Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Heart-Failure OConnor 11 1
Heart-Failure OConnor 11 1
in Children
Matthew J. O'Connor, M.D.
Assistant Professor of Clinical Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia,
University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine
coronary perfusion pressure is normal and the myocar- ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. (The latter is
dium is not adversely affected by perfusion with poorly exceedingly rare in children and will not be discussed
saturated blood. However, as pulmonary vascular resis- further.)
tance and pulmonary artery pressure decline over the Dilated cardiomyopathy is the most common car-
first few weeks of life, coronary perfusion falls and flow diomyopathy in children, with an annual incidence of
in the left coronary artery can even reverse. Gradual approximately 0.6 cases per 100,000 children per year.4
ischemia develops in the myocardium perfused by the It is typically idiopathic in etiology, although it may be
anomalous left coronary artery, leading to ventricular follow an inflammatory process such as myocarditis,
dilation, mitral regurgitation, and eventually symp- and has a familial component in 30%-40% of cases.
tomatic ventricular dysfunction. Recognition of this 5
Patients may present with indolent symptoms such
defect as the underlying cause of cardiomyopathy is of as fatigue, failure to thrive, or tachypnea, but arrhyth-
paramount importance because the cardiomyopathy mias and sudden death are important presenting signs
and resulting HF syndrome may be largely reversed in a minority. Of interest, gastrointestinal symptoms
by prompt surgical revascularization of the ischemic are frequent in patients presenting with a new diag-
myocardium. nosis of cardiomyopathy; a high index of suspicion
In older children, HF related to CHD is most often is required when evaluating patients with chronic
related to sequelae of prior surgical or transcatheter abdominal complaints that have no readily identifiable
interventions for CHD, since it is rare in developed cause.6 In boys, dilated cardiomyopathy is a nearly uni-
countries for HF related to unoperated CHD to pres- versal finding in the Becker and Duchenne muscular
ent later in childhood. An example is systolic ventricular dystrophies, with cardiomyopathy typically becom-
dysfunction in patients with a systemic right ventricle, ing clinically apparent in the early teenage years and
as seen in HLHS following the Norwood procedure, being the proximate cause of death in most patients
or in transposition of the great arteries following an in the early 20s. Neonates and infants, on account of
atrial switch (Senning or Mustard) procedure. In such their inability to relate symptoms, are particularly sus-
patients the new systemic right ventricle, which ceptible to dilated cardiomyopathy from prolonged,
is better suited morphologically for pumping into a unrecognized tachyarrhythmias (tachycardia-induced
low-pressure vascular bed, may exhibit progressive sys- cardiomyopathy).
tolic ventricular dysfunction with chronic exposure to Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy rarely causes symptoms
higher (systemic) afterload. Other commonly encoun- of HF in children, but it is the most common cause
tered examples include right ventricular dysfunction of sudden death in adolescents and young adults so
in patients who have had a transannular patch repair it is important to exclude this diagnosis in patients
of tetralogy of Fallot (in which a ventriculotomy is a at risk for the disease.7 The means and extent to
necessary part of the procedure), as well as ischemic which athletes should undergo screening for hyper-
left ventricular dysfunction late following the arterial trophic cardiomyopathy prior to participating in
switch operation for transposition of the great arter- competitive sports remains controversial, although the
ies (in which necessary mobilization of the coronary American College of Cardiology and American Heart
arteries may lead to coronary narrowing or distortion). Association recently released guidelines for clinicians.8
Because the symptoms of HF related to such interven- Like dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomy-
tions may not manifest until late adolescence or early opathy also has a strong familial component, and first
adulthood, referral of patients who have had previous degree relatives of patients with either entity should
interventions for CHD to adult cardiology providers undergo cardiac evaluation including an EKG and
experienced in CHD is essential. echocardiogram. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is also
encountered in infants with diabetic mothers as well
Cardiomyopathies as those with certain genetic syndromes, most notably
Cardiomyopathy, or disease intrinsic to the cardiac Noonan syndrome.
