or chymosin is now being obtained
from Mucor and Endothio species. Withania and fig (ficin)
also yield similar product.

4. Lactases:
They are obtained from Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula
cremoris. The enzymes convert lactose (milk sugar) into
lactic acid. Lactic, acid can coagulate milk protein, casein.
Lactases prevent crystals formation (sandiness) in dairy
preparations like ice-cream and processed cheese.

5. Streptokinase (Tissue Plasminogen Activator or

TPA):
It is an enzyme obtained from the cultures of some
haemolytic bacterium Streptococcus and modified
genetically to function as clot buster. It has fibrinolytic
effect. Therefore, it helps in clearing blood clots inside the
blood vessels through dissolution of intravascular fibrin.

6. Pectinases:
They are obtained commercially from Byssochlamys fulvo.
Along-with proteases, they are used in clearing of fruit
juices. Other uses are in retting of fibres and preparation of
green coffee.

7. Lipases:
They are lipid dissolving enzymes that are obtained from
Candida lipolytica and Geotrichum candidum. Lipases are
added in detergents for removing oily stains from laundry.
They are also used in flavouring cheese.

Cyclosporin A:
It is an eleven membered cyclic oligopeptide obtained
through fermentative activity of fungus Trichoderma
polysporum. It has antifungal, anti-inflammatory and
immunosuppressive properties. It inhibits activation of T-
cells and therefore, prevents rejection reactions in organ
transplantation.

Statins:
They are products of fermentation activity of yeast
Monasciis purpureus which resemble mevalovate and are
competitive inhibitors of p-hydroxy-p-methylglutaryl or HMG
CoA reductase. This inhibits cholesterol synthesis. Statins
are, therefore, used in lowering blood cholesterol, e.g.,
lovastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin.

Introduction

Figure1: general scheme of sewage treatment which shows the flow from primary treatment to
tertiary treatment, and solid sludge digestion is also shown.

Sewage treatment is a process in which the pollutants are removed. The ultimate goal of
sewage treatment is to produce an effluent that will not impact the environment [1] . In the
absence of sewage treatment, the results can be devastating as sewage can disrupt the
environment.

The general processes of sewage treatment are primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment. Primary treatment involves physical separation of sewage into solids and
liquid by using a settling basin. The liquid sewage is then transferred to secondary
treatment which focuses on removing the dissolved biological compound by the use
of micro-organisms. The micro-organisms usually use aerobic metabolism to
degrade the biological matter in the liquid sludge. Then tertiary treatment is required
to disinfect the sewage so that it can be released into the environment. The solid
sewage separated from primary treatment is transferred to a tank for sludge
digestion which involves anaerobic degradation using micro-organisms [2].

physical environment

Figure 2: sewage composition in a urbanized city [17

The environment of the sewage treatment plant has to be controlled precisely because
bacteria are sensitive to the oxygen level, pH level, temperature, and level of nutrient. In
order for efficient degradation of biological matter to occur, these factors are controlled
manually.

Sewage composition

Sewage is composed of organic matter such as carbohydrates, fats, oil, grease and
proteins mainly from domestic waste. It also contains dissolved inorganic matter
such as nitrogen species and phosphorous species mainly from agricultural use [3].
It is essential to remove the nutrients before they are released to the environment
because it interferes natural habitats by altering the chemical composition such as
pH or oxygen level both directly and indirectly.
Oxygen level

Oxygen level is an important factor to secondary and tertiary treatment processes.

Secondary treatment, oxygen is required as a terminal electron acceptor in organic
matter degradation. For example, nitrification
by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter species requires dissolved oxygen to occur [4].
Oxygen in secondary treatment is provided manually by pumping oxygen into the
sewage continuously which occurs in an aeration tank [5]. In tertiary treatment, the
removal of excess organic matter is enhanced by settling the sewage in a lagoon.
This process is also aerobic, but it depends on the diffusion of oxygen because most
organic matter has been degraded by secondary treatment [5].
pH

Acidity plays a crucial role in the breakdown of organic matter because pH affects
the solubility of compounds which indirectly affect the accessibility by bacteria [8].
Also, bacteria responsible for organic matter degradation are sensitive to the pH of
the environment. Extremely high or low pH levels are able to kill bacteria, deposition
of organic matter occurs due to lack of degradation [6]. Hence, the pH of sewage
treatment is controlled to be around 7. A nitrifier in secondary
treatment, Nitrosomnas requires a pH between 6~9 in order to be viable [7].
Temperature

The effect of temperature is influential for secondary treatment, but it is not important
in primary treatment. Bacterial growth is sensitive to temperature because high
temperature can increase the fluidity of the phospholipid bilayer which leads to cell
lysis. However, bacteria are known to have higher enzymatic activity at higher
temperature because of increased thermal energy. For example,
when thermophilicsludge treatment is compared to mesophilic treatment, the sludge
biodegradability is higher with thermophilic degradation [9]. Hence the temperature
has to be controlled precisely to maximize the efficiency of degradation but also
allow the cell to remain viable.
Nutrients availability

