Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering

TRAINING REPORT
On

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMERS
Submitted for partial fulfillment
of B. Tech. in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY:-

Miss. Twinkle Ankit

15152005

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2
 Preface
Summer Training / Industrial Training is very important for engineering students.
This training provides them opportunity to be familiar with the industrial /
company environment. During this training they can show and can enhance their
practical skills and gain practical knowledge and experience for future. This is
best way through which the students can learn the latest technologies being used
in the companies.

I Ashish Sura (14152017) have undergone through a Summer Training on

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMERS from MEHRU ELECTRICALS
at BHIWARI. This training helped me a lot in learning the technologies of this
particular field During the training I gained practical knowledge of the subject.

Industrial Training & Project work were very challenging but as I proceeded
things got easier. Practical Summer / Industrial Training was an interesting
learning experience for me.

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 Acknowledgement
I want to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to Prof. Sanjeev
Dhull(chairperson, ECE Deptt.), GJUS&T, Hisar for granting me permission for
my industrial training in the field of INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMERS

I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Sandeep Kumar for his cooperative attitude
and consistence guidance, due to which I was able to complete my training
successfully

Finally, I pay my thankful regard and gratitude to the team members and
technicians at MEHRU ELECTRICALS for their valuable help, support and
guidance.

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Contents
Preface

Acknowledgements

1. INTRODUCTION 7
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
PRINCIPLE
OVERVIEW

2. CONSTRUCTION 10
PRIMARY WINDING
SECONDARY WINDING
CORE

3. WORKING 20
4. CLASSIFICATION 23
According to the number of phases
According to transformer design and manufacturing
According to the transformer application

5. CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 26
Open Circuit Test
Short Circuit Test
6. ENERGY LOOSES IN TRNSFORMERS 29
Winding joule loss
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 Hysterisis loss
Eddy current losses
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Stray loss
7. TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 33
Over voltages
Internal faults in oil filled transformers
Overloads and internal faults in transformers

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The transformer is a device used for converting a low alternating voltage to a high
alternating voltage or a high alternating voltage into a low alternating voltage. It is
a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its
winding circuits. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling
transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of
tons used in power plant substations or to interconnect portions of the power grid.
All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide.
While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some
electronic circuits, transformers are still found in many electronic devices.
Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which
makes long-distance transmission economically practical. A transformer is most
widely used device in both low and high current circuit. In a transformer, the
electrical energy transfer from one circuit to another circuit takes place without
the use of moving parts. A transformer which increases the voltages is called a
step-up transformer. A transformer which decreases the A.C. voltages is called a
step-down transformer.

Fig1.1 Close-up of single-phase pole mount transformer

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 Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus both for high and low
current circuit.

Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electrical current can
produce a magnetic field electromagnetism, and, second that a changing magnetic
field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
electromagnetic induction. Changing the current in the primary coil changes the
magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in
the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the
primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are
wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that
most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.

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Induction Law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's
law of induction, which states that:

Where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary

coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil
are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the
magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is
constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas
the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary.

Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils
in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding
equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and V p gives the basic equation for
stepping up or stepping down the voltage

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CHAPTER 2

CONSTRUCTION

A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of laminated sheets,

well insulated from one another. Two coils p1 & p2 and s1 & s2 are wound on the
same core, but are well insulated with each other. Note that the both the coils are
insulated from the core, the source of alternating e.m.f is connected to p1p2, the
primary coil and a load resistance R is connected to s1 s2, the secondary coil
through an open switch S. thus there can be no current through the sec. coil so
long as the switch is open. For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistance
of the primary & secondary winding is negligible. Further, the energy loses due to
magnetic the iron core is also negligible. For operation at low frequency, we may
have a soft iron. The soft iron core is insulating by joining thin iron strips coated
with varnish to insulate them to reduce energy losses by eddy currents. The input
circuit is called primary. And the output circuit is called secondary.

Fig 2.1 Transformer windings

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 An ideal voltage step-down transformer. The secondary current arises from the
action of the secondary EMF on the (not shown) load impedance.

