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Welding Encyclopedia PDF
Welding Encyclopedia PDF
Welding Encyclopedia PDF
WELDING ENCYCLOPEDIA
Eighteenth Edition
Edited by
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in
writing from the publishel: .#
Reasonable care was applied in the compilation and publication of Jeffersons Welding
Encyclopedia to ensure authenticity of the contents. The American Welding Society assumes no
responsibility for use of the information contained in this publication. An independent, substan-
tiating investigation should be made prior to the reliance on or use of such information.
Photocopy Rights
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or
the internal, personal, or educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the
American Welding Society (AWS) provided that the appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright
Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 508-750-8400; online: http//
www.copyright.com
11
Dedicated to the Welders of America
A tribute to welders was expressed by Jeff Weber, Publisher of the Welding Journal, Miami,
Florida, in the May, 1993 issue:
A recent phone conversation with an old friend got me thinking about what it takes to be a
welder. The person I was talking to has been welding for 25 years, but he said he is between jobs
again, waiting for startup of a new project. The fact that he is not currently working troubled me,
considering that this guy is truly an artist with a GTAW torch, a magician with a stick electrode.
He can lay down a bead that looks like a machine made it, time after time. And when joint fitup
isnt all it should be, he can improvise in ways a computer would never even think of.
As editor of this magazine, I run into lots of capable people in the welding industry, but the ones
who impress me most are the ones who can express themselves through a welding gun. These
highly skilled men and women are independent, savvy and capable, yet they have to face chal-
lenges and conditions that would prove daunting to most people. Here are a few ways one might
describe a welder:
A welder is the guy youll find working on a high plains pipeline in January at twenty below, or
inside a boiler in the California desert at 105 degrees. He might be asked to backweld a joint in a
section of pipe hot enough to melt a hard hat, or to do repairs at the top of a box section where
elbow room and visibility are near zero. At a construction site, the welder is sometimes expected
to weld joints that were easy to design on paper, but are nearly impossible to reach in a real life
situation. On especially tricky jobs, he may have to weld in a tiny pocket, watching his progress
with a hand mirror and trying to read his reflected movements backwards. Sometimes, high on a
structure, the welder has to put up with gusting winds that threaten to blow away his gas shield
while he attempts to block the drafts with his body. Despite all this, he has to weld the joint right
the first time. There are no second chances and no opportunity to fix mistakes. Every job a welder
does, every second of arc-on time, is permanently etched in steel and visible to everyone who
passes by.
Unlike most workers, many welders must continually prove their ability, recertifying on every
new job and every welding procedure they will use on that job. Since there is no guarantee that he
will pass a certification test, the welder must keep practicing everything he knows, while learning
new techniques every chance he gets. Welders on big projects must often wait by the phone for
jobs, and when the call finally comes, they frequently have to travel long distances and live away
from home for extended periods. If hired in the middle of a project, they must meet existing dead-
lines without complaint. And, while wages are sometimes good, pay increases are often out of the
question because of the short-term nature of the work.
Yes, its often a tough job, but weve got a devoted group of people who are willing and eager to
do it. Thats why I take my hat off to the welders of America. They possess levels of skill, resolve
and professionalism that are rare today in any work force, anywhere. And that is what makes them
absolutely essential to the well-being of our country.
...
111
iv
Contents
...
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ 111
Foreword .......................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................... vi
..
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................
Guide to Using the Encyclopedia .................................................................................................. v111
Alphabetical Entries.......................................................................................................................... 1
Appendixes ................................................................................................................................... 615
1. History of Welding and Cutting ......................................................................................... 615
2 . Major Associations of the Welding Industry ..................................................................... 631
3 . Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes ................................................................. 634
4 . Welding Test Positions....................................................................................................... 635
5 . Types of Weld Joints .......................................................................................................... 638
6 . Weld Joint Preparation ....................................................................................................... 639
7. Welding Symbols ............................................................................................................... 642
8 . Weld Discontinuities.......................................................................................................... 644
9 . Types of Weld Cracks ........................................................................................................ 645
10. Torch Nomenclature .......................................................................................................... 646
11 . Weld Sizes .......................................................................................................................... 648
12. Joint Penetration ................................................................................................................ 650
13 . Safety ................................................................................................................................. 651
14. Metric Conversions ............................................................................................................ 662
15 . Elements-Chemical Symbols and Atomic Numbers ....................................................... 666
16. Standards for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes ...................................................... 667
17 . Filler Metal Specifications................................................................................................. 683
18. Recommended Eye Protection ........................................................................................... 685
19 . Automatic Welding Programs ............................................................................................ 687
Buyers Guide ............................................................................................................................... 689
V
Foreword
Jeffersons
WELDING ENCYCLOPEDIA
The first four editions of The Welding Encyclopedia were published annually from 1921
through 1924 by L. B. MacKenzie. Mr. MacKenzie was given editorial assistance in this endeavor
by H. S . Card. Both were on the staff of The Welding Engineer, a monthly publication of the
Welding Engineer Publishing Company in Chicago, Illinois.
In his preface to the Fifth Edition in 1926, Mr. Card advised of the death of L. B. MacKenzie.
The four editions from 1926 to 1.932were edited by Mr. Card, with Stuart Plumley succeeding him
as editor for the 8th,9th and 10th editions.
Ted Jefferson, by then a principal of the Welding Engineer Publishing Company, revised the
Encyclopedia in 1943. He edited and published the 11th through 17th editions over a period of
33 years. Ted Jefferson died on July 6, 1988, at the age of eighty.
The American Welding Society has obtained publication rights for the Welding Encyclopedia.
Because of Jeffersons long association with this book and his dedication to continuing its publi-
cation, we are changing the name of this book to Jefferson S Welding Encyclopedia.
The following is an excerpt from Ted Jeffersons Preface to the 17th Edition of the Welding
Encyclopedia in 1976:
ln 1921 the coverage of welding involved a discussion of only three very basic processes
used principally for maintenance or repair applications. Down through the years, the ever-
changing and expanding field of welding has grown to include more than fifty welding
processes, capable of joining a wide variety of materials.
In 1997, more than ninety welding and allied processes are listed in the literature, and the num-
ber continues to grow.
Acknowledgments
The Editor is indebted to the following for their contributions to this book:
B. J. BASTIAN, P.E., Consultant, Benmar Associates; Royal Oak,MI
H. H. CAMPBELL 111, Senior Staff Engineer, American Welding Society; Miami, FX
L. P. CONNOR, Director of Standards Activities, American Welding Society; Miami, FX
M. V. DAVIS, Ph.D., Consultant, Miami, FL
R. J. DYBAS, Consultant; Schenectady, NY
J. M. GERKEN, Ph.D., Consultant; Chagrin Falls, OH
R. A. HUBER, Consultant; Oak Ridge, TN
L. G. KVIDAHL, Ingalls Shipbuilding; Pascagoula, MS
A. LESNEWICH, Ph.D., Welding and Metallurgical Consulting Services, Severna Park, MD
A. F. MANZ, Consultant, A. E Manz Associates; Union, NJ
R. W. MESSLER, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Materials Science and Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY
E. P. NIPPES, Ph.D., Consultant; Vineyard Haven, MA
An associate in the production of this book was ANNETTE OBRIEN, who prepared the text
and served as copy editor. The Editor is grateful to L. G. KVIDAHL for his final review of the text.
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
Editor
vi
Eighteenth Edition
This edition represents a major revision of this encyclopedia, changing its orientation to the
authoritative information base of the American Welding Society, and providing access to its
resources.
Welding technology becomes more complex with every. passing year, and has expanded to an
extent that defies containment between the covers of a book. This encyclopedia presents as much
information as is practical, but it is impossible to provide an exhaustive report on every welding
process, variation, application, technique or material involved in the welding industry.
The Editor hopes Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia will be a helpful resource to those who
need authoritative welding information at their fingertips, and that it will be an effective starting
point for those pursuing further scientific or engineering information. Following are some signifi-
cant additions to the Eighteenth Edition:
Welding terms and definitions standardized by the American Welding Society are presented
dictionary-style throughout the encyclopedia. They are identified by reference to Standard
Welding Terms. Standard definitions are printed in italics.
Consensus standards, codes, specifications, recommended practices, classifications, methods,
and guides for welding processes and applications documented by AWS are appropriately refer-
enced. Standards of related organizations are referenced when applicable.
U.S. customary units are converted to the International System of Units (SI); conversion figures
are appropriate to the application.
Nineteen appendixes have been included; most of these supply technical information from
major American Welding Society documents. Appendix 1 contains historical notes of interest to
the welding community.
A buyers guide is provided; companies or organizations listed were exhibitors at the 1996
AWS International Welding and Fabricating Exposition in Chicago.
The primary editorial effort is directed to presenting new and updated material, although some
of the basics of early welding processes are retained from previous editions, and much of the
instructional material remains. An effort is made to meet the needs of persons associated with var-
ious areas of welding, and persons at many levels of expertise who are working with available
equipment, old or new.
Most of the information available to the welding industry, and in this book, is the result of a
continuous sharing of information involving every sector of the industry and spanning several gen-
erations. Contributors include research and development groups from manufacturers of welding
equipment and consumables, universities, fabricators and job shops, as well as individual welders.
All who are involved in the welding industry are grateful to those who have contributed and those
who are continuing to develop and share technology. In that same spirit, we welcome comments,
as well as contributions of further information.
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
Editor
vii
Guide to Using the Encyclopedia
The definition of an entry is presented in dictionary style. Terms and definitions standardized by
the American Welding Society (AWS) are presented throughout the encyclopedia. Each AWS stan-
dard term is identified by reference to STANDARD WELDING TERMS. AWS standard definitions are
printed in italics.
To find a specific consensus standard, code, specification, recommended practice, classifi-
cation, method, or guide documented by AWS, refer to Appendix 16, Standards for Welding, Cut-
ting, and Allied Processes. Refer also to the process, application, material or product involved. For
example, to find standards or codes covering boilers, see BOILER CONSTRUCTION, as well as
Appendix 16. To find AWS filler metal specifications, consult Appendix 17.
U.S. customary units are converted to the International System of Units (SI); conversion figures
are appropriate to the applicat.ion. For example, a postweld heat treat temperature of 1200F
converts exactly to 648.88"C, but the decimal figures are not meaningful. Therefore, the SI
temperature is rounded off to 650C. In critical cases, however, such as the melting point of an
element or compound, the exact temperature in both scales is presented.
Appendixes 4 through 9, and Appendixes 11 and 12 have been designed to provide specific
technical information about welds that is easy to find by consulting the appropriate appendix.
Welding and related processes are described in separate entries, for example, gas metal arc
welding, laser beam welding, thermal spraying, or oxyfuel cutting. Refer also to the metal
involved in a given project. Additional process information specific to the metal involved has been
added to discussions under entries such as aluminum, cast iron, nickel, magnesium, and steel.
To use the Buyer's Guide, consult the product category, then refer to the alphabetical list of
manufacturers and suppliers for a specific address, telephone or fax number. The Buyer's Guide is
not all-inclusive; companies or organizations listed were exhibitors at the 1996 AWS International
Welding and Fabricating Exposition in Chicago.
...
Vlll
Structural Steel Welding Application
BP America Building, Cleveland
Vertical welding on Node1, the first United States element
of the International Space
Station, at NASA's Marshall Space Center, Huntsville, Alabama
ABNORMAL GRAIN GROWTH ABSORPTIVE LENS
The formation of unusually large polycrystalline A filter lens designed to attenuate the effects of
grains in a metal. This condition frequently occurs glare and reflected and stray light. See STANDARD
when a critical amount of strain (in the range of 2%) is WELDING TERMS. See also FILTER PLATE.
present during heating to elevated temperatures.
AC or A-C
ABRASION Abbreviation for alternating current. It is written ac
A grinding action caused by abrasive solids sliding, when used as a noun and written as a-c when used as
rolling or rubbing against a surface; a scraped, ground, an adjective.
or worn area. Base plates are sometimes hardfaced to
provide abrasion, or wear, resistance. A-C ARC WELDING
An arc welding process using a power source that
ABRASION SOLDERING supplies an alternating current to the welding arc.
A soldering process variation during which the fay-
ACCELERATING POTENTIAL, Electron Beam Welding
ing su@ace of the base metal is mechanically abraded. and Cutting
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The potential that imparts velocity to electrons. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ABRASIVE
See GRINDING MATERIALS. ACCEPTABLE WELD
A weld that meets the applicable requirements. See
ABRASIVE BELT STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A cloth or paper belt coated with abrasives used to
rub, grind, or wear away by friction. The abrasive ACETONE
coating material may be sand or Carborundum, avail- (C3H60) A compound of carbon, hydrogen and
able in various grades and hardness factors. oxygen; it is a volatile, flammable, liquid ketone used
mainly as a solvent for such materials as resins, gums,
ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER oils, and cellulose.
A grinder which uses an abrasive belt for the Acetone is odorless and colorless; it evaporates
removal of surplus material. rapidly. Acetone boils at 56C (133F). One liter of
acetone weighs about 1 kg.
ABRASIVE BLASTING An important use for acetone is to stabilize acety-
A method of cleaning or surface roughening by a lene gas. The safe, practical use of acetylene gas for
forcibly projected stream of abrasive particles. See welding and other applications would not be possible
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. without acetone. Compressed acetylene itself is highly
explosive; however, it can be safely compressed and
ABSORPTIONMETER stored in high-pressure cylinders if the cylinders are
An instrument for measuring absorption of gases by lined with absorbent material soaked with acetone. As
liquids. a solvent agent for acetylene gas, acetone has an
absorptive capacity of 25 volumes of acetylene per
ABSORPTION BANDS volume of acetone per atmosphere of pressure,
Dark bands in a spectrum produced by the selective or about 420 volumes of acetylene at 1724 kPa
absorption of light. The absorbing media are generally (250 psi) pressure.
solids or liquids through which the light of the spec- Another important feature of the acetone-acetylene
trum has been transmitted. solution is that the exothermic properties of the
1
2 ACETYLENE Welding Encyclopedia
ACETYLENE CYLINDERS, ACETYLENE CYLINDERS, liquid, when added to the porous material, is capable
Safe Handling, and ACETYLENE GENERATORS. of absorbing 25 times its own volume of acetylene for
each atmosphere 101 kPa (14.7 psi) of pressure
ACETYLENE CUTTING applied. Thus, at full cylinder pressure of 1724 kPa
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING. (250 psi at 70F), it can absorb over 400 times its own
volume of acetylene.
ACETYLENE CYLINDERS In 1958, cylinder manufacturers announced a light-
Because of the characteristics of acetylene gas, weight calcium-silicate filler with 92% porosity. This
acetylene cylinders are constructed in an entirely dif- new filler lessened cylinder weight by 30%,increased
ferent manner from those made to contain other gases. cylinder capacity, and improved charging and dis-
Historical Background charging characteristics. Although only 8% solid, this
Until 1904, no suitable acetylene container had filler had extraordinary strength, longer life, no deteri-
been developed. The gas was used mainly for illumi- oration, and could be charged and discharged much
nation and was generally piped directly from genera- faster.
tors to the area to be served. In that year in Indiana, The calcium silicate filler, composed of sand, lime
P. C. Avery displayed to two of his home states most and asbestos, lined the cylinder and conformed to its
famous promoters, James Allison and Carl Fisher, a shape. Its crushing strength, an indication of cylinder
portable cylinder containing acetylene gas designed to life, is 6205 kPa (900 psi).
power auto headlights. Then engaged in auto sales, When medical research indicated that asbestos
Allison and Fisher were immediately interested, and fibers are carcinogenic due to the size of the fibers
with Avery, set up a small factory in Indianapolis to (less than 3.5 microns in diameter and 10 microns in
fabricate this tank. length, which is small enough to allow the fibers to
The shop was known as Concentrated Acetylene penetrate the respiratory tract of the lungs), cylinder
Company, until Avery withdrew in 1906. The com- manufacturers set about to produce an asbestos-free
pany then became the Rest-0-Lite Company, the fore- filler. A non-asbestos alkaline-resistant glass fiber
runner of the Linde Division of Union Carbide filler was developed by the Linde Division of Union
Corporation. Carbide Corporation and patented in 1982.