muscle, may be divided into five categories based on Restrictive cardiomyopathy and left ventricular noncom-
pathophysiology and shared clinical characteristics: paction cardiomyopathy are occasionally encountered in
dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, children. In restrictive cardiomyopathy, systolic ventricu-
restrictive cardiomyopathy, left ventricular noncom- lar function is preserved, the ventricle is not dilated,
paction cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic right and the primary pathologic mechanism is impaired
diastolic filling. There is a high incidence of pulmo- thrombosis and/or dissection is significant, and these
nary hypertension and sudden death, with few options may lead to acute and chronic HF.
for medical management, so transplantation is consid- Children treated for various malignancies with
ered when the diagnosis is made.9 anthracycline chemotherapy (doxorubicin, daunorubicin)
Left ventricular noncompaction cardiomyopathy can be have a lifelong risk of developing cardiotoxicity, which
characterized as an arrest of embryologic development most commonly manifests as dilated cardiomyopathy.11
of the left ventricular myocardium, in which the nor- The overall risk is 10%; factors that increase the risk
mally smooth surface of the endocardium is replaced include younger age at time of chemotherapy, higher
by a densely trabeculated endocardial surface. Patients cumulative dose, and concomitant receipt of radiation
frequently have an undulating clinical course, with to the chest. Since the risk is lifelong, routine echocar-
thromboembolic events and arrhythmias as notable diographic followup for survivors of childhood cancer
features unique to the diagnosis. should continue well into adulthood.
Myocarditis, defined as lymphocytic infiltration
of the myocardium with an associated inflammatory EVALUATION OF CHILDREN WITH SUSPECTED HEART
response, is an important cause of HF in children. It FAILURE
may be idiopathic, but several infectious agents (pri- Although physical examination findings are rarely
marily viral) are commonly encountered in serum or in specific, close attention will often provide insights
myocardial biopsies, including parvovirus, coxsackievi- into the presence and cause of HF. Heart rate is a
rus, adenovirus, and human herpesvirus-6. Clinically, critically important measure of cardiovascular health,
myocarditis may be differentiated from dilated cardio- and patients with new-onset dilated cardiomyopa-
myopathy by the acute onset of symptoms, a recent thy or myocarditis may present with inappropriate
history of a viral upper respiratory tract infection, sinus tachycardia. Blood pressure is usually normal
elevation of serum inflammatory markers, and the in patients with HF; hypotension is a late finding in
presence of pericardial effusion on echocardiography. decompensated HF and usually portends impending
Nonetheless, there is often a broad overlap, and it is cardiovascular collapse. Other important aspects of
not always easy to distinguish between the two. the physical examination of the child with HF include
respiratory pattern and effort; presence of a gallop
Acquired Heart Disease on auscultation; adequacy of peripheral perfusion as
Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is the most com- judged by skin temperature, capillary refill and ampli-
mon cause of acquired heart disease in children and tude of the peripheral pulses; and intravascular fluid
young adults in developing countries. In the primary status as indicated by hepatomegaly, venous disten-
phase of illness, RHD manifests as a valvulitis, with the sion, and peripheral edema. The clinical assessment of
mitral and/or aortic valves affected most commonly. patients with HF can help place them into categories
In the acute phase of the disease valvular regurgitation according to their state of hemodynamic compensa-
may lead to HF; left untreated, chronic valvular regur- tion, pulmonary congestion, and peripheral perfusion,
gitation and/or stenosis may develop. With prompt all of which can help direct initial management
recognition and treatment of uncomplicated S. pyo- (Table 2).
genes infection, acute and chronic RHD is rare in the Assessment of the history obviously must be tailored
US, but outbreaks do continue to occur in sporadic to the age and developmental status of the patient. In
clusters in specific populations. infants, assessment of HF focuses on feeding habits.
Kawasaki disease (KD) is the most common cause In children, particularly if they are too young to relate
of acquired heart disease in developed countries, classic symptoms of HF such as chest pain, palpita-
including the U.S. Its hallmark is the development of tions, or dyspnea, assessment of their level of activity
coronary artery ectasia and/or aneurysms in approxi- is more useful, especially their willingness to partici-
mately 25% of patients following the acute phase of pate in activities they habitually enjoyed. Similar to
illness; this risk is reduced to <5% with the admin- the well-known New York Heart Association clinical
istration of immune globulin.10 However, KD can severity scale in adults with HF, the Ross classification
directly cause carditis during the acute phase of illness, of pediatric HF symptoms defines severity with respect
which may result in symptoms of acute HF. In those to normal, age-appropriate, childhood activities
with coronary artery aneurysms, the risk of coronary (Table 3).12
echocardiography can readily identify and semi-quan- biomarker in children. Elevated levels are observed
titatively assess valvular regurgitation and shunts, in cardiac ischemia and in inflammatory processes
and can provide functional information such as ejec- such as myocarditis, and can help distinguish such
tion fraction, ventricular dimensions, and estimates diagnoses from primary cardiomyopathies.
