Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac

Various examples of extensions in metal

constructions

Seminar paper

Professor: Student:
Sandra Stefanovi Marko urbatovi 326/2015

Kragujevac 2015.
 Various examples of extensions in metal constructions

Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Analysis and overview of different examples of Extension elements 4
The basic types of extensions and connections 5
Connection types according to Eurocode 13
Connection types according to rigidity 13
Connection types according to torque resistance 14
Conclusion 15
Literature 16

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 Various examples of extensions in metal constructions

Abstract: In this project paper it has been explained the use of classification and application of
different types of bonding that we use in metal structures.
Keywords: Bonding in metallic structures, Metal profiles, Calculation for metal bondings

1. Introduction

Bondings and all metal structures are problems arising parallel with the development of the first
structural elements, because of their linking to the structural whole.
All steel products used in construction are produced I standard lengths, which are often not the
same as those that are required by design of steel structures. For this reason it is necessary to cut
steel elements to the required measures according to the project, or to connect more of them in
the workshop or directly on the site.
Sometimes it is possible to connect complete construction in the workshop, which is conditioned
by the transport of construction to the building site.
Extensions therefore are interconnecting parts of the same element, and the links between
various elements. Both may be in the workshop or on the site.

Figure 1 - Graphical display of metal structures

2. Analysis and overview of different examples of Extension elements

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The need for extensions and connections of structural elements occurs in each metal structure.
Metal structures are made in the workshops of standard products of metal industry (hot-rolled or
cold pressed profiles, sheets...) in certain dimensions that depend on technological capabilities of
manufacturers. The structural elements which are longer than the maximum length of standard
rolling mill products are manufactured when two or more parts are connected together.
The term Extension implies the continuation of two same or similar structural elements, for
example pole or carrier (Figure 2). Bonding are made of various structural elements, for
example bond between beams and pillars (Figure 3), bond between truss rods and nodal plate
(Figure 4) and so on. Bondings and connections can be made by welding and by using screws
and rivets. The choice of bonding element has a major impact on the cost of structure and its
behavior underload. Welding contributes to homogenous compound and transfer of powers is
more continuous. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, Novi Sad, 2006.]

Figure 2 Bond between pole and carrier

Figure 3 Bond between beam and pillar Figure 4 Bond between truss rod and nodal plate

When connecting using screws or rivets accuracy of a joint is achieved and additional sheets or
garters are necessary, which affects the overall cost of construction. Welding is a process
whereby atmospheric conditions need to be controlled when performing, than special equipment
and qualified workforce. During welding it comes to the deformation of elements and the
appearance of residual tensions. Therefore, there is a clear division on the implementation of the
joints:
Welding is mainly applied in the preparation of construction in the workshop,
Bolts are used for making extensions and connections on the site.

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The choice of joints and connection type for extensions has great influence on the load capacity,
static behavior and cost structure. When welding, due to the introduction of heat and uneven
cooling, it comes to creation of residual tension and deformation of elements that are being
connected, thereby resulting in a decrease of the load capacity of the elements. Proper selection
of a technological process of welding affects the price of a structure, so the designer has a great
responsibility to properly choose parameters. Welding on the site results in a connection of
poorer quality and process execution lasts long. Joints made with bolts are executed quickly, with
simple equipment, with streamlined and good quality, and the contruction does not have its own
tension. Their application corresponds to modern CAD/CAM manufacturing process.
Choice of connection types and joints affects the rigidity and load capacity of connections.
Rigidity of connections influences the static behavior of bondings and relocation of internal
forces in the structure. Load capacity should be greater than or equal to capacity of the element
which it binds. Connections should possess a ductility capacity, in order to allow redistribution of
internal forces. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, Novi Sad, 2006.]
Because of the great importance of extension type and joints to static behavior and cost of
construction, in designing phase, some basic principles should be followed:
Connections should be simple and easy to execute,
Welding should be performed with the minimal dimensions of the seams and preferably
in a horizontal position,
Whenever possible, angular semas should be applied, as they are cheaper and easier to
execute,
We should aspire using the same connections and details in construction,
The use of modern methods of automatic marking and executing sould be allowed
It should be easy to predict the setting of elements and quick installation of connections

2.1 The basic types of extensions and connections

There are a number of different types of extensions and connection. Each concrete construction
poses a special problem that needs to be solved. In order to facilitate their analysis by various
parameters, the division of connections and extensions canbe made on the basis of different
criteria. Depending on whether it is performed in the workshop or on site, there are Workshop
and on-site extensions.
Workshop extensions and connections (Figure 5), are made in the workshop when making
structural elements. These are extensions of welded elements or rolled profiles, extensions sheets
of different thickness, as well as joints of different elements of a mounting bracket. They are
usually performed by welding with anglular or frontal seams. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije,
Novi Sad, 2006.]

