Best practices in the use of Steel Box Girders for medium and long span Bridges

in UK and Europe.
Saprava BHATTACHARYA Saprava Bhattacharya, born 1971,
C Eng. MIstructE, MSc received his MSc(1st&dist) in Bridge
engineering from the University of
University of Portsmouth, UK Surrey, UK and became MIStructE.
Saprava@hotmail.com He worked for leading Consultants
such as Atkins, Capita Symonds etc
in the UK. He was a Technical
Director of Mouchel in London,
before joining the University of
Portsmouth. His main area of
research is steel box girder bridge.
Summary
Steel box girders were common in UK for long span bridges up to the late 1960s until a few collapses of Box Girders at
various parts of the world in the early seventies. The detailed investigation of these collapses by an investigating
committee from the UK Department of Transport led to the development of IDWR / Merrisons rules. It was mandatory
to check all existing and new Box Girder bridges complied with those rules to avoid any further failure.
These collapses followed by implementation of Merrisons rule and the increase in fabrication cost led to a decline in
the popularity of Steel Box Girder in the last few decades, while the introduction of T& I machines for fabrication made
plate Girders hugely popular enabling of 100m spans. Other forms of bridges took precedence for longer spans.
However steel box girders are gradually regaining popularity since T&I machine can also be used for fabrication (with
imitations up to 70 inclined web with horizontal plane).
In this particular paper efforts have been made to highlight the best practices in the past and present in the effective use
of steel box girder not only in the UK & Europe but also in the rest of the world.

Keywords: Steel Box Girder, Open top Box Girder, Merrison, T & I machines, cross-fall, super-
elevation, Distortion, Warping, Eurocode
Introduction
Box girders tend to be used for long span bridges, where flange plate sizes of equivalent plate
girders becomes excessive or where torsion, curvature or aerodynamic considerations demand
torsional rigidity.
Before the events preceding the Merrison inquiry into the basis of design and method of erection of
steel box girder bridges (in the 1970s), they were commonly used in the UK over a wide range of
span lengths on highway bridges.
Following the introduction of BS 5400-3 in the early 1980s, and with the advent of modern plate
girder fabrication methods, the use of box girders has become much less frequent. Trends in
Highway Bridge design in the past few decades show decreasing use of steel box girders,
particularly for shorter spans.
General overview
The choice of bridge type for long span highway bridges will depend primarily on economics,
however other factors do influence as well. One of the notable long span steel box girders across the
world is the Rio-Niteroi Bridge 300m main span (steel box girder) and is the longest since its
construction in 1974. However, Shibanpo Bridge, Chongqing, China with a 330m main span being
the longest box girder bridge, but only the central 108m portion is made up of steel box girder. In
the UK and Europe majority of the main spans of long-span box girder bridges are around 250m.
The longest span is 263m at Weitingen, Germany, Neckartalbrcke-1 Bridge built in 1978, where as
in UK Foyle Bridge in Northern Ireland built in 1984 has the longest span of 233m.
Some of those are comparable with prestressed concrete box girder bridges such as Orwell 190m,
Skye 250m were constructed in the UK over the same period. In the recent past, the use of cable
stayed and arch bridge have became more popular in the construction of landmark structures. Use of
steel box girder became less popular because of high fabrication cost. In spite of that, the use of
steel box girder for big landmark bridges is found to be eminent where dead weight of
superstructure plays an important factor. Alternatively, the use of steel box has become popular in
fabricating the main arches of arch bridges or sometimes pylons / towers of cable supported bridges.
In medium span highway bridges, the trend has been for plate girder bridges to span increasingly
greater lengths. Over recent years, in bridges with continuous plate girders, the longest spans have
increased to 100m. However, where the carrying of large services and aesthetics are the key issues,
concrete deck slab on open steel trough construction has become the most popular irrespective of
the span length.
Therefore, the factors that determine the selection of a medium span composite steel box girder
bridge seldom depend solely on economic criteria. The prime consideration may be the appearance
sometimes e.g., new 2012 Olympic park bridges. Other bridges (Foyle, M25 Gade Valley, and A34
Newbury Bypass) are alternative designs for structures originally conceived with prestressed
concrete box girder decks. In these cases, to ease the acceptance of the alternative, the external
profile of the original concrete design was maintained.
The torsional stability of the box girder may be used to good effect where the highway alignment is
tightly curved, as well as where the mounting of services between the girders precludes the use of
cross bracing between girders. As a rough guide, for medium span bridges the ratio of the cost of
steel box girders to plate girders is between 1.5:1 and 2:1, which is now reducing because of the
ease of fabrication and recent reduction in the cost of steel.
Of the long-span box girder bridges, Cleddau and the main spans of Avonmouth and Foyle have
steel orthotropic decks. Friarton has a composite lightweight concrete deck, and Scalpay has a
composite normal weight concrete deck. The type of deck is determined by an evaluation of weight
saving against cost, with orthotropic decks having the lightest weight but highest cost per area of
deck surface. In medium span highway bridges, composite concrete decks are the norm.
Deck cross section
Box Girder Bridge decks built over the years can be classified in various ways. However, open
troughs with concrete top slabs and closed steel box with or without a top concrete deck slab are the
two main types. In terms of shape, they can also be different, for example, rectangular, trapezoidal,
polygonal, or even other aerodynamic shapes for long span bridges, which can be an arch bridge /
cable-stayed bridge / suspension bridge. A number of different common types of deck cross section
are given in figure 1 to 4 and 6. In earlier construction, use of stiffened thin steel plates was very
common in steel box girder bridges. Bridges which are not built in recent years, use of steel plate
thicknesses could be found as minimum as inch (12.7mm). Since the implementation of
Eurocode the guidelines provided in Annex C of BS EN 1993-2 for bridges, recommends minimum
thicknesses of steel plates can be used, which are to be complied with in the UK & Europe.
For long span highway bridges, box girder cross sections are usually of variable depth. For medium
span highway bridges, the cross section may be either a closed box or an open top box (often
referred to as a bathtub section). The section may be rectangular or trapezoidal, and may be of
variable or constant depth. Recently, this type of section has become more popular for constant
depth and extensively used as the T & I machines have made the difference despite limitations.
These machines are now capable of fabricating both open top rectangular and trapezoidal box
sections (up to 70 angle between web and bottom flange).
UK designers will normally opt for a cross section that keeps the box geometry, and hence the
fabrication, simple. If the cross-fall / super-elevation is constant along the length of the bridge,
rectangular boxes may be canted so that the flanges are parallel to, and the webs orthogonal to, the
cross-fall of the road. Alternatively, the webs may be kept vertical and the bottom flange horizontal,
with the top flange following the cross-fall. In this case the webs are of different height and may
also vary in height along the length of the bridge to accommodate any variations in cross-fall or
super-elevation. Boxes that wind, and hence have to be built twisted, are normally avoided. Gade
Valley is a rare example of asymmetric boxes all the boxes have vertical webs except for the outer
web of the edge boxes, which are inclined. This was done so that the alternative steel design had an
edge profile matching that of the concrete box girder deck of the original design, but present trend
or practice will hardly follow that example.
A constant depth rectangular cross section is generally considered to be easiest and cheapest to
fabricate. Figure 1shows, the suggested typical arrangement with minimum box sizes for future safe
maintenance access as well as ease of casting the concrete deck over permanent formwork.
 1800
1000 3800 1000
Figure 1 Concrete slab on constant depth closed rectangular boxes