2.1 Windings
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but
in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to
ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small power and signal
transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between
adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire,
such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may
be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated
paper and blocks of pressboa

Fig 2.2 cut view of windings

Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain
oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red:
Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core
would be similar. The black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low
capacitance between all ends of both windings. Since most cores are at least
moderately conductive they also need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for
one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power high-voltage
transformers. Bottom left: Reduction of leakage inductance would lead to increase
of capacitance.

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High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often
have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and
proximity effect losses.Large power transformers use multiple-stranded
conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution
of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is
individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the
winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different
relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the
current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in
the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid
conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray

capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections, and
those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the

winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps
may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided
for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in electric power
transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for
automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers,
used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to
allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is
often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit.
Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open-

wound 'dip-and-bake' construction or of higher quality designs that
include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI), vacuum pressure
encapsulation (VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes.In the VPI process, a
combination of heat, vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and
eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer,

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thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar to VPI windings
but provide more protection against environmental effects, such as from water,
dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple dips including typically in terms of final
epoxy coat.

2.2 Cores

2.2.1 Laminated steel cores

Fig.2.3 Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

Fig. 2.4 Power transformer inrush current caused by residual flux at switching instant; flux (green), iron core's magnetic
characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of
high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that
of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current
and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early
transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron
resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect
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with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires Later designs constructed
the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained
in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting
layer of insulation. The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum
cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that
enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce
losses,[54] but are more laborious and expensive to construct.[55] Thin laminations
are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel
laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

Fig. 2.5 Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-

shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I
transformer'. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to
manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around
a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two,
forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap.They have the advantage that the flux is always
oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power
is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a
high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually

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after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices
such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On
transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced
currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation
of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made
with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal
alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the
transformer by its lower losses at light load.

2.2.2 Solid cores

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that
operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These
materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk
electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made
from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are
common. Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores
(sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling
coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

2.2.3 Toroidal cores

Fig. 2.6 Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on

operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound

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into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip construction ensures that the grain
boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by
reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent
in the construction of an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square
or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also
available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to
cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and
provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from
generating electromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for
a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller
size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them
superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low
off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt
mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost
and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the
lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to
exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens
of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight
of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the
higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire
length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added
to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA
are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above
10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may
achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open,
then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

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2.2.3 Air cores

A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be

produced simply by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed
an 'air-core' transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is
essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to
hysteresis in the core material. The leakage inductance is inevitably high,
resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use in
power distribution.They have however very high bandwidth, and are frequently
employed in radio-frequency applications, for which a satisfactory coupling
coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary
windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where
they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.

2.3 Cooling

Fig. 2.7 Cutaway view of liquid-immersed construction transformer.

To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that the
life expectancy of insulation in all electrics, including all transformers, is halved
for about every 7 C to 10 C increase in operating temperature, this life

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expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between
about 7 C to 8 C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation.

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural

convection and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase,
transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-
cooling, or combinations of these. Large transformers are filled with transformer
oil that both cools and insulates the windings. Transformer oil is a highly
refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the
transformer tank. The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been
extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of
power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of failure of
power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power
transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.Prolonged
operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding
insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can
ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure. With a great body of empirical
study as a guide, transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides
valuable maintenance information. This underlines the need to monitor, model,
forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions
under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions.

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled

transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or be
installed in fire-resistant rooms. Air-cooled dry transformers can be more
economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer room.

The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid
coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ
electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat
exchangers for water-cooling. An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped
with a Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to
internal arcing, is used to either alarm or de-energize the transformer. Oil-

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immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such
as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as

a dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a
widespread ban on their use.[76] Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils,
or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant
liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault.PCBs for new
equipment were banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in
United Kingdom Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985
essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the
country after 1980, the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in
existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm.