Allison and Fisher devoted much of their time relo- A cut-away view of a modern acetylene cylinder is
cating their plant into progressively larger quarters. shown in Figure A-2.
Not until 1910 did they build one of sufficient size in How Acetylene Cylinders are Manufactured
what was then suburban Indianapolis, across the street Cylinder production and testing is a step-by-step
from the site of the famed motor speedway they later procedure which insures ultimate quality and safety.
constructed. Seamless shells are cold drawn in hydraulic presses
Carbide production continued to increase, and in with capacities up to 454 000 kg (500 tons). Center
1913, a much improved acetylene cylinder similar to seams and footring attachments are welded using the
that used today was introduced. With these two major submerged arc process. Cylinders are then normalized
achievements, gas welding began replacing other (stress relieved) to increase cylinder life and corrosion
metal joining methods. resistance.
Cylinder Stabilizing Fillers Measure and Weight
The need for a porous substance in a cylinder to sta- In the filling area, cylinders are measured and
bilize compressed acetylene was realized by the weighed to determine exact volume. At another loca-
French scientist Fouche, one of the men responsible tion, filler is mixed to correct proportions in hoppers,
for the oxyacetylene mixture. The size of the filler, weighed, and mixed with water in agitators. Before
however, left very little room for gas in the cylinder. each new batch of filler is used, a sample containing
One filler was a magnesium oxychloride cement type; one cubic foot is weighed and examined to ensure
another was made of asbestos discs. The charcoal- correct mixture.
cement filler was not developed until 1919, and in Cylinders are then filled automatically and weighed
1950 a sand-lime material became popular. again. Factoring in the weight and volume of the cylin-
In 1897 a French team, Claude and Hess, demon- der confirms that it is accurately filled to specification.
strated the value of acetone. This colorless, flammable The cylinders are then oven-baked at 315C (600F) to
Welding Encyclopedia ACETYLENE CYLINDERS, Safe Handling 5
The acetylene distributor, as well as the user, must lished sets of rules governing the design, construction,
observe important precautions: and installation of acetylene generators, including
(1) Slings, hooks or magnets cannot be used to acetylene pipe lines.
move cylinders. Cylinders of acetylene must be kept in Another insurance authority which publishes rules
an upright position. Cylinders cannot be dragged, and for acetylene generators is the Factory Mutual Engi-
can never be used or stored in a horizontal position. neering Organization, Norwood, Mass. Regulations of
(2) A hand truck should be used when an acetylene the American Insurance Service Group, New York,
cylinder must be moved, or the cylinder should be N.Y. and the National Fire Protection Association,
tilted slightly and rolled it on its bottom edge. Quincy, Mass. are also followed. See GAS SYSTEMS.
(3) A cylinder storage area should be chosen that is
well removed from any heat sources, and the area ACETYLENE WELDING
should be posted with conspicuous signs forbidding See OXYACETYLENE WELDING and OXYFUEL GAS
smoking or the use of open flames or lights. WELDING.
(4) If cylinders are stored outdoors, dirt, snow or
ice should not be allowed to accumulate on valves or ACID BRITTLENESS
safety devices. Brittleness induced in steel, especially wire or
(5) The cylinders should be secured with chains or sheet, by pickling in dilute acid for the purpose of
heavy rope so that they cannot be accidentally tipped removing scale. This brittleness is commonly attrib-
over. uted to the absorption of hydrogen.
(6) A leaking cylinder must be handled with
ACID CORE SOLDER
extreme care; it should be removed immediately from
the storage area after checking to be sure that no A solder wire or bar containing acidflux as a core.
sources of ignition are brought near it. The supplier See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
should be notified immediately.
ACID STEEL
(7) One cylinder should not be recharged from
See STEEL, ACID.
another, or other gases mixed in an acetylene cylinder.
(8) Copper tubing should never be used to convey ACTIVATED ROSIN FLUX
acetylene. Acetylene will react with the copper to form A rosin base flux containing an additive that
copper acetylide, an unstable compound which can increases wetting by the soldel: See STANDARD WELD-
explode spontaneously. ING TERMS.
ACETYLENE FEATHER
ACTIVE FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
The intense white, feathery-edged portion adjacent A flux from which the amount of elements deposited
to the cone of a carburizing oxyacetyleneflame. See
in the weld metal is dependent on the welding condi-
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure A- 1.
tions, primarily on the arc voltage. See STANDARD
ACETYLENE GENERATOR
WELDING TERMS. See also NEUTRAL FLUX.
In the United States, common practice has estab- ACTUAL THROAT
lished a preference for the carbide-to-water machines,
The shortest distance between the weld root and the
and they are almost universally used. There is another
face of a fillet weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
type of generator using calcium carbide molded into
See Appendix 11, Figure A, 3. See also THROAT OF A
cakes, in which the water drops into the calcium car-
FLLET WELD, EFFECTIVE THROAT, and THEORETICAL
bide. This type of generator, while common in Europe,
THROAT.
is almost unknown in the United States.
Insurance Regulations ADAMS, COMFORT A.
The Underwriters Laboratories is an organization Founder and first president of the American Weld-
maintained by the insurance companies of the United ing Society.
States which provides for the inspection and testing of
all types of equipment which may be considered a fire ADAPTER
or accident hazard, including welding and cutting A device for connecting two parts (i.e., of different
equipment and acetylene generators. There are estab- diameters) of an apparatus, or for adapting apparatus
Welding Encyclopedia ADHESIVE BONDING 7
and toughness to resist failure along the adhesive-to- brazing, soldering, or mechanical fasteners such as
metal interface under service conditions. rivets or screws. Adhesive bonding is also capable of
(4) As the adhesive cures, cools, or dries, it must joining dissimilar materials, for example, metals to
not shrink excessively. Otherwise, undesirable internal plastics; bonding very thin sections without distortion
stresses may develop in the joint. and very thin sections to thick sections; joining heat-
(5) To develop a strong bond, the metal surfaces sensitive alloys; and producing bonds with unbroken
must be clean and free of dust, loose oxides, oil, surface contours.
grease, or other foreign materials. The adhesive that bonds the component may serve
(6) Air, moisture, solvents, and other gases which as a sealant or protective coating. Adhesives can pro-
may tend to be trapped at the interface between the vide thermal or electrical insulating layers between the
adhesive and metal must have a way of escaping from two surfaces being joined, and different formulations
the joint. of the adhesive can make the bonding agent electri-
(7) The joint design and cured adhesive must be cally conductive. These properties are highly adapt-
suitable to withstand the intended service. able to mass-produced printed circuit boards, and to
the electrical and electronic components industry.
A variety of adhesives can be used. Thermoplastic Smooth, unbroken surfaces without protrusions,
adhesives develop a bond through the evaporation of a gaps, or holes can be achieved with adhesive bonding.
solvent or the application of heat. The pressure-sensi- Typical examples of applications are the vinyl-to-
tive adhesives produce a bond when pressure is metal laminate used in the production of television
applied to the joint. Other adhesives, usually used for cabinets and housings for electronic equipment. Other
metals, react chemically with curing agents or cata- examples are automotive trim, hood and door panels,
lysts. Some epoxy-based adhesives can produce joint and roof stiffeners.
strengths up to 70 MPa (10 000 psi) when cured at The ability of flexible adhesives to absorb shock
175C (350F) for a few hours under pressures of and vibration gives the joint good fatigue life and
about 1030 kPa (150 psi). The types of polymeric sound-dampening properties. A specific example is
adhesives used to bond metal are listed in Table A- 1. the improved fatigue life of adhesive-bonded helicop-
ter rotor blades.
Table A-1 A combination of adhesives and rivets for joints in
Types of Polymeric Adhesives Used to Bond Metals very large aircraft structures has increased the fatigue
life of joints from 2 x io5 cycles for rivets alone to
Solvent Neoprene 1.5 x lo6 cycles for bonded and riveted joints. The
Nitrile
Urethane (thermoplastic) large bonded area also dampens vibration and sound.
Block copolymer Adhesive bonding may be combined with resistance
Stvrene-butadiene welding or mechanical fasteners to improve the load-
carrying capacity of the joint. The adhesive is applied
Hot Melt Ethylene vinyl acetate
Block copolymer to the adherents first. Then the components are joined
Polyester together with spot welds or mechanical fasteners to
Polvamide hold the joints rigid while the adhesive cures. Figure
A-3 illustrates typical design combinations. These
Pressure Sensitive Block copolymer
Acrylic techniques significantly reduce or eliminate fixturing
requirements and decrease assembly time when com-
Chemically Reactive Epoxy pared to conventional adhesive bonding methods.
Phenolic Adhesive bonding may permit significant weight
Structural acrylic
Anaerobic savings in the finished product by utilizing lightweight
Cyanoacrylate fabrications. Honeycomb panel assemblies, used
Urethane extensively in the aircraft industry and the construc-
tion field are excellent examples of lightweight fabri-
cations. Although weight reduction can be important
Advantages and Applications in the function of the product, adhesive bonding of
Adhesive bonding has several advantages for join- products may also provide considerable labor and cost
ing metals when compared to resistance spot welding, savings in packing, shipping, and installation.
Welding Encyclopedia AGING 9
-
substances are commonly used in adhesive bonding.
ADHESIVE
Manufacturing operations should be carefully super-
vised to ensure that proper safety procedures, protec-
tive devices, and protective clothing are being used.
All federal, state and local regulations should be com-
RIVET plied with, including OSHA Regulation 29CRF
RIVBONDING 1900.1000, Air Contaminants. The material safety
data sheet of the adhesive should be carefully exam-
ined before the adhesive is handled to ensure that the
STUD NUT appropriate safety precautions are being followed.
References: American Welding Society. Welding
Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 1. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
can Welding Society, 1987; and American Welding
Society. Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 2.
I Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1991.
STUD WELD
ADMIRALTY BRASS
Figure A-3-Adhesive Bonding in Combinationwith
An alloy which is 70% copper, 29% zinc and 1%
Resistance Welds and Mechanical Fasteners tin, commonly used for condenser and heat exchanger
tubing. See COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
Limitations
AGE HARDENING
Adhesive bonding has certain limitations which A term applied to a property exhibited by some of
should be considered in its application. Joints made by the light alloys, such as aluminum or magnesium, of
adhesive bonding may not support shear or impact hardening at ordinary temperatures after solution treat-
1oads.These joints must have an adhesive layer less ment or cold work. The controlling factors in age hard-
than 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) thick, and must be designed ening are the composition of the material, degree of
to develop a uniform load distribution in pure shear or dispersion of the soluble phase, solution time and tem-
tension. The joints cannot sustain operational tempera- perature, and aging time and temperature.
tures exceeding 260C (500F).
Capital investment for autoclaves, presses, and AGGLOMERATED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
other tooling is essential to achieve adequate bond A type of flux produced with a ceramic binding
strengths. Process control costs may be higher than agent requiring a higher drying temperature that lim-
those for other joining processes. In critical structural its the addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements.
bonding applications, surface preparation can range This is followed by processing to produce the desired
from a simple solvent wipe to multi-step cleaning, particle size. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
etching, anodizing, rinsing and drying procedures; and
joints must be fixtured and cured at temperature for AGING
some time to achieve full bond strength. Some adhe- A term applied to metals and particular alloys
sives must be used quickly after mixing. Nondestruc- which show changes in physical properties on expo-
tive testing methods normally used for other joining sure to ordinary or elevated temperatures.
10 AGRICULTURAL WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
AGRICULTURAL WELDING ing electrode holders, and supply both compressed air
See FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR. and current.
In gouging operations, the depth and contour of the
AIR-ACETYLENE TORCH groove are controlled by the electrode angle, travel
A torch which produces a flame by burning a mix- speed, and current. Grooves up to 16 mm (5/8 in.)
ture of acetylene and air. The flame is as easily con- deep can be made in a single pass. In severing opera-
trolled and manipulated as the oxyacetylene flame, but tions, the electrode is held at a steeper angle, and is
has a lower temperature. directed at a point that will permit the tip of the elec-
The air-acetylene torch operates on the same princi- trode to pierce the metal being severed.
ple as the Bunsen burner, that is, the acetylene flowing In manual work, the geometry of grooves is depen-
under pressure through a Bunsen jet draws in the dent on the cutting operators skill. To provide uni-
appropriate amount of air from the atmosphere to pro- form groove geometry, semiautomatic or fully
vide combustion. The flame is adjusted by controlling automatic torches are used to cut U grooves in joints
the amount of air admitted to the Bunsen jet. The for welding, When removing weld defects or severing
mixer on the torch must be carefully adjusted to draw excess metal from castings, manual techniques are
the correct volume of air to produce an efficient, clean most suitable.
flame. The air-acetylene flame ignites at 480C Voltage controlled automatic torches and control
(896F) and produces a maximum temperature of units are used for very precise gouging, with toler-
1875C (3407F). ances of less than 0.8 mm (1/32 in.), and are generally
The air-acetylene torch is used for brazing, solder- mounted on standard travel carriages.
ing, and heating applications, but the flame tempera- Reference: American Welding Society. Welding
ture is not sufficient for welding, except for joining Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
materials with a low melting point, like lead. It is can Welding Society, 1991.
widely used for soldering copper plumbing fittings up
to 25 mm (10 in.) in diameter. AIR CARBON ARC CUlTlNG TORCH
A device used to transfer current to afixed cutting
AIR ACETYLENE WELDING (AAW) electrode, position the electrode, and direct the$ow of
An oxyjkel gas welding process that uses an air- ail: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
acetylenesame. The process is used without the appli-
cation of pressure. This is an obsolete or seldom used AIRCRAFT WELDING
process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The character of welding changes in aircraft con-
struction with each technological advancement that
AIR CAP affects any aircraft component. Because the materials
A nonstandard term for the nozzle of a flame spray- and joining techniques and processes utilized in the
ing gun for wire or ceramic rod. aircraft industry are constantly changing and improv-
ing, it is vital that the most recent standards and cur-
AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING (CAC-A) rent literature on the subject be used for reference.
