CHAPTER THEORIES AND

3 CALCULATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the theories and standards that were used to design a sewage and

drainage system in general. In Section 3.2, the wastewater flow sewer and drainage

being designed is described. The Colebrook-White equation for the velocity of flow in

a sewer is presented in Section 3.3. The design limitations of the sewerage system

such as depth of flow, pipe gradients, pipe depths, pipe sizes and manholes are given

in Section 3.4. Finally, Section 3.5 sets out the detailed sewerage design process, from

the decision to adopt a sewerage system to the development of the overall sewerage

layout whiles ample of calculations for the detailed design for sewers is represented in

Section 3.6.

3.2 WASTEWATER FLOW

This project involves two systems, a sewage system and drainage systems. The sewer

system is designed to convey the wastewater from workshops, commercial

establishments and industries, while the drainage system discharges the excess surface

water from streets and roofs of buildings.

3.2.1 Sewage Wastewater Flow

The flow rate of the wastewater flow used for the design of the main trunk sewer was

based on the water consumption and the population according to the Abu-Dhabi

Design Manual, 2000. This can be estimated as follows:

Q A.P.F Population Water Consumption

(3.1)

Where:

Q = wastewater flow (L/day)

A.P.F = Abu-Dhabi Peaking Factor.

In this project, a water consumption figure of 280 (Lpcd) was used for the year 2020

based on Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000.

The peaking factor was applied to all sewage flows to identify required pipe and

pump station sizes. The Abu-Dhabi peaking factor (APF) is a variation of the Babbit

formula. The formulation for Abu-Dhabi is:

16
APF(Abu Dhabi Peaking Factor) 4.25
population

1000
(3.2)

The APF is used to project maximum sewage flows from a tributary area. The

tributary area should include a contributing population equal to or greater than 500

persons. For tributary populations with fewer than 500 persons, an alternative method

of estimating peak flows should be used.

3.2.2 Population Survey

A population survey is essential for sewer design, in order to come up with a

sufficient peaking factor for acceptable design in real life; also to achieve the purpose

of sewerage system, the design should use reasonable data relating to existing or

expected population in the future. The survey is a collection of building types because

the population intensity differs from one type to another. The number of floors also

increases the population intensity.

The Population survey was determined through several site visits to observe the

population at a certain factory or block. Then a suitable factor was obtained according

to the population per square meter. Each area was multiplied by that factor to obtain

the population for different blocks.

3.2.3 Drainage Wastewater Flow

The actual amount of runoff flow can be determined by using the Rational method

(Steel and McGhee, 1979). This can be estimated as follows:

Q 240 C I A (3.3)

Where:

Q = peak runoff rate (m3/day)

C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless)

I = average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

A = drainage area (ha)

The rainfall intensities for different durations and return period storms for Abu-Dhabi

are presented in Table 3.1 (Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000). In this project, the

return period is 5 years will be adapted and the storm duration is 2 hr, giving 16.35

mm/hr of rainfall intensity, whereas in Table 3.2, typical runoff coefficients for areas

of various characteristics are given (Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000).

Runoff coefficients to be used with design storms to estimate storm water runoff

volumes. These coefficients are established on a sit-specific basis to reflect actual

catchment characteristics. In this project, the runoff coefficient used in designing the

storm water is 0.6.

Table 3.1 Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency

Return Period Intensity (mm/hr) by Duration (hr)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 6 24

1000 Year 103.44 70.99 52.40 43.63 34.90 20.51 7.62
200 Year 83.78 57.81 42.73 35.50 28.40 16.43 6.12
100 Year 75.30 52.12 38.56 31.99 25.59 14.66 5.48
75 Year 71.77 49.75 36.82 30.53 24.43 13.93 5.21
40 Year 64.03 44.56 33.01 27.33 21.87 12.32 4.62
20 Year 55.41 38.78 28.78 23.77 19.02 10.53 3.97
10 Year 46.63 32.89 24.46 20.14 16.11 8.71 3.30
5 Year 37.48 26.75 19.96 16.35 13.08 6.81 2.61
2 Year 23.65 17.48 13.16 10.64 8.51 3.94 1.56

Table 3.2 Typical Runoff Coefficients

Area Description
Coefficient
Categories by surface
Brick 0.70 0.85
Concrete and Asphalt 0.70 0.95
Sandy Soil 0.05 0.20
Categories by use
Cemeteries, Parks and Playgrounds 0.10 0.25
 Business districts 0.70 0.95
Residential
Apartments 0.50 0.70
Industrial
Light 0.50 0.80
Heavy 0.60 0.90
Note that for preliminary calculation of runoff, these coefficients are consistent with

those used with the Rational method for estimating runoff.