Some transformers, instead of being liquid-filled, have their windings enclosed in

sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Experimental power transformers in the 500to1,000 kVA range have been built
with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings, which
eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.[

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CHAPTER 3

Working

When an electric current passes through a long, hollow coil of wire there will be a
strong magnetic field inside the coil and a weaker field outside it. The lines of the
magnetic field pattern run through the coil, spread out from the end, and go round
the outside and in at the other end.

Fig. 3.1 magnetic field pattern

These are not real lines like the ones you draw with a pencil. They are lines that
we imagine, as in the sketch, to show the pattern of the magnetic field: the
direction in which a sample of iron would be magnetised by the field. Where the
field is strongest, the lines are most closely crowded.

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With a hollow coil the lines form complete rings. If there is an iron core in the
coil it becomes magnetised, and seems to make the field become much stronger
while the current is on.

Fig. 3.2 Magnetic field inside iron core

The iron core of a transformer is normally a complete ring with two coils wound
on it. One is connected to a source of electrical power and is called the 'primary
coil'; the other supplies the power to a load and is called the 'secondary coil'. The
magnetisation due to the current in the primary coil runs all the way round the
ring. The primary and secondary coils can be wound anywhere on the ring,
because the iron carries the changes in magnetisation from one coil to the other.
There is no electrical connection between the two coils. However they are
connected by the magnetic field in the iron core.

When there is a steady current in the primary there is no effect in the secondary,
but there is an effect in the secondary if the current in the primary is changing. A

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changing current in the primary induces an e.m.f. in the secondary. If the
secondary is connected to a circuit then there is a current flow.

A step-down transformer of 1,200 turns on the primary coil connected to 240 V

a.c. will produce 2 V a.c. across a 10-turn secondary (provided the energy losses
are minimal) and so light a 2 V lamp.

A step-up transformer with 1,000 turns on the primary fed by 200 V a.c. and a
10,000-turn secondary will give a voltage of 2,000 V a.c.

Fig. 3.3 insulated cores

The iron core is itself a crude secondary (like a coil of one turn) and changes of
primary current induce little circular voltages in the core. Iron is a conductor and
if the iron core were solid, the induced voltages would drive wasteful secondary
currents in it (called 'eddy currents'). So the core is made of very thin sheets
clamped together, with the face of each sheet coated to make it a poor conductor.
The edges of the sheets can be seen by looking at the edges of a transformer core.

Chris Burtenshaw recommends the following website saying: "The following is

an excellent circuit to show the magnetisation curve (B/H) of different
transformer or inductor core materials."

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CHAPTER 4

Classification of transformers family

As mentioned above, transformers perform a very simple function and they can
have many applications. Transformers are used in every power plant, all grid
substations, buildings, in the industry, the underground installations, wind
turbines, on platforms, marine vessels, under the sea, etc. Due to peculiarities of
all these applications, many different types of transformers have been developed
in the course of history. To simplify the overview of many transformer types, it is
useful to have some kind of systematic classification. However, this is not easy to
do because there are many ways of doing it. The transformer types could be
classified according to their power rating, voltage, current, weight, type of cooling
etc., but such approach would have a limited applicability.

4.1 According to the number of phases :

4.1.1 Single-phase transformers
4.1.2 Three-phase transformers

Fig.4.1 Single phase transformer

In a three-phase system, the single-phase units are used in a bank of three

transformers linked together. A single three-phase transformer costs
approximately 15% less and occupies less space than one unit of three single-
phase transformers within the same tank. However, due to limitations during the

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manufacturing and mainly transportation, particularly of large units, the
transformers sometimes must be produced as single-phase transformers. Another
reason for using a single-phase unit rather than a three-phase unit, is the
possibility of having a fourth identical unit as a spare. Despite its simplicity and
clarity, this type of classification does not overly help in classif ication of the
whole transformers family.

Fig. 4.2 3-phase transformer

4.2According to basic technology of transformer design and

manufacturing:
4.2.1 Core type
4.2.2 Shell type

Fig.4.3

In a shell-formed transformer, the primary and secondary windings are quite

flat and are positioned on one leg surrounded by the core. In a core-formed
transformer, cylindrical windings are like coils and cover the core legs.

