Introduction To Gas Turbines

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-214.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines
Introduction to Gas Turbines
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
TYPES OF GAS TURBINES AND THEIR OPERATING CYCLES ................................. 7
HEAVY-DUTY (TYPE H INDUSTRIAL) ............................................................... 7
AIRCRAFT-DERIVATIVE (TYPE G) ....................................................................... 9
HYBRID ................................................................................................................ 12
GAS TURBINES: MAJOR CYCLES AND COMPONENTS........................................... 13
CYCLE TYPES ..................................................................................................... 13
Closed Cycle ................................................................................................. 13
Open Cycle ................................................................................................... 14
Regenerative Cycle....................................................................................... 14
Combined Cycle............................................................................................ 15
MAJOR COMPONENTS....................................................................................... 16
COMPRESSOR TYPES ....................................................................................... 19
Centrifugal Compressor ................................................................................ 19
Axial Compressor.......................................................................................... 22
COMBUSTOR TYPES .......................................................................................... 24
Can-Type Combustor .................................................................................... 25
Annular Type Combustor .............................................................................. 26
Can-Annular Type ......................................................................................... 29
SHAFT TYPES...................................................................................................... 31
Single-Shaft................................................................................................... 31
Split-Shaft...................................................................................................... 32
Multiple-Shaft (Multiple Spool) ...................................................................... 34
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 36
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

List of Figures
Figure 1. Similarities between Gas Turbine and Reciprocating Engine

Cycle ................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2. Pressure and Temperature Levels Occurring in a Typical Gas
Turbine ............................................................................................................. 5
Figure 3. Typical Horsepower Levels for a 7,000 HP Gas Turbine ................................ 6
Figure 4. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine (MS5002) ................................................................ 7
Figure 5. Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbine (GE LM2500).................................................. 9
Figure 6. Closed Cycle Turbine..................................................................................... 13
Figure 7. Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine ............................................................................ 14
Figure 8. Basic Regenerative Cycle Gas Turbine ........................................................ 15
Figure 9. Schematic of Typical Combined Cycle .......................................................... 16
Figure 10. Single-Shaft Gas Turbine Assemblies......................................................... 17
Figure 11. Typical Split-Shaft Gas Turbine Assemblies ................................................ 18
Figure 12. Single Suction (above) and Double Suction (below) Centrifugal
Compressor Configurations............................................................................ 21
Figure 13. Drum-Type Compressor Rotor .................................................................... 23
Figure 14. Disc-Type Compressor Rotor...................................................................... 23
Figure 15. Elements of a Can-Type Combustion Chamber.......................................... 25
Figure 16. Single Can-Type Combustion Chamber Arrangement ................................ 26
Figure 17. Annular-Type Combustion Chamber Arrangement ..................................... 28
Figure 18. Typical Can-Annular Arrangement .............................................................. 29
Figure 19. Single Shaft Gas Turbine (Allison 501-K17) for Electrical
Generator Application..................................................................................... 32
Figure 20. Split-Shaft Gas Turbine (General Electric LM-2500) .................................... 33
Figure 21. Typical Twin-Spool Gas Turbine (Pratt and Whitney CG-4) ........................ 34
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Gas turbine operation is based on a thermodynamic cycle called
the Brayton Cycle, and is known as a simple gas turbine cycle. In a
gas turbine, compression and expansion occur continuously rather
than in the intermittent manner of a reciprocating internal
combustion engine. Gas turbine power is available continuously,
whereas reciprocating engine power take-off is available only
during the expansion stroke.
A gas turbine, like any other heat engine, is a device for converting
part of a fuel's chemical energy into useful available mechanical
power. The energy transfer occurs in a manner similar in many
ways to the system used by a four-cycle reciprocating internal
combustion engine system. Both gas turbines and reciprocating
engines are internal combustion engines; however, the gas turbine
is a dynamic internal combustion engine, whereas the
reciprocating engine is a positive displacement internal combustion
engine. Figure 1 illustrates the similarities between the two cycles.
Figure 1. Similarities between Gas Turbine and Reciprocating Engine Cycle
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

As indicated by this illustration, air is drawn into the compressor,

usually through an air intake filter system, to remove any harmful
solid particles and vapors from the air stream. This air is then
compressed to the proper value for the particular design
application by the gas turbine compressor. The hot, compressed
air is then discharged to the combustion chambers, or combustors,
where it mixes with injected fuel. In the combustion chambers, the
fuel burns and adds energy to the air.
A spark plug or flame igniter in one or more chambers initially
starts combustion. Once established, combustion is sustained by a
continuous flow of air and fuel, and the spark plug or igniter can be
deenergized. The combustion process raises the gas to a flame
zone temperature of 3500F to 4000F. This temperature is
immediately reduced to usable values by the mixing of secondary
air that enters the combustion chamber through holes placed in
the combustion liners. The hot high-pressure gas mixture is then
ducted to the turbine section, where it expands to exhaust
pressure. In the expansion process, energy is removed from the
gas to drive the compressor, the auxiliaries, the generator, and the
external load equipment.
The spent gas is allowed to flow to the exhaust stack system.
Because there is still heat energy in this gas, the heat can be put
to use in a variety of ways, such as air or water heating, process
drying, or as hot-air-feed supply to a separately fired boiler. Any of
these recovery methods helps to increase the overall thermal
efficiency of the turbine cycle. Figure 2 illustrates pressure and
temperature levels that occur in a typical heavy-duty gas turbine,
and Figure 3 illustrates some typical horsepower levels that occur
in a typical simple-cycle, single-shaft, 7000 horsepower gas
turbine.