A carbon arc cutting process variation that removes While airplanes were largely hand-made metallic
molten metal with a jet of ail: See STANDARD WELDING structures in the past, only the lighter planes have the
TERMS. welded steel fuselage that was once popular. High-
The air carbon arc cutting process uses an arc to speed transports and military jets have a metallic skin
melt metal which is blown away by a high-velocity jet to provide a monococque fuselage. Although rivets
of compressed air. The electrodes are rods made from have been used to fasten the skin to the cell rings, spot
a mixture of graphite and carbon, and most are coated welding also has an important role in the construction
with a layer of copper to increase their current-carry- of this type of aircraft.
ing capacity. Standard welding power sources are used Welding is the method that has the versatility to
to provide the current. Air is supplied by conventional meet the varying conditions of joining members of
shop compressors, and most applications require about varying sizes and weights which make up aircraft
550 kPa (80 psi) at between 560 to 840 liters/min (20 structures. The aircraft structure, with its multiplicity
to 30 cubic feet per minute), Manual rod holders are of joints, must be light in weight and sufficiently
very similar in appearance to shielded metal arc weld- strong to withstand severe conditions of service.
Welding Encyclopedia ALTERNATING CURRENT (ac or a-c) 11
~~-~
Table A-2
~
Table A-3
Basic Temper Designatioris Applicable to the Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
Table A-4 Size of the dip pot will depend on the size of the
Designations for Cast Aluminum assemblies to be brazed, but should be large enough to
Alloy Groups prevent the parts from cooling the flux more than 5C
~ ~~ (10F) below operating temperature when they are
Alloy Group Designation added.
Aluminum-99.00% minimum purity 1xx.x Dehydration of the flux bath is accomplished by
Copper 2xx.x dipping 1100 or 3003 alloy sheet into it. As the sheet is
Aluminum-silicon-copperor attacked, the hydrogen evolved is ignited on the sur-
3xx.x face. Residue that forms on the bottom of the pot must
aluminum-siliconmagnesium
Aluminum-silicon 4xx.x be removed on a regular basis.
Aluminum-magnesium 5xx.x A modification of dip brazing is the application of a
Aluminum-zinc 7xx.x flux mixture to the assembly prior to immersion in a
Aluminum-tin 8xx.x salt bath furnace. A typical example consists of mak-
Other alloy systems 9xx.x ing a paste of a mixture of a dry, powdered aluminum-
silicon (548C [1018"F] flow point) brazing alloy and
flux, and water, and applying as much as required to
jobs. If uniform rise of temperature does not occur nat- fill the joints and make fillets. Next, the assembly is
urally, forced circulation is essential. placed in an oven and heated to about 540C (1000F)
Assemblies are generally placed in the furnace to remove the water. This leaves the brazing alloy
immediately after fluxing. When large areas have been powder firmly cemented to the aluminum surfaces, the
fluxed, most of the moisture must be removed because flux serving as the cement.
the brazing process may be hindered if it is not When the assembly is placed in the molten brazing
removed. Preheating the parts for about 20 minutes at salt, the alloy is held firmly in place by the flux cement
approximately 200C (400F) is usually sufficient. while it is being heated and melted. The flux cement
Brazing time depends on the thickness of the parts. has a higher melting point than either the brazing alloy
For instance, material 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) thick or the brazing salt, but it is soluble in the salt bath, so
reaches temperature in a few minutes, while 13 mm the brazing alloy is held in place, even while melting,
(0.5 in.) thick material may take up to 45 minutes. until the cement has been dissolved by the molten salt.
After the filler material begins to melt, it takes approx- As the flux cement is dissolved away from the molten
imately five minutes for the material to fill the joints. filler metal, the alloy runs into the joint capillary
spaces and also forms smooth fillets.
Dip Brazing Torch Brazing
Parts are assembled and dipped into a molten flux in This method of brazing can be accomplished by
dip brazing. This method has been very successful for using a standard torch as a heat source. Correct torch
the manufacture of elaborate assemblies, such as heat tip can best be determined through trial, and often
exchanger units. The flux application does not require depends on the thickness of the piece to be brazed.
a separate operation and the bath transmits heat to the Filler alloys with suitable melting ranges and efficient
interior of thin walled parts without overheating fluxes are available for all brazeable aluminum alloys.
outside surfaces. Contamination is also held to a Most work can be torch brazed with 3 mm (1/8 in.)
minimum, diameter wire.
Dip brazing is versatile. It is used in the manufac- A reducing flame with an inner cone about 25 mm
ture of delicate specialty parts where tolerances up to (1 in.) in length and a larger exterior blue flame is pre-
k0.05 mm (0.002 in.) are maintained in production, or ferred. Oxyhydrogen, oxyacetylene, oxynatural gas, or
in making large parts approaching 450 kg (1000 lb). gasoline blow torches can be used. Ample clearance
A separate furnace is necessary to preheat the space must be allowed where the filler will flow, and a
assembly to prevent undue cooling of the flux bath. A path for flux to escape must be allowed.
furnace used for furnace brazing operated at 280 to After painting with flux paste, the entire area of the
300C (540 to 565F) is satisfactory for preheating. It joint is heated until the filler melts when it is touched
should be located near the dip pot so heat loss will be against the heated parent metal. Too hot a flame, or
held to a minimum. allowing the joint to cool repeatedly, will cause
16 ALUMINUM BRONZE (9% Aluminum Bronze) Welding Encyclopedia
uneven results. Capillary flow tends to be toward the When maximum corrosion resistance is important,
hottest spot, so it is important that the flow of the filler or when parts are thin, parts can be dipped in a solu-
wire be controlled throughout. Heat should be applied tion of 2 L (2.25 qts.) of nitric acid (technical concen-
just ahead of where flow is desired. Joints can be pro- trated grade), 1.8 kg (4 lb.) of sodium dichromate, and
duced that have a final fillet that needs a minimum of 17 L (4.5 gal) of water. The usual procedure is to
finishing, if any. immerse the parts in hot water, then in the dip solution
All flux should be removed after brazing. If joints at 65C (150F) for 7 to 10 minutes, followed with
are accessible, a fiber brush with boiling water bath rinsing in hot water.
can be used. Scrubbing with hot water and rinsing with ALUMINUM BRONZE (9% Aluminum Bronze)
cold, then drying is often effective, as is blasting with A copper-aluminum alloy commonly used for the
a steam jet. When possible, a chemical treatment fabrication of corrosion resistant parts and marine
should be used to clean the joint. hardware.
Cleaning
ALUMINUM CASTINGS, Welding
Clean surfaces are essential if strong brazed joints Both the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas
are to result. All grease should be removed. Solvent or metal arc welding (GMAW) processes are used for
vapor cleaning will probably be sufficient for the non- welding aluminum castings. In general, welding alu-
heat-treatable alloys, but the for the heat-treatable minum alloy castings requires a technique similar to
alloys, the oxide film must be removed with a chemi- that used on aluminum sheet and other wrought prod-
cal or by abrasion with steel wool, or stainless steel ucts. However, many castings are susceptible to ther-
brushes. All burrs should be removed, as flux will not mal strains and cracks because of intricate design and
flow around them. varying section thicknesses. In highly stressed struc-
In post-brazing cleaning, it is essential to remove all tures, castings depend on heat treatment for strength.
the flux. A solution of nitric acid (concentrated techni- Welding tends to destroy the effect of the initial heat
cal grade) in equal amounts of water is effective. treatment. In these cases, welding is not recommended
When a large area is to be cleaned of residual flux, unless it is possible for the casting or assembly to be
however, this method is not recommended because heat-treated again after welding, when the loss in
noxious fumes are generated. An exhaust system is strength can largely be restored.
advisable even for small production situations.
Preparationfor Welding
To achieve a uniform etch and remove flux in one
operation, the work can be immersed in a nitric- Before welding, castings should be cleaned carefully
hydrofluoric acid solution, using 2 L (0.5 gal) nitric with a wire brush and an appropriate solvent to remove
acid, 1/8 L (1/4 pint) hydrofluoric acid, and 17 L every trace of oil, grease and dirt. When welds are to
(4.5 gal) of water. The major portion of flux should be be made in sections heavier than approximately 5 mm
removed first by immersing in boiling water, then (3/16 in.), the edges should be beveled at an angle of
immersing in the acid solution for 10 to 15 minutes, about 45".When preparing defective areas for welding,
depending on the desired extent of etching. Parts are any unsoundness or dross must be completely melted
then drained and rinsed in cold running water, then in or cut away before proceeding with the weld. When
hot water. To avoid staining, the hot water bath should two or more pieces are to be assembled, or if a broken
be limited to about 3 minutes. piece is to be welded, the parts should be held by a fix-
ture and clamped in the correct position for preheating
Because of the reaction of a hydrofluoric acid solu- and welding. The clamps should be attached in a way
tion with aluminum, in which hydrogen gas is gener- that will permit free expansion of the casting during
ated, flux removal is efficiently accomplished by this heating, otherwise stresses may develop which will
method. The solution is compounded of 600 mL (1.25 result in excessive distortion or cracks.
pints) of acid, (technical concentrated grade) and 19 L
Preheating
(5 gal) of water. Though this solution is less contami-
nated by flux than those containing nitric acid, the Prior to welding a casting that is large or intricate in
hydrofluoric acid solution does dissolve aluminum. design, it should be preheated slowly and uniformly in
Therefore, immersion time should be limited to a furnace to avoid thermal stresses and facilitate devel-
10 minutes or less. Discoloration can be removed by a opment of the required temperature for welding. A
quick dip in nitric acid. temperature of 370 to 425C (700 to 800F) is gener-
Welding Encyclopedia ALUMINUM, Pressure Welding 17
ally sufficient for preheating. If the casting is small, or overlap. When possible, the joint should be designed
if the weld is near the edge and in a thin walled sec- as a butt weld. If an overlap joint is made, it should be
tion, an experienced welder can often do the necessary completely welded around the edges to seal the over-
preheating with an oxyfuel gas torch applied in the lapped area.
region of the weld. After welding, the casting should Preheating is essential in gas welding to allow
be cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature proper fusion. Sections thicker than 6 mm (1/4 in.)
to reduce the danger of excessive stresses and possible should be preheated to 310 to 370C (600 to 700F).
cracks. Preheating above 425C (800F) is not recommended
Welding Precautions because there is danger of melting some of the
Surface defects and small holes in aluminum cast- alloying constituents. Heat should be applied uni-
ings can be repaired by welding after the part is cor- formly to both parts being joined. See OXYFUEL GAS
WELDING.
rectly prepared and preheated. However, when
working with assemblies or broken castings, there are ALUMINUM, Gas-Shielded Arc Welding
several points to consider during welding. The individ-
One of several advantages of gas shielded arc weld-
ual parts should first be tack-welded into place, and
ing of aluminum alloys over other methods of fusion
actual welding should begin at the center and proceed
welding is that the need for flux is eliminated, thus
toward the end. When any difference exists in the
removing a potential source of corrosion. Other advan-
thickness of the sections being joined, the GTAW
tages are that welding can be accomplished in all posi-
welder must carefully distribute the heat from the
tions; there is better visibility and greater speed.
torch in order to avoid melting the lighter section
Sound, pressure-tight joints with high strength and low
while bringing the heavier section up to welding tem- distortion can be produced. Because of these advan-
perature. A similar precaution must be taken with
tages, the inert-gas-shielded processes are the predom-
sheet and casting assemblies, and welders may require
inant methods of fusion welding aluminum alloys.
a little experience to develop the proper technique.
Relatively easy to perform, gas tungsten arc weld-
Choice of Welding Rod ing (GTAW) uses non-consumable tungsten elec-
When welding castings of the non-heat-treatable trodes, alternating current, and argon or helium
aluminum alloys or assemblies involving such cast- shielding gas. When filler material is needed, it can be
ings, consisting of welding rod Al-S%Si or A1-4%Cu, fed automatically or manually. Aluminum as thin as
3%Si is generally used. However, in the case of cast- 0.6 mm (0.025 in.) can be welded, but production
ings requiring subsequent heat treatment, a welding welding is more easily controlled when thickness is
rod of the same alloy as the casting should be used. 1.O mm (0.040 in.) or greater.
The size of the rod best suited for the job will, of Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), employs alumi-
course, depend to some extent on the thickness of the num wire as both electrode and filler metal, uses direct
metal being welded, but in general, a rod 1.6 to 2.4 current, and a shielding gas of argon or helium, or a
mm (1/16 in. to 3/32 in.) diameter will be satisfactory. mixture of these. The filler wire is fed automatically
into the welding zone at a speed compatible with the
ALUMINUM, Oxyfuel Gas Welding arc length and welding current, resulting in higher
Satisfactory butt, lap, and fillet welds can be made welding speeds than possible with the gas tungsten arc
with an oxyfuel gas torch on sections of aluminum method. Because the heat zone on each side of the
ranging up to 25 mm (1 in.) in thickness. The oxyfuel weld is narrower, GMAW produces welds of superior
gas welding process would only be used where a strength. A further advantage is that metal of consider-
source of electric power is not available for arc weld- able thickness can often be welded without preheating
ing. Oxyhydrogen or oxyacetylene flames produce the because of high current densities and the concentrated
heat necessary to offset the high thermal conductivity heat of the arc.
of the aluminum. Generally, the other oxygen-gas
combinations do not provide sufficient heat for weld- ALUMINUM, Pressure Welding
ing, but may be used for preheating, which is often Pressure welding or solid phase bonding of alumi-
needed when joining thick sections. num is accomplished by applying high pressure on the
Overlap joints are not recommended for gas weld- surfaces to be joined, either with or without heat, in
ing because there is danger of flux entrapment in the the complete absence of melting.
18 ALUMINUM, Resistance Welding Welding Encyclopedia
Pressure can be applied by aligning two punches or tance of the parts to the flow of an electric current.
tapered rolls. Another method uses a shoulder punch Spot welding, seam welding and flash welding are
on one side of the material and a flat plate or anvil on forms of resistance welding.
the other. A third method uses a single tapered roll and All the aluminum alloys can be resistance welded.
a flat surfaced roll. In some instances, punches with Because the physical characteristics of aluminum are
shoulders are employed to control the amount of different from those of steel, somewhat different
punch penetration and flatten the deformation at the equipment may be required, although modified equip-
point of entry simultaneously. ment is often adapted with excellent results. More
Wire brushing is the most satisfactory method of electrical capacity is usually required for aluminum
surface preparation. than for steel.
Pressure Gas Welding
Advantages of resistance welding are low cost, high
production speed, and automatic operation. The major
Metal flow between clean interfaces is essential to a disadvantage is the high initial cost of the equipment.
cold pressure weld. Simple pressure is not enough. Once Consequently, resistance welding is generally con-
started, metal flow must be vigorous and continuous, fined to mass production items where the low cost per
although speed seems to have little bearing on quality of weld will offset the high cost of the equipment.
weld. Pressure must be applied over a comparatively
Spot and Seam Welding
narrow strip, so that the metal can flow away from the
weld at both sides. When continuous welds are to be Three types of resistance welding equipment are
used, the indentor should be of waved design, rather used for spot and seam welding aluminum alloys.
than straight, for maximum strength. Strip and sheet can These are classified on the basis of the electrical sys-
also be butt welded, but as the width increases, the grip- tem supplying welding current as follows: standard
ping problem for the dies also increases. alternating current (ac), energy storage, electromag-
There are two basic methods of pressure gas weld- netic, and energy storage, electrostatic. Electrostatic
ing: closed joint and open joint. Coalescence is pro- welding may be either magnetic or condenser energy
duced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting storage. The comparative current and pressure cycles
surfaces by heating with oxyacetylene flames and then for these systems are shown in Figure A-4.
applying pressure. No filler metal is used. Alternating-Current Welding
In closed joint welding (also called solid phase and Since aluminum and its alloys have comparatively
closed butt welding), weld faces are in contact during high thermal and electrical conductivities, high weld-
the complete welding cycle. Ends are carefully ing currents and relatively short welding times are
cleaned, butted, and heated to a high temperature, but required in spot welding.
not to the melting stage. Pressure is applied, thereby In the widely used alternating-current method for
upsetting the weld zone in a plastic deformation. Vari- spot welding, the high welding current required is
ous refinements are used in this method, particularly in obtained from the secondary coil of a welding trans-
pressure. Often a low initial pressure is applied, and former having a turns ratio from 20:l to 1OO:l. The
the pressure is increased as the metal attains its plastic primary coil is usually connected to either 230 or 460-
state. Maximum pressure can be applied throughout volt, 60 Hz power supply. An electronic control is
the welding process, or different pressures may be used to time the application of welding current ranging
applied at regular or varying intervals. from 1 to 30 cycles.