of right ventricular systolic pressure, but it has a lim-
ited role in characterizing myocardial tissue and may TREATMENT OF HEART FAILURE
not provide sufficient visualization of the requisite The clinical severity of HF in children ranges
cardiac structures in older and/or obese patients. from asymptomatic states manifested only by ven-
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is playing an tricular dysfunction on echocardiogram to sudden
increasingly important role in addressing the limita- cardiac death, so the intensity of therapy is generally
tions of echocardiography , but it requires sedation in tailored to the patients symptoms and functional
most children under 12 years. Invasive hemodynamic state, though with several exceptions. In general,
assessment (cardiac catheterization) is limited to management strategies for pediatric HF reflect
cases in which the diagnosis is uncertain or in which extrapolation of experience and results from adult
quantitative measurement of hemodynamic param- data, as the number of high quality studies examin-
eters such as cardiac output and pulmonary capillary ing the effect of HF therapies specifically in children
wedge pressure are necessary, particularly if a patient is quite limited.16 Much of this lack of knowledge
is being considered for heart transplantation. derives from the rarity and heterogeneity of HF in
The laboratory evaluation of a child with sus- children, but other factors involve reluctance to
pected HF serves three purposes: it can confirm the involve children in research as well as the limited
diagnosis, provide information about the severity of return on investments in expensive randomized tri-
illness, and exclude other confounding diagnoses. als that may only benefit a very small segment of the
At a minimum, children with suspected HF should population.
have measurement of serum electrolytes and hepatic Children with HF symptoms secondary to
function, a complete blood count with differential, CHD require surgical and/or transcatheter correc-
and thyroid hormone assessment. Frequent monitor- tion of the defect, or palliation when an anatomic
ing of electrolytes and renal function is necessary and physiologic correction is not feasible. While it
in children receiving diuretics and ACE inhibitors. is common to stabilize children with ductal-depen-
A comprehensive metabolic evaluation and consul- dent left heart disease for some period of time after
tation with an expert in metabolism is mandatory diagnosis, there is little role for prolonged medical
in infants with HF, since many inborn errors of management if there are no contraindications to sur-
metabolism are associated with cardiomyopathy (e.g. gery. Similarly, infants with a HF syndrome in the
Pompe disease). setting of large left-to-right shunts may be medically
Biomarkers also play an important role in the managed with diuretics and nasogastric feedings to
assessment of HF in children. B-natriuretic pep- relieve symptoms and optimize nutrition. However,
tide (BNP), released by ventricular myocardium in the widespread availability of neonatal cardiac sur-
response to myofibril stretch, is a reasonably sensi- gery and data demonstrating excellent outcomes for
tive and specific adjunct to the diagnosis of HF in infants as low as 2 kg argue against prolonged peri-
children and adults.13-15 In particular, an elevated ods of medical management.
BNP can help distinguish HF from respiratory dis- For adults with symptomatic ventricular dys-
ease. Serial measurement of BNP in patients with function, the mainstay of outpatient oral medical
known HF is also useful for assessing exacerbations therapy involves the combination of a beta-blocker,
of HF, monitoring response to therapy, and evaluat- an ACE inhibitor (or angiotensin receptor blocker),
ing prognosis. Care must be taken when comparing and an aldosterone antagonist. For symptomatic
BNP values measured at different hospitals or insti- relief, digoxin and diuretics are frequently utilized,
tutions, as different normative values exist specific but neither of these medications has been shown to
to the individual proprietary assay used. In addition, offer a survival benefit. In children with symptom-
many centers follow the N-type-proBNP, a precursor atic systolic ventricular dysfunction the combination
to BNP, but the two measurements are not directly of beta-blocker, ACE inhibitor, and aldosterone
comparable. Serum troponin is also an important antagonist is also frequently employed, even though
the only randomized, controlled trial of a HF medi- which can permit the use of long-term support in
cation (carvedilol) in children failed to demonstrate children as small as 3 kg. Newer continuous-flow
any benefit relative to placebo.17 For children with devices such as the HeartWare VAD are being used
refractory HF symptoms despite optimal outpatient as bridge-to-transplant with increasing frequency in
management, hospitalization is necessary and fre- children as small as 0.7 m2 body surface area, includ-
quently involves the use of inotropic medications to ing at CHOP. The concept of destination therapy
treat hypotension and/or refractory symptoms. in pediatrics has not been widely adopted, but has
been explored in patients with Duchenne muscular
Heart Transplantation dystrophy.