3.3 VELOCITY OF FLOW

3.3.1 Colebrook-White Equation

Throughout this project, the Colebrook-White equation will be used to determine the

velocity of the calculated flows presented previously in section 3.2, either for sewer

flows or drainage flow. This can be estimated as follows:

s 2.51
V 2gDS log 2gDS (3. 4)
3.7D D

Where:

V = velocity of flow at d/D (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

D = pipe diameter (mm)

S = hydraulic gradient, (mm/mm)

(Invert slope for full pipes, water surface slopes for open channels, 1m/1000m)

ks = linear measure of effective roughness (mm)

= kinematics viscosity of fluid (m2/s)

The roughness coefficient is a measure of the variation and magnitude of

protuberances on the interior surface of the pipe. The roughness, therefore, is a

function of the pipe material, age and condition. Typical coefficients for the various

pipe materials are given in Table 3.3 (Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000).

Note that poor sewer pipe conditions are to be assumed for Abu-Dhabi system designs

(Ks=1.5) where drainage design should be based on (Ks=0.6) assuming asbestos-

cement pipes.

Table 3.3 Typical Roughness Coefficients For Pipes

Colebrook-White, Ks (mm)
Pipe Material Good Normal Poor
UPVC 0.3 0.6 1.5
GRP 0.3 0.6 1.5
Coated Cast Iron 0.09 0.15 0.3
Uncoated Cast Iron 0.15 0.3 0.6
Ductile Iron 0.15 0.3 0.6
Asbestos cement 0.15 0.3 0.6
Vitrified Clay 0.3 0.6 1.5
Concrete 0.15 0.3 0.6

3.3.2 Minimum and Maximum Flow Velocities

Design flow velocities should be within the limits presented in Tables 3.4 and 3.5

(Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000). Minimum velocities are based on providing self-

cleansing velocities and preventing solids sedimentation in the sewer and drainage

pipes.
Maximum velocities are set to prevent manhole corrosion and minimize sewer gases

in the sewer system and minimize the negative effects of abrasion on the drainage

pipes and manholes.

Table 3.4 Maximum and Minimum Velocities in Sewers.

Pipe Description Minimum (m/s) Maximum (m/s) Design (m/s)

Gravity line 0.6 2.5 0.75
Pressure Line 1.0 3.0 1.5

Table 3.5 Maximum and Minimum Velocities in Drainage.

Pipe Description Minimum (m/s) Maximum (m/s) Design (m/s)

Gravity line 0.75 2.5 0.75
Pressure Line 1.0 3.0 1.0

3.4 DESIGN LIMITATIONS OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM

3.4.1 Depth of Flow

The design criteria for depth of flow in sewer lines are presented in Table 3.6 (Abu-

Dhabi Design Manual, 2000). Sanitary sewers should be checked for percentage full

at all times.

Table 3.6 Maximum Pipe Percentages Full in Sewer Pipes.

Pipe Description Maximum d/D Minimum d/D

Trunk sewer lines 0.75 0.50
Main and lateral sewer lines 0.85 0.50
d/D is ratio of flow depth to (d) nominal pipe diameter (D).

3.4.2 Pipes Depths

The minimum depth for sewer and drainage pipes in Abu-Dhabi is 1.2 m to the crown

of the sewer pipe. This is to provide pipe protection from external loads. If

circumstances require installation of a pipe with a depth of less than 1.2 m above the

crown, then concrete protection is required. The maximum depth to invert is based on

maintaining a cost-effective and safe design.

The recommended maximum cover for Abu-Dhabi sewer and drainage pipes is

approximately 10 m. Depth with cover greater than this should be investigated with

pipe manufacturers to identify any special requirements that may be necessary. In this

case, the engineer should determine whether or not any additional provisions are

required to protect the pipe from soil loads.