There are a lot of nutrients available in the sewage because of human waste and
agricultural runoff [3]. Bacteria can harvest the electron from organic matter and
transfer it to a terminal electron acceptorwhich results in the break down of organic
matter and energy conservation [10].
Microbial processes

There are several microbial processes, and the microbial processes can be
catergorized into aerobic and anaerobic.
Aerobic

After primary treatment, liquid and solid phases are physically separated. The liquid
phase is treated with aeration to allow aerobic degradation of the nutrients. The two
important microbial processes at this stage are nitrification and phosphorous
removal. Nitrification occurs in two discrete steps. First of all, ammonium is oxidized
to nitrite by Nitrosomonas.spp, and nitrite is further oxidized to nitrate
by Nitrobacter.spp [4]. Phosphorous removal can occur biologically by the process of
enhanced biological phosphorous removal. The process is demonstrated by the
cell taking up phosphorous within their cell, and the biomass is filtered [11].

Anaerobic

In the liquid component of sewage, denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate into dinitrogen
gas which liberates nitrate from the sewage [13]. The solid component of the sewage
separated in primary treatment is fermented by bacteria anaerobically [12].

Key microorganisms

Microorganiasms can also be categorized by its metabolism.

Microorganisms with aerobic microbial process

Members of the Nitrosomonas genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for

the first stage of nitrification in sewage. They oxidize ammonium into nitrite. This
bacterium prefers a pH around 6-9 and nitrify optimally at 20-30C [4].
Members of the Nitrobacter genus is a gram negative bacterium responsible for the
second stage of nitrification in the sewage. It oxidizes nitrite to nitrate using oxygen
as a terminal electron acceptor. The bacteria has an optimum pH of 6~8, and an
optimum temperature of 0~40C [4].
Microorganism with anaerobic microbial process

Members of Pseudomonas genus is a gram negative denitrifying bacteria that use

the chemical energy in organic matter to reduce nitrate into dinitrogen gas [14]. Also,
members of the bacteroidetes phylum are the gram negative bacteria responsible for
the anaerobic fermentation of the solid sludge [12].

Current Research

Figure 3: A general scheme of the function of microbial fuel cell

A research has shown the correlation between nutrient removal efficiency, light
wavelength and light intensity. Xu et al. discovered that red and high intensity light
maximizes the nutrient removal efficiency [15]. Also, the use of pre-treated sludge is
found to generate electricity in a microbial fuel cell [16]. This can potentially lead to
production of renewable energy.

Sewage treatment
ewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater,
primarily from household sewage. It includes physical, chemical, and
biological processes to remove these contaminants and produce
environmentally safer treated wastewater (or treated effluent). A by-product of
sewage treatment is usually a semi-solid waste or slurry, called sewage
sludge, that has to undergo further treatment before being suitable for
disposal or land application.
Sewage treatment may also be referred to as wastewater treatment, although
the latter is a broader term which can also be applied to purely industrial
wastewater. For most cities, the sewer system will also carry a proportion
of industrial effluent to the sewage treatment plant which has usually received
pretreatment at the factories themselves to reduce the pollutant load. If the
sewer system is a combined sewer then it will also carry urban
runoff (stormwater) to the sewage treatment plant. Sewage water can travel
towards treatment plants via piping and in a flow aided by gravity and pumps.
The first part of filtration of sewage typically includes a bar screen to filter
solids and large objects which are then collected in dumpsters and disposed
of in landfills. Fat and grease is also removed before the primary treatment of
sewage.

Origins of sewage[edit]
Main article: Sewage

Sewage is generated by residential, institutional, commercial and industrial

establishments. It includes household waste liquid
from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, and sinksdraining into sewers. In many
areas, sewage also includes liquid waste from industry and commerce. The
separation and draining of household waste into greywater and blackwateris
becoming more common in the developed world, with treated greywater being
permitted to be used for watering plants or recycled for flushing toilets.
Sewage mixing with rainwater[edit]
Sewage may include stormwater runoff or urban runoff. Sewerage systems
capable of handling storm water are known as combined sewer systems. This
design was common when urban sewerage systems were first developed, in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[2]:119 Combined sewers require much
larger and more expensive treatment facilities than sanitary sewers. Heavy
volumes of storm runoff may overwhelm the sewage treatment system,
causing a spill or overflow. Sanitary sewers are typically much smaller than
combined sewers, and they are not designed to transport stormwater.
Backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive infiltration/inflow (dilution by
stormwater and/or groundwater) is allowed into a sanitary sewer system.
Communities that have urbanized in the mid-20th century or later generally
have built separate systems for sewage (sanitary sewers) and stormwater,
because precipitation causes widely varying flows, reducing sewage treatment
plant efficiency.[3]
As rainfall travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various
contaminants including soil particles and other sediment, heavy
metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oiland grease.
Some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of treatment
before being discharged directly into waterways. Examples of treatment
processes used for stormwater include retention basins, wetlands,
buried vaults with various kinds of media filters, and vortex separators (to
remove coarse solids).[4]
Industrial effluent[edit]
Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment
In highly regulated developed countries, industrial effluent usually receives at
least pretreatment if not full treatment at the factories themselves to reduce
the pollutant load, before discharge to the sewer. This process is
called industrial wastewater treatment or pretreatment. The same does not
apply to many developing countries where industrial effluent is more likely to
enter the sewer if it exists, or even the receiving water body, without
pretreatment.
Industrial wastewater may contain pollutants which cannot be removed by
conventional sewage treatment. Also, variable flow of industrial waste
associated with production cycles may upset the population dynamics of
biological treatment units, such as the activated sludge process.