NO. 2 BEARING
DUAL FUEL NOZZLE
EXHAUST DIFFUSER
COMBUSTION CASING TURNING VANES
NO. 1 BEARING TRANSITION PIECE
VARIABLE INLET
GUIDE VANE
COMPRESSOR CASE
AIR COMPRESSOR COMBUSTION TURBINE EXHAUST 3000

INLET
180
160
2000
140
TEMPERATURE, DEG. F
120
PRESSURE, PSIG
100 1000
80
60
500
RE
40
SSU
PRE
E
UR
20
R AT
M PE
TE
0 0
Figure 2. Pressure and Temperature Levels Occurring in a Typical Gas Turbine

EXHAUST
AIR IN 13340 HP
COMBUSTOR FUEL
33500 HP
TURBINE USEFUL
ACCESSORIES COMPRESSOR
20340 HP OUTPUT
160 HP 13000 HP
7000HP
Figure 3. Typical Horsepower Levels for a 7,000 HP Gas Turbine
In a reciprocating engine, as the piston moves downward on the

intake stroke, an air/fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder. When
the piston reaches the bottom of the intake stroke, the intake
valve closes to form a closed chamber. As the piston moves
upward during the compression stroke, the air/fuel mixture is
compressed. When the piston reaches the top of the
compression stroke, the compressed air/fuel mixture is ignited.
The combustion of the reciprocating engine is an intermittent
process that occurs at a constant volume. The combustion of the
air/fuel mixture forces the piston downward to rotate the
crankshaft, which extracts energy from the combustion products.
As the piston moves upward again, the exhaust valve opens,
and the waste gases are exhausted from the engine.
This Module presents an overview of gas turbines, and it
introduces the Mechanical Engineer to the fundamentals and
operation of several gas turbine types and configurations.

TYPES OF GAS TURBINES AND THEIR OPERATING CYCLES

There are two major types of gas turbines: heavy-duty (Type H -
industrial) and aircraft-derivative (Type G - aircraft-derivative). The
two types of gas turbines reflect the original intended use of the
turbines. Type H stands for heavy (stationary) industrial use, and
Type G stands for light engines in flight use. Additionally, gas
turbines that use a Type G for gas generation and a Type H for
power generation are sometimes classified as hybrid type gas
turbines. Saudi Aramco engineering standard SAES-K-502 is the
governing document for the design of gas turbines used at Saudi
Aramco facilities.
Heavy-Duty (Type H Industrial)

Figure 4 illustrates a typical heavy-duty type gas turbine. Their
robust design and construction characterize heavy-duty gas
turbines. Heavy-duty gas turbines are specifically designed for
stationary ground applications. The design philosophy for a heavy-
duty gas turbine is similar to the design philosophy for steam
turbines used for large central stations; therefore heavy-duty gas
turbines are ideal for base load power generating operating
conditions. Heavy-duty gas turbine units are designed with safety
factors and stresses that are comparable to the safety factors and
stresses for steam turbine design. These design considerations
allow heavy-duty gas turbines to run continuously for a long period
without requiring major maintenance.
Figure 4. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine (MS5002)

A heavy-duty gas turbine is constructed differently than an aircraft-

derivative gas turbine. The construction can be used to identify a
heavy-duty gas turbine. Heavy-duty gas turbines always use
hydrodynamic bearings because the gas turbine was designed for
land use. The heavy-duty gas turbine casings are normally split on
the horizontal centerline. Multiple-shaft, heavy-duty turbines
typically have variable load turbine nozzles.
Heavy-duty gas turbines are presently available in a range of sizes
from a variety of manufacturers. Unit output ranges are typically
from around 4 MW to more that 225 MW in simple cycle operation.
Heavy-duty industrial gas turbines have an advantage of relatively
high simple cycle efficiencies (28 to 38 percent) with high exhaust
temperatures. Because high gas turbine exhaust temperature is
ideal for combined cycle operations, heavy-duty gas turbines are
ideal for this configuration, and they allow overall combined cycle
efficiencies in excess of 55 percent, based on the lower heating
value of the fuel. Recent developments in combustion systems for
heavy-duty gas turbines have also reduced the NOX emissions at
the turbine exhaust to as little as 25 ppm.
Heavy-duty gas turbines also operate differently than aircraft-
derivative gas turbines in that heavy-duty gas turbines generally
have low compressor pressure ratios (approximately 15:1) and
relatively low combustion temperatures (approximately 1500F to
1800F); newer designs of heavy-duty gas turbines, however, are
increasing this temperature. Heavy-duty gas turbines have the
capability to burn a variety of fuels, and they are available in a wide
range of sizes that include very large models that are capable of
producing over 200,000 bhp.
Advantages and disadvantages of Heavy-duty gas turbines, when
compared to aircraft-derivative gas turbines include:
Advantages:
Longer operation without shutdown for maintenance
Lower combustion temperatures
Ability to burn a larger variety of fuels
Higher horsepower capabilities
Greater tolerance to upsets

