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Assignment - Final
Assignment - Final
Nathan Hughes
97783
There are four organisms responsible for causing infectious diseases they are
The 3 main types of protozoans (which means first animals) these are Amoeba,
Paramecium and Euglena, they are unicellular eukaryotic organisms. They need a
moist environment like water to survive. They reproduce asexually and sexually. They
Paramecium are covered in cilia which wiggle to provide propulsion (similarly to how
a sting ray moves, just on a microscopic scale.) While Euglena have a flagellum which
wiggles to provide propulsion, they can detect light, and they are between 0.01 and
0.05 mm long, which is too small to be seen with the naked eye, therefore, simple
microscopes are needed to view them, however they can grow up to 3mm in length.
Protozoans can cause diseases such as Malaria and Toxoplasmosis to name but two.
Fungi are multicellular eukaryotic cells, they feed heterotrophic. Most are saprophytic.
They are Decomposers and recyclers. They are considered internal or external
parasites. They are non-motile and they lack true roots, stems and leaves. They need
spread spores. Tinea pedis is a fungal infection of the feet, it is due to a dermatophyte
fungus. Tinea pedis thrives in warm humid conditions and is most common in young
Bacteria are prokaryotic cells. Most prokaryotes are unicellular, although the cells of
some species remain attached to each other after cell division. Prokaryotic cells
typically have diameters of 0.55 m, much smaller than the 10100 m diameter of
diameter-bigger than the dot on this i.) Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes
although they are unicellular and small, prokaryotes are well organized, achieving all
of an organisms life functions within a single cell. A key feature of nearly all
prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and
most prokaryotes lose water and shrink away from their wall (plasmolyze). Such water
losses can inhibit cell reproduction. Thus, salt can be used to preserve foods because
multiplying.
Bacteria can cause humans many diseases such as Clostridium Botulinum, which is
respiratory tract, and on the surface of the skin. Although Staphylococcus aureus is
respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning and Salmonella which is a
subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals, and in the environment.
Strains of Salmonella cause illnesses such as typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, and
must have a host in order to replicate. A typical virus particle has a single or double
strand of genetic material (nuclear acid - either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a shell
like coat of protein called a capsid and occasionally a protective outer envelope.
Viruses have three main shapes, spiral like a spring (Helical). Complex like a rocket
Macroparasites are small organisms that can spread infectious diseases, some
examples are Head lice, Scabies, Ticks, Bedbugs and Tape worms. Many
are, Malaria, Tick borne Typhus, Lyme Disease, Scabies & Rabies. With vector-borne
diseases the key feature is an animal or other medium to spread the disease from one
host to another.
An example of a Bedbug, a Head louse and a Deer tick all of which are
In the case of Malaria, the vector is the female Anopheles mosquito, when they feed
on blood; the stylets on the end of the mosquitos proboscis pierce the skin and probe
for a blood vessel. While sucking the blood, the mosquito pumps saliva into the host,
this prevents the blood from clotting and acts as an anaesthetic to stop the host feeling
the mosquito. Male mosquitoes do not transmit the disease as they feed only on plant
juices.
extracellular and intracellular forms, involving sexual reproduction in the mosquito and
The parasite enters the human host when an infected mosquito takes a blood meal.
Sporozoites from the mosquitos salivary glands are injected into the hosts
bloodstream. Within 30 minutes the sporozoites will have entered the hosts liver cells.
The sporozoites feed on the cells contents, grow and change to form schizonts. Over
the next 5-8 days they divide rapidly, forming thousands of merozoites. The liver cells
burst open, releasing merozoites into the bloodstream where they invade the RBCs.
(Red Blood Cells or erythrocytes). While the parasite is within the liver the person
does not feel sick and shows no signs or symptoms of the disease. Plasmodium vivax
can have a dormant stage in the liver called hypnozoites. These can remain in the liver
for several years, causing relapses in later life. While in the liver and the RBCs the
Pathogens can enter the body via orifices (ears, mouth, reproductive system and eyes)
either by contact or indirect contact by vehicular transmission, or through the skin via
cuts and/or insect bites, or via the respiratory system from inhaling contaminated
waterborne droplets.