Process steps[edit]
Overview[edit]
Sewage collection and treatment is typically subject to local, state and federal
regulations and standards.
Treating wastewater has the aim to produce an effluent that will do as little
harm as possible when discharged to the surrounding environment, thereby
preventing pollution compared to releasing untreated wastewater into the
environment.[5]
Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary
and tertiary treatment.

Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a

quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil,
grease and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and floating
materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or
subjected to secondary treatment. Some sewage treatment plants that are
connected to a combined sewer system have a bypass arrangement after
the primary treatment unit. This means that during very heavy rainfall
events, the secondary and tertiary treatment systems can be bypassed to
protect them from hydraulic overloading, and the mixture of sewage and
stormwater only receives primary treatment.
Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter.
Secondary treatment is typically performed by indigenous, water-borne
micro-organisms in a managed habitat. Secondary treatment may require a
separation process to remove the micro-organisms from the treated water
prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.
Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary
and secondary treatment in order to allow ejection into a highly sensitive or
fragile ecosystem (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,...). Treated water
is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically (for example, by lagoons
and microfiltration) prior to discharge into
a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for
the irrigation of a golf course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it
can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.

Simplified process flow diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant

Process flow diagram for a typical treatment plant via subsurface flow constructed
wetlands (SFCW)

Pretreatment[edit]
Pretreatment removes all materials that can be easily collected from the raw
sewage before they damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of primary
treatment clarifiers. Objects commonly removed during pretreatment include
trash, tree limbs, leaves, branches, and other large objects.
The influent in sewage water passes through a bar screen to remove all large
objects like cans, rags, sticks, plastic packets etc. carried in the sewage
stream.[6] This is most commonly done with an automated mechanically raked
bar screen in modern plants serving large populations, while in smaller or less
modern plants, a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action of
a mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the accumulation on
the bar screens and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and later disposed in
a landfill, or incinerated. Bar screens or mesh screens of varying sizes may be
used to optimize solids removal. If gross solids are not removed, they become
entrained in pipes and moving parts of the treatment plant, and can cause
substantial damage and inefficiency in the process.[7]:9
Grit removal[edit]
Pretreatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber, where the
velocity of the incoming sewage is adjusted to allow the settlement of sand,
grit, stones, and broken glass. These particles are removed because they may
damage pumps and other equipment. For small sanitary sewer systems, the
grit chambers may not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at larger
plants.[7] Grit chambers come in 3 types: horizontal grit chambers, aerated grit
chambers and vortex grit chambers. The process is called sedimentation.
Flow equalization[edit]
Clarifiers and mechanized secondary treatment are more efficient under
uniform flow conditions. Equalization basins may be used for temporary
storage of diurnal or wet-weather flow peaks. Basins provide a place to
temporarily hold incoming sewage during plant maintenance and a means of
diluting and distributing batch discharges of toxic or high-strength waste which
might otherwise inhibit biological secondary treatment (including portable toilet
waste, vehicle holding tanks, and septic tank pumpers). Flow equalization
basins require variable discharge control, typically include provisions for
bypass and cleaning, and may also include aerators. Cleaning may be easier
if the basin is downstream of screening and grit removal.[8]
Fat and grease removal[edit]
In some larger plants, fat and grease are removed by passing the sewage
through a small tank where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air
blowers in the base of the tank may also be used to help recover the fat as a
froth. Many plants, however, use primary clarifiers with mechanical surface
skimmers for fat and grease removal.
Primary Treatment[edit]

Primary treatment tanks in Oregon, USA.

In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks,

commonly called "pre-settling basins", "primary sedimentation tanks" or
"primary clarifiers".[9] The tanks are used to settle sludge while grease and oils
rise to the surface and are skimmed off. Primary settling tanks are usually
equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected
sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is pumped to sludge
treatment facilities.[7]:911 Grease and oil from the floating material can
sometimes be recovered for saponification (soap making).
Secondary treatment[edit]
Main article: Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological

content of the sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste,
soaps and detergent. The majority of municipal plants treat the settled sewage
liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be effective, the biota require
both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and protozoaconsume
biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-
chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions
into floc.
Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth
systems.

Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters, constructed

wetlands, bio-towers, and rotating biological contactors, where the
biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface.[7]:11
13 The fixed-film principle has further developed into Moving
 Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBR)[10] and Integrated Fixed-Film Activated
Sludge (IFAS) processes.[11] An MBBR system typically requires a smaller
footprint than suspended-growth systems.[12]
Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass
is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than
trickling filters that treat the same amount of water. However, fixed-film
systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of
biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic
material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems.[7]:1113

Secondary clarifier at a rural treatment plant.