3.4.3 Pipes Gradients

Pipe gradients, often the same as the hydraulic gradient, directly influence sewer pipe

capacity. In order to achieve the required minimum velocity in sewer lines, pipes

should be designed by observing the minimum gradients in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Minimum Sewer Line Gradients.

Minimum Gradient (mm/mm)

Sewer Diameter
(mm) Velocity 0.75 (m/s) Velocity 0.6 (m/s)
200 5.00 3.20
250 3.70 2.40
315 2.70 1.75
400 2.00 1.30
500 1.50 1.00
600 1.20 0.80
700 1.00 0.65
800 0.85 0.55
900 0.70 0.45
1000 0.60 0.40
1200 and larger 0.50 0.35
Minimum gradients based on the Colebrook-White formula

3.4.4 Pipes Sizes

The current standard for the minimum size of sewer mains is 200 mm. The minimum

pipe size recommended for house connections is 150 mm or 160 mm outside

diameter. The minimum pipe size permissible on drainage projects is 250 mm.

One exception is pipe used for land drains. The land drain minimum is 160 mm.

However, slotted carrier pipes, serving as both land and carrier drain, must meet the

250 mm minimum.

3.4.5 Manholes

Manholes should be of sufficient size to permit access for maintenance activities. In

addition, their design and material should be such to guarantee maximum

performance for an extended service life.

Note that this project was not deal with designing manholes or studying the manholes

criteria. It was just indication of their locations in the system.

3.5 DETAILED DESIGN PROCESS

The theories introduced previously allow a sewer system to be analyzed in order that

sewer and drainage flows and velocities can be determined. This is only one part of

the overall design process. Detailed design requires a combination of hydraulic

calculations and the application of standard designs, procedures and details.

A sanitary sewer has two main functions: to convey the designed peak discharge and

to transport solids so that deposits are kept to a minimum. It is essential; therefore,

that the sanitary sewers have sufficient capacity for the peak flow and that it function

at minimum flows without excessive maintenance and generation of odors as well as

sufficient velocity of that flow to transport the solids.

Based on the criteria and the design limitation stated previously throughout this

chapter, the detailed design procedure is as follows:

1. Label each manhole based on the flow direction. SMH1 and DMH1 are an

example of manholes labels where SMH1 refers to sewer manhole No.1 as

well as DMH1 refers to drainage manhole No.1 and so on.

2. Determine the cover level (C.L) in m for each manhole from the contours

levels shown in Figure 2.1 in Appendix A.

3. Additional depth = 0.2 m is added to the C.L of future pavements or

construction in the unpaved areas. Therefore, C.L can be estimated as follows:

C.L G.L 0.2

(4.1)
4. Determine the first manhole invert level (I.L1) in m from the survey study of

the location which will be designed, where the second I.L2 will be calculated

as follows:

S
I.L2 L I.L1 1
1000

(4.2)

Where:

S = pipe gradient (%)

L = pipe Length (m)

5. Calculate the depth to invert for each manhole (D.I) as follows:

D.I C.L I.L

(4.3)

6. Determine the pipes diameters (proposed), lengths and gradients according to

the design limitation based on the Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000.

7. Determine the junction population, the number of persons served for each

manhole and the increment population. Note that increment population is an

accumulative summation between the junction population and the number of

person served for each manhole.

8. Calculate the pecking factor (P.F) using the Babbit formula, Equation (3.2).
9. Calculate the total flow in L/s using Equation (3.1).

10. Calculate the full flow velocity in m/s using Colebrook-White formula,

Equation (3.4).

11. Calculate the flow full in L/s based on the velocity calculated in the previous

step and the area of the pipe as follows:

Q VA (4.4)

12. Calculate the ratio between the partial flow (total flow of the pipe) and the full

flow of the pipe as follows:

Q
Ratio Partial
QFull

(4.5)

13. Determine the ratio between the actual velocity and the full velocity of the

pipe (V/Vf) and the actual ratio between the flow depth and the pipe diameter

(d/D) based on the partial flow to full flow ratio calculated in the previous

step. The values of V/Vf and d/D are represented in Table 3.8 in Appendix B

(Abu-Dhabi Design Manual, 2000).

 14. Find the value of the actual velocity based on the V/Vf. Then compare the

actual velocity and the actual d/D with design limits represented in Table 3.4

and Table 3.6 to be sure that the design is acceptable.