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However, this classification is also limited in the large portfolio of either of those
two transformer types.

4.3 According to the transformer application

:
4.3.1 Power transformers

Are used for transferring power from any part of the system between the
generator down to the primary distribution system according to size.

4.3.2 Distribution transformers

Used from transferring power from a primary distribution circuit to a secondary

distribution circuit according to size.

Fig.4.4 Ranges of transformer

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CHAPTER 5

CIRCIUT PARAMETER

5.1 Open Circuit Test

Fig. 5.1 open circuit test

The secondary of the transformer is left open-circuited. A wattmeter is connected

to the primary. An ammeter is connected in series with the primary winding.
A voltmeter is optional since the applied voltage is the same as the voltmeter
reading. Rated voltage is applied at primary.

If the applied voltage is normal voltage then normal flux will be set up. Since iron
loss is a function of applied voltage, normal iron loss will occur. Hence the iron
loss is maximum at rated voltage. This maximum iron loss is measured using the
wattmeter. Since the impedance of the series winding of the transformer is very
small compared to that of the excitation branch, all of the input voltage
is dropped across the excitation branch. Thus the wattmeter measures only the
iron loss. This test only measures the combined iron losses consisting of
the hysteresis loss and the eddy current loss. Although the hysteresis loss is less
than the eddy current loss, it is not negligible. The two losses can be separated by
driving the transformer from a variable frequency source since the hysteresis loss
varies linearly with supply frequency and the eddy current loss varies with the
square.

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Since the secondary of the transformer is open, the primary draws only no-load
current, which will have some copper loss. This no-load current is very small and
because the copper loss in the primary is proportional to the square of this current,
it is negligible. There is no copper loss in the secondary because there is no
secondary current.

Current, voltage and power are measured at the primary winding to ascertain
the admittance and power-factor angle.

Another method of determining the series impedance of a real transformer is

the short circuit test.

5.2 Short Circuit Test

The purpose of a short-circuit test is to determine the series branch parameters of
the equivalent circuit of a real transformer.

Fig. 5.2 Short circuit test

The test is conducted on the high-voltage (HV) side of the transformer where the
low-voltage (LV) side or the secondary is short circuited. A wattmeter is
connected to the primary. An ammeter is connected in series with the primary
winding. A voltmeter is optional since the applied voltage is the same as the
voltmeter reading. The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the
help of variac applied voltage is slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading
equal to the rated current of the HV side. After reaching at rated current of HV
27
side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter readings)
are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent of full load
current IL. As the voltage applied for full load current in short circuit test on
transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the
transformer, the core losses in transformer can be taken as negligible here.

A short-circuit test for determination of transformer impedance and losses is

carried out with relatively low power applied to the transformer, and with winding
currents of the same magnitude as in operation. A different form of short-circuit
testing is done to assess the mechanical strength of the transformer windings, and
their ability to withstand the high forces produced if an energized transformer
experiences a short-circuit fault. Currents during such events can be several times
the normal rated current. The resultant forces can distort the windings or break
internal connections. For large utility-scale power transformers, high-power test
laboratories such as the one operated by Powertech Labs near Vancouver,
Canada, KEMA at Arnhem, Holland, and CESI Italy have facilities to apply the
very high power levels representative of a fault on an interconnected grid system.

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CHAPTER 6
Energy losses
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule and
core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer
capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98
and 99 percent.

Fig.6.1 Main energy loose

As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in transformer

normally does not come into picture. We generally consider only electrical losses
in transformer. Loss in any machine is broadly defined as difference between
input power and output power. When input power is supplied to the primary of
transformer, some portion of that power is used to compensate core losses in
transformer i.e. Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy current loss in
transformer core and some portion of the input power is lost as I2R loss and
dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because these windings
have some internal resistance in them. The first one is called core loss or iron loss
in transformer and the later is known as ohmic loss or copper loss in transformer.
Another loss occurs in transformer, known as Stray Loss, due to Stray fluxes link
with the mechanical structure and winding conductors.