Disadvantages:
Lower efficiency
Increased amount of time to overhaul (maintainability)
Cannot be transported to maintenance centers as easily
as aircraft-derivative turbines
Large footprints
High specific weight
Longer start sequences
Aircraft-Derivative (Type G)
Figure 5 shows a typical aircraft-derivative type gas turbine. As the
name implies, aircraft-derivative gas turbine designs are based on
aircraft propulsion gas turbines that are modified to produce shaft
power instead of thrust. Aircraft-derivative gas turbines are
lightweight and compact, which frequently makes them the gas
turbine of choice for use on offshore platforms and in remote
areas. Another reason that aircraft-derivative gas turbines are
frequently chosen for offshore platforms is their suitability for quick
change-out and replacement with spare engines.
1st stage compressor Combustion HP nozzle guide
blades mid-span chamber vanes 1st and 2nd 1st and 2nd stage
dampers stage HP turbine blades
16th stage
compressor blades
1st of 6 stages of power turbine blades
Figure 5. Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbine (GE LM2500)

Aircraft-derivative gas turbine construction is different than the
construction of heavy-duty gas turbines. Aircraft-derivative gas
turbines always use anti-friction bearings because of the small
tolerances required for flight maneuver environments (for instance,
if a plane banks or flies inverted). The compressor turbine may
have two or three concentric shafts that divide the compressor into

a low pressure section, intermediate pressure section followed by

a high pressure section. Each section is driven by a turbine
through one shaft. In this configuration, each compressor-shaft-
turbine combination is called a spool. Aircraft-derivative gas
turbines generally have high compressor pressure ratios (as high
as 30:1) and relatively high combustion temperatures (as high as
2500F); thus, they are designed to operate with high efficiency
and high horsepower. However these high temperatures also
result in reduced reliability.
Aircraft-derivative machines combine high temperature technology
and high pressure ratios with advanced metallurgy to achieve
these high simple cycle efficiencies. Simple cycle efficiencies of up
to 43 percent have been demonstrated in some newer designs.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbine designs maintain as much
commonality with the flight engine as possible for economy. The
result is a more effective approach to on-site maintenance and
preventive and corrective actions. Such actions include partial
disassembly of the engine and replacement of components,
including blades, vanes, and bearings.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbines evolved from aircraft engines in
which reduced unit size and weight are extremely critical. Rotor
speeds (between 3,000 and 20,000 rpm) and casing pressures (20
to 30 atmospheres) for aircraft-derivative engines appear high
when compared to other types of gas turbines; however, the
choice of the materials used in aircraft engines offers high strength
capabilities, and the resulting stress margins are equivalent to
those of other types of gas turbines. For example, the commonly
used aircraft engine casing material, cast Inconel 718, has a yield
strength of 104 ksi at 1200F (649C), while cast iron that is
commonly used in other types of gas turbine casings has a yield
strength of 40 ksi at 650F.
The aircraft-derivative design uses low weight rotors. An example
is the GE LM 5000 high-pressure rotor that only weighs 1,230 lbs
(558 kg). Consequently, this rotor design uses anti-friction
bearings. Anti-friction bearings do not require large lubricating oil
reservoirs, coolers, pumps, or a pre- and post-lubricating cycle.
Anti-friction bearings are rugged, and they have demonstrated
good characteristics in industrial service to where most bearings
are expected to provide reliable service for over 100,000 hours.

In practice, bearing replacement is prudent when the bearings are

exposed during major repairs. Generally, the bearing replacement
should occur at 50,000 hours for gas generators and 100,000
hours for power turbines. Anti-friction bearings are also required to
meet the application duty.
The aircraft-derivative high-efficiency design makes it a good
choice for simple cycle power generation. The same is true for
cyclic applications such as peaking power, which, to some extent,
parallels what an aircraft engine would see in flight operation. With
start times in the one to three minute range, aircraft-derivative
turbines are ideal for emergency power applications. The inherent
low rotor inertias and the variety of air or gas pneumatic and
hydraulic starting options available for aircraft-derivative gas
turbines have simplified the black start capability of these
machines. A black start is the ability to bring a cold iron machine
on-line when a source of outside electrical power is unavailable.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbines, however, require more frequent
maintenance in view of their higher compression ratios and firing
temperatures. For example, hot gas path inspections are typically
required after 12,000 hours of operation, and major overhauls are
typically performed after 25,000 to 30,000 hours of operation.
Typically, complete hot sections of aircraft-derivative gas turbines
or the gas turbines themselves are pulled out and sent to a
vendor's service facility for overhaul, and a spare section or turbine
is installed in its place to increase availability. Saudi Aramco
MSSD shops in Dhahran presently have the capability to perform
maintenance on the hot sections of Pratt & Whitney, Allison, Solar,
and GE gas turbines.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbines are also employed in the STIG
(steam injected gas turbine) cycle. The STIG cycle allows for
significant amounts of steam injection at various points in the gas
turbine for enhanced power output (up to 25 percent more than
simple cycle output) and increased efficiency; however, at the
higher steam injection rates, carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
tend to increase. In simple cycle operation, aircraft-derivative gas
turbines have relatively low exhaust temperatures. The low
exhaust temperature limits their application in an unfired combined
cycle power plant.
Natural gas and distillate oil are the most frequently utilized fuels.
Gaseous fuels with heating values as low as 300 Btu/lb are
suitable for aircraft-derivative gas turbine designs. Fuels such as