Figure 2 Concrete slab on varying depth closed rectangular boxes

Figure 3 Large steel box for long span arch/ cable stayed/suspension bridges

Figure 4 Single cell trapezoidal closed steel box girder

Although the use of inclined webs to make the bottom

Figure 5: Rectangular open-top box,
showing bracing for erection condition
In an open top box with inclined or vertical webs,
dimensions are chosen carefully for optimum use of a 250mm thick slab on permanent formwork
flange narrower can improve the b/t ratio of the bottom
flange, and so maximize the effective area of the flange,
the saving in material for shorter span bridges (up to
about 50 m). This is generally considered to be
outweighed by the increased complexity of the
fabrication, particularly for variable depth boxes.
Inclined webs may sometimes be used for aesthetic
reasons and, for example, when an approach viaduct
continues the shape of an aerodynamic box used on the
main suspension or cable stayed bridge element of a
crossing (e.g. Beachley viaduct, Erskine bridge).
Use of an open top section can realise savings in the
material in the top flange of the girder. However this
must be offset against the cost of temporary (or
permanent) diagonal bracing at top flange level which
has to be provided to maintain the shape of the box
during fabrication and erection, and also its stability
under the wet concrete conditions (Figure 5 and 6).
spanning transversely. This optimisation can further be improved for simply supported spans where
the bottom steel plate is in tension and the concrete deck slab is in compression. For continuous
spans, in order to avoid an increase in fabrication cost, in recent years the bottom flanges are
sometimes made of steel-concrete composite between the points of contra-flexure, ensuring the
appropriate construction sequence. This has not only enhanced the popularity to the designer but
also to the maintenance people. Since most of the Box Girders are confined space least entry for
inspection and maintenance is preferred and hence designers are encouraged to adopt this type of
arrangement. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 6.