In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input
power and output power. An electrical transformer is an static device, hence
mechanical losses (like windage or friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer

29
only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and copper losses). Transformer
losses are similar to losses in a DC machine

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to express these losses in
terms of no-load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly
without load, while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load
increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer
constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient
transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or
even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The
choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating
cost.

Transformer losses arise from:

6.1 Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating. As frequency
increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding's resistance and,
hence, losses to increase.

6.2 Hysteresis losses

Fig. 6.2 Hystresis looses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due
to hysteresis within the core. The empirical exponent of which Hysteresis loss is
due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon

30
the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of
flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:

Wh=Bmax1.6fV (watts)

where, = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

V = volume of the core in m3
varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.

6.3 Eddy current losses

Fig. 6.3 Eddy current loss

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a
material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire
length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the
flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness.[40] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making
the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a
solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar
cores.

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6.4 Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically
expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect
known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible
noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.[11][43] This transformer hum is
especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies[o] and
in high-frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs.

6.5 Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its
magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any
leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's
support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[44] There
are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually
small.

Fig6.4 Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating

forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration
transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer
hum.

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CHAPTER 7

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
The electrical equipment and circuits in a substation must be protected in order to
limit the damages due to abnormal currents and over voltages.

All equipment installed in a power electrical system have standardized ratings for
short-time withstand current and short duration power frequency voltage. The role
of the protections is to ensure that these withstand limits can never be exceeded,
therefore clearing the faults as fast as possible.

In addition to this first requirement a system of protection must be selective.

Selectivity or discrimination means that any fault must be cleared by the device of
current interruption (circuit breaker or fuses) being the nearest to the fault, even if
the fault is detected by other protections associated with other interruption
devices.

As an example for a short circuit occurring on the secondary side of a power

transformer, only the circuit breaker installed on the secondary must trip. The
circuit breaker installed on the primary side must remain closed. For a transformer
protected with MV fuses, the fuses must not blow.

They are typically two main devices able to interrupt fault currents, circuit
breakers and fuses :

The circuit breakers must be associated with a protection relay having three main
functions:

Measurement of the currents

Detection of the faults
Emission of a tripping order to the breaker
The fuses blow under certain fault conditions.

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7.1 Over voltages

The lightning over voltages due to lightning stroke falling on or near an overhead
line supplying the installation where the transformer is installedThe switching
over voltages generated by the opening of a circuit breaker or a load break switch
for instance.

Depending of the application, protection against these two types of voltage surges
may be necessary and are often ensured by means of ZnO surge arrestors
preferably connected on the MV bushing of the transformer.

A transformer overload is always due to an increase of the apparent power

demand (kVA) of the installation. This increase of the demand can be the
consequence of either a progressive adjunction of loads or an extension of the
installation itself. The effect of any overload is an increase of the temperature of
oil and windings of the transformer with a reduction of its life time.

The protection of a transformer against the overloads is performed by a dedicated

protection usually called thermal overload relay. This type of protection simulates
the temperature of the transformers windings. The simulation is based on the
measure of the current and on the thermal time constant of the transformer. Some
relays are able to take into account the effect of harmonics of the current due to
non-linear loads such as rectifiers, computers, variable speed drives etc. This type
of relay is also able to evaluate the remaining time before the emission of the
tripping order and the time delay before re-energizing the transformer.

In addition, oil-filled transformers are equipped with thermostats controlling the

temperature of the oil.

Dry-type transformers use heat sensors embedded in the hottest part of the
windings insulation.

Each of these devices (thermal relay, thermostat, heat sensors) generally provides
two levels of detection:

A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,

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 A high level to de-energize the transformer.