gaseous propane and butane are equally suitable for aircraft-

derivative gas turbine designs.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbines have the following
advantages when compared to heavy-duty gas turbines:
Higher efficiency
Quick overhaul and replacement capability
Lighter and more compact
Smaller footprints
Faster start sequence
However, aircraft-derivative gas turbines have the following
disadvantage when compared to the heavy-duty gas turbines:
Shorter operation between maintenance overhaul periods
Less tolerance to upsets
Hybrid
Two-shaft gas turbines are sometimes considered to be a third
type of gas turbine, which is referred to as the hybrid type. These
gas turbines are referred to as hybrids because they display
characteristics of both the heavy-duty and the aircraft-derivative
type gas turbines. On the hybrid type of gas turbine, one shaft is
normally equipped with a compressor and the compressor
turbine, which is commonly called the high-pressure turbine or the
gas generator. This section of the gas turbine typically has
characteristics that are similar to aircraft-derivative type gas
turbines. The second shaft contains a power turbine (PT), which is
also commonly called the low-pressure turbine, and the load is
usually connected to this shaft. Typically, this section of the gas
turbine has characteristics that are similar to heavy-duty gas
turbines. The split-shaft arrangement allows the compressor and
the load to operate at different speeds.

GAS TURBINES: MAJOR CYCLES AND COMPONENTS

Heavy-duty, aircraft-derivative, and hybrid type gas turbines all
incorporate major key components such as compressors,
combustors and turbines. Construction of these components is
obviously dependent on the design configuration. Gas turbines are
also used in a variety of thermodynamic cycles, which are selected
based on need and application requirements.
Cycle Types
The basic types of gas turbine cycles include the open cycle, the
closed cycle, a regenerative cycle, and a combined cycle.
Closed Cycle
The closed cycle is not used at Saudi Aramco facilities. In general,

this cycle allows for using high pressures, hence high gas density
throughout the cycle, which in turn would result in a reduced
machine size for a given output, and allows power output to be
controlled by changing the system pressure level. Figure 6 shows
a schematic description of a closed cycle. As may be seen in the
figure, non-combustion heated gas is cycled between the engine
compressor and turbine components. Also, the closed cycle
requires a separate external heating cycle, which is considered as
the key disadvantage of this cycle. Besides the size advantage
this cycle provides, the closed cycle also avoids hot section turbine
blades and nozzle erosion detrimental effects caused by
combustion byproducts.
Figure 6. Closed Cycle Turbine

Open Cycle
In an open-cycle turbine, atmospheric air is used once in the air's

passage through the turbine. Open-cycle gas turbines are
generally referred to as simple-cycle gas turbines. Figure 7 shows
a schematic of a simple-cycle gas turbine. Air is compressed by
the compressor, and it is exhausted to the combustion chamber.
The compressed air is mixed with fuel and is ignited in the
combustion chamber. The hot exhaust gases from the combustion
process are then directed to the turbine section. The energy of the
hot exhaust gases is used to drive the turbine before the gases are
exhausted from the gas turbine unit.
Figure 7. Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine
Regenerative Cycle
A regenerative cycle gas turbine recycles the hot exhaust gases
through a regenerator to preheat incoming, compressed,
combustion air before the air enters the combustion chamber. The
addition of a regenerator increases the efficiency of a simple open-
cycle gas turbine. Figure 8 shows a basic regenerative cycle gas
turbine. Air is compressed by the compressor and exhausted to
the combustion chamber through the regenerator. The regenerator
is a heat exchanger that heats the compressed air through the use
of the turbine exhaust gases. The heated compressed air is then
mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustion chamber. The hot
exhaust gases from the combustion process are directed to the
turbine section. The energy of the hot exhaust gases is used to
drive the turbine before the gases are exhausted from the turbine
section back to the regenerator and finally to the atmosphere.

Figure 8. Basic Regenerative Cycle Gas Turbine
Combined Cycle
A combined cycle, as shown in Figure 9, is a thermodynamic
system that combines two or more independent power cycles.
Each power cycle uses a different working fluid. Combination of
the independent power cycles can result in higher efficiency than
would be achieved by the independent operation of the individual
cycles. To achieve this higher efficiency the individual cycles must
exchange energy so that the ratio of the source to sink
temperature of the combined cycle is greater than the ratio of the
source to sink temperature of any of the individual cycles. The gas
turbine cycle and the steam power system cycle, which are shown
in Figure 9, are two independent cycles that can compliment each
other to form an efficient combined cycle. The gas turbine cycle
has a high source temperature and exhausts at a temperature that
can be the energy source for the steam cycle.
Heat from the gas turbine (GT) exhaust is used to generate steam
in a heat recovery device, which is commonly called a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG). In the example shown in
Figure 9, the exhaust from the GT enters the HRSG at about
900F and exhausts to the atmosphere at about 250F. The HRSG
is normally a high-pressure steam generator with three sections:
the superheater, the evaporator, and the economizer. The high-
pressure steam drives a steam turbine (ST) that drives a generator
to produce more power. The steam turbine is normally a
condensing type turbine that exhausts to a condenser. The

condenser uses cooling water (CW) to condense the turbine

exhaust steam. A pump returns the condensate water to the
HRSG.
Figure 9. Schematic of Typical Combined Cycle
Major Components
The major components of a gas turbine consist of three or four
assemblies depending on the shaft arrangement. These
assemblies are the following:
Compressor assembly
Combustion assembly
High-pressure turbine assembly or gas generator
assembly
Power turbine assembly

Figure 10 shows the assemblies of a single-shaft gas turbine.