In open joint welding, parts are spaced a short dis- Current Regulation. The secondary current required
tance apart, and heated to the melting temperature. varies with the thickness of the material to be welded,
When melting temperature is reached, the parts are as shown in Table A-5. To obtain the correct current,
brought together rapidly, causing an upset, or partial an electronic control adjusts the current in steps of
fusion, weld. Most of the melted material is squeezed approximately 1000 amperes. Taps either on the
from the interface by the impact, and the resulting primary of the welding transformer, or on a separate
weld resembles a resistance flash weld. auto-transformer may be used. Where necessary, a
series-parallel switch is provided on the welding trans-
ALUMINUM, Resistance Welding former primary to permit adjustment of the current
Resistance welding is a process in which the weld- down to 25% of the maximum, which is usually suffi-
ing heat is generated in the parts to be: joined by resis- cient to cover the normal range of material thickness.
Welding Encyclopedia ALUMINUM, Resistance Weldina 19
Table A-5
PRESSURE
Machine Settings for A-C Spot Welding
Aluminum Alloys
-
-m-.e*
CURRENT- Thickness, Time, Current, Tip pressure, Ib.
in. cycles amperes Min. Max.
TIME
0.016 4 14 000 200 400
&..... 0.020 6 16 000 300 500
STANDARD AC 0.025 6 17 000 300 500
0.032 8 18 000 400 600
0.040 8 20 000 400 600
PRESSURE 0.051 10 22 000 500 700
0.064 10 24 000 500 700
0.08 1 12 28 000 600 800
0.102 12 32 000 800 1000
0.128 15 35 000 800 1200
sulted to determine the size and number of condensers They exert suficient pressure on the material to hold it
required. in place. (3) They conduct the heat out of the parts
Magnetic-EnergyStorage Welding welded to prevent the weld zone from reaching the
The electrical current demand for spot welding alu- outside surfaces of the material.
minum can be reduced even further by using mag- At least one of the electrodes must be shaped so that
netic-energy storage equipment, which stores the current will be highly concentrated in the weld. This
welding energy in an inductor transformer by estab- electrode may be dome-shaped with a 25 to 50 mm (1
lishing a direct current of 100 to 400 amperes in the to 2 in.) radius, or it may be conical with a 158" to
primary winding of this transformer. On interruption 166" included cone angle. Another tip shape often
of the current by a contactor, a high value of current is used with the energy-storage welding processes con-
established in the secondary circuit and through the sists of a truncated cone with a 160" to 130" cone
work being welded. This current decays to a low value angle and a flat spot with a diameter equal to twice the
in 0.01 to 0.05 second. thickness of the weld material, plus 3 mm (1/8 in.).
Equipment for this process also has an electrode The same shape electrode can be used on the other
pressure system which permits the welding pressure to side of the work, or a flat electrode can be used on one
be varied during the welding operation. The combina- side of the work to obtain a surface with the minimum
tion of a short duration welding current impulse and a of electrode marking. These flat electrodes may be
varying pressure results in welds of very sound struc- from 16 to 30 mm (5/8 in. to 1-1/4 in.) in diameter. A
ture and good appearance. further increase in diameter does not improve the
The maximum power demand for magnetic energy appearance of the weld.
storage equipment is about one-tenth that required for The electrodes must be of sufficient diameter to
alternating-current equipment, but this system can weld carry the required welding currents without undue
the same thickness of material because the energy is heating. A 16 mm (5/8 in.) diameter electrode is suit-
obtained by drawing a lower power for a longer time. able for currents up to 35 000 amp. and a welding time
Condenser-EnergyStorage Welding of 15 cycles, when the rate of welding is not more than
The condenser-energy storage equipment utilizes 40 welds per minute. When higher welding currents or
greater welding speeds are used, electrodes of 22 to
static condensers to store the energy used for welding.
Three-phase primary power is stepped up in voltage 30 mm (7/8 to 1-1/4 in.) diameter should be used. For
and rectified to charge the condensers to a voltage welding currents less than 20 000 amps and welding
from 1000 to 3000 volts. When this bank of charged times less than 8 cycles, 12 mm (1/2 in.) diameter
condensers is connected to the primary of the welding electrodes are satisfactory.
transformer, an impulse of welding current rises rap- A coating of aluminum alloy gradually forms over
idly to its maximum value and decays to zero at a the face of the electrode. This alloy "pickup" is of low
somewhat slower rate. When welding with this equip- electrical conductivity, and eventually causes the elec-
ment, a constant high value of welding pressure is gen- trodes to stick to the work and to melt the surface of
erally used. In some cases a higher pressure is used at the base material. The pickup can be removed from the
the end of the weld to provide a forging action on the electrodes with No. 160 or No. 240 abrasive cloth, but
solidified weld metal. in removing pickup from dome-shaped electrodes, it is
Welds produced on this type equipment are excel- important to maintain the original electrode shape.
lent in appearance and the structure is very sound. On alternating-current welding machines using
Another advantage is that the maximum demand on dome or cone shaped electrodes, pickup must be
the power system is about one-tenth of that required removed from the tips after 15 to 80 welds, depending
for a-c welding equipment to join the same thickness on the material welded. On energy-storage equipment
of material. using the truncated cone electrodes, less pickup is
Electrodes
formed, and from 60 to 300 welds may be made before
the electrodes require cleaning. The tip cleaning oper-
The correct selection of electrode shape and the ation requires from 2 to 3 seconds.
maintenance of this shape in production is essential to
achieving consistent spot welds on aluminum. Weld- Seam Welding
ing electrodes serve three functions: (1) They conduct Equipment for seam welding aluminum is similar to
the welding current into the parts being welded. (2) a-c spot-welding equipment except that the electrodes
Welding Encyclopedia ALUMINUM, Resistance Welding 21
are replaced by roller electrodes from 10 to 16 mm (3/8 length of the dies is usually from 25 to 50 mm (1 to
to 5/8 in.) thick and from 15 to 22 cm (6 to 9 in.) diam- 2 in.) and is limited only by the possibility of crushing
eter. One or both of these wheels are trimmed to an the material if too small a die length is used. In addi-
included "V" angle of 158" to 166", or a 25 to 50 mm tion to holding the parts, the die blocks serve as a
(1 to 2 in.) radius to concentrate the current in the means of conducting electric current into the parts
weld. The wheels and the work are cooled by a water being welded and of conducting heat out of the parts
flow of 8 to 12 L/min (2 to 3 gal/min), directed against during the welding process. A secure electrical con-
the periphery of the wheel near the weld. Usually one nection between one of the dies contacting at least
of the wheels is driven at an adjustable constant speed 40% of the circumference of the part must be made.
from 30 to 150 c d m i n (12 to 60 in./min). It is essen-
Flashing. The duration of the flashing motion must
tial in seam welding that the electronic timing control
be sufficient to permit adequate coverage by the arc of
initiate and close off the weld current in synchronism
the entire section welded. Considerable variation can
with the supply voltage.
be tolerated in both the amount of material flashed off
Flash Welding and the time of flashing, providing a uniform, steady
Aluminum alloys in the form of sheet, tubing, flash is maintained. Total material flashed off both
extrusions, and rolled bar can be butt- or miter-flash pieces varies from 6 mm (1/4 in.) for small diameter
welded to form joints of equal or greater strength than wires to 18 mm (3/4 in.) for large diameter rod. Flash-
those produced by fusion welding. In flash welding, ing times from one-half to one second are used,
the parts to be joined are securely clamped in dies on although the flashing time can be reduced to as low as
the welding machine, and an electric arc is established 1/20 second, if sufficient current is available to main-
between the ends of the parts to be welded. This arc is tain flashing.
maintained by placing the parts together as the alumi-
num material is consumed in the arc. When the ends of Welding Current. Welding current is adjusted by
the parts are sufficiently heated by this arcing process, varying the secondary voltage applied to the dies. It is
the weld is made by rapidly driving the heated ends usually done with taps on the primary of the welding
together with sufficient pressure to hold the material in transformer. An adjustment which provides an upset
intimate contact until the weld metal has cooled. current of about 15 500 amp/cm2 (100 000 amp. per
in.2) is used. The current obtained during flashing is
Equipment. So that no arcing occurs when welding from 1/5 to 1/3 of the current which flows after the
aluminum, the flash-welding machine must have parts have come into good contact during the upset.
sufficient transformer capacity to supply a current
density of 15 500 amp/cm2 (100 000 amp/in2.) within Welding Time. The transformer is energized before
the section welded, when the parts are in firm contact. the parts to be welded have come into contact and is
The secondary voltage of the flash-welding trans- de-energized by opening a contactor (or by other
former can be from 2 to 20 volts. The machine must means) in the primary supply to the welding trans-
be equipped with appropriate dies and die-clamping former. The time relation between the beginning of the
devices to securely hold the parts being welded to upset motion and the cutoff of power from the welding
prevent slipping during the upsetting action which transformer is the most critical adjustment in the flash
takes place when the weld is formed. One of the welding of aluminum. The current is removed after 1
clamping dies must be driven toward the other with an to 5 cycles following the initiation of the upset cycle.
accelerated motion to establish and maintain the The time delay of mechanical current interruptions is
flashing, and to obtain a very rapid upset motion at critical. If the current is shut off too early, oxide inclu-
the end of the flashing period. The mechanism for sions occur in the welds; if it is shut off too late, over-
driving the movable die must be sufficiently rigid and heating of the weld and low weld strength are the
strong to upset the largest area of section to be result.
welded. Costs. The economics of constructing special dies
Clamping Dies. Dies are made from hard-drawn to hold the parts, and the time and material necessary
copper or copper alloys. Water cooling is not required to adjust the machine for production are such that from
except on very high production machines. The clamp- 500 to 1000 joints are usually required to justify the
ing dies should securely contact at least 80% of the cost of setting up the flash-welding process. Produc-
outside circumference of the part to be joined. The tion rates from 60 to 200 welds per hour can be
22 ALUMINUM SOLDERING Welding Encyclopedia
obtained, depending on methods used in clamping the and the close-packed strands remove the oxide without
parts. The actual welding operation lasts only one damage to the parent metal.
second. Some solder rods, called abrasion solders, have
Finishing the Welds. Chipping or grinding methods melting characteristics which permit them to perform
are used to remove the excess upset material to finish the dual role of solder source and abrasion tool. How-
the weld. Welds finished and treated by the anodizing ever, only a precoated or tinned surface is produced,
process exhibit only a narrow line of slight discolora- and a second operation is generally required to com-
tion at the weld. plete the joining.
ALUMINUM SOLDERING Ultrasonic Cleaning and Soldering
Soldering is an economical and practical means of Cleaning. Ultrasonic energy can be used to remove
joining aluminum on a production basis. With careful oxide film on aluminum. An electronic power oscilla-
attention to such details as surface preparation, solder tor is used to generate electrical impulses (currents) at
composition, temperature, and application of heat, a frequencies from 15 to 50 kHz; these electrical
variety of joints can be soldered. impulses are converted to mechanical motion by a
Although less heat is required to raise the tempera- device known as a magnetostrictive transducer. Com-
ture of a piece of aluminum sheet of a given thickness mercial transducers used in soldering tools consist of a
than is required for a sheet of copper or steel of the nickel core and a coil around the core that is connected
same thickness, aluminum must be heated from 55 to to the oscillator. When the nickel core (a laminated
110C (100 to 200F) higher than either of these met- nickel core is generally used to reduce eddy currents)
als when it is to be soldered. The higher temperature is is subjected to an electromagnetic impulse resulting
specified to produce joints with good resistance to cor- from electric current flowing through the coil, it con-
rosion, and is one of the key factors in producing suc- stricts a maximum of 30/1 000 000 (30 x of its
cessful soldered joints in aluminum. length. If the end of the vibrating core is brought into
Preparing the Surface contact with molten solder, the vibrating core will pro-
As a first step, it is necessary to remove the oxide duce numerous holes, or voids, within the liquid.
film on aluminum so that the filler metal can contact When aluminum is immersed in the liquid solder, the
and bond with the parent metal. This is accomplished collapse of the voids creates an abrasive effect known
by one of the following methods: as cavitation erosion on the surface of the metal. This
(1) Mechanical abrasion erosive action removes the oxide film.
(2) Application of ultrasonic energy
Soldering. In ultrasonic aluminum soldering, the
(3) Electroplating
(4) Use of either chemical or reaction-type fluxes area to be precoated, or tinned, is cleaned, heated to
soldering temperature, about 190C (375F), and the
Mechanical Abrasion solder, usually a 90-10 tin-zinc combination, is
Scraping is the simplest way to remove oxide. Due applied. A quantity of solder is melted on the surface
to the rapid rate at which the film re-forms on alumi- to form a molten puddle, and the end of the transducer
num, scraping is impractical unless it is accomplished is swept over this surface. The ultrasonic energy
in the presence of molten solder. The solder then wets removes the oxide from the aluminum, allowing a firm
and bonds with the parent metal and results in a pre- solder bond.
coated or tinned surface.
Although there are many variations of the process, The ultrasonic method can also be applied in dip
one example is as follows: Two sheets of aluminum soldering, or, with modifications, in brazing and
are heated to the melting temperature of the solder. A welding.
small amount of solder is then melted on the sheets The primary advantages of the ultrasonic process
and rubbed with an abrasion tool until the solder wets are that no flux is required, and joint quality is equal to
the surface. The two precoated sheets are then placed that of joints soldered by any other process using the
together and held in contact until the solder solidifies. same solder and parent metal. The disadvantages are
A strong joint results. high cost of equipment, small capacity of the units,
A fibrous glass brush is one of the most satisfactory and the limitation that direct soldering of lap or crimp
abrasion tools, since no corrosion hazard is created joints is not practical.