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Figure 5 Workshop extensions and connections for crane carrier

On-site extensions (Figure 6) are conducted on the site when the elements dimensions exceed the
allowable values for normal transport. Those are line elements extensions (rods or beams) whose
length is greater than transport length (l> l tr= 12.5 m), extensions of parts of prefabricated
pieces for bridges etc. In addition to the mounting extensions that serve as the extensions of
elements whose length is greater than the transport lenght, on the site are realized connections
between the different elements of the structure. Mounting extensions and connections are usually
performed using screws. If there are appropriate on-siteconditions, such as a mobile workshop
when building bridges, welding could be performed too.
In one structural element can appear:
Partial extensions if only certain parts of the elements are being extended
Complete extensions if interrupting and connecting all elements of the cross section are
done

Figure 6 Mounting (on-site) extensions

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Workshop extensions may be partial or complete, whereby on-site are always complete
extensions. Depending on the position of the elements that are being connected, extensions can
be: frontal, frontal with butt straps and overlapped.
Frontal joints (Figure 7.1) are realized between two sheets, with same or different thicknesses,
which lie in the same plane. These extensions can be made with frontal seams. In this way,
directly, through the frontal weld transfer of power from one to the other connection element is
performed.
Frontal joints with butt straps (Figure 7.2) are also achieved between the two metal sheets which
lie in the same plane, and executed with additional elements (metal butt straps). The forces are
transferred indirectly via connecting straps from one element to another. Butt straps are placed
on both sides, in order to avoid eccentric stress. These extensions can be achieved with the
angular seams or screws.
Overlapping extensions are extensions of two elements which are overlappedat a particular
length over which the connection is done. They can be derived using angular seams or screws
(Figure 7.3). These extensions are applied only as the supporting elements that are loaded by
small forces. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, Novi Sad, 2006.]

Figure 7 1) frontal extendions; 2) frontal extensions with butt straps; 3) overlapped extensions

There are a number of different types of extentions and joints depending on the type of loads,
connetion type, mutual position of elements that are being merged and form of their cross
sections. In steel structures are most often the following types of extensions and connections:
Mounting extensions sticks, poles and beams,
Joints between poles and beams
Angular joints.
Mounting extensions (Figure 8) are most often performed by welding with frontal seams, or in
the form of overlapping extensions generated by straps which can be welded or bolted.

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Figure 8 - Mounting extensions

Mounting extensions of pillars (Figure 9) can be achieved in several different ways. Mounting
extensions can be fully achieved with screw (Figure 9.1, 9.2), or welded (Figure 9.3, 9.4).
Disadvantages of welding onsite that were formerly mentioned apply in this case as well. In
addition, the welded extensions are less favorable from the point of assembly, because they
require a temporarysupport or connection till the welding establish a connection. Connecting is
most commonly done using temporary, prefabricated elements of angles and screws. In addition
to these types of extensions, combined extensions can be applied (figure 9.3 and 9.4) which are
better solution in terms of installation. In these cases pillars are welded with front plate in the
workshop, while their connection is done on site with the screws. In case of dimensional changes
of the pillars at the point of joint, it should be taken into account that a front plate, which in such
cases must be places, has sufficient strength to bend (thickness), in order to provide for the
transfer of force from one element to another. Forces are transmitted at an angle not less than 45
, in relation to horizontal plane(Figure 9.2). If the dimensions of the poles (pillars) which are
being continued drastically differ (Figure 9.6), on the rib of lower larger one, stiffeners need to
be installed, in order to ensure proper introduction of force from the upper narrower pillars, and
reduce bending of the front plate. When joint needs to be placed (hidden) from within the
thickness of the floor, the most advantageous solution is shown in Figure9.4. [Babin N., Metalne
konstrukcije, Novi Sad, 2006.]