Single-shaft gas turbines typically consist of an air inlet section, a
compressor section, a combustion section, a turbine section, and
an exhaust section.
AIR INLET COMPRESSOR TURBINE EXHAUST

SECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION
COMBIUSTION
SECTION
Figure 10. Single-Shaft Gas Turbine Assemblies

Figure 11 shows the assemblies on a typical split-shaft gas

turbine. Split-shaft and multiple-shaft gas turbines use the
compressor, the combustion, the gas generator, and the power
turbine assemblies.
1st stage compressor Combustion HP nozzle guide
blades mid-span chamber vanes 1st and 2nd 1st and 2nd stage
dampers stage HP turbine blades
16th stage
compressor blades
1st of 6 stages of power turbine blades
Compressor Combustion Gas Generator Power Turbine

Assembly Assembly Assembly Assembly
Figure 11. Typical Split-Shaft Gas Turbine Assemblies
Each assembly can be used to classify the gas turbine by the

compressor and combustion assembly type and by the shaft
type.

COMPRESSOR TYPES
To accomplish the first part of the Brayton Cyclecompressing
the air and raising its pressuregas turbines may utilize either a
multistage axial compressor, a centrifugal compressor, or a
combination of a multistage axial compressor followed by a
single centrifugal stage. The difference between the two types of
compressors lies in the direction of the air flow through the
compressor. In principle, both axial and centrifugal compressors
take suction from the atmosphere, increase the velocity and
pressure of the air, and discharge to the combustion chamber. A
centrifugal compressor draws in air axially at the center (or eye)
of the impeller, turns it in the radial direction and accelerates it by
a centrifuging action. On the other hand, an axial compressor
compresses air while maintaining the original air flow direction,
which is parallel to the axis of the rotor.
Centrifugal
Compressor
The air flow leaves the centrifugal compressor impeller with

much higher kinetic energy (velocity) and thermal energy
(enthalpy, pressure and temperature) than the entering flow. A
radial diffuser then receives the high velocity flow and converts
much of that kinetic energy into pressure by gradually increasing
the flow area and thus decelerating the flow. The high pressure,
high temperature flow exiting the diffuser is then ready for the
next step of the Brayton Cycle, namely combustion.
A centrifugal compressor is typically located between the
accessory section and the combustion section of the gas turbine,
and consists of an impeller, a diffuser, and a compressor
manifold. Figure 12 shows two typical centrifugal compressor
configurations for gas turbines.
The impeller may be either single suction or dual suction. The
differences between the single suction and the dual suction are:
the size of the impeller (in the axial and radial directions), the
ducting arrangement, and the amount of air flow that can be
passed for a given impeller diameter. The single suction impeller
allows for convenient ducting directly to the impeller eye.
Turning vanes are installed in the outlet elbows to reduce air
pressure losses during the change in flow direction from radial
(as air leaves the impeller) to axial (in order to enter the
combustor). The dual suction impeller uses a more complicated
ducting arrangement to channel the air to reach the inlet of the

second (inside) impeller. Single suction impellers are slightly

more efficient due to lower losses in their simpler ducting.
However, single suction impellers must have larger diameter to
pass sufficient air flow, which increases the overall diameter of
the engine and subsequently increases impeller stresses. Dual
suction impellers are typically smaller in diameter for a specified
air flow, and they may rotate at higher speeds to allow even
higher air flow.
Most centrifugal compressor gas turbines use dual suction
compressors to reduce turbine diameter. Therefore air must
enter the gas turbine at almost right angles to the turbine axis.
A plenum chamber (not shown) is therefore required to allow the
air to surround the compressor uniformly at positive pressure
before entering the compressor.
It is established that multistage axial compressors are better
suited for very high air flow rates than centrifugal compressors.
This is so due to several factors involving efficiency, weight,
relative simplicity of design and construction etc. Therefore,
since the horsepower produced by a gas turbine is a function of
air flow rate, multistage axial compressors are commonly found
in high output gas turbine engines, while centrifugal impeller are
normally employed in low power applications such as helicopter
engines (and micro-turbines) (~ less than 2000 hp).

Figure 12. Single Suction (above) and Double Suction (below) Centrifugal
Compressor Configurations

Axial Compressor
The two main elements of an axial flow compressor are the rotor
blades and the stator vanes. The rotor blades are attached to a
disk that, with the other disks, constitutes the rotating assembly.
When the disk rotates in the proper direction, the accurately
shaped blades move tangentially and force the air to axially flow
rearward, much like an aircraft propeller or an electric home air
fan. By this action, the rotor blades impart energy into the flow,
mostly as kinetic energy (velocity increase) and also as thermal
energy (rise in pressure and temperature). Behind each rotor
blade row is a stator vane row that converts much of the flow
kinetic energy (i.e., reduce velocity) into pressure. The stator
blades also direct the flow so it would properly enter the next
rotor blades for further compression. Each consecutive pair of
rotor and stator blades constitutes a compressor stage. The
number of stages required is determined by the amount of air
and total pressure rise required by the gas turbine. As the
number of stages increases, the compression ratio (absolute exit
pressure divided by absolute inlet pressure) also increases.
Most modern axial compressor gas turbines typically have eight
to sixteen stages, depending on the power requirements, with
compression ratios in the range of 20 to 30.
As for the construction of axial compressor rotors, there are two
main types: the drum-type and the disk-type. The drum-type
rotor consists of rings that are flanged to fit one against the
other. Figure 13 shows a typical drum-type rotor. The entire
assembly is held together by through bolts or by welding. The
blades and stators decrease in length from front to rear. The
drum-type construction is typically used for relatively slow speed
compressors in which centrifugal forces affecting the
components structure are low.