Welding Encyclopedia ALUMINUM SOLDERING 23
Plated Surfaces for Soldering mediate corrosion resistance. They require soldering
It is possible to prepare the aluminum surface to be temperatures of 290C (550F) or higher.
soldered by electrolytically plating it with a metal, The tin-lead solders containing cadmium or zinc
such as copper. Before deposition of the copper, the produce joints with shear strength in excess of 34 MPa
aluminum surface is treated by immersing the alumi- (5000 psi), with corrosion resistance adequate for inte-
num in a solution of alkaline sodium zincate. The zin- rior applications only. These solders are applied at sol-
cated surface is then electrolytically plated with dering temperatures of 230C (450F) or higher.
copper to produce a surface that can be easily soldered Solders high in zinc content are applied to alumi-
with the conventional solders and fluxes used to solder num for a soldered system that is very resistant to cor-
copper. rosive attack. Hot dip tinned surfaces are used in
Fluxes for Soldering Aluminum special applications to produce readily solderable sur-
faces, since tin quickly wets an aluminum surface
Chemical and reaction fluxes are the types gener- from which the oxide has been removed. Thus, pre-
ally used for soldering aluminum. Chemical fluxes are tinned aluminum soldering materials and techniques
usually recommended when the joint temperature is cannot be used. However, molten tin penetrates alumi-
less than 275C (525F). However, in some applica- num-magnesium alloys along the grain boundaries,
tions, the maximum temperature limit can be success- and alloys containing more than 0.5% magnesium can
fully raised to 325C (620F). At temperatures be seriously damaged by this penetration. Cadmium is
exceeding 275C (525"F), the chemical fluxes decom- only slightly soluble in solid aluminum and forms a
pose; at temperatures above 325C (620"F), this very limited diffusion zone in aluminum soldered
decomposition becomes so rapid that it is impractical joints. Cadmium is not usually used as a solder by
to use this type of flux. itself, but is used effectively to improve the properties
In general, chemical fluxes are used with the tin- of zinc- and tin-base solders. Lead is practically insol-
lead-cadmium-zinc solders. For best results, the mag- uble in solid aluminum and is not normally used as a
nesium content of the aluminum alloy being soldered solder by itself. In combination with tin, zinc and cad-
should not exceed I%, and the silicon content should mium, lead forms an important class of solders for
not exceed 5%. aluminum.
All of the common commercial reaction fluxes Joint Design
deposit zinc or tin, or both, on the aluminum surfaces.
These metals alloy with the aluminum, and a thin alloy The joint designs used for soldering aluminum are
layer is formed in the area near the original surface of similar to those used with other metals. The most com-
mon designs are lap, crimped, and T joints. Capillary
the material.
spacing varies with method, alloy, solder, joint, and
Solders for Aluminum flux. Generally, joint spacings from 0.25 to 0.60 mm
There are four groups of commercial solders for (0.010 to 0.025 in.) are maintained when a chemical
aluminum: zinc base, zinc-cadmium base, tin-zinc flux is used, and from 0.05 to 0.25 mm (0.002 to
base, and the tin-lead base. All these may contain 0.010 in.) with reaction fluxes.
appreciable quantities of other metals. Table A-6 Torch Soldering
shows the composition of typical solders for Air-fuel gas or oxyfuel gas torches are used effec-
aluminum. tively to solder aluminum assemblies. The flame tem-
The zinc-base solders produce joints with shear perature (gas mixtures) and heat output (torch size)
strengths of 103 MPa (15 000 psi) and higher, with can be independently adjusted to provide optimum
good corrosion resistance. These solders require sol- conditions for specific applications. The flux is usually
dering temperatures ranging from 370 to 435C (700 painted on the joint, and the solder is either pre-placed
to 820F). or manually fed into the joint using solder wire. The
The zinc-cadmium base solders develop joints with best torch soldering technique involves heating the
shear strengths in excess of 70 MPa (10 000 psi), with assembly initially on both sides of the joint area until
intermediate corrosion resistance. They require solder- solder flow can be initiated in the joint area. The flame
ing temperatures of 265 to 400C (5 10 to 750F). can then be moved to a position directly over the joint
The tin-zinc base solders develop joints with shear and slightly behind the front of the solder flow. In this
strengths in excess of 48 MPa (7000 psi), with inter- way the flame does not come into direct contact with
24 ALUMINUM SOLDERING Welding Encyclopedia
Table A-6
Composition olf Typical Solders for Use with Aluminum
Approximate Melting
Range*
Solder Q p e Sn Zn A1 Cd Pb cu "C "F
Zn Base - 94 4 - - 2 382-393 720-740
Zn Base - 95 5 - - - 380 710
Zn Base - 79.6 10 0.4 3 5 2 16-400 420-750
Zn-Cd Base - 90 - 10 - - 265-404 509-760
Zn-Cd Base - 17.5 - 82.5 - - 265 509
Sn-Zn 20 15 0.8 64.2 - - 110- 120 230-250
Sn-Zn 30 70 - - - - 200-380 390-710
Sn-Zn 60 39.4 - - 0.1 0.5 200-340 390-645
Sn-Zn 69.3 28 0.7 - 2.0 - 195-335 385-635
Sn-Zn 80 20 - - - - 200-275 390-530
Sn-Pb 36.9 - - 3.8 58.3 - 145-230 290-450
Sn-Pb 31.6 9 - 8 51 0.4 140-250 282-485
Sn-Pb 40 15 0.8 - 44.2 - 170-360 335-675
Sn-Pb 20 15 0.8 64.2 - - 110-275 230-530
*Solid-Liquid Range
the flux before it has performed its function, and the listed in Table A-6 can be used for dip soldering. Sol-
speed and ease of soldering is at a maximum. der selection should be based on service and operating
characteristics required, and cost of the solder.
Furnace Soldering
In dip soldering, the flux tends to insulate the part to
Furnace soldering is a highly productive, efficient be soldered from the solder, thus a heavy coat of flux
method for fabricating aluminum assemblies. In this will reduce the rate at which the part is brought to sol-
process, the entire assembly is raised to temperature, dering temperature. Since the rate of heating will be
thus minimizing distortion. The solder is usually pre- greatest if a small amount of flux is used, and because
placed in the joint, using wires, shims, or washers of solder will prevent the surface from being reoxidized,
filler material. Flux is applied by spraying, painting, or a dilute liquid flux is recommended for dip soldering.
immersing the part in the flux by flowing a liquid flux Also, the flux should be selected to operate at the opti-
over the assembly. The assembly is then placed in a mum temperature of the solder to minimize drossing,
furnace and brought to temperature. The flux must be dissolution, and liquid metal penetration, and to pro-
carefully protected against charring or volatilization vide the best operating characteristics possible.
before it has performed its function. Joint design and
Soldering Aluminum Alloys
furnace characteristics should be such that all sections
of the joint are brought to temperature at the same time While aluminum and all the aluminum alloys can be
in order to prevent excessive alloying and penetration satisfactorily joined by soldering, the alloying ele-
by liquid solder. ments influence the ease with which they are soldered.
Alloys commonly used in commercial applications are
Dip Soldering 1100, 1145,3003,5005, and 6061.
Dip soldering is an efficient process for joining Commercially pure aluminum (1loo), aluminum of
assemblies at a high production rate. It is a versatile higher purity (1 145), and aluminum-manganese
process because the same techniques used for other (3003) alloys can be readily joined using all soldering
metals can often be utilized for soldering aluminum by techniques. Aside from ensuring that the surface is
merely changing solder and flux. Any of the solders reasonably free of extraneous dirt or corrosive prod-
Welding Encyclopedia ALUMINUM WROUGHT ALLOYS, Welding 25
ucts, no special surface preparation is needed for sol- ALUMINUM, Ultrasonic Welding
dering these alloys. They are also resistant to Ultrasonic welding is a metal joining process in
intergranular penetration by liquid solder. which high-intensity vibratory energy, usually at a fre-
Use of molten tin solders results in intergranular quency above audibility, or in excess of 15 kHz, is
penetration in alloys containing 0.5% or more magne- introduced into the area to be welded as the work-
sium. Zinc solders will also cause intergranular pene- pieces are held together under pressure. This process
tration of aluminum-magnesium alloys, but the extent depends on the conversion of high-frequency alternat-
of penetration is usually not significant until the mag- ing current to mechanical vibration. Ultrasonic weld-
nesium content of the parent alloy exceeds 0.7%. ing involves complex relationships between the static
clamping force, the oscillating shear forces, and a
Aluminum alloys containing more than 5% silicon
are not usually soldered by procedures requiring the moderate temperature rise in the weld zone, creating
conditions which result in atomic diffusion across the
use of a flux.
interface. The metal recrystallizes to a very fine
The addition of zinc or copper to aluminum does grained structure having the properties of moderately
not materially reduce the solderability. However, these cold-worked metal. The magnitude of the factors
metals are used in combination with other elements to required to produce a weld are functions of the thick-
form high-strength, heat-treatable alloys. Films ness, surface condition, and the mechanical properties
formed on the surface during heat treatment reduce the of the workpieces. See ULTRASONIC WELDING.
solderability, so a chemical surface pre-treatment is Pieces to be joined are clamped at low pressure (4
usually recommended. In some instances, alloys such to 160 kg [ l o to 350 Ib.]) between two welding mem-
as 2024 and 7075 have been satisfactorily soldered bers or sonotrodes, and the vibratory energy is intro-
using reaction fluxes without using chemical pre- duced for a brief interval. The heart of the equipment
treatment. If chemical fluxes are used, a chemical is a magnetostrictive transducer, a rectangular stack
pretreatment is usually required. built up of A nickel laminations wrapped with insu-
Additions of small amounts of magnesium and sili- lated wire. Nickel laminations are used for the trans-
con to aluminum produce an alloy system commonly ducer because of the transducers substantial change in
referred to as the aluminum-magnesium-silicate length when magnetized. The equipment develops
alloys. These alloys, 6061 and 6063, are easily sol- power at supersonic frequency to drive the transducer
dered and are not as susceptible to intergranular stack which, in turn, converts electrical current to
penetration by liquid solder as the binary aluminum- mechanical vibrations, then transmits them to the
magnesium alloys of a similar magnesium content. upper sonotrode. The high frequency vibratory energy
Excellent Solderability. Binary aluminum-magne-
produced by the transducer passes from the welding
sium alloys, in sheet and other forms, provide excel- head through the two pieces to be welded, where it dis-
lent solderability, and include 1030, 1050, 1060, 1070, rupts the oxide film at the interface and eliminates the
1075, 1080, 1085, 1090, 1095, 1099, 1100, 1130, need for any further preparation.
1145,1160,1171,1180,1187,1197, and 3003. Chemi- All combinations of aluminum alloys form a weld-
cal or reaction fluxes may be used. able pair. They may be joined in any available form:
cast, extruded, rolled, forged, or heat-treated. Soft alu-
Good Solderability. Alloys considered good for minum cladding on the surface of these alloys facilitates
soldering are 3004, 5005, 5357, 6053, 6061, 6062, welding. Aluminum can be welded to most other met-
6063, 6151, 6253, 6951, 7072, and 8112. With the als, including germanium and silicon, the primary semi-
exception of the first two, reaction type flux is recom- conductor materials.
mended. Applications include electronic components, elec-
Fair Solderability. Fair solderability is accorded trical connections, foil and sheet splicing, encapsula-
alloys 2011, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2024, 2025, 2117, tion and packaging, and structural welding.
2214,2218,2225, and 5050.
ALUMINUM WROUGHT ALLOYS, Welding
Poor Solderability. The alloys rated as poor for sol- Wrought aluminum alloys can be joined by most
dering are 5052,5652,7075,7178,7277,4032,4043, fusion and solid state processes, as well as by brazing
4045,4343,5055, 5056,5083, 5086,5154,5254, and and soldering (See ALUMINUM BRAZING and ALUMI-
5356. NUM SOLDERING).
26 AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE Welding Encyclopedia
The relative weldability of the wrought non-heat- service requirements of the product. Some additional
treatable alloys is shown in Table A-7. Similar infor- considerations are joint design, dilution, cracking ten-
mation for the wrought heat-treatable alloys is shown dencies, strength and ductility requirements, corrosive
in Table A-8. In addition to the processes listed in the environment, and appearance. Table A-9 shows a filler
tables, wrought aluminum alloys are welded by elec- metal selection chart for welding aluminum alloys.
tron beam and plasma arc welding, and such solid state
processes as friction welding, diffusion welding, AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE
explosion welding, high frequency welding and cold The gauge used to designate the sizes of solid cop-
welding. Submerged arc welding is one of the few pro- per wires used in the United States. Formerly called
cesses not commercially used on wrought aluminum Brown and Sharpe gauge.
alloys.
The selection of a process for welding wrought alu- AMMETER
minum alloys depends on many factors, such as the An instrument that measures and indicates in
application and service environment, the physical amperes the rate of flow of electricity through a
dimensions of the parts being welded, the number of circuit.
parts involved, the joint design required for the appli-
cation, and the welding equipment available to do the AMMETER SHUNT
job. A special low resistance conductor connected to the
The selection of filler metals for welding wrought terminals of an ammeter to carry nearly all the current,
aluminum alloys depends on the particular alloy, but allowing only a very small current to flow through the
also may be influenced by the process selected and the ammeter.
Table A-7
Weldability112of Nonheat-Treatable Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Table A-8
Weldability1s2of Heat-Treatable Wrought Aluminum Alloys
2014 X C C B C X C
2017 X C C B C X C
2024 X C C B C X C
2036 X C B B C X C
2090 X X B B C X C
2218 X C C B C X C
2219 X C A B C X C
2519 X C B B C X C
2618 X C C B C X C
6005 A A A A B A B
6009 C C B B B X C
6010 C C B B B X C
6013 C C B A B X C
6061 A A A A B A B
6063 A A A A B A B
6070 C C B B B X C
6101 A A A A A A A
6262 C C B A B B B
6351 A A A A B A B
6951 A A A A A A A
7004 X X A A B B B
7005 X X A A B B B
7039 X X A A B C B
7075 X X C B C X C
7079 X X C B C X C
7178 X X C B C X C
Table A-9
Guide to the Selection of Filler Metal for Aluminum Weldingavb,c
356.0,
PD56.0,
319.0, 357.0, 511.0, 7004,
333.0, A357.0, 512.0, 7005, 6005,6061,
201.0 354.0, 413.0, 513.0, a 7039, 6009 6063,6101,
206.0 355.0, 443.0, 514.0, 701.0, 6010 6151,6201,
Base Metal 224.0 C355.0 A444.0 535.0 712.0 6070 6351,6951 5456 5454
1016, 1070. 1080. 1350 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043d.e ER5356e.f*g ER5356e.f*g ER4045d,e ER4043e ER5356g ER4043e*g
1100,3003, Alc. 3003 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043d.e ER5356e.fzg ER5356e.f-g ER4043d.e EF~4043~ ER5356g ER4043e'g
3004, Alc. 3004 - ER4043e ER4043e ER5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043'*' ER5356g ER5356'
1100 1060,1070
5154 5052 5005 3004 2014 3003 1080
Base Metal 5254' 5086 5083 5652' 5050 Alc.3004 2219 2036 Alc. 3003 1350
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
'060' 'O7'' ER5356e,f*g ER5356g ER53569 ER4043elg ER1lOOe~' ER4043e.g ER4145e*' ER4145 ER1lOOe.' ER1188e2f*kJ"
1080, 1350
- - - - - - - - - - -
It is the terminal of a primary cell, or of a storage bat- times, but usually the arc is deflected either forward or
tery when it is delivering current. backward along the joint.