The definitive therapy for refractory HF in
adults and children is heart transplantation. The PROGNOSIS
decision to commit a child to heart transplantation The prognosis for HF in children is variable and
is complex; the uncertainties about optimal timing highly independent of the etiology. For relatively
are compounded by the expectation that a heart common causes such as myocarditis and dilated
transplant during childhood will not serve a childs cardiomyopathy, a surprisingly high incidence of
expected lifespan. Common indications for heart spontaneous normalization of heart function has
transplantation involve refractory HF symptoms, been observed in several large studies.17,20 In the
growth failure in the setting of HF, CHD without randomized trial of carvedilol, for example, sponta-
options for surgical repair or palliation, and the neous improvement was noted in nearly 60% of the
diagnosis of restrictive cardiomyopathy. The current placebo group. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy gener-
outcomes of heart transplantation in children are ally has a favorable prognosis during childhood, with
generally favorable, and the expected half-life (the a low incidence of sudden death or deterioration in
time at which 50% of patients remain alive with ventricular function.21 As a rule, children with car-
the original graft) in the current era is approaching diomyopathy are not restricted from activities, apart
20 years.18 Moreover, children (and their families) from competitive sports, and are encouraged to par-
who have undergone heart transplantation report ticipate in activities up to their individual ability and
excellent quality of life measures and are generally endurance.
indistinguishable from their peers with respect to
activities of daily living. CONCLUSION
Relative to the adult population, the incidence
Mechanical Assist Devices of HF in children is rare. The etiologies of HF in
The management of HF in adults has been revo- children overlap those seen in adults, although
lutionized by the widespread adoption of durable CHD is an important and distinct contributor to
ventricular assist devices (VADs) for clinical stabiliza- etiology. The treatment of HF in children mirrors
tion and rehabilitation prior to transplantation or strategies employed in the adult population, and
for destination therapy. A prior limitation to the it is anticipated that ongoing advances in adult
use of VADs in children was lack of devices that are HF will translate into improved outcomes for chil-
small enough, particularly for infants and younger dren. Several professional societies have published
children. However, after several years of experience recently updated guidelines for the management
in Europe, the FDA in 2011 approved the first pedi- of HF in children, which can aid the clinician
atric-specific VAD: the Berlin Heart EXCOR VAD.19 interested in learning more about the most up-
This pulsatile device is available in several different to-date therapies and outcomes for this patient
sizes approximating normal pediatric stroke volumes, population.22,23
References
1. Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE Jr, et al. 2013 research directions: a scientific statement from the American Heart
ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report Association. Circulation 2013;128:1927-95.
of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American 12. Ross RD. The Ross classification for heart failure in children after
Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines. Circulation 25 years: a review and an age-stratified revision. Pediatr Cardiol.
2013;128:e240-327. 2012;33:1295-1300.
2. Kemper AR, Mahle WT, Martin GR, Cooley WC, Kumar P, Morrow 13. Auerbach SR, Richmond ME, Lamour JM, Blume ED, Addonizio
WR, et al. Strategies for implementing screening for critical congeni- LJ, Shaddy RE, et al. BNP levels predict outcome in pediatric heart
tal heart disease. Pediatrics 2011;132:e185-e192. failure patients: post hoc analysis of the Pediatric Carvedilol Trial.