Figure 13. Drum-Type Compressor Rotor
The disk-type rotor consists of a series of titanium alloy, low alloy

steel, or stainless steel discs. As the compressor pressure ratio
continues to increase, along with the corresponding temperature,
other higher temperature nickel based materials are being
considered for the latter stages of compression. Figure 14
shows a typical disc-type rotor. The disk-type rotor is typically
used in high-speed gas turbines.
Figure 14. Disc-Type Compressor Rotor

COMBUSTOR TYPES
The combustion section is the area in which the fuel is injected in
the air discharged by the compressor and in which high
temperature gas is produced. Several important considerations go
into the design of gas turbine combustion systems. Except in some
special applications, the room available for the burner (combustor)
is relatively small and the temperature distribution of the gases
leaving the burner must be as uniform as possible (to provide good
performance and to prevent localized overheating problems). Also,
combustion must be continuous and stable, which can be a difficult
requirement since the air velocity entering the burner is often on
the order of 100 - 200 ft/sec (68 - 136 mile/hr or 30 - 60
meters/sec). If the combustion process is not efficient, carbon
particles can form and erode turbine blades decreasing their useful
life and reducing engine efficiency. Other problems concerning the
pressure, temperature, metal fatigue, and stresses are also
important.
There are three types of combustion chambers: the can-type, the
annular-type, and the can-annular type. The can-type chamber is
used on gas turbines with centrifugal compressors and some
older, heavy industrial-type gas turbines. The annular and can-
annular type chambers are typically used on gas turbines with
axial flow compressors.

Can-Type Combustor
The can-type combustion system consists of individual liners and

cases mounted around the axis of the gas turbine. Figure 15
shows the elements of a typical can-type combustion system.
The combustion chamber is connected to the compressor
section at the combustion chamber inlet duct. Each chamber
contains a fuel nozzle. The can-type arrangement makes
removing a chamber easy; however, the arrangement is bulky
and makes for a structurally weak turbine. The combustion
chamber housing is typically welded to a ring that directs the
gases into the turbine nozzle. Each of the casings is linked to the
other casings by a short tube (not shown) containing a flame
tube, which in turn joins adjacent combustion chamber liners (not
shown). Linking the combustors with a flame tube ensures that
combustion occurs in all the burners simultaneously.
Figure 15. Elements of a Can-Type Combustion Chamber

A single can-type combustion chamber is sometimes used on

industrial gas turbines or in very small gas turbines. Figure 16
shows the typical arrangement of a single can-type combustion
chamber.
Figure 16. Single Can-Type Combustion Chamber Arrangement
Annular Type
Combustor
Annular-type combustion chambers are typically found on axial-

flow gas turbines. The annular-type combustion chamber is the
most popular type of combustion system in use. The construction
consists of a housing and liner similar to the can-type. Figure 17
shows a typical arrangement of an annular-type combustion
chamber. The difference between the can-type and annular-type
combustion chamber is the design of the liner. On large gas
turbines, the inner liner consists of an undivided circular shroud
that extends all the way around the outside of the turbine shaft
housing. A large one-piece outer combustor case covers the
liner and is attached at the turbine section and compressor

section by mounting flanges. Typically, the dome of the liner

admits primary combustion air through the use of small slots and
primary air holes in the liner. The slots and holes in the dome of
the liner impart a swirling motion to the air, which causes better
fuel atomization and fuel/air mixing. There are also holes in the
dome for the fuel nozzles to extend into the combustion area. A
fuel manifold connects to multiple air spray fuel injector nozzles
that are located circumferentially around the dome. The position
of the fuel nozzles provides for even combustion geometry
around the entire combustion chamber. In the case of the
double-annular chamber, two rows of fuel nozzles are used.
The inner and outer liners form the combustion space. The outer
liner keeps the flame from contacting the combustor case. The
inner liner prevents the flame from contacting the turbine shaft
housing. Large holes and slots are located along the liners. The
holes and slots (dilution air holes) admit some cooling air into the
combustion space to help cool the hot gases to a safe level, to
center the flame, and to admit the balance of air for combustion
in a secondary combustion zone downstream of the nozzles. The
hot combustion gases are cooled to prevent the hot flow path
structures from overheating damage. The combustion gases
leave the combustion chamber through the turbine nozzle guide
vanes.
The advantage of the annular-type combustion chamber is a

high system efficiency that minimizes bulk and is effective in
limited spaces. The disadvantage of the annular-type
combustion chamber is the difficulty in performing maintenance.
On some gas turbines, the liners are constructed as a single
piece and cannot be removed without turbine disassembly. Gas
turbines that use a one-piece combustor dome must be
disassembled to remove the dome. Modular assemblies,
however, can allow changes to complete combustor assemblies.