Some secondary treatment methods include a secondary clarifier to settle out

and separate biological floc or filter material grown in the secondary treatment
bioreactor.
Tertiary treatment[edit]
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to further
improve the effluent quality before it is discharged to the receiving
environment (sea, river, lake, wet lands, ground, etc.). More than one tertiary
treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is
practised, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing."
Filtration[edit]
Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter.[7]:2223 Filtration
over activated carbon, also called carbon adsorption,removes
residual toxins.[7]:19
Lagoons or ponds[edit]

A sewage treatment plant and lagoon in Everett, Washington, United States.

Lagoons or ponds provide settlement and further biological improvement
through storage in large man-made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are
highly aerobic and colonization by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is
often encouraged. Small filter-feeding invertebratessuch as Daphnia and
species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.
Biological nutrient removal[edit]
Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is regarded by some as a type of secondary
treatment process,[1] and by others as a tertiary (or "advanced") treatment
process.
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus.
Excessive release to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients,
called eutrophication, which can in turn encourage the overgrowth of
weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause an algal
bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are
unsustainable and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the
algae by bacteria uses up so much of the oxygen in the water that most or all
of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the bacteria to
decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species
produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment
processes are required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
Nitrogen removal[edit]
Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen
from ammonia to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction
of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus
removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a
different type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2) is
most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. ("nitroso" referring to the formation
of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3), though
traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacterspp. (nitro referring the
formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the
environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate
biological communities to form. It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria.
Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen, but
the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job the most
easily.[7]:1718 Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen
(molecular nitrogen) gas, an electron donor is needed. This can be, depending
on the waste water, organic matter (from feces), sulfide, or an added donor
like methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tanks (denitrification tanks) must be
mixed well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge [RAS],
and raw influent) e.g. by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the
desired denitrification.
Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as
tertiary treatment.
Over time, different treatment configurations have evolved as denitrification
has become more sophisticated. An initial scheme, the Ludzack-Ettinger
Process, placed an anoxic treatment zone before the aeration tank and
clarifier, using the return activated sludge (RAS) from the clarifier as a nitrate
source. Influent wastewater (either raw or as effluent from primary
clarification) serves as the electron source for the facultative bacteria to
metabolize carbon, using the inorganic nitrate as a source of oxygen instead
of dissolved molecular oxygen. This denitrification scheme was naturally
limited to the amount of soluble nitrate present in the RAS. Nitrate reduction
was limited because RAS rate is limited by the performance of the clarifier.
The "Modified Ludzak-Ettinger Process" (MLE) is an improvement on the
original concept, for it recycles mixed liquor from the discharge end of the
aeration tank to the head of the anoxic tank to provide a consistent source of
soluble nitrate for the facultative bacteria. In this instance, raw wastewater
continues to provide the electron source, and sub-surface mixing maintains
the bacteria in contact with both electron source and soluble nitrate in the
absence of dissolved oxygen.
Many sewage treatment plants use centrifugal pumps to transfer the nitrified
mixed liquor from the aeration zone to the anoxic zone for denitrification.
These pumps are often referred to as Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle (IMLR)
pumps. IMLR may be 200% to 400% the flow rate of influent wastewater (Q.)
This is in addition to Return Activated Sludge (RAS) from secondary clarifiers,
which may be 100% of Q. (Therefore, the hydraulic capacity of the tanks in
such a system should handle at least 400% of annual average design flow
(AADF.) At times, the raw or primary effluent wastewater must be carbon-
supplemented by the addition of methanol, acetate, or simple food waste
(molasses, whey, plant starch) to improve the treatment efficiency. These
carbon additions should be accounted for in the design of a treatment facility's
organic loading.[13]
Further modifications to the MLE were to come: Bardenpho and Biodenipho
processes include additional anoxic and oxidative processes to further polish
the conversion of nitrate ion to molecular nitrogen gas. Use of an anaerobic
tank following the initial anoxic process allows for luxury uptake of phosphorus
by bacteria, thereby biologically reducing orthophosphate ion in the treated
wastewater. Even newer improvements, such as Anammox Process, interrupt
the formation of nitrate at the nitrite stage of nitrification, shunting nitrite-rich
mixed liquor activated sludge to treatment where nitrite is then converted to
molecular nitrogen gas, saving energy, alkalinity, and secondary carbon
sourcing. Anammox (ANaerobic AMMonia OXidation) works by artificially
extending detention time and preserving denitrifiying bacteria through the use
of substrate added to the mixed liquor and continuously recycled from it prior
to secondary clarification. Many other proprietary schemes are being
deployed, including DEMON, Sharon-ANAMMOX, ANITA-Mox, and
DeAmmon.[14] The bacteria Brocadia anammoxidans can remove
ammonium from waste water [15] through anaerobic oxidation of ammonium
to hydrazine, a form of rocket fuel.[16][17]
Phosphorus removal[edit]
Every adult human excretes between 200 and 1000 grams of phosphorus
annually. Studies of United States sewage in the late 1960s estimated mean
per capita contributions of 500 grams in urine and feces, 1000 grams in
synthetic detergents, and lesser variable amounts used as corrosion and
scale control chemicals in water supplies.[18] Source control via alternative
detergent formulations has subsequently reduced the largest contribution, but
the content of urine and feces will remain unchanged. Phosphorus removal is
important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water
systems. (For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Nutrient
removal). It is also particularly important for water reuse systems where high
phosphorus concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment
such as reverse osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced
biological phosphorus removal. In this process, specific bacteria,
called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs), are selectively
enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up
to 20 percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is
separated from the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually
with salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime.[7]:18 This
may lead to excessive sludge production as hydroxides precipitates and the
added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical phosphorus removal requires
significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to
operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal.[citation
needed]
Another method for phosphorus removal is to use granular laterite.
Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate-rich sewage sludge,
may be dumped in a landfill or used as fertilizer. In the latter case, the treated
sewage sludge is also sometimes referred to as biosolids.
Disinfection[edit]
Further information: Advanced oxidation process