All the previous steps are followed in designing sewer pipes, whereas the following

steps are required for designing drainage pipes. Steps from 1 to 6 are same as sewer

design where the remaining steps are as follows:

7. Determine the catchments area, the junction area for each pipe, the total area

and the cumulative catchment areas. Note that total area is the total of the

catchments areas and the junction area for each pipe.

8. Determine the rainfall intensity using Table 3.2.

9. Determine the runoff coefficient using Table 3.3.

10. Calculate the runoff flow in m3/s using Rational method, Equation (3.3). Then

calculate the accumulative runoff flow.

The remaining steps from 11 to 14 are the same as for sewer design. Note that in step

13 you must use Table 3.9 in Appendix B instead of Table 3.8 for determining the

values of V/Vf and actual d/D for drainage pipes.

3.6 SAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS

The following assumptions will be used in both sewer and drainage systems:

D = 400 mm

S=1%

A = 37.5 mm2 (the width of street = 5 m and the length = 7.5 m)

Sample 1: Sewer design calculation from SMH12/8/3 to SMH12/8/3A as

shown in Table 5.4.

C.L G.L 0.2

SMH12/8/3 103.9 0.2 104.10 m

SMH12/8/3A 103.9 0.2 104.10 m

S
I.L2 L I.L1 1
1000

1
SMH12/8/3A 100 102.97 1 101.97 m
1000

D.I C.L I.L

SMH12/8/3 104.10 102.07 2.03 m

SMH12/8/38 104.10 101.97 2.13 m

 16
APF(Abu Dhabi Peaking Factor) 4.25
population

1000

Assuming population intensity is 1000 persons:

16
APF(Abu Dhabi Peaking Factor) 4.25
1000
4.25
1000

Q A.P.F Population Water Consumption

280
Q 4.25 1 13.77 L/s
3600
24
1000

s 2.51
V 2gDS log 2gDS
3.7D D

400 1
V 2 9.807 ( )( )
1000 1000

1.5 2.51 1.141 10 5

log 2 9.807 0.4 0.001
3.7 0.4 0.4

0.425 m/s (Downward)

Q FULL V A

Q FULL 0.425 1000 (0.4)2 53.41 L/s
4

Q 13.77
Ratio Partial 0.26
QFull 53. 41

From Table 3.8 in Appendix B:

V
0.843
Vf

V 0.843 0.425 0.36 m/s

d
0.35
D

Comparing the actual velocity and the actual d/D with the design limits presented in

Table 3.4 and Table 3.6, we found the following:

V = 0.36 m/s < Vmin = 0.6 m/s.

d/D = 0.35 < d/D min = 0.5

This means that the design is not acceptable. So, the pipe dimensions must be

changed, either the pipe diameters or the pipe gradients.

 Sample 2: Drainage design calculation from DMH6/18/7/4 to

DMH6/18/7/3 as shown in Table 5.5.

C.L G.L 0.2

SMH6/18/7/ 4 103.5 0.2 103.70 m

SMH6/18/7/ 3 103.5 0.2 103.70 m

S
I.L2 L I.L1 1
1000

1
SMH2 100 102.5 1 102.4 m
1000

D.I C.L I.L

DMH6/18/7/4 103.70 102.5 1.2 m

DMH6/18/7/ 3 103.70 102.4 1.3 m

Q 240 C I A

16.35
Q 240 0.6 x 37.5 24.5 L/s
3600
 s 2.51
V 2gDS log 2gDS
3.7D D

400 1
V 2 9.807 ( )( )
1000 1000

0.6 2.51 1.141 10 5

log 2 9.807 0.4 0.001
3.7 0.4 0.4

0.425 m/s (Downward)

Q FULL V A

Q FULL 0.425 1000 (0.4)2 53.41 L/s
4

Q 24.5
Ratio Partial 0.46
QFull 53. 41

From Table 3.9 in Appendix B:

V
0.9825
Vf

V 0.9825 0.425 0.42 m/s

d
0.48
D

Comparing the actual velocity and the actual d/D with the design limits presented in

Table 3.5 and Table 3.6, we found the following:

 V = 0.42 m/s < Vmin = 0.75 m/s.

d/D = 0.48 < d/D min = 0.5

This means that the design is not acceptable. So, the pipe dimensions must be

changed, either the pipe diameters or the pipe gradients.