Figure 17. Annular-Type Combustion Chamber Arrangement

Can-Annular Type
The can-annular type of combustion chamber combines some of

the features of both the can and annular burners. Figure 18
shows a typical can-annular arrangement. This combustion
system is the reverse flow type with the combustion chambers
arranged around the periphery of the compressor discharge
casing. Combustion chambers are numbered counterclockwise
when viewed looking toward the compressor section (AFT),
starting from the top of the machine. The can annular system also
includes the fuel nozzles, a spark plug ignition system, flame
detectors, and crossfire tubes. Fuel nozzles atomize the fuel for
efficient combustion. The spark plug ignition system provides the
ignition source for the combustor. Typically, two spark plugs are
used for the ignition source, but not every combustor will have
them. Crossfire tubes are used to distribute the combustion
chamber ignition to all combustors instantaneously. The flame
detectors detect the presence of flame in the combustor and are
used to immediately trip the gas turbine on a loss of flame
detection.
Figure 18. Typical Can-Annular Arrangement

High pressure air from the compressor discharge is directed

around the transition pieces and into the annular spaces that
surround each of the combustion chamber liners. The combustion
wrapper forms a plenum through which the compressor discharge
air flow is directed to the combustion chambers. The combustion
air enters the combustion zone through metering holes for fuel
combustion and through openings in the combustion liner for
cooling.
The secondary purpose of the combustion wrapper is to act as a
support for the combustion chamber assemblies. In turn, the
combustion wrapper is supported by the compressor discharge
casing and the turbine shell. Fuel is supplied to each combustion
chamber through a nozzle assembly designed to disperse and mix
the fuel with the proper amount of combustion air.
Advantages of using the can-annular arrangement are the
following:
Arrangement permits the entire turbine to be factory
assembled, tested, and shipped without interim
disassembly.
Improved control of the turbine inlet temperature profile.
This improved control provides for longer turbine life
without reducing cooling airflow requirements.
Smaller parts can be handled more easily during
maintenance.
Smaller transition pieces are less susceptible to damage
from dynamic forces generated in the combustor.
Smaller combustors generate less NOx because of better
mixing and shorter residence time.
Due to their smaller size, can-type combustors can be
fully tested in the laboratory before being installed in the
field.

Shaft Types
Gas turbines may use one of three different shaft types: the
single-shaft type, the split-shaft type, and the multiple-shaft or
multiple spool type. It is often difficult to determine the type of
gas turbine shafting simply by performing an external inspection
of the turbine unit. Each shaft type is discussed individually
below.
Single-Shaft
In a single-shaft gas turbine, as shown in Figure 19, all stages of

the air compressor and the power turbine are mounted on a
common shaft. The common shaft is coupled to the driven load
unit. The single-shaft gas turbine has limited speed flexibility; its
speed is typically dictated by the driven equipment, and is best
used for constant speed applications such as electric power
generators. Single-shaft gas turbines are not typically used by
variable speed machines such as pumps and compressors. Also,
single shaft turbines are usually used for electrical generator
drives, because excessively large starting devices would be
required if the gas turbine load were mechanical, such as a
compressor or a pump. However, when electric generators are
used the unit can be unloaded during start up, hence minimizing
the starting device torque requirements. Upon reaching a self-
sustaining engine speed, the single-shaft gas turbine can then be
loaded.
Maintenance of single-shaft gas turbines is relatively difficult

because the gas turbine must be completely disassembled.

COMBUSTOR
LOAD
AIR POWER
COMPRESSOR TURBINE
COMMON
SHAFT
Figure 19. Single Shaft Gas Turbine (Allison 501-K17) for

Electrical Generator Application
Split-Shaft
A split-shaft gas turbine contains two or more shafts. Split-shaft

gas turbines that have two shafts, as shown in Figure 20, normally
have the compressor and its driving turbine, which is commonly
called the high-pressure (HP) turbine or the gas generator,
mounted on one shaft. The power turbine (PT), which is also
commonly called the low-pressure turbine, is mounted on the
second shaft. The load is connected to the second shaft. The split-
shaft arrangement allows the compressor and the load to operate
at different speeds. Because pumps and compressors are much
more difficult to unload for startup, split-shaft gas turbines are
normally used to drive pumps and compressors and are also
suitable for variable speed applications.

During startup of a split-shaft gas turbine, the starting device

needs to only accelerate the compressor and gas generator. The
PT and the driven load are disconnected from the starting device.
The hot gas leaves the gas generator and enters the PT to drive
the load by the energy extracted by the PT. The gas leaves the PT
through the gas turbine exhaust. The gas generator of a split-shaft
gas turbine typically has a speed range of 50 to 105 percent of
rated speed, while the PT speed range for pump and compressor
drives is in a small range of 85 to 105 percent to optimize the
compressor efficiency.
SEPARATE
INDUSTRIAL
TYPE POWER
TURBINE
(NOT SHOWN BELOW)
COMBUSTOR
COUPLING
LOAD
SHAFT
SHAFT
HIGH-
PRESSURE LOW-
TURBINE PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Figure 20. Split-Shaft Gas Turbine (General Electric LM-2500)