Back blow is encountered when welding toward the
ANODE DROP workpiece connection near the end of the joint or into
See VOLTAGE DROP. a corner. Forward blow is encountered when welding
away from the lead at the start of the joint. In general,
ANODIZING arc blow is the result of two basic conditions:
Coating a metal with a protective film by electro- (1) The change of direction of the current flow as it
lytic action. enters the work and is conducted toward the work
Anodizing refers to the surface treatment of alumi- lead.
num to prevent oxidation. It is a deplating process, (2) The asymmetric arrangement of magnetic mate-
since. the work itself becomes the anode in the plating rial around the arc, a condition that normally exists
bath and metal is thrown off rather than put on. when welding is done near the end of ferromagnetic
Nascent oxygen is released at the anode. This immedi- materials.
ately attacks the metal surface and forms an extremely Although arc blow cannot always be eliminated, it
hard oxide film. The anodizing treatment is widely can be controlled or reduced to an acceptable level
used in the aircraft industry, and to treat aluminum through a knowledge of the above two conditions.
automobile pistons. Except in cases where arc blow is unusually severe,
certain corrective steps may be taken to eliminate it or
APPARENT EFFICIENCY at least to reduce its severity. Some or all of the fol-
In alternating current apparatus, apparent efficiency lowing steps may be necessary:
is the ratio of net power output to the volt-ampere (1) Place the workpiece lead connections as far as
input. possible from the joints to be welded.
(2) If back blow is the problem, place the work-
ARC piece connection at the start of welding, and weld
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING toward a heavy tack weld.
ARC. (3) If forward blow causes the trouble, place the
An electric arc is formed when two conductors of workpiece connection at the end of the joint to be
an electric circuit are brought together forming electri- welded.
cal contact, then separated, with sufficient voltage (4) Position the electrode so that the arc force
available to maintain the current of electricity through counteracts the arc blow.
the intervening gaseous medium. (5) Use the shortest possible arc consistent with
In a continuous current arc, the conductor from good welding practice. This helps the arc force to
which the current flows is called the positive electrode, counteract the arc blow.
or anode. The conductor to which the current flows is (6) Reduce the welding current.
called the negative electrode, or cathode. The heated (7) Weld toward a heavy tack or runoff tab.
gases are sometimes called the arc flame, or the arc (8) Use the backstep sequence of welding.
plasma. (9) Change to ac, which may require a change in
the electrode classification.
ARC BLOW (10) Wrap the workpiece lead around the workpiece
The deflection of an arc from its normal path in the direction that sets up a magnetic field which will
because of magnetic forces. See STANDARD WELDING counteract the magnetic field causing the arc blow.
TERMS.
Arc blow, when it occurs, is encountered principally ARC BRAZING
with direct-current welding of magnetic materials An electric brazing process in which the heat is
(iron and nickel). It can be encountered with alternat- obtained from an electric arc formed between the base
ing current under some conditions, but these cases are metal and an electrode, or between two electrodes. See
rare, and the intensity of the arc blow is always much STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
less severe. Direct current flowing through the elec-
trode and base metal sets up magnetic fields around ARC CHAMBER
the electrode which tend to deflect the arc to the side at A nonstandard term for PLENUM CHAMBER.
32 ARC CONTROL Welding Encyclopedia
ARC CONTROL ferrous metals, since it does not depend on the heat
Arc control in d-c welding machines is accom- generated by the oxidation of the iron to propagate the
plished primarily by a rheostat in the welding circuit. process.
On a-c machines, controlling the output current is of Application technique is a factor to be considered
prime importance and can be accomplished by using when specifying electric arc cutting. Welding person-
one of the following: movable shunt control, movable nel proficient in the use of conventional electrodes are
coil control, tapped reactor coil control and electronic also able to use the specially designed oxygenless arc
control. The method is usually dictated by process cutting electrodes.
requirements, economics of manufacturing, and the
necessity for remote control capabilities. ARC CUlTlNG TORCH
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also AIR CAR-
ARC CUlTER
BON ARC CUTTING TORCH, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUT-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER- TING TORCH, and PLASMA ARC CUTTING TORCH.
MAL CUTTER.
per second. The velocity of the gas through the atom- A technique called bond coat mode can be used in
izing nozzle can be regulated to control deposit char- this process to achieve higher strength bonds with
acteristics. some materials; when the conditions of this mode are
In comparison with wire flame spraying, the quan- carried out, the following are ensured: (1) fine spray
tity of metal oxides is better controlled and spray ratzs particle size, (2) minimum loss of alloy constituents,
are higher in wire arc spraying, so this process is often (3) concentrated spray pattern, and (4) high melting
more economical. rate.
Equipment. The wire arc spray system can be oper- Arc Spraying Applications
ated from a control console or from the gun. The con- Arc spray deposits can provide protection against
trol console will have the switches and regulators many types of corrosive attack on iron and steel. Zinc,
necessary for controlling and monitoring the operating aluminum, and stainless steels can be used as surfac-
circuits that power the gun and control the spray pro- ing materials. A thick layer of zinc or aluminum can
cedure, as follows: protect steel against oxidation and provide a strong
(1) A solid-state direct current power source, usu- bond for an organic coating.
ally the constant voltage type Safety
(2) A dual wire feeding system
Local, state, and federal safety regulations should
(3) A compressed gas supply with regulators and be investigated, and procedures must comply with
flowmeter built into the control assembly them. The potential hazards involved in arc spraying
(4) Arc spray gun and appropriate console switching operations are electrical shock, fire, gases, dust and
The wire control unit consists of two reel (or coil) fumes, arc radiation and noise. These potentials are
holders, which are insulated from each other, and not unique to thermal spraying; the general require-
connected to the spray gun with flexible insulated ments for the protection of thermal spray operators are
wire guide tubes. Wire sizes range from 1.6 to 3.2 mm the same as for welders, set forth in ANSI 249.1,
(1/16 to 1/8 in.). The wire arc spray process can Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes; ANSI
deposit as little as 0.45 kghr (1 l b h ) . Factors control- 287.1, Practices for Occupational and Educational
ling the rate of application are the current rating of the Eye and Face Protection; ANSI 288.2, Practices for
power source and the permissible wire feed rate to Respiratory Protection; ANSI 289.1, Safety Require-
carry the available power. ments for Industrial Head Protection. Also, CGA P- 1,
Direct current constant potential power sources pro- Safe Handling of Compressed Gases.
viding a voltage of 18 to 40 volts are normally used in
this process. This permits operation over a wide range ARC SPRAYING OPERATOR
of metals and alloys. The arc gap and spray particle See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
size increase with a rise in voltage. The voltage should MAL SPRAYING OPERATOR.
be kept at the lowest possible level, consistent with
good arc stability, to provide the smoothest coatings ARC STRIKE
and maximum coating density. A discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of
Advantages and Limitations. Compared to flame any localized remelted metal, heat-affected metal, or
spraying, energy and labor costs are lower for arc change in the surface profile of any metal object. See
spraying because of its higher deposition rate, lower STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
maintenance, low gas costs, and higher deposition
efficiencies. ARC STUD WELDING (SW)
One adverse effect of the high energy state of the An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
atomized particles is their tendency to change compo- metal stud, or similar part, and the other workpiece.
sition through oxidation or vaporization, or both. The process is used without filler metal, with or with-
These effects can be minimized by judicious wire out shielding gas or flux, with or without partial
selection. shielding from a ceramic or graphite ferrule surround-
The arc spray method is less versatile than flame or ing the stud, and with the application of pressure after
plasma methods, because powders and nonconductive the faying surfaces are suficiently heated. See STAN-
materials cannot be used. DARD WELDING TERMS.
Welding Encyclopedia ARC STUD WELDING (SW) 35
In arc stud welding, the base end of the stud is Capabilities. Because arc stud welding time cycles
joined to the other work part by heating the stud and are very short, heat input to the base metal is very
the work with an arc drawn between the two. When small compared to conventional arc welding. Conse-
the surfaces to be joined are properly heated, they are quently, the weld metal and heat-affected zones are
brought together under low pressure. Stud welding very narrow. Distortion of the base metal at stud loca-
guns are used to hold the studs and move them in tions is minimal.
proper sequence during welding. There are two basic Studs can be welded at the appropriate time during
power supplies used to create the arc for welding construction or fabrication without access to the back
studs. One type uses d-c power sources similar to side of the base member. Drilling, tapping, or riveting
those used for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). for installation is not required.
The other type uses a capacitor storage bank to supply Small studs can be welded to thin sections by the
the arc power. The stud arc welding processes using capacitor discharge method. Studs have been welded
these two types of power sources are known as arc to sheet as thin as 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) without melt-
stud welding and capacitor discharge stud welding, through. They have been joined to certain materials
respectively. (stainless steel, for example) in thicknesses down to
0.25 mm (0.01 in.). Because the depth of melting is
Arc stud welding, the more widely used of the two very shallow, capacitor discharge welds can be made
major stud welding processes, is similar in many without damage to a refinished opposite side. No sub-
respects to manual SMAW. The heat necessary for sequent cleaning or finishing is required.
welding of studs is developed by a d-c arc between the
stud (electrode) and the plate (work) to which the stud Limitations. Only one end of a stud can be welded
is to be welded. Welding time and the plunging of the to the workpiece. If a stud is required on both sides of
stud into the molten weld pool to complete the weld a member, a second stud must be welded to the other
are controlled automatically. The stud, which is held in side. Stud shape and size are limited because the
a stud welding gun, is positioned by the operator, who stud design must permit chucking of the stud for weld-
ing. The stud base size is limited for thin base metal
then actuates the unit by pressing a switch. The weld is
thicknesses.
completed quickly, usually in less than a second. This
Studs applied by arc stud welding usually require a
process generally uses a ceramic arc shield, called a
disposable ceramic ferrule around the base. It is also
ferrule. It surrounds the stud to contain the molten
necessary to provide flux in the stud base or a protec-
metal and shield the arc. tive gas shield to obtain a sound weld.
Capacitor discharge stud welding derives its heat The arc stud welding process involves the same
from an arc produced by the rapid discharge of electri- basic principles as any of the other arc welding pro-
cal energy stored in a bank of capacitors. During or cesses. Application of the process consists of two
immediately following the electrical discharge, pres- steps:
sure is applied to the stud, plunging its base into the (1) Welding heat is developed with an arc between
molten pool of the workpiece. The arc may be estab- the stud and the plate (work).
lished either by rapid resistance heating, and vaporiza- (2) The two pieces are brought into intimate con-
tion of a projection on the stud weld base (arc time: 3- tact when the proper temperature is reached.
6 milliseconds), or by drawing an arc as the stud is Applications
lifted away from the workpiece (arc time: 6-15 milli- Arc stud welding has been widely accepted by all
seconds). The capacitor discharge process does not the metalworking industries. Specifically, stud weld-
require a shielding ceramic ferrule because of the short ing is used extensively in the following fields: auto-
arc duration and small amount of molten metal motive, boiler and building and bridge construction,
expelled from the joint. It is suited for applications farm and industrial equipment manufacture, railroads,
requiring small to medium studs. and shipbuilding. Defense industry applications
For either process, a wide range of stud styles is include missile containers, armored vehicles, and
available. They include such types as threaded fasten- tanks.
ers, plain or slotted pins, and internally threaded fas- Some typical applications are attaching wood floors
teners. Most stud styles can be rapidly applied with to steel decks or framework; fastening linings or insu-
portable equipment. lation in tanks, boxcars, and other containers, securing
36 ARC STUD WELDING (SW) Welding Encyclopedia
inspection covers, mounting machine iiccessories; cycle is much lower for stud welding than for other
securing tubing and wire harnesses; and welding shear types of arc welding.
connectors and concrete anchors to structures. Duty Cycle. The basis for rating special stud welding
Equipment power sources is different from that of conventional
The most basic equipment arrangement consists of arc welding machines. Because stud welding requires
the stud gun, a control unit (timing device), studs and a high current for a relatively short time, the current
ferrules, and an available source of d-c welding cur- output requirements of a stud welding power source
rent. In terms of portability and ease of operation, the are higher, but the duty cycle is much lower than those
equipment involved in stud welding compares with for other types of arc welding.
that of manual SMAW. The duty cycle for stud arc welding machines is
based on the formula:
Guns. There are two types of stud welding guns,
portable hand-held and fixed production types. Auto- Percent duty cycle = 1.7 x number of one-second loads
matic stud feeding systems are available for both. per minute, where the one-second load is the rated
output.
Power Sources. A direct-current power source is
used for arc stud welding. Alternating current is not Thus, if a machine can be operated six times per
suitable. The three basic types of d-c power sources minute at rated load without causing its components to
that can be used are: transformer-rectifier; motor-gen- exceed their maximum allowable temperatures, then
erator, (motor or engine driven), and battery. The fol- the machine would have a 10% duty cycle rating.
lowing are general characteristics desired in a stud Power Control Units. The control unit consists fun-
welding power source: damentally of a contactor suitable for conducting and
(1) High open-circuit voltage, in the range of 70 to interrupting the welding current, and a weld timing
100 v. device with associated electrical controls. Once set,
(2) A drooping output volt-ampere characteristic the control unit maintains the proper time interval for
(3) A rapid output current rise to the set value the size of stud being welded.
(4) High current output for a relatively short time. Procedure. The mechanics of the process are illus-
The current requirements are higher, and the duty trated in Figure A-7. The stud is loaded into the chuck,
CHUCK
STUD
FERRULE
BASE
METAL
(A) Gun is Properly Positioned, (B) Trigger is Depressed and Stud is Lifted, Creating an Arc, (C) Arcing Period is Completed and Stud is Plunged
Into Molten Pool of Metal on Base Metal, (D) Gun is Withdrawn From the Welded Stud and Ferrule is Removed.
the ferrule (arc shield) is placed in position over the the pieces to be joined are being brought together by
end of the stud, and the gun is properly positioned for action of a spring, weight, or an air cylinder. When the
welding. The trigger is then depressed, starting the two surfaces come in contact, fusion takes place, and
automatic welding cycle. A solenoid coil within the the weld is completed.
body of the gun is energized. This lifts the stud off the Initial Gap Method. To begin, the stud is positioned
work, and at the same time, creates an arc. The end of
off the work, leaving a gap between it and the work.
the stud and the workpiece are melted by the arc.
The stud is released and continuously moves toward
When the preset arc period is completed, the welding
the work under gravity or spring loading. At the same
current is automatically shut off and the solenoid is de- time, open-circuit voltage is applied between the stud
energized by the control unit. The mainspring of the
and the work. When the stud contacts the work, high
gun plunges the stud into the molten pool on the work current flashes off the tip and initiates an arc. The arc
to complete the weld. The gun is then lifted from the
melts the surfaces of the stud and work as the stud
stud, and the ferrule is broken off. The time required to
continues to move forward. Finally, the stud plunges
complete a weld varies with the cross-sectional area of
into the work, and the weld is completed.
the stud. An average rate is approximately 6 studs per
minute, although a rate of 15 studs per minute can be Drawn Arc Method. Arc initiation is accomplished in
achieved for some applications. a manner similar to that of arc stud welding. The stud
Inspection. The latest edition of ANSUAWS D1.l,
does not require a tip on the weld face. An electronic
Structural Welding Code-Steel, contains provisions for control is used to sequence the operation. Weld time is
the installation and inspection of steel studs welded to controlled by an electronic circuit in the unit. The
steel components. Quality control and inspection welding gun is similar to that used for arc stud
requirements for stud welding are also included. welding.
ANSUAWS C5.4,Recommended Practices for Stud The stud is positioned against the work; the trigger
Welding, latest edition, briefly covers inspection and switch on the stud welding gun is actuated, energizing
testing of both steel and aluminum stud welds. the welding circuit and a solenoid coil in the gun body.