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Figure 9 Different possibilities of mounting extensions

Mounting extensions of carriers (Figure 10) are usually performed with the screws, but can be
welded as well. A typical example of a mounting beam extension of I-beam construction is
formed with screws, and shown in Figure 10.1. When continuation is done by welding with
frontal seams (Figure 10.2), it should be paid attention to the conditions of welding, preferably in
a horizontal position.

Figure 10 Mounting extensions of a carrier: 1) with screws; 2) welded

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Joints between carrier with pillars can be hinged or rigid. Hinged ones are dimensioned so they
can transmit transverse force (V) or a supporting reaction (R). They are usually performed using
connection plates, or brackets and screws (Figure 11). Connecting angles are bonded with the
pole (pillar) by screws or angular seams, while connecting plates are welded to the pole by
angular or V - seams.

Figure 11 Hinged joints

Characteristic types of rigid connection between the carrier and the pillar are shown in Figure 11.
Rigid connections can be achieved by using the front plate, which is welded to the carrier
throughout its margins, and to the pillar are bonded with pre stressed, high value bolts. Front
panels can be with overhang (Figure 12.1) or without overhang (Figure 12.2).
Rigid connections can be achieved by welding (Figure12.3), too. The disadvantage of this type of
connection is that the welding is done on the construction site, so the procedure is more
complicated and slower and with poorer quality of seams. When preparing the second section, it
is necessary to provide temporary prefabricated chairs and props, cause the carrier needs to be
temporarily fixed before welding. Rigid (torque) connections can be achieve also only by using
bolts. Such connections require additional elements in the form of a T or L-rolled profiles,
through which, with screws, Indirect transfer of intersecting forces is carried out (Figure 12.4).
The advantages of such connections are fast and simple installation, lower requirements in terms
of eligibility of workers, simple production in the workshop, which significantly affect the total
cost of the entire structures. Main disadvantages of these connections are slightly higher
consumption of steel (due to additional elements), as well as greater deformability of connection.
Such joints are particularly widely used in the United States. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije,
Novi Sad, 2006.]

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Figur
e 12 Examples of rigid connections between carrier and pillar

Angular connections of carriers are very often found in building construction (connection
between secondary with the primary carrier) and bridge construction (connection of the
longitudinal and transverse beams). They also can be hinged or rigid.
Hinged angular joints (Figure 13) only provide transfer of the reaction of the secondary carrier to
the primary carrier. Such bonds are generally achieved only over the carrier ribs. The most
commonly are used angular connection (Figure 13.1) or connecting plates (Figure 13.2). In the
case of unilateral connections (Figure13.3), the rotation of the secondary carrier resists the
primary carrier with its torsionrigidity, so the connection has a certain moment load (elastic
clamp).
In the case of mutual connection (Figure 13.4) partial clamp appears due to continuity achieved
by indirect coupling of secondary beams over primary ribs. Such bonds have a certain rotational
stiffness, but it is in practice ignored, due to the extreme flexibility of fasteners (brackets and
screws) and low torsional stiffness of I-profiles. [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, Novi Sad,
2006.]
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Figure 13 Hinged angular connections

Rigid angled connections ensure continuation of the secondary (longitudinal)carrier, so that, at

the connecting point, it can accept both, transversal force and bending moment. These
connections can be achieved with the screws (Figure 14.1)or by welding (Figure 14.2). In both
cases, continuity of the carrier, or the bending moment is realized by the continuity of blades,
which are in the first case connected with screws with the leg of the secondary carrier, and in the
second casewith angular seams. Transverse forces in connection with the screws is realized by
mutual connection angles, while in the welded connection secondary carrier ribs are being
directly welded with the ribs of a primary carrier. It should be noted that during the design of
either rigid or hinged joint connections, it is required to take into account the moment of the joint
eccentricity that occurs in fasteners. Thus, for example, in the case of hinged connection realized
by connecting angles and bolts, screws on the rib of the secondary carrier, in addition to the
transverse forces V, should be dimensioned for effects of eccentricity moment: Me = V e
where e is the eccentricity of connection (Figure 13.3). [Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, Novi
Sad, 2006.]