Multiple-Shaft
(Multiple Spool)
Twin spool gas turbines use two separate compressors and two
separate turbine rotors. Figure 21 shows a typical twin spool gas
turbine. The two separate compressor/rotor units are referred to
as the low-pressure (LP) compressor and turbine rotor and the
high-pressure (HP) compressor and turbine rotor. The LP shaft
runs through the hollow shaft that connects the HP turbine to the
HP compressor. The starter (not shown on the cross-sectional
view) drives the HP assembly during a startup. The power
turbine driving the equipment (not shown on the cross-sectional
view) functions the same as in the split-shaft gas turbine design.
A larger volume of air can be handled by a twin spool gas turbine
as compared to a single or split-shaft gas turbine; however, the
turbine has more moving parts and is more complex than other
gas turbine configurations.
Figure 21. Typical Twin-Spool Gas Turbine (Pratt and Whitney CG-4)

The twin-spool gas turbine shown in Figure 21 functions as a gas

generator. A separate industrial design, low-speed power turbine
(not shown) is directly coupled to the driven equipment. The
twin-spool gas turbine arrangement is used to drive the main
pumps on the Saudi Aramco East-West crude pipeline.
General Starting
Sequence Summary
The starting device rotates the common shaft, the compressor, the
power turbine, and the driven unit until a speed is reached at which
the compressor builds up pressure, combustion is initiated, and the
gas turbine becomes self-sustaining. As the compressor rotates, it
takes suction from the air intake duct and compresses it. Part of
the air is used in the combustors for combustion. The remainder of
the air is used to dilute the hot gases and to increase the mass
flow through the turbine, and to cool the combustor, the power
turbine rotor, the blades, and the nozzles. The hot gas from the
combustor passes through the power turbine. The power turbine
extracts the energy from the hot gases and drives the compressor
and driven load. The gases leave the power turbine through the
gas turbine exhaust. When self-sustaining speed is reached, the
driven devices are loaded.

GLOSSARY
aircraft-derivative gas An aircraft jet engine that is modified for ground applications
turbine to produce shaft power instead of thrust.
combined cycle A cycle that includes a gas turbine to generate power, a waste
heat boiler to recover heat from the gas turbine exhaust, and a
steam turbine that consumes steam from the waste heat boiler
and that generates power.
combustor The component of a gas turbine in which the fuel and air are
mixed and ignited at a constant pressure to produce a hot gas.
compressor The first major component of a gas turbine. The compressor
increases the pressure and temperature of the ambient air.
turbine / expander The turbine/expander of a gas turbine. The expander extracts
power from the compressed and combusted air/fuel mixture.
Gas generator HP turbines drive the engine compressor, while
power turbines drive the load equipment.
heavy-duty gas turbine A type of gas turbine that is specifically designed for ground
applications, using a design philosophy that is similar to that of
the steam-turbine industry. Casings are split on the horizontal
centerline, with onsite maintenance planned after long periods
of operation.
open cycle (simple A configuration of a gas turbine in which the exhaust is vented
cycle) to atmosphere. An open cycle is also called a simple cycle.
regenerative cycle A gas turbine cycle that includes a heat exchanger. The heat
exchanger transfers heat from the exhaust gas to the engine
compressed air before entering the combustor.
single-shaft gas turbine A gas turbine in which the air compressor, the power turbine,
and the load are all connected to the same shaft and therefore
run at the same speed.
split-shaft gas turbine A gas turbine with two separate shafts. This type of gas
turbine permits the air compressor and the power turbine to
run at different speeds.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

Introduction to Gas Turbines

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Introduction to Gas Turbines

Figure 1. Similarities between Gas Turbine and Reciprocating Engine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Introduction to Gas Turbines

Figure 1. Similarities between Gas Turbine and Reciprocating Engine Cycle

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Introduction to Gas Turbines

As indicated by this illustration, air is drawn into the compressor,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Introduction to Gas Turbines

AIR COMPRESSOR COMBUSTION TURBINE EXHAUST 3000

Figure 2. Pressure and Temperature Levels Occurring in a Typical Gas Turbine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Introduction to Gas Turbines

Figure 3. Typical Horsepower Levels for a 7,000 HP Gas Turbine

In a reciprocating engine, as the piston moves downward on the

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Introduction to Gas Turbines

TYPES OF GAS TURBINES AND THEIR OPERATING CYCLES

Heavy-Duty (Type H Industrial)

Figure 4. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine (MS5002)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Introduction to Gas Turbines

A heavy-duty gas turbine is constructed differently than an aircraft-

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Introduction to Gas Turbines

1st of 6 stages of power turbine blades

Figure 5. Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbine (GE LM2500)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Introduction to Gas Turbines

a low pressure section, intermediate pressure section followed by

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Introduction to Gas Turbines

In practice, bearing replacement is prudent when the bearings are

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Introduction to Gas Turbines

gaseous propane and butane are equally suitable for aircraft-

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Introduction to Gas Turbines

GAS TURBINES: MAJOR CYCLES AND COMPONENTS

The closed cycle is not used at Saudi Aramco facilities. In general,

Figure 6. Closed Cycle Turbine

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Introduction to Gas Turbines

In an open-cycle turbine, atmospheric air is used once in the air's

Figure 7. Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine

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Introduction to Gas Turbines

Figure 8. Basic Regenerative Cycle Gas Turbine

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Introduction to Gas Turbines