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially

reduce the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into
the environment for the later use of drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc. The
effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated
(e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant
dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Cloudy
water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can shield
organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low.
Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against
effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection
include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium
hypochlorite.[7]:16 Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in
the treatment of waste water because of its persistence. After multiple steps of
disinfection, the treated water is ready to be released back into the water cycle
by means of the nearest body of water or agriculture. Afterwards, the water
can be transferred to reserves for everyday human uses.
Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection
in North America due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness.
One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can
generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful
to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further,
because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must
also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of
treatment.
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other
chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse
effect on organisms that later consume it, as may be the case with other
methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of
reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for
frequent lamp maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated
effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from the UV
radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is
becoming the most common means of disinfection because of the concerns
about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the
wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. Some sewage
treatment systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for their effluent
water disinfection.[19][20]
Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a
high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and
forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic
material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic
microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because,
unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of
an accidental release), ozone is generated on-site as needed. Ozonation also
produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A disadvantage of
ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the
requirements for special operators.
Fourth treatment stage[edit]
Further information: Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal
care products
Micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals, ingredients of household chemicals,
chemicals used in small businesses or industries, environmental persistent
pharmaceutical pollutant(EPPP) or pesticides may not be eliminated in the
conventional treatment process (primary, secondary and tertiary treatment)
and therefore lead to water pollution.[21] Although concentrations of those
substances and their decompostion products are quite low, there is still a
chance to harm aquatic organisms. For pharmaceuticals, the following
substances have been identified as "toxicologically relevant": substances
with endocrine disrupting effects, genotoxic substances and substances that
enhance the development of bacterial resistances.[22] They mainly belong to
the group of environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Techniques
for elimination of micropollutants via a fourth treatment stage during sewage
treatment are being tested in Germany, Switzerland[citation needed] and the
Netherlands.[23] However, since those techniques are still costly, they are not
yet applied on a regular basis. Such process steps mainly consist of activated
carbon filters that adsorb the micropollutants. Ozone can also be applied as
an oxidative method.[24] Also the use of enzymes such as the enzyme laccase
is under investigation.[25] A new concept which could provide an energy-
efficient treatment of micropollutants could be the use of laccase secreting
fungi cultivated at a wastewater treatment plant to degrade micropollutants
and at the same time to provide enzymes at a cathode of a microbial biofuel
cells.[26] Microbial biofuel cells are investigated for their property to treat
organic matter in wastewater.[27]
To reduce pharmaceuticals in water bodies, also "source control" measures
are under investigation, such as innovations in drug development or more
responsible handling of drugs.[22][28]

Odor control[edit]
Odors emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic
or "septic" condition.[29] Early stages of processing will tend to produce foul-
smelling gases, with hydrogen sulfide being most common in generating
complaints. Large process plants in urban areas will often treat the odors with
carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of chlorine, or
circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the noxious
gases.[30] Other methods of odor control exist, including addition of iron
salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc. to manage hydrogen
sulfide levels.
High-density solids pumps are suitable for reducing odors by conveying
sludge through hermetic closed pipework.

Energy requirements[edit]
For conventional sewage treatment plants, around 30 percent of the annual
operating costs is usually required for energy.[1]:1703 The energy requirements
vary with type of treatment process as well as wastewater load. For
example, constructed wetlands have a lower energy requirement
than activated sludge plants, as less energy is required for the aeration
step.[31] Sewage treatment plants that produce biogas in their sewage sludge
treatment process with anaerobic digestion can produce enough energy to
meet most of the energy needs of the sewage treatment plant itself.[1]:1505
In conventional secondary treatment processes, most of the electricity is used
for aeration, pumping systems and equipment for the dewatering and drying
of sewage sludge. Advanced wastewater treatment plants, e.g. for nutrient
removal, require more energy than plants that only achieve primary or
secondary treatment.[1]:1704

Sludge treatment and disposal[edit]

Main article: Sewage sludge treatment

The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated

and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to
reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-
causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment
options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion,
and composting. Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.[7]:19
21

Sludge treatment depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-
specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants
with aerobic digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for
the larger-scale operations.
The sludge is sometimes passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-
waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners include centrifugal sludge
thickeners[32] rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter
presses.[33][34][35] Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for
disposal in a landfill or use as an agricultural soil amendment.