Three methods in which pathogens can be transmitted are direct contact between
pathogen is carried on a non-living object, such as, food, water, airborne droplets from
are physical, (such as the skin). Mechanical (the epithelial surfaces of the gut and
respiratory tract) or chemical (the tears in our eyes which have the enzyme lysozyme
in them. Our ear wax which has antimicrobial properties. The Stomach that contains
hydrochloric acid which has a high pH which pathogens cannot survive in. The large
intestine, urethra and vagina have resident harmless bacteria that use the nutrients
which harmful microbes would need to survive this causes the harmless bacteria out-
compete the harmful bacteria for space and nutrients. In addition, sweat covers areas
of the skin, it is an acidic liquid that contains enzymes which kills some bacteria.) which
a pathogen needs to bypass in order to gain access into our body. Once a barrier has
been bypassed phagocytosis, inflammation, interferons and fever take over (viral
infections only)
Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell (lymphocyte) that engulfs pathogens in a
process known as phagocytosis. They are found in blood and tissues; They are the
first cells to respond to a pathogen inside the body. The Phagocytes recognises the
foreign antigens on a pathogen, the cytoplasm of the phagocyte moves round the
pathogen to engulf it, the pathogen is now contained in a phagocytic vacuole in the
Nathan Hughes 97783 Word Count: 2748 Page 12 of 25
cytoplasm of the phagocyte. A Lysosome fuses with the phagocytic vacuole and
breaks down the pathogen by lysis. The phagocyte then presents the pathogens
antigens on its surface to activate T-cells. Lysozymes are enzymes that disrupt the
cell walls of gram positive bacteria by digesting the peptidoglycan. It is found in human
Interferons are proteins produced by virus-infected body cells in response to the virus.
Interferons trigger the production of a second protein that inhibits viral replication, by
The major components of the complement system are C1 through C9 named in the
order that they were discovered, not the order in which they function. The
pathway.
complex, then the activated C1 cleaves C2 into C2a and C2b and C4 into C4a and
C4b. C2b and C4b combine to form a protease called C3 convertase, the C3
components react with C3b. Small amounts of C3a and C3b are constantly being
formed from C3, but without activation, however, they are soon destroyed. C3b reacts
with the proteins Factor B, Factor D and Properdin to form a complex called C3
Both the Classical pathway and the Alternative pathway of complement system
activation follow the same sequence after cleavage of C3. It is the C3a that is involved
in stimulating inflammation.
A table to show the major components of the immune system to their role in
the specific immune response
When a pathogen enters the host for the first time it activates the immune system, this
is the primary or humoral response. This response is slow because there arent many
B-Cells that can produce antibodies needed to bind to the pathogens antigens.
Eventually the host will produce enough antibodies to defeat the pathogen, the
infected host will show signs and symptoms of the disease during this phase. Both B
and T-Cells produce Memory Cells, these will remain in the host long after the
pathogen has been destroyed. Memory T-Cells remember the specific antigen
the specific antibodies needed to bind to the antigen. The host now has the ability to
response will produce a quicker, stronger response. Clonal selection happens faster.
antibody to the antigen. Memory T-Cells are activated and divide into the correct type
of T-Cells to kill the cell carrying antigen. The specific immune response often
destroys the pathogen before the host begins to show any symptoms (The host is
The antigen receptors on B lymphocytes are identical to the binding sites of antibodies
that these lymphocytes manufacture once stimulated, except that the receptor
molecules have an extra tail that penetrates the cell membrane and anchors them to
Antibodies (Ig) are proteins collectively known as immunoglobulins. They have the
same basic molecular structure, consisting of four polypeptide chains. Two of the
chains, which are identical, are heavy chains; the other two are identical light chains.