Plan bracings
Ring frames / 70
intermediate
@Span stiffeners & @Support
1800 3800 composite
800 B/F 3800

Figure 6: Open-top box (rectangular / trapezoidal whichever suitable) girder

Uses of box girder decks are currently popular in two areas, railway bridges, and footbridges. These
account for more box girder bridges than the highway bridge sector.
Railway bridges
Much current railway bridgework involves the replacement of existing bridge decks with new
decks. The deck replacement may be for a variety of reasons:-
Changes in track configuration
Proposed changes in rail traffic
Repair of uneconomic degradation
Frequently, only limited construction depth is available, either due to the required highway
clearance or because longitudinal timber type construction is being replaced by ballasted track to
simplify track maintenance. In addition, the bridge construction has to be carried out with very
limited possession of the track. With these constraints, through-type decks that can be prefabricated
in large sections and erected very quickly are frequently preferred. A common solution is Network
Rails standard Western Region box girder bridge design. This comprises two trapezoidal boxes as
outer main girders supporting a steel deck with T beam cross girders spanning transversely between
the box girders at bottom flange level (see Figure 7). This is a generic design that provides for spans
between 12 m and 39 m, for both single and double tracks. A typical example is the replacement
bridge at Clapham High Street. Should circumstances dictate the necessity for the installation of
steel bridges, it is likely to be an important issue, which is usually addressed with care.

Figure 7 Right: Railway

Bridge through type Box
girder

Maintenance Figure 8 Left: Railway Bridge

platform open type box girders
Sleepers
presently under development,
Ballast future possibilities

Composite B/F over support

Footbridges
Footbridge decks are generally narrow and have a relatively shallow span to depth ratio. They often
have to be erected over busy roads where only limited road closures are available. In these cases,
prefabrication and fast erection will usually determine the deck type. A typical example of a box
girder deck is the Gablecross Bridge in Swindon. In the recent past, many footbridges have been
constructed using steel closed built up sections with much shallower depth. These are more
aesthetically pleasing than any standard rectangular or trapezoidal sections, but for their design both
ultimate and serviceability limit state requirements of EN1993-2 and other relevant parts of EN1993
are complied with.
Design
The design (and construction) of long span box girder bridges is a specialist field and generally
undertaken by suitably experienced engineers. The method of construction is always considered
integrally with the design so that all appropriate loading conditions during erection are analysed,
and built-in stresses can be properly aggregated.
For the design of pure steel and steel-concrete composite box girder bridges, references are made to
the appropriate clauses of primarily EN1993-2, and other relevant parts of EN1993.
Designers are also fully aware that the Health and Safety Executive requirements relating to entry
into confined spaces apply to box girders used in bridgework. They are not only applicable during
fabrication and erection but also during inspection and maintenance of the bridge. The following
important points are crucial and duly considered:
Small box girders generally detailed such that welding does not require access from the inside of
closed sections.
Where openings for interior access are provided, these too comply with the requirements of
appropriate clauses of EN1993-2 and relevant parts of EN1993.
Where welding has to be carried out inside long girders during erection, openings for ventilation are
always been provided. To minimise the hazard of working inside a box girder at a welded site
splice, the ventilation openings are kept in such a way that the access route from outside always be
shortest.
A number of other important design issues are also considered.
For open type boxes the structural stability and integrity during fabrication and erection and casting
of concrete deck becomes more onerous for design. Sometimes for ease and speed of construction,
it is preferred to erect the troughs in place together with the permanent formwork in position. This is
to be considered carefully in design and detailing.
Use of weathering steel has become very popular recently. Especially for steel box girder bridges it
is more suitable considering future maintenance issues in a confined space, but the awareness of the
limitations in availability of weathering steel is equally important. For example, stiffeners and other
secondary elements would also need to be made up from plates only as no rolled section is currently
available in weathering steel.
Unlike British standards, Eurocode is more principle based. Considering the availability of various
highly capable software programmes, designers are mostly encouraged to carry out a full 3-D finite
element analysis for this type of complex structure. However, even if in cases where full 3-D FE
analysis is not being carried out, Eurocode rules or relevant design guidance are adopted to ensure
the design process caters for the following important aspects of Steel Box Girder design other than
longitudinal & transverse flexure.
o Warping of rectangular box subjected to pure torsion leading to warping stresses
developed from distortional effects and is resisted by intermediate ring frames or
diaphragms. Being better in torsional resistance, they are popular for bridges curved
in plan. If the curvature is attained by fabricating small straight pieces the component
of this force at the joints has to be taken into account in design and in the detailing.
 The articulation of bridges curved in plan need special attention in the orientation of
the bearings.