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding
The coil motion lifts the stud from the work, drawing a
low amperage pilot arc between them. When the lift-
Capacitor discharge stud welding is a stud arc weld- ing coil is de-energized, the stud starts to return to the
ing process in which d-c arc power is produced by a work. The welding capacitors are then discharged
rapid discharge of stored electrical energy with pres- across the arc. The high amperage from the capacitors
sure applied during or immediately following the elec- melts the end of the stud and the adjacent work sur-
trical discharge. The process uses an electrostatic face. The spring action of the welding gun plunges the
storage system as a power source in which the weld stud into the molten metal to complete the weld.
energy is stored in capacitors of high capacitance. No
ferrule or fluxing is required. Applications
There are three different types of capacitor dis- Some industrial applications of capacitor discharge
charge stud welding: initial contact, initial gap, and stud welding are aircraft and aerospace, appliances,
drawn arc. They differ primarily in the manner of arc building construction, maritime construction, metal
initiation. Initial contact and initial gap capacitor dis- furniture, stainless steel equipment, and transportation.
charge stud welding studs have a small, specially It is possible to weld studs to dissimilar metals with
designed projection (tip) on the weld end of the stud. capacitor discharge stud welding because the penetra-
Drawn arc stud welding creates a pilot arc as the stud tion into the work from the arc is so shallow that there
is lifted off the workpiece by the stud gun. That ver- is very little mixing of the stud metal and work metal.
sion is similar to arc stud welding. A few of the combinations that may be welded are
Initial Contact Method. In initial contact stud weld- steel to stainless steel, brass to steel, copper to steel,
ing, the stud is placed against the work. The stored brass to copper, and aluminum to die cast zinc.
energy is then discharged through the projection on the The process can be used on parts that have had the
base of the stud. The small projection presents a high face surface painted, plated, polished, or coated with
resistance to the stored energy, and it rapidly disinte- ceramic or plastic, because postweld cleaning or fin-
grates from the high current density. This creates an ishing operations on the side of the base metal oppo-
arc that melts the surfaces to be joined. During arcing, site to the stud attachment are eliminated.
I
38 ARCTIME Welding Encyclopedia
is estimated that more than 90% of present day manual welding. The first of these is the atomic hydrogen pro-
arc welding is accomplished using the principles cess on which basic patents were obtained in 1924 by
developed by Kjellberg. Dr. Irving Langmuir. This process employs a pair of
As has been the case with many inventions, the tungsten electrodes to maintain an arc which is
industrial world was slow to recognize the inherent shielded by a stream of hydrogen. It may be used for
possibilities of the process. Many years elapsed before either manual or automatic welding.
electrical equipment, welding wire, and process con- During this period various carbon steel welding
trol had been sufficiently well developed so that the electrodes were manufactured which have produced
processes could be economically and safely applied improved welds in terms of reduced slag inclusions
for general manufacturing purposes. Then, too, the and greater resistance to corrosion. Welds were made
engineering community had to be sold on the merits of with ultimate tensile strengths in the range of 480 MPa
the welding processes. (70 000 psi), and ductility such as 28% elongation in
1916-1 926. Welding was used in a very limited way 50 mm (2 in.) and 60% reduction of area. Similarly,
for manufacturing purposes prior to the World War I electrodes were developed for welding various alloy
period (1914-1918). The war emergency resulted in steels such as 12% manganese steel, and stainless steel
the use of welding for many applications previously of the low carbon 18% chromium,8% nickel class.
considered inadvisable. During this period, the need Also, electrodes for welding nonferrous metals,
for better and less expensive ships allowed persons i.e., copper and aluminum, were developed, making it
familiar with ship design and those familiar with the possible to weld practically all commercial metals and
merits of welding to carry out a great deal of design alloys in all positions.
work involving all-welded steel construction. A few During this period, the submerged arc welding
small all-welded vessels were produced. If the war had (SAW) process was developed for welding carbon
not been terminated by the Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918), steel.
all-welded ships would have been produced in quanti- World War I1 put additional demands on the metal
ties within the following few years. fabricating industry. The search for a method to weld
During the war the U. S. Government authorized magnesium resulted in the gas tungsten arc welding
formation of the U. S. Shipping Board-Emergency (GTAW) process. It was originally called HeliarcTM
Fleet Corporation, which in turn (March 13, 1918) welding because it used helium to shield the arc.
established a sub-committee on welding. At the close 1951-Present. This period saw commercialization
of the war this committee had accomplished so much of a number of welding processes: gas metal arc, elec-
in laying the foundation for welded ship construction tron beam, laser beam, friction, inertia, electroslag,
that it was considered an economic necessity to con- electrogas, explosion, plasma arc, and hot wire.
tinue the work, and to extend the applications in all
metal working industries. As a result, the membership ARC WELDING, Automatic
of the subcommittee on welding was reorganized in Automatic arc welding equipment involves
the spring of 1919 under the name American Welding mechanical or electronic means of controlling welding
Society. The reorganization expanded the scope of conditions such as welding current, arc length, filler
activities and offered membership to all interested wire or electrode feed, and travel speeds. Movement
individuals and industries. and guidance of the electrode, torch or welding head
From 1919 to 1925, much fundamental research along the line of weld can be similarly controlled.
work was carried out by various manufacturers, but The advantages of such equipment are numerous. A
the general application of welding in the construction less experienced operator can handle the welding
of buildings and bridges did not occur until the latter machine and produce satisfactory results. A smaller
part of 1925 and early in 1926. This was the beginning percentage of welding electrode is lost in stub ends. A
of the implementation of welding on a large scale, not much shorter arc is uniformly maintained by the auto-
only of plain steel but also alloy steels and nonferrous matic machine than is possible by a manual operator.
alloys. A much higher current can be used with a given size of
1926-1 950. A desire to improve the quality of welds welding wire to produce better fusion. A much higher
produced by arc welding led to the development of welding speed can be obtained. Welding is continuous
several welding processes which combine gas and arc from the beginning to the end of the seam, thereby
40 ARC WELDING, Carbon Welding Encyclopedia
component parts (atoms). As the gas in the atomic strength, low elastic strength, and are very ductile.
state is being displaced with molecular hydrogen They work harden very rapidly and develop great
under a slight pressure, it is urged out of the intense resistance to wear and abrasion. Outstanding examples
heat of the arc and recombines with atomic gases in are the manganese steels. The stainless austenitic
the outer edge of the arc stream, giving up heat pro- steels are very resistant to corrosion.
duced by dissociation. This heat produces the welding
temperature. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
The Arc Fan A term applied to the 300 series of stainless
The arc stream, or fan as it is commoiily known, steels. A stainless steel of this grade may be formed
follows a horseshoe-shaped path from the electrodes, while cold; however, it is susceptible to work harden-
expanding and contracting as the arc is lengthened and ing effects. Most stainless steels in this classification
shortened. Ordinarily, a 10 to 20 mm (3/8 in. to 3/4 in.) are readily weldable. See STEEL, STAINLESS.
fan or a 50 to 90 volt arc, (which produces a singing
noise), is used. A short arc, ranging from 20 to 40 volts AUTO BODY REPAIR
(often termed a silent arc) is occasionally used to The GMAW and resistance spot welding processes
obtain a point source of heat. A long, narrow heat are the most widely used methods of joining automo-
source can be produced by adjusting the arc length. To bile body panels and structures in auto body repair
make a very narrow weld, the fan is carried vertically shops.
and approximately parallel to the line of weld; heat is Low-Current Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
applied over an elongated area, with length approxi- Low-current GMAW is a logical choice for auto
mately four times the width. body repair work. Using the short-circuiting arc, the
ATOMIC WEIGHT
whole range of metal gauges commonly worked on in
auto body repair can be handled by one small-diameter
The weight of one atom of an element, as compared
to the weight of one atom of hydrogen.
wire size. Low heat input results in minimal distortion,
and welding often can be performed in close proximity
AUSTEMPERING to glass, trim and upholstery. The equipment produces
A method of controlled quenching of steel which consistent high-quality results, and can be used in
eliminates the formation of martensite, with its atten- many ways to reduce time for a job.
dant generation of high internal stresses. Austemper- For example, the time savings which result from
ing also eliminates the necessity for subse,quent heat eliminating the need to remove trim, upholstery, floor
treatment to give quenched steel good mechanical coverings and other items are enormous. The low heat
properties. The treatment is based on the rate of trans- input also enables large areas of thin metals to be
formation between austenite and pearlite at tempera- welded without distortion, thus eliminating the need
tures below 700C (1300F). for costly panel beating, bending and stretching. Parts
which would normally have to be removed for resis-
AUSTENITE tance spot welding can be welded in place because gas
Solid solutions in which gamma iron is the solvent. metal arc welding machines are capable of welding in
Gamma iron dissolves carbon to a great extent. The any position, and from one side only for either spot or
maximum solubility is at 1130C (2066F), at which seam welding. Another advantage is that GMAW
point it will dissolve 1.7% carbon. This decreases machines can be changed from seam welding to spot
with temperature to .80% at 720C (1333F). See welding at the flick of a switch.
METALLURGY. Gas metal arc spot welding is particularly suited to
body shop work because access is needed only to one
AUSTENITIC ALLOY STEELS side of the work, and there is no need to clean the back
Steels that remain austenitic in structure (gamma side of the metal. A further advantage over resistance
iron) on slow cooling from the temperature of solidifi- welding is that fit-up is not nearly as critical, because
cation. These steels exhibit no critical temperature on gas metal arc spot and seam welding can be used
cooling. They cannot be hardened by heat treatment, to bridge fairly large gaps. These features offer consid-
although they may be cold work-hardened and erable savings in many applications. See GAS METAL
annealed. Austenitic steels exhibit great shock ARC WELDING and RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING.
Welding Encyclopedia AXIS OF WELD 43
Several welding processes are usedin the manufactureof this Boeing777 jet aircraft
Robotic cell in operation using the gas metal arc welding process
B.H.N. BACKGOUGING
Abbreviation for Brinell hardness number. The removal of weld metal and base metal from the
weld root side of a welded joint to facilitate complete
B.T.U. fusion and complete joint penetration on subsequent
See BRITISH THERMAL UNIT. welding from that side. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
BABBITT
Babbitt is a term applied to a series of tin-base BACKHAND WELDING
alloys used for bearings. These relatively soft, low A welding technique in which the welding torch or
friction alloys are composed essentially of tin, with gun is directed opposite to the progress of welding. See
additions of antimony and copper to increase hardness, STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRAVEL ANGLE,
strength and fatigue resistance. The amount of lead in WORK ANGLE, and DRAG ANGLE.
these alloys is usually limited to 0.35% to 0.50% to
prevent formation of a lead-tin eutectic which reduces Backhand welding is sometimes referred to as the
strength. pull gun technique in gas metal arc (GMAW) and
The basic composition range of these tin-base bab- flux core arc welding (FCAW).
bitts is 75% to 95% tin, 2% to 10% copper, and 2% to
10% antimony. Lead-base babbitts containing up to BACKING
10% tin and 12% to 18% antimony are used for A material or device placed against the back side of
bearings, but do not have the strength of the tin-base the joint, or at both sides of a weld in electroslag and
babbitts. electrogas welding, to support and retain molten weld
Babbitt is frequently melted with an air-fuel gas or metal. The material may be partially fused or remain
oxyfuel gas flame prior to pouring. A similar flame is unfused during welding and may be either metal or
often used to melt babbitt from bearings and bearing nonmetal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See ah0
caps for re-babbitting. Figure B- 1.
BACK BEAD
A weld bead resulting from a back weld pass. See WELD FACE -
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BACK BEND
See GUIDED BEND TEST.
BACK CAP
A device used to exert pressure on the collet to hold
the electrode in a gas tungsten arc welding torch and
create a seal to prevent air from entering the back of
the torch. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
45
46 BACKING FILLER METAL Welding Encyclopedia
BACKING SHOE
A nonconsumable backing device used in electro-
slag and electrogas welding that remains unjused dur-
ing welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See DIRECTION OF
Appendix 10, Figure 3. WELDING
BACKING, Split-Pipe
Backing in the form of a pipe segment used for Figure 6-3-Backstep Sequence
welding round bars.
BACKING STRAP distributing deposited weld metal. This method con-
See BACKING STRIP. sists of dividing the weld into short increments, and
depends on depositing the weld metal in a direction
BACKING STRIP opposite to the direction of progression. The welds
Backing in the form of a strip of metal, carbon, or may be made in the sequence shown in Figure B-3, or
ceramic to retain molten metal at the root of a weld. this sequence may be changed. For example, the welds
may be made in the order of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , 6, etc., or
BACKING WELD 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, etc. The latter is an illustration of the
Backing in the form of a weld. See STANDARD skip backstep method, which is a combination of skip
WELDING TERMS. See also Figure B-2. and back-step welding. In skip backstep welding the
welds may be made in any convenient order. See
BACKING PASS BLOCK SEQUENCE, CASCADE SEQUENCE, CONTINUOUS
A weld pass made for a backing weld. See STAN- SEQUENCE, CROSS SECTIONAL SEQUENCE, and LONGI-
DARD WELDING TERMS. TUDINAL SEQUENCE.
BACKSTEP SEQUENCE
BACKSTEP WELDING
A longitudinal sequence in which weld passes are
made in the direction opposite to the progress of weld- See BACKSTEP SEQUENCE.
ing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure
B-3. BACKUP, Flash and Upset Welding
The backstep sequence is a welding technique used A locator used to transmit all or a portion of the
to prevent accumulation of stresses and distortion by upset force to the workpieces or to aid in preventing
Welding Encyclopedia BAND SAW BLADE REPAIRS 47
?
BEFORE WELDING OTHER SIDE
BACKUP BARS AND PLATES FACE
Backing material used to retain molten metal or to Y REINFORCEMENT
assure complete fusion. Successful welding of various
materials often depends on the type of backup bar or
plate that is used. The high heat conductivity of a cop-
per backup bar or plate, for example, will prevent it
from sticking to the weld metal, while its chill-mold
effect will assure a clean, smooth weld metal surface.
Electrolytic copper has proven to be the most satisfac-
tory material for backing up a weld.
Copper backup bars are usually made by cutting
REINFORCEMENT
pieces from copper plate or sheet. Electrolytic copper
in cold rolled bars and plates is available in a variety
Figure BQ-Example of a Back Weld
of sizes for these applications. While these copper
pieces give more satisfactory results than other back-
ing materials, they must be made carefully to provide equal in area, and deliver equal volumes of gases at
accurate dimensions and good surfaces. equal pressures to the mixing chamber.
Figure B-4 illustrates the use of a copper backup bar
to obtain a full penetration weld in heavy plate. BALLING UP
The formation of globules of molten brazing filler
metal or flux due to lack of wetting of the base metal.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
and faster than the brazing method, and produces BASE PLATE
equally strong joints. A nonstandard term when used for base metal plate.
BEAD FORMING
BARE METAL ARC WELDING (BMAW)
Depositing metal as the result of a pass. Bead form-
An arc welding process which produces coales-
ing is basic to the metal arc process, and is usually the
cence of metals by heating them with an electric arc
between a bare or lightly coated metal electrode and first exercise for the beginning welder. The object of
the weld pool. The process is used without shielding, bead forming is to make all of the electrode material
without the application of pressure, and filler metal is flow into the crater or weld pool produced by the arc.
obtained from the electrode. This is an obsolete or sel- To do this successfully, it is necessary to keep the arc
dom used process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. just ahead of the metal which has been deposited, i.e,
on the advancing edge of the crater. An examination of
BARIUM the beads will show whether the operator is using the
(Chemical symbol: Ba). A malleable, toxic, metal- correct current and arc length. An excess of heat will
lic element, soft and silvery-white. Barium is used cause the arc to produce a larger crater than the deposit
in various alloys. It belongs to the alkaline earth will fill, leaving a small crevice along the edge of the
group, chemically resembling calcium. It occurs only bead. Holding too long an arc will cause the deposit to
in combination with other elements. Atomic number, overlap excessively on the parent metal without
56; atomic weight, 137.37; melting point, 850C achieving proper penetration.