Each chain is encoded by different genes. The four chains are joined to form a flexible
At the tip of each arm there is an area called the antigen-binding, which is formed by
a portion of the heavy and light chains. Every immunoglobulin molecule has at least
two of these sites. The antigen-binding site is what allows the antibody to recognize a
specific part of the antigen. If the shape of the epitope corresponds to the shape of the
antigen-binding site, it can fit into the site. Chemical bonds called weak bonds then
The heavy and light chains that make up each arm of the antibody are composed of
two regions, called constant and variable. These regions are distinguished on the
basis of amino acid, constant regions have essentially the same amino acid sequence
in all antibody molecules of the same class (There are five classes of
variable regions differ quite a lot from antibody to antibody. This is because the
variable regions determine the unique shape of the antibody-binding site. The tail of
the molecule, which does not bind to antigens, is composed entirely of the constant
The hinge region of the antibody is a short stretch of amino acids on the heavy chain.
It provides the molecule with flexibility. This flexibility improves the efficiency with
which an antigen binds to the antibody. It can also help in cross-linking antigens into
a large lattice of antigen-antibody complexes, which are easily identified and destroyed
by macrophages.
IgG is the most common class of immunoglobulin. It is present in the largest amounts
in blood and tissue fluids. Each IgG molecule consists of the basic four-chain
immunoglobulin structuretwo identical heavy chains and two identical light chains
and carries two identical antigen-binding sites. IgG is the only class of immunoglobulin
protection to the developing foetus. These molecules also are secreted into the
mothers milk and, once they have been ingested by an infant, can be transported into
IgM is the first class of immunoglobulin made by B cells as they mature, and it is the
form most commonly present as the antigen receptor on the B-cell surface. When IgM
is secreted from the cells, five of the basic Y-shaped units become joined together to
make a large pentamer molecule with 10 antigen-binding sites. This large antibody
respiratory and intestinal secretions, and colostrum (the first milk produced by lactating
mothers). Very little IgA is present in the serum. IgA is produced by B cells located in
the mucous membranes of the body. Two molecules of IgA are joined together and
associated with a special protein that enables the newly formed IgA molecule to be
secreted across epithelial cells that line various ducts and organs. Although IgG is the
most common class of immunoglobulin, more IgA is synthesized by the body daily
IgD molecules are present on the surface of most, B cells early in their development,
but only a little IgD is released into the circulation. It is not clear what function IgD
performs, it is thought, it may play a role in determining whether antigens activate the
B cells.
IgE is made by a small proportion of B cells and is present in the blood in low
concentrations. Each molecule of IgE consists of one four-chain unit and so has two
antigen-binding sites, like the IgG molecule; however, each of its heavy chains has an
extra constant domain (CH4), which confers on IgE the special property of binding to
the surface of basophils and mast cells. When antigens bind to these attached IgE
molecules, the cell is stimulated to release histamines, that are involved in allergic
Good personal hygiene and washing hands removes harmful pathogens by reducing
contact transmission. Thoroughly cooking all food kills harmful pathogens. Storing
equipment for raw and cooked foods will prevent contact transmission. Cleaning
surfaces will kill harmful pathogens and further reduce contact transmission.
covering doors, windows and surrounding sleeping areas will provide a barrier
between the mosquito and the host, as such the mosquito cannot bite the host and
Over time, bacteria can become resistant to certain antibiotics. This is an example of
natural selection. In a large population of bacteria, there may be some that are not
affected by the antibiotic. These survive and reproduce, creating more bacteria that
To slow down or stop the development of other strains of resistant bacteria, people
should always avoid the unnecessary use of antibiotics and always complete the full
to penicillin, and by 1988 this percentage was up to 91%. Center for Food Safety.
Staphylococcus infections because it is effective in less than 10% of new cases. Mayo
tuberculosis. Most people who are infected do not show any symptoms. But about 10
fever, and even death. Infected people without symptoms are usually given a course
The main steps in the development of resistance are, random changes or mutations
that occur in the genes of individual bacterial cells. Some mutations protect the
bacterial cell from the effects of the antibiotic. Bacteria without the mutation die or
cannot reproduce with the antibiotic present. The resistant bacteria are able to
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