Environment aspects[edit]

The outlet of the Karlsruhe sewage treatment plant flows into the Alb.

Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the

natural treatment processes that occur in the environment, whether that
environment is a natural water body or the ground. If not overloaded, bacteria
in the environment will consume organic contaminants, although this will
reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the
overall ecology of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the
organic contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms
are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation or
exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, in cases where the receiving
environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of wastewater
treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated
that very low levels of specific contaminants in wastewater,
including hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from
human hormonal contraception methods) and synthetic materials such
as phthalates that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable
adverse impact on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is
re-used for drinking water.[36][37][38] In the US and EU, uncontrolled discharges of
wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water
quality requirements are to be met, as clean drinking water is essential. (For
requirements in the US, see Clean Water Act.) A significant threat in the
coming decades will be the increasing uncontrolled discharges of wastewater
within rapidly developing countries.
Effects on biology[edit]
Sewage treatment plants can have multiple effects on nutrient levels in the
water that the treated sewage flows into. These nutrients can have large
effects on the biological life in the water in contact with the
effluent. Stabilization ponds (or sewage treatment ponds) can include any of
the following:

Oxidation ponds, which are aerobic bodies of water usually 12 meters in

depth that receive effluent from sedimentation tanks or other forms of
primary treatment.

Dominated by algae

Polishing ponds are similar to oxidation ponds but receive effluent from
an oxidation pond or from a plant with an extended mechanical
treatment.

Dominated by zooplankton

Facultative lagoons, raw sewage lagoons, or sewage lagoons are

ponds where sewage is added with no primary treatment other than
coarse screening. These ponds provide effective treatment when
the surface remains aerobic; although anaerobic conditions may
develop near the layer of settled sludge on the bottom of the
pond.[2]:552554
Anaerobic lagoons are heavily loaded ponds.
 Dominated by bacteria

Sludge lagoons are aerobic ponds, usually 2 to 5 meters in

depth, that receive anaerobically digested primary sludge, or
activated secondary sludge under water.

Upper layers are dominated by algae [39]

Phosphorus limitation is a possible result from sewage treatment
and results in flagellate-dominated plankton, particularly in
summer and fall.[40]
A phytoplankton study found high nutrient concentrations linked
to sewage effluents. High nutrient concentration leads to
high chlorophyll a concentrations, which is a proxy for primary
production in marine environments. High primary production
means high phytoplankton populations and most likely high
zooplankton populations, because zooplankton feed on
phytoplankton. However, effluent released into marine systems
also leads to greater population instability.[41]
The planktonic trends of high populations close to input of
treated sewage is contrasted by the bacterial trend. In a study
of Aeromonas spp. in increasing distance from a wastewater
source, greater change in seasonal cycles was found the furthest
from the effluent. This trend is so strong that the furthest location
studied actually had an inversion of the Aeromonas spp. cycle in
comparison to that of fecal coliforms. Since there is a main
pattern in the cycles that occurred simultaneously at all stations it
indicates seasonal factors (temperature, solar radiation,
phytoplankton) control of the bacterial population. The effluent
dominant species changes from Aeromonas caviae in winter
to Aeromonas sobria in the spring and fall while the inflow
dominant species is Aeromonas caviae, which is constant
throughout the seasons.[

Biogas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pipes carrying biogas (foreground), natural gas and condensate

Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic
matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural
waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. Biogas is a
renewable energy source.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material
inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.[1]
Biogas is primarily methane (CH
4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H
2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be
combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it
can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to
convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.[2]
Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to
power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to
replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.[3] It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of
the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-
methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle
is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. Organic material grows, is converted and
used and then regrows in a continually repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as much
carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is
released when the material is ultimately converted to energy.

Production[edit]
Main article: Anaerobic digestion

Biogas production in rural Germany

Biogas is produced as landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the breakdown

of Biodegradable waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and
microbes, or as digested gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester.
A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats
farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters
(air-tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed with
energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage
sludge and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform
biomass waste into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide)
and digestate. The biogas is a renewable energy that can be used for heating,
electricity, and many other operations that use a reciprocating internal
combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher or Caterpillar gas engines.[4] Other
internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the
conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the
remaining inorganic matter that was not transformed into biogas. It can be
used as an agricultural fertiliser.
There are two key processes: mesophilic and thermophilic digestion which is
dependent on temperature. In experimental work at University of Alaska
Fairbanks, a 1000-litre digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from
a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200300 liters of methane per day,
about 20%30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.[5]
Dangers[edit]
The dangers of biogas are mostly similar to those of natural gas, but with an
additional risk from the toxicity of its hydrogen sulfide fraction. Biogas can be
explosive when mixed in the ratio of one part biogas to 8-20 parts air. Special
safety precautions have to be taken for entering an empty biogas digester for
maintenance work.
It is important that a biogas system never has negative pressure as this could
cause an explosion. Negative gas pressure can occur if too much gas is
removed or leaked; Because of this biogas should not be used at pressures
below one column inch of water, measured by a pressure gauge.
Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas system. If biogas is
smelled anywhere windows and doors should be opened immediately. If there
is a fire the gas should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system.[6]