Figure 14 Rigid angular connection

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2.2 Connection types according to Eurocode

Considering new information about the real behavior of the connections, which occurred as a
result of years of research in this field, it was created a need for the new classification of
connections. The international standard Euro code 3, which was created as a result of several
years of work on the systematization of experiences and regulations of the most developed
European countries (England, Germany, France, Switzerland, Denmark ...) in the field of steel
structures, with detailed overview of connections in steel structures, data and their classification.
It turned out that it was necessary to divide the connection based on two different criteria:
According to the rigidity and resistivity.
Unlike previous approaches, the connections are defined with two main characteristics,
resistance and rotational stiffness. In addition, if as a global analysis for the calculation of static
forces is used plastic analysis, it is necessary to consider rotating capacity of connection as its
third characteristic. [Buevac D., Metalne konstrukcije, Beograd, 2007.]

2.3 Connection types according to rigidity

Rotation of the connection depends on its rotational stiffness and torque which acts on it. For an
idealy rigid connections it is considered that rigidity of the rotation is infinite, and that arbitrary
external torque may not cause any deformation of the rotation. As mentioned, a real structure can
not have infiniterigid connection, they are to a greater or lesser extent deformed. Consequently,
connections can be divided into three categories:
Nominally hinged connections,
Rigid connections and
Semi-rigid connections.
Nominally hinged connections are joints that can not accept a signify cant bending moment.
These joints should be able to transfer the forces that act on them(transversal and possibly axial)
and allow the free rotation.
Rigid connections are connections whose deformation has no significant impact on distribution
of internal forces and moments in the structure, as well as to its total deformation. Deformation
of connections should not influence the reduction of structural resistance more than 5%. Of
course, they must be able to transfer the forces and torques that are in them due to external loads.
Semi-rigid connections are connections that do not meet the requirements either for the rigid nor
for hinged connection. The behavior of these connections depends on the moment-rotation
curves (M-F characteristics). Leniency of semi-solid connections, and their relativeotation, must
be taken into account in the global analysis of the structure, whether it is a plastic or elastic
analysis. [Buevac D., Metalne konstrukcije, Beograd, 2007.]

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Connections can be classified as rigid or hinged only on the basis of a special experimental
evidence of significant experience in the conduct of similar or the same connections on the
previously built adequate facilities, or on the basis of calculations based on experiments. The
criteria according to which it links to
Criteria that are used to devide connections into rigid, semi-rigid and hinged based on its M-F
characteristics, it is not easy to define in general for all types. In Euro code 3 are given class if
ication criteria beam-column connections which are often used in steel structures, especially in
buildings. [Buevac D., Metalne konstrukcije, Beograd, 2007.]

2.4 Connection types according to torque resistance

Basis on resistance, connections can be divided into:

Nominally hinged,
Partially resistant and,
Completely resistant.

Nominally hinged connections transmitt only force whose effects they are expodes to, without
developing significant bending moments that may have an adverse effect on construction
elements.
Completely resistant connections are bonds whose calculational resistance is greater than or
equal to the element which it binds.
Partially resistant connections are bonds whose calculational resistance is such that they can
transfer the forces and moments that act on them, but is less than the resistance of the element
which it binds.
On the basis of these divisions, we can clearly observe the difference between rigidity and
resistance of connections as well as that they are clearly two different and independent
characteristics. Thus, for example the connection may be rigid and partially resistant, or semi-
rigid and fully resistant. This does not apply to nominally hinged connections that are also
classified according to rigidity and resistance. [Petrovi Z., Metalne konstrukcije u
mainogradnji, Beograd, 1996.]

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Conclusion

The need for connections and extensions of structural elements exists in each metal structure.
Metal structures are made in work shops most often of standard products of metal industry with
defined dimensions which depend on the technological capabilities of manufacturers. The
structural elements which are longer than the maximum length of standard rolling mill products,
are made of two or more parts that are connected or extended in the workshop or on site.
In the design process, it must be taken into account the rationality and the efficiency of the
resulting solution with the least possible consumption of materials, and in doing so we need to be
sure that the connection is strongly reliable.

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Literature

[A] Babin N., Metalne konstrukcije, FTN izadvastvo, Novi Sad, 2006.

[B] Buevac D., Metalne konstrukcije, Gradjevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2007.

[C] Petrovi Z., Metalne konstrukcije u mainogradnji, Institut za mehanizaciju Mainskog

fakulteta u Beogradu, Beograd, 1996.

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