3. Wesselhoeft H, Fawcett JS, Johnson AL. Anomalous origin of the Circ Heart Fail 2010;3:606-11.
left coronary artery from the pulmonary trunk. Its clinical spectrum, 14. Maher KO, Reed H, Cuadrado A, Simsic J, Mahle WT, Deguzman
pathology, and pathophysiology, based on a review of 140 cases with M, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of criti-
seven further cases. Circulation 1968;38:403-25. cal heart disease in children. Pediatrics 2008;121:e1484-8.
4. Towbin JA, Lowe AM, Colan SD, Sleeper LA, Orav EJ, Clunie S, 15. Palazzuoli A, Gallotta M, Quatrini I, Nuti R. Natriuretic peptides
et al. Incidence, causes, and outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy in (BNP and NT-proBNP): measurement and relevance in heart failure.
children. JAMA 2006;296:1867-76. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2010;6:411-8.
5. Hershberger RE, Siegfried JD. Update 2011: clinical and genetic 16. Rossano JW, Shaddy RE. Update on pharmacological heart failure
issues in familial dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol therapies in children: do adult medications work in children and if
2011;57:1641-9. not, why not? Circulation 2014;129:607-12.
6. Macicek SM, Macias CG, Jefferies JL, Kim JJ, Price JF. Acute heart 17. Shaddy RE, Boucek MM, Hsu DT, Boucek RJ, Canter CE, Mahony
failure syndromes in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatrics L, et al. Carvedilol for children and adolescents with heart failure: a
2009;124:e898-904. randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007;298:1171-9.
7. Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, Dearani JA, Fifer MA, Link MS, 18. Dipchand AI, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY, Benden C, Dobbels
et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of F, Levvey BJ, et al. The registry of the international society for heart
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of and lung transplantation: seventeenth official pediatric heart trans-
Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on plantation report-2014; focus theme: retransplantation. J Heart Lung
Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2011;124:e783-831. Transplant 2014 ;33:985-95.
8. Maron BJ, Levine BD, Washington RL, Baggish AL, Kovacs RJ, Maron 19. Fraser CD,Jr, Jaquiss RD, Rosenthal DN, Humpl T, Canter CE,
MS. Eligibility and disqualification recommendations for competitive Blackstone EH, et al. Prospective trial of a pediatric ventricular assist
athletes with cardiovascular abnormalities: Task Force 2: prepartici- device. N Engl J Med 2012;367:532-41.
pation screening for cardiovascular disease in competitive athletes: 20. Alexander PM, Daubeney PE, Nugent AW, Lee KJ, Turner C, Colan
a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and SD, et al. Long-term outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy diagnosed
American College of Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015;66:2356-61. during childhood: results from a national population-based study of
9. Webber SA, Lipshultz SE, Sleeper LA, Lu M, Wilkinson JD, childhood cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2013;128:2039-46.
Addonizio LJ, et al. Outcomes of restrictive cardiomyopathy in child- 21. Maron BJ, Rowin EJ, Casey SA, Lesser JR, Garberich RF, McGriff
hood and the influence of phenotype: a report from the Pediatric DM, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in children, adolescents,
Cardiomyopathy Registry. Circulation 2012;126:1237-44. and young adults associated with low cardiovascular mortality with
10. Newburger JW, Takahashi M, Gerber MA, Gewitz MH, Tani LY, contemporary management strategies. Circulation 2016;133:62-73.
Burns JC, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management 22. McKelvie RS, Moe GW, Ezekowitz JA, Heckman GA, Costigan J,
of Kawasaki disease: a statement for health professionals from the Ducharme A, et al. The 2012 Canadian Cardiovascular Society heart
Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis and Kawasaki Disease, failure management guidelines update: focus on acute and chronic
Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart heart failure. Can J Cardiol 2013;29:168-81.
Association. Circulation 2004;110:2747-71. 23. Kirk R, Dipchand AI, Rosenthal DN, Addonizio L, Burch M,
11. Lipshultz SE, Adams MJ, Colan SD, Constine LS, Herman EH, Chrisant M, et al. The International Society of Heart and Lung
Hsu DT, et al. Long-term cardiovascular toxicity in children, Transplantation guidelines for the management of pediatric heart fail-
adolescents, and young adults who receive cancer therapy: patho- ure: executive summary. J Heart Lung Transplant 2014;33:888-909.
physiology, course, monitoring, management, prevention, and