7.2 Internal faults in oil filled transformers

In oil filled transformers, internal faults may be classified as follow:

7.2.1 Faults generating production of gases, mainly:

Micro arcs resulting from incipient faults in the winding insulation

Slow degradation of insulation materials
Inter turns short circuit

7.2.2 Faults generating internal over pressures with simultaneously

high level of line over currents:

Phase to earth short circuit

Phase to Phase short circuit.

These faults may be the consequence of external lightning or switching over

voltage.

Depending on the type of the transformer, there are two kinds of devices able to
detect internal faults affecting an oil filled transformer.

The Buchholz dedicated to the transformers equipped with an air breathing

conservator .The buchholz is installed on the pipe connecting the tank of he
transformer to the conservator. It traps the slow emissions of gasses and
detect the flow back of oil due to the internal over pressures

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[a] Functioning principle [b] Transformer with conservator
Fig 7.1. Breathing transformer protected by buchholz

The DGPT (Detection of Gas, Pressure and Temperature) for the integral
filled transformers. This type of transformer is manufactured up to around10
MVA. The DGPT as the buchholz detects the emissions of gasses and the
internal over pressures. In addition it monitors the temperature of the oil.

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[a] Integral filled transformer [b] Transformer [c] Contacts of the DGPT (cover
protection relay (DGPT) removed)
Fig.7.2 Integral filled transformer protection by relay DGPT

Concerning the monitoring of gas and temperature the buchholz and the DGPT
provide two levels of detection:

A low level used to generate an alarm to advise the maintenance staff,

A high level to trip the switching device installed on the primary side of the
transformer (circuit breaker or load break switch associated with fuses).

In addition, both the buchholz and the DGPT are suitable for oil leakages
detection.

7.3 Overloads and internal faults in dry type transformers

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The dry type transformers are protected against over-heating due to possible
downstream overloads by a dedicated relay monitoring thermal sensors embedded
in the windings of the transformer.

Fig. 7.3.Dry transformer

The internal faults, mainly inter turns and phase to earth short circuits occurring
inside a dry type transformers are cleared either by the circuit breaker or the fuses
installed on the primary side of the transformer. The tripping of the circuit
breakers when used is ordered by the phase to phase and phase to earth over
current protections.

Inter turns faults need a dedicated attention:

They generally generate moderate line over currents. As an example when

5 % of a HV winding are short circuited the line current of the transformer
does not exceed 2 In, for a short circuit affecting 10 % of the winding the line
current is limited around 3 In.
Fuses are not appropriate to clear properly such currents
Dry type transformers are not equipped with additional protection devices
such as DGPT dedicated to internal faults detection.

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Hence, internal faults generating low level of line over current may not be safely
cleared by fuses. Protection by means of over current relay with adequate
characteristic and settings is preferred (Schneider Electric VIP relay range for
example).

Fig.7.4 Thermal relay for protection of dry type transformer

7.4 Discrimination between LV circuit breaker and MV fuses

All parts of the MV fuse curve must be above and to the right of the LV CB
curve.
In order to leave the fuses unaffected (i.e. undamaged), the two following
conditions must be satisfied:
All parts of the minimum pre-arcing fuse curve must be shifted to the
right of the LV CB curve by a factor of 1.35 or more.
Example: where, at time T, the CB curve passes through a point
corresponding to 100 A, the fuse curve at the same time T must pass
through a point corresponding to 135 A, or more, and so on.
All parts of the fuse curve must be above the CB curve by a factor of 2 or
more

Example: where, at a current level I the CB curve passes through a point

corresponding to 1.5 seconds, the fuse curve at the same current level I must pass
through a point corresponding to 3 seconds, or more, etc.

39
The factors 1.35 and 2 are based on the maximum manufacturing tolerances given
for MV fuses and LV circuit breakers.

In order to compare the two curves, the MV currents must be converted to the
equivalent LV currents, or vice-versa.

Fig. 7.5 Discrimination between MV fuse operation and LV circuit breaker tripping, for transformer protection

Fig.7.6 MV fuse and LV circuit breaker configuration

All parts of the MV CB curve must be above the LV CB curve. The time
difference between the two curves must be 0.3 s at least for any value of the
current.

40