Landfill gas[edit]
Main article: Landfill gas

Landfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic

conditions in a biogas.[7][8]
The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the
material that is deposited above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus
allowing anaerobic microbes to thrive. Biogas builds up and is slowly released
into the atmosphere if the site has not been engineered to capture the gas.
Landfill gas released in an uncontrolled way can be hazardous since it can
become explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen.
The lower explosive limit is 5% methane and the upper is 15% methane.[9]
The methane in biogas is 20 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon
dioxide. Therefore, uncontained landfill gas, which escapes into the
atmosphere may significantly contribute to the effects of global warming. In
addition, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in landfill gas contribute to the
formation of photochemical smog.
Technical[edit]
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen
required by aerobic micro-organisms to decompose the organic matter in a
sample of aterial being used in the biodigester as well as the BOD for the
liquid discharge allows for the calculation of the daily energy output from a
biodigester.
Another term related to biodigesters is effluent dirtiness, which tells how much
organic material there is per unit of biogas source. Typical units for this
measure are in mg BOD/litre. As an example, effluent dirtiness can range
between 8001200 mg BOD/litre in Panama.[citation needed]
From 1 kg of decommissioned kitchen bio-waste, 0.45 m of biogas can be
obtained. The price for collecting biological waste from households is
approximately 70 per ton.[10]

Composition[edit]
Typical composition of biogas

Compound Formula %

CH
Methane 5075
4

CO
Carbon dioxide 2550
2

N
Nitrogen 010
2

H
Hydrogen 01
2

H
Hydrogen sulfide 03
2S

O
Oxygen 00.5
2

Source: www.kolumbus.fi, 2007[11]

The composition of biogas varies depending upon the substrate composition,

as well as the conditions within the anaerobic reactor (temperature, pH, and
substrate concentration).[12] Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations
around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas
with 55%75% methane,[13] which for reactors with free liquids can be
increased to 80%-90% methane using in-situ gas purification techniques.[14] As
produced, biogas contains water vapor. The fractional volume of water vapor
is a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured gas volume for
water vapor content and thermal expansion is easily done via simple
mathematics[15] which yields the standardized volume of dry biogas.
In some cases, biogas contains siloxanes. They are formed from
the anaerobic decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and
detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is
released and can combine with free oxygen or other elements in
the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO
2) or silicates (Si
xO
y) and can contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such white
mineral deposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and
must be removed by chemical or mechanical means.
Practical and cost-effective technologies to remove siloxanes and other
biogas contaminants are available.[16]
For 1000 kg (wet weight) of input to a typical biodigester, total solids may be
30% of the wet weight while volatile suspended solids may be 90% of the total
solids. Protein would be 20% of the volatile solids, carbohydrates would be
70% of the volatile solids, and finally fats would be 10% of the volatile solids.

Benefits of manure derived biogas[edit]

High levels of methane are produced when manure is stored under anaerobic
conditions. During storage and when manure has been applied to the
land, nitrous oxide is also produced as a byproduct of the denitrification
process. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is 320 times more aggressive as a greenhouse
gas than carbon dioxide[17] and methane 25 times more than carbon dioxide.[18]
By converting cow manure into methane biogas via anaerobic digestion, the
millions of cattle in the United States would be able to produce 100 billion
kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to power millions of homes across the
United States. In fact, one cow can produce enough manure in one day to
generate 3 kilowatt hours of electricity; only 2.4 kilowatt hours of electricity are
needed to power a single 100-watt light bulb for one day.[19] Furthermore, by
converting cattle manure into methane biogas instead of letting it decompose,
global warming gases could be reduced by 99 million metric tons or 4%.[20]

