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1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1
2 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN
An electric network (amplifier, filter or equalizer circuits and the like) can be
modelled using certain lumped circuit elements. A basic problem faced by an
engineer is to design a network model to satisfy certain signal processing
specifications and then fabricate physical components which approximate the
idealized elements. A prelude to design (and synthesis) is analysis, which is mainly
an algebraic problem. A major part of this book deals with it.
In this chapter, we discuss the characterization and modelling of lumped circuit
elements. A network, consisting of lumped elements, exhibits certain basic
properties depending on the type of elements used which themselves are classified
according to these properties.
i
i
+
R
v ohm
v
Slope = G = 1/R -
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2
i i
v v
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3
+ i
Fig. 1.4
+
+
v N
-
-
Fig. 1.5
i v5
+
v5
-
Fig. 1.6
shows the symbol and the iv characteristic of a current source. If the current
drawn from a current source is identically zero, the current source is effectively an
open circuit. The internal shunt resistance of an ideal current source is considered
to be infinite. In the physical world, there is no ideal independent current source.
+ v
i5
v i5
i
Fig. 1.7
A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of
which depends on another voltage (or current). A dependent or controlled source
is said to be voltage- (or current-) controlled if its terminal behaviour is controlled
by another voltage (or current). This leads to four different controlled sources
which are:
(a) Voltage-controlled voltage source.
(b) Voltage-controlled current source.
(c) Current-controlled voltage source.
(d) Current-controlled current source.
Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example,
an operational amplifier is a voltage-controlled voltage source, a field-effect
transistor a voltage-controlled current source, and a common base transistor a
current-controlled current source.
1.1.3 Capacitors
An element which can be characterized by a curve in the vq plane is called a
capacitor (q represents the charge). A capacitor is linear if its characteristic is a
6 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN
straight line passing through the origin of the vq plane [Fig. 1.8(a)]. A linear
capacitor is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 1.8(b) and is described
analytically by
q
i
+
Slope = C
v C
v
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8
q = Cv (1.2)
where the constant C is the slope of the straight line, and is called the capacitance.
The unit of capacitance is farad. (A farad is a very big unit for measuring
capacitance; a more practical unit in a network being Fmicrofarads, or pF
picofarads). The current-charge relation being i = dq/dt, for a linear capacitor, we
have
dv( t )
i =C (1.3)
dt
If a capacitor is characterized by a vq curve other than a straight line through
the origin, it is called a non-linear capacitor. Figure 1.9 shows the characteristic of
a non-linear capacitor (metal-oxide semiconductor capacitor). A non-linear
capacitor is characterized by
q = f (v) (for a voltage-controlled capacitor)
and by v = (q) (for a charge-controlled capacitor)
For a voltage controlled capacitor the current through the capacitor is
dq (t ) df ( v ) dv ( t )
i (t ) = =
dt dv dt
dv( t )
or i (t ) = C ( v )
dt
where C (v) = df (v)/dv is called the incremental capacitance of the capacitor.
The instantaneous power entering an element is given by
p( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t )
INTRODUCTION 7
where v is the voltage in volts and i the current in amperes. Hence, the energy in
the element from t0 to t is
t
W (t 0 , t ) = v (t ) i ( t ) d t (1.4)
t0
Fig. 1.9
q (t )
= v (q ) dq
q (t 0 )
If the initial charge on the capacitors, q(t0), is zero, then the energy stored in the
capacitor is
q(t )
W (t ) = v ( q )( dq )
0
For a linear capacitor (q = Cv) it reduces to
1 q 2 (t ) 1 2
W (t ) = = Cv (t ) (1.6)
2 C 2
1.1.4 Inductors
An element which can be characterized by a curve in the i plane is called an
inductor ( represents the flux). An inductor is called a linear inductor if its
characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin of the i plane
(Fig. 1.10). A linear inductor is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 1.10(b)
8 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN
f i
+
Slope = L v L
i
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.10
di (t )
or v (t ) = L (i )
dt
df (i )
where L (i ) = is called the incremental inductance.
di
Non-linear inductors can be used in frequency conversion, memory and storage.
A special type of nonlinear inductor, such as a ferromagnetic-core inductor,
has a characteristic that exhibits the phenomenon of hysteresis (Fig. 1.11).
Let an inductor be characterized by
i = i ( f) (1.9)
INTRODUCTION 9
f (t )
= i ( f) d f
f (t 0 )
Fig. 1.11
If the initial flux, (t0), is zero, then the energy stored in the inductor is
f (t )
W (t ) = i ( f) d f
0
at B : iL2 = iC2
10 NETWORK THEORY AND FILTER DESIGN
that is, the current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing
away from the junction. This is Kirchhoffs current law (KCL). More formally, the
l2 il
i A 2 B
+ iC + vl 2 -
1
iC
2
+ +
C1 C2
v1
vC vC
1 2
- -
-
C
Fig. 1.12
KCL can be stated thus: The algebraic sum of all instantaneous currents entering
or leaving a junction is zero.
If we consider the closed paths consisting of the source and capacitor C1 (say
path 1) and the capacitors C1, C2 and the inductor L2 (say path 2) we can write
path 1: v1 = vC1
path 2: vC1 = vl2 + vC2
where v1, vC1 , vC2 and vl2 are all voltage drops, i.e. the voltage drop between any
two junctions is independent of the path between the junctions. This is Kirchhoffs
voltage law (KVL). More formally, KVL states: The algebraic sum of all voltage
drops or rises in a closed path is zero.
The KCL imposes linear constraints on the currents through the elements whereas
the KVL imposes linear constraints on the voltage drops across the elements.
Together, these two laws imply conservation of energy (Sec. 5.4).