Graph Theory: Problem set 1 (solutions)

May 10, 2009

1. a) What is the maximum number of edges a (simple) graph on n vertices can have ?

This number corresponds to the number of ways, in which we can choose 2 elements

from an n element set, if we do not care about the order of the elements, i.e. n2 .
b) What is the maximum number of edges a bipartite graph on n vertices can have ?

If we fix a partition of our vertex set into two sets one of them having n1 elements
and the other n − n1 elements, we can have n1 ∗ (n − n1 ) edges. By maximizing the
above expression we get 41 n2 , if n is even, and 41 (n2 − 1), if n is odd.
c) Show that every tree is bipartite.

In the trivial case, when our tree consists of one vertex the claim is true.
For the inductive step we can assume that a tree on n−1 vertices is bipartite (inductive
hypothesis), and that each tree on n vertices can be constructed by adding a leaf to
a tree on n − 1 vertices. Moreover, given a partition of the vertex set of the smaller
tree on n − 1 vertices into two parts V1 and V2 witnessing its bipartiteness, we can
extend one part, w.l.o.g. V1 , by adding a leaf v to V1 , such that the only neighbor of
v does not belong to V1 .
2. Prove that a tree on n vertices contains n − 1 edges.

In the trivial case, when our tree consists of one vertex the claim is true. For the inductive
case we can assume that any tree T ′ on n − 1 vertices contains n − 2 edges, and that each
tree T on n vertices can be constructed by adding a leaf to a tree on n − 1 vertices. Let
T ′ be such a tree. Thus, the number of edges in T is n − 2 + 1 = n − 1.
3. Show that the number of leaves in a tree T can be bounded from below by the maximum
degree of T .

Let u denote a maximum degree vertex in T . For each neighbor v of u a maximal path
uvP wz starting with the edge uv ends in a leaf. Note that it might happen that z = v
and w = u, in this case P = wz, or that v = w, and in this case P = uwz.

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 Indeed, otherwise z has a neighbor t, which is not the previous vertex on P . However,
t has to belong to P , because otherwise we can extend P , and that is impossible by the
maximality of P . Thus, t gives rise to a cycle, and that is impossible too.
Moreover, for two different neighbors v1 and v2 of u these leaves must differ, since other-
wise we would have a cycle.
Indeed, if we have uv1 P1 w and uv2 P2 w, we also have a walk uv1 . . . w . . . v2 u, that contains
a cycle.
Thus, we have at least as many leaves in T , as deg(u).
4. Prove that a graph is bipartite if and only if it does not contain an odd cycle.

Clearly, we can treat connected components of a graph separately.

If a graph is bipartite the vertices on any cycle must alternate between two vertex classes.
Therefore any cycle has to be of an even length.
On the other hand, if our graph does not contain an odd cycle one can pick any vertex v,
and put into the set V1 all vertices having an even distance from v together with v, and
put the rest of the vertices from the same connected component into the set V2 . V1 and
V2 form the desired partition.
Otherwise there is a vertex u in V1 ∩ V2 . We have two paths vP1 u and vP2 u, having odd
and even number of edges, respectively. Hence, |E(P1 )| + |E(P2 )| ≡ 1( mod 2). Thus,
the symmetric difference |E(P1 ) ▽ E(P2 )| ≡ 1( mod 2). E(P1 ) ▽ E(P2 ) is the union
of edge disjoint cycles. Indeed, every vertex in the subgraph G of our graph with the
edge-set E(P1 ) ▽ E(P2 ) has a degree either 2, or 4. Hence, we have an odd cycle in our
graph (contradiction).
5. By sub-diving an edge uv ∈ E of a graph G = G(V, E) we understand replacing the edge
uv with two edges uw and vw where w is a new vertex not contained in V . Thus, more
formally the subdivision of an edge in G is an operation which transforms G into a graph
G′ = G′ (V ∪ {w}, (E \ {uv}) ∪ {uw, vw}).
We call a graph G′′ a subdivision of G if we can obtain G′′ by series of edge subdivisions
in G. Prove the following.
Every graph has a subdivision which is bipartite.

Let G denote a graph. We construct a subdivision of G as follows. We subdivide every

edge in G by one vertex. Clearly, the resulting graph G′ is bipartite, because any edge in
G′ joins a vertex that belongs to G with a vertex that does not belong to G.
6. ∗1 Let M be a matching in a bipartite graph G. Show that if M contains fewer edges
than some other matching in G, then G contains an augmenting path with respect to M.

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extra credit

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 Let M ′ be a matching containing more edges than M. Consider the graph G′ on the same
vertex set as G whose edges are precisely M1 ▽M2 = (M1 ∪M2 )\(M1 ∩M2 ). Observe that
every vertex of G′ has degree either 0, 1 or 2. Thus, G′ consists of connected components
each of which is either cycle or path. Moreover, on each such path or cycle edges alternate
between M and M ′ . Since M ′ > M, there must be an odd path P whose first and last
edge belongs to M ′ . P is an augmenting path.

7. ∗ Derive Hall’s theorem from König’s theorem.

It was explained during the second lecture.