Applications[edit]
A biogas bus in Linkping, Sweden

Biogas can be used for electricity production on sewage works,[21] in

a CHP gas engine, where the waste heat from the engine is conveniently used
for heating the digester; cooking; space heating; water heating; and process
heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for use in
vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells and is a
much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site
CHP plants.[21]
Biogas upgrading[edit]
Raw biogas produced from digestion is roughly 60% methane and 29% CO
2 with trace elements of H
2S; it is not of high enough quality to be used as fuel gas for machinery. The
corrosive nature of H
2S alone is enough to destroy the internals of a plant.[22][23]
Methane in biogas can be concentrated via a biogas upgrader to the same
standards as fossil natural gas, which itself has to go through a cleaning
process, and becomes biomethane. If the local gas network allows, the
producer of the biogas may use their distribution networks. Gas must be very
clean to reach pipeline quality and must be of the correct composition for the
distribution network to accept. Carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide,
and particulates must be removed if present.[22]
There are four main methods of upgrading: water washing, pressure swing
adsorption, selexol adsorption, and amine gas treating.[24] In addition to these,
the use of membrane separation technology for biogas upgrading is
increasing, and there are already several plants operating in Europe and
USA.[22][25]
The most prevalent method is water washing where high pressure gas flows
into a column where the carbon dioxide and other trace elements are
scrubbed by cascading water running counter-flow to the gas. This
arrangement could deliver 98% methane with manufacturers guaranteeing
maximum 2% methane loss in the system. It takes roughly between 3% and
6% of the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system.
Biogas gas-grid injection[edit]
Gas-grid injection is the injection of biogas into the methane grid (natural gas
grid). Injections includes biogas[26] until the breakthrough of micro combined
heat and power two-thirds of all the energy produced by biogas power
plants was lost (the heat), using the grid to transport the gas to customers, the
electricity and the heat can be used for on-site generation[27] resulting in a
reduction of losses in the transportation of energy. Typical energy losses in
natural gas transmission systems range from 1% to 2%. The current energy
losses on a large electrical system range from 5% to 8%.[28]
Biogas in transport[edit]
"Biogastget Amanda" ("Amanda the Biogas Train") train near Linkping station,
Sweden

If concentrated and compressed, it can be used in vehicle transportation.

Compressed biogas is becoming widely used in Sweden, Switzerland, and
Germany. A biogas-powered train, named Biogastget Amanda (The Biogas
Train Amanda), has been in service in Sweden since 2005.[29][30] Biogas
powers automobiles. In 1974, a British documentary film titled Sweet as a
Nut detailed the biogas production process from pig manure and showed how
it fueled a custom-adapted combustion engine.[31][32] In 2007, an estimated
12,000 vehicles were being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, mostly in
Europe.[33]
Measuring in biogas environments[edit]
Biogas is part of the wet gas and condensing gas (or air) category that
includes mist or fog in the gas stream. The mist or fog is predominately water
vapor that condenses on the sides of pipes or stacks throughout the gas flow.
Biogas environments include wastewater digesters, landfills, and animal
feeding operations (covered livestock lagoons).
Ultrasonic flow meters are one of the few devices capable of measuring in a
biogas atmosphere. Most of thermal flow meters are unable to provide reliable
data because the moisture causes steady high flow readings and continuous
flow spiking, although there are single-point insertion thermal mass flow
meters capable of accurately monitoring biogas flows with minimal pressure
drop. They can handle moisture variations that occur in the flow stream
because of daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations, and account for the
moisture in the flow stream to produce a dry gas value.
Indian Subcontinent[edit]
Biogas in India[55] has been traditionally based on dairy manure as feed stock
and these "gobar" gas plants have been in operation for a long period of time,
especially in rural India. In the last 2-3 decades, research organisations with a
focus on rural energy security have enhanced the design of the systems
resulting in newer efficient low cost designs such as the Deenabandhu model.
The Deenabandhu Model is a new biogas-production model popular in India.
(Deenabandhu means "friend of the helpless.") The unit usually has a capacity
of 2 to 3 cubic metres. It is constructed using bricks or by
a ferrocement mixture. In India, the brick model costs slightly more than the
ferrocement model; however, India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
offers some subsidy per model constructed.
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a key source of cooking fuel in urban India
and its prices have been increasing along with the global fuel prices. Also the
heavy subsidies provided by the successive governments in promoting LPG
as a domestic cooking fuel has become a financial burden renewing the focus
on biogas as a cooking fuel alternative in urban establishments. This has led
to the development of prefabricated digester for modular deployments as
compared to RCC and cement structures which take a longer duration to
construct. Renewed focus on process technology like the Biourja process
model[56] has enhanced the stature of medium and large scale anaerobic
digester in India as a potential alternative to LPG as primary cooking fuel.
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic
digestion of manure in small-scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is
estimated that such facilities exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000
in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan, particularly North Punjab, due to
the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made
of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually
straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity
of wastewater. The gas pipe is connected to the kitchen fireplace through
control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or smoke.
Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in
villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural
needs. One type of these system is the Sintex Digester. Some designs
use vermiculture to further enhance the slurry produced by the biogas plant for
use as compost.[57]
To create awareness and associate the people interested in biogas, the Indian
Biogas Association[58] was formed. It aspires to be a unique blend of
nationwide operators, manufacturers and planners of biogas plants, and
representatives from science and research. The association was founded in
2010 and is now ready to start mushrooming. Its motto is "propagating Biogas
in a sustainable way".
In Pakistan, the Rural Support Programmes Network is running the Pakistan
Domestic Biogas Programme[59] which has installed 5,360 biogas plants[60] and
has trained in excess of 200 masons on the technology and aims to develop
the Biogas Sector in Pakistan.
In Nepal, the government provides subsidies to build biogas plant at home.