(a)
(c)
(b)

o Effect of shear lag on distribution of stresses at the support of box girder is duly
considered as well.
(d)

Figure 9 (a) Applied torsion causing warping (b) Warping stresses

(c) Distortional effects due applied torsion (d) Effect of shear lag
on stresses.
Services
Carrying services inside box girders can appear attractive, but consideration of Euro norms on
safety in installation, inspection and the future maintenance of those services are mandatory. Access
for maintenance again raises health and safety issues as mentioned above.
Internal drainage
The accumulation of water within box girders in service is not uncommon - increasing the load and
aggravating internal corrosion. For this reason, taking deck drainage through a box girder is
avoided, except possibly for short joint-free sections.
Water will also collect inside box girders through the phenomenon known as breathing. Humid air
that has entered the box during the day cools at night and condensation forms on the surface of the
steel. Considering the climate of the UK and Europe daytime warming is insufficient during the
major part of the year to re - evaporate the accumulated water, so the volume of water builds up.
This will occur even in box girders that are nominally sealed. For most bridges the remedy is to
provide adequate drain holes (at least 25 mm diameter) at the low points where the water would
otherwise pond, and to detail transverse stiffeners and other attachments to the bottom flange with
adequate cut-outs to allow any water to run down to the drain hole.
In the UK the maintenance organisations are responsible for annual maintenance contract, carries
out General Inspections (GIs) at two year intervals and Principle Inspections (PIs) every sixth year
which are generally sufficient to cover the minor issues such as blocked drainage, parapet repair etc.
Protective treatment
The interior of a box girder is not normally a severe environment and the protective treatment can
be less than that for exterior surfaces. However, UKs Specification of Highways Works on
protective treatments takes additional precautions to those recommended in the rest of Europe may
be because of the different climate, which keeps the bridge structures wet & dry frequently.
Dehumidification and sealing
On larger bridges, an alternative (although not normal practice in the UK) means of maintenance of
internal protective coatings is to provide an active dehumidification system inside the box girders. A
drainage system and maintenance programme is needed for such a system.
In smaller boxes, hygroscopic agents such as silica gel may be employed, although these need
regular replacement to remain effective.
Where the cross section is too small for safe access, the boxes can be fully sealed. This is often
done in combination with internal pressurisation and fogging (a process where a volatile corrosion
inhibitor is introduced into a sealed enclosure). If boxes are fully sealed, the consequent pressure
and temperature effects must be taken into account in the design. If fogged, airtight access hatches
for re-fogging are provided. In the recent past standard size box girders are also designed and built
which are fully sealed to avoid terrorist threat, whilst they are carrying substantial amounts of
services in sleeves. Few of those structures were designed differently, so that in the case of an
emergency during its 120 years life provisions were left for future access. If at all required, access
can be made without damaging their structural strength and integrity.
A few recent Steel Box Girder Bridges:
In the UK recently construction of the Olympic Park was one of the major projects, which
incorporated several medium span steel box girder bridges. On the other side of the Atlantic in the
US the Hoover Dam Bypass project was another challenging project engineers had to deal with.
Olympic Park Bridges:

Figure10: Left
Arial View of
Olympic Park

Figure11: Right
One of the bridges
over river Lee at
the Olympic Park.

The choice of box girder for these medium span (30-60m) bridges was primarily to make bridge
structure aesthetically pleasing while carrying a considerable amount of services through different
sizes of ducts inside. The exterior feature had to be such that no terrorist activity could be carried
out while hiding inside the superstructure or even substructure. That is the reason why most of them
were built in to the end abutment as integral bridges. However, considering the need of future
maintenance some engineers made them simply supported into a modified semi-integral type of
superstructure with adequate enclosure to prevent people going in. At the same time designing the
end diaphragm in such a way, that if in the case of an emergency the marked up panel could be cut
out to enter inside the box for any required maintenance or repair of the services inside.

Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge:

This is another bridge which is primarily a 323m span concrete arched bridge carrying steel
concrete composite open top box girder bridge deck which is considered to be the best possible
match to the beauty of the entire bridge structure at the same time reducing the dead weight of the
superstructure. The multiple continuous spans for the box girder are approximately 35 m, each
which could have been ideal for plate girder as well, but the entire beauty of the bridge would have
been affected significantly. On the other hand launching steel boxes from either end was
significantly useful for the tight construction program.
Figure12: Left
completed Hoover
Dam bypass bridge
over river Colorado

Figure13: Right
Trapezoidal Box Girder
bridge superstructure.
Discussion and Conclusion:
It is evident that Steel Box girders on their own may have lost their popularity over the decades but
not their existence. Engineers still use them for long span bridges, wherever appropriate. To make
the land mark structures the steel boxes may have changed their role from deck to arch / pylon /
tower or they remained as bridge deck with additional intermediate cable supports for much bigger
single spans and are also used for intermediate spans.
Few photographs of some of the land mark steel Box Girder Bridges.

Left Figure14: Foyle bridge 233m main span (1984)

Right Figure15: Cleddau Bridge 213m span completed in 1975 after collapse during construction

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