(1562F); specific gravity, 3.80 at 0C (32F). Salts BEADING WELD
of barium produce a green color when put in a flame. A weld made so that the metal is deposited by
BAR MAGNET
advancing in a single direction. See STRINGER BEAD
WELDING.
A straight permanent magnet.
BEAD WELD
BAR STOCK
A nonstandard term for SURFACING WELD.
Ferrous and non-ferrous materials in bar or rod
form. BEAM DIVERGENCE
The expansion of a beams cross section as the
BASE MATERIAL beam emanatesfrom its source. See STANDARD WELD-
The material to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. ING TERMS.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BASE
METAL and SUBSTRATE. BEARING
The support or wear surface for a revolving shaft.
BASE METAL
The metal that is welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. BELLS, Repair Welding
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BASE MATE- Bells are usually cast from bell metal, which ranges
RIAL, SUBSTRATE and PARENT METAL. in composition from three to four parts copper to one
part tin. Copper-tin alloys tend to be hot-short and to
BASE METAL TEST SPECIMEN crack during fusion welding. While being welded, tin
A test specimen composed wholly of base metal. See oxidizes preferentially before copper and can reduce
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. weld strength because of oxide entrapment. For these
Welding Encyclopedia BERYLLIUM 49
reasons, it is important that heavy bells be preheated to Benardos' equipment might have been, it paved the
minimize stresses, and that the weld area be shielded way for future developments in arc welding.
to prevent oxidation of the tin. Benardos and his associate, Stanislav Olszewski,
Cracked bells have been successfully repaired by were granted a British patent in 1885 for a welding
welding, without changing the tone of the bell. One process employing carbon electrodes. Benardos pat-
case involved repair of a fifty-year-old, 750 kg ented the process in Russia in 1887, and is credited
(1650 lb) bronze bell. The bell was 1.5 m (5 ft) from with the first patent on arc welding,
lip to lip, with the sides about four inches thick. It was In the Benardos process, the work was connected to
a copper-tin alloy, which chipped like hard brass and the positive pole of a d-c power source, and the carbon
welded like cast iron. rod was connected to the negative pole. The rod was
Since it was not economically feasible to remove fitted with an insulated handle so it could be manipu-
the bell from its mounting, a charcoal-fueled brick lated by hand.
oven was built in the belfry to preheat the bell. The To start the weld, the carbon electrode was touched
crack was located on the side adjacent to the support- to the work to complete the electrical circuit, then the
ing frame, so it was necessary to loosen the bell, turn tip of the electrode was withdrawn a slight distance to
and tip it until the crack was horizontal. The entire establish the arc. The gap was usually between 3 and
crack was ground out to form a V-groove. A piece of 12 mm (1/8 and 1/2 in.). Usually there was insufficient
steel plate was clamped inside the bell under the crack material in the workpiece to fill a joint, so a rod of
to prevent the molten metal from dropping through. similar composition was melted by the arc to supply
Charcoal was placed in and around the bell in the the material necessary to fill the joint.
oven. The charcoal was ignited with an oxyacetylene
torch and blown with a molder's hand bellows. The BEND TEST
bell was heated to the point at which solder would A test in which a specimen is bent to a specified
melt when applied to the surface. bend radius. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Three hours were required for welding. Two cylin- Various types of bend tests are used to evaluate the
ders of acetylene, three cylinders of oxygen and 17 kg ductility and soundness of welded joints. Guided bend
(37 Ib) of bronze filler rod were consumed in this specimens may be longitudinal or transverse to the
repair operation. After the weld was complete, it was weld axis, and may be bent in tensile test machines or
polished with a small portable grinder. in wrap-around bend test jigs. Typical guided bend
Other welding rods which are used for welding testing fixtures are illustrated in Figure B-6.
bells include bell metal, containing about 80% copper Face bend tests are made with the weld face in ten-
and 20% tin; phosphor-bronze, phos-copper; and other sion; root bend tests are made with the weld root in
phosphor-bronzes which are high in tin content. tension. When bend testing thick plates, transverse
slices or side bend test specimens are usually cut from
BELT GRINDER the welded joint and bent with the weld cross section
A grinder fitted with a belt coated with abrasive in tension. The relative orientations of these specimens
particles used extensively in welding operations for are illustrated in Figure B-7. The guided bend test is
grinding and polishing. The belt runs on two rollers, most commonly used in welding procedure and welder
one of which is driven. See also SWING GRINDER. performance qualification. See FACE BEND, FREE
BEND, GUIDED BEND, ROOT BEND and U-BEND.
BENARDOSPROCESS
A carbon-arc welding process named for one of its BERYLLlUM
inventors, Nikolas de Benardos, of Russia. (Chemical symbol, Be). A rare, lightweight, strong,
The process was based on the principle that if an brittle, toxic, bivalent metallic element which occurs
electric circuit in which the current is flowing is inter- in beryl and other silicates. It is alloyed with copper as
rupted, the current will continue to flow across the gap an age-hardening agent and is used in aerospace struc-
in the circuit until the distance across the gap exceeds tural material. Beryllium resembles magnesium in
the force (voltage) driving the current. The gases in the appearance and chemical properties. It is separated
gap offer such great resistance to the flow of current from its chloride by displacement with sodium.
that they are heated to incandescence. This heat melts Atomic number, 4;atomic weight, 9.02; melting point,
the base metal to make the weld. As cumbersome as 1280C (2336F); specific gravity, 1.85.
50 BERYLLIUM COPPER Welding Encyclopedia
BEVEL
An angular edge shape. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See also Appendix 6.
BEVEL ANGLE
The angle formed between the prepared edge of a
2A + 2(T.+1/16in.)
(1.5mm) member and a plane perpendicular to the sugace of
the member. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
T = SPECIMEN THICKNESS Appendix 6.
(A) GUIDED BEND TEST JIG
BEVEL CUTTING
See OXYGEN CUTTING and THERMAL CUlTING.
BEVEL-GROOVEWELD
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
ROLLER TERMS. See also Appendix 6.
BEVELING
The process of preparing an angular edge on mate-
rial prior to welding. It may consist of a single bevel or
double bevel, generally with bevel angles up to 45".
T = SPECIMEN THICKNESS Two plates butted together, each with 45" bevels, form
a 90" groove. See JOINT GEOMETRY, JOINT DESIGN,
(B) WRAP-AROUND BEND TEST JIG and EDGE PREPARATION.
~~~
1
5 SIDE BEND
WELD JOINT
means of flame cutting or carbon arc cutting. Cold A cleaning or surface-roughening technique using a
water is then poured into the nick in the hot metal, forcibly projected stream of sharp angular abrasive
causing a crack, and the break is completed with force particles.
from a drop hammer, hydraulic press, or bulldozer.
BLIND JOINT
BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGE (B.W.G.) A joint, no portion of which is visible. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
A standard system and gauge for measuring iron
and steel telephone and telegraph wires. Also known BLAU-GAS
as the Stubbs Gauge. Blau-Gas was the trade name for a combustible gas
produced by the destructive distillation of a liquid
BIT, Soldering hydrocarbon, such as mineral oil. Blau-Gas is no
The point of the soldering iron, usually made of longer used, however it was used for brazing and
copper, which actually transfers heat (and sometimes welding aluminum, and was also used with oxygen as
solder) to the joint. a fuel gas for cutting iron and steel with a cutting
torch. Blau-gas derived its name from the German
BLACKSMITH WELDING chemist, Herman Blau, who invented this gas.
A nonstandard term for FORGE WELDING. BLOCK BRAZING (Be)
A brazing process that uses heat from heated blocks
BLASTING applied to the joint. This is an obsolete or seldom-used
See ABRASIVE BLASTING. process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
52 BLOCK SEQUENCE Welding Encyclopedia
r
1 2
r
3
Figure B-&-Block Sequence Welding
Welding Encyclopedia BOILER CONSTRUCTIONCODE 53
and welded up to the top. The second root increment sure Vessel Code and a Code for Pressure Piping. The
was started 50 cm (20 in.) Erom the top, welded up to first ASME Boiler Code Committee was appointed on
the first increment, and up over it to the top without September 15, 1911.
breaking the arc. The third increment was started
75 cm (30 in.) from the top, welded up to and over the BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE
second increment, and up over the first increment. Construction and repair of boilers and pressure pip-
This technique of lapping passes avoids defects ing systems is done under strict regulations set forth in
caused by stopping a weld pass and leaving a crater at the American Society for Mechanical Engineers
the point of poor fusion where another pass is started. (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and ASME
Residual stresses in vertical butt welds were mini- B3 1 Code for Pressure Piping.
mized by block welding with skips between, by pre- ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
heating in cold weather and by chipping out tack The ASME maintains a Boiler and Pressure Vessel
increments as the welding progressed. Peening each Code (B&PV Code) and a Code for Pressure Piping,
pass immediately after deposition was found to be suf- both of which are recognized by the American
ficient to minimize residual stresses. National Standards Institute (ANSI). The ASME
BLOWHOLE codes govern design, construction, maintenance,
A nonstandard term when used for POROSITY. inspection and care of power boilers, heating boilers,
A blowhole is a cavity formed in a weld deposit by nuclear power plant components, pressure piping sys-
trapped gas, dirt, grease or other foreign substances. tems, and pressure vessels operating at 103 kPa (15 lb/
See POROSITY. in.2) and higher. Specifications for these codes are pre-
pared and updated by volunteer committees rendering
BLOWOFF VALVE consensus of technical expertise. These codes are rec-
A safety valve on a boiler, pressure vessel, or acety- ognized and highly respected for the solid technical
lene generator, designed to prevent pressure build-up base they present.
or explosion by releasing the pressure when it exceeds The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is ref-
a specific amount. Sometimes called a pop valve. erenced in the safety regulations of most states and
BLOWPIPE major cities. It is also included by various federal
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BRAZING agencies as part of their regulations, and is often used
BLOWPIPE and SOLDERING BLOWPIPE. by authorities of other countries. An important aspect
of the ASME code is that it requires third party inspec-
BLUE ANNEALING tion independent of the fabricator and user; inspection
The formation of a bluish-black oxide on the sur- is commissioned by the National Board of Boiler and
face of a sheet of steel resulting from being annealed Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI).
in an open furnace at a temperature within the trans- The ASME code is published in 11 sections, as out-
formation range. lined in Table B- 1. A new edition of the code is issued
BLUE BRllTLENESS by the ASME every three years. Users may submit
An embrittlement which occurs during tempering in inquiries to the ASME at any time for clarification of
which a blue color appears on the surface of clean steel. requirements, or to pose other questions. Inquiries
Blue brittleness is caused by precipitation hardening dealing with significant topics are given a case num-
that develops in iron and some steels over the tempera- ber, and both the question and ASMEs response are
ture range of about 200 to 450C (400 to 8OO0F). The regularly published in ASME Mechanical Engineer-
severity of the embrittlement depends on the strain ing, and in separate booklet form as a supplement to
present in the metal prior to heating, and on the time the code. Subsequently, these case interpretations are
spent in the blue brittleness temperature range. carefully reviewed to determine revisions to the next
editions of the code. As a result, it is important to work
BOILER CODE COMMITTEE
with the current issue of the code and to review any
A committee of the American Society of Mechani- case interpretations that may have been published.
cal Engineers (ASME) organized to formulate rules
for the construction of steam boilers and other pres- ASME 8-31 Code for Pressure Piping
sure vessels. This committee has one subcommittee The ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B 31, is pub-
for welding. The ASME maintains a Boiler and Pres- lished in six sections, as outlined in Table B-2. Each
54 BOILER CONSTRUCTIONCODE Welding Encyclopedia
Table B-1
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Organization of Sections and Their Contents
Section
No. Title Coverage
I Power Boilers Construction of power, electric and miniature boilers, and high-temperature
boilers used in stationq service. Also, power boilers used in locomotive,
portable, and traction service.
I1 Material Specifications Code-adopted standards and specifications for ferrous and non-materials,
welding rods, electrodes, and filler metals.
I11 Nuclear Power Plant Seven subsections covering (1) general requirements, (2) Class 1 com-
Components ponents, (3) Class 2 components, (4) Class 3 components, ( 5 ) Class MC
components, (6)component supports, and (7) core support structures.
IV Heating Boilers A construction code covering design, fabrication, installation and inspec-
tion of steam heating and hot water supply boilers directly fired by oil, gas,
electricity,or coal.
V Nondestructive NDT methods accepted for use under the Code.
Examination
VI Recommended Rules for Guide to owners of steel and cast iron heating boilers regarding mainte-
Care and Operation of nance and repair.
Heating Boilers
VI1 RecommendedRulesfor A guide similar to that in Section VI covering stationary, portable, and
Care of Power Boilers traction-type power boilers.
VI11 Pressure Vessels, Division 1 Basic rules for construction, design, fabrication, inspection, and certifica-
tion of pressure vessels. Rules formulated on basis of design principles and
construction practices applicable to vessels for pressures up to 20.7 MPa
(3000 psi).
~ ~~ ~
VI11 Pressure Vessels, Division 2 Division 2 provides an alternative to the minimum construction require-
ments of Division 1. Division 2 rules are more restrictive in the choice of
materials, but they permit higher design stress intensity values in the range
of temperatures over which the design stress intensity value is controlled
by the ultimate or yield strength. Division 2 rules cover vessels installed at
stationary locations.
Ix Welding and Brazing Relates to the qualification of welders and welding operators and the
Qualifications procedures to be followed to comply with the Code.
X Fiberglass-ReinforcedPlas- A recent construction Code established general specifications for the glass
tic Pressure Vessels and resin used in fabrication, and qualification procedures. Limits are
given for permissible service conditions.
XI Rules for Inservice Inspec- Requirements for maintaining a nuclear power plant in a safe and expedi-
Of Power 'Iant tious manner, and for returning a plant to service following an outage.
Components
Welding Encyclopedia BOND COAT, Thermal Spraying 55
Table 8-2
ASME 831 Code for Pressure Piping
Organization of Sections and Their Contents
B3 1.1 Power Piping Power and auxiliary service systems for electric generation stations; indus-
trial and institutional plants: central and district heating plants; and district
heating systems.
B3 1.2 Fuel Gas Piping Systems for fuel gases such as natural gas, manufactured gas, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG)-air mixtures above the upper combustible limits.
B31.3 Chemical Plant and All piping within the property limits of facilities engaged in processing or
Petroleum Refinery Piping handling of chemical, petroleum, or related products. Also applies to pip-
ing systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized solids, and all types
of service including raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals: oil and
other petroleum products: gas: steam: air: water: and refrigerants, except as
specifically excluded.
B3 1.4 Liquid Petroleum Piping for transporting liquid petroleum between producers' lease facili-
Transportation Piping ties, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations,terminals
Systems and other delivery and receiving points.
B3 1.5 Refrigeration Piping Piping systems for refrigerant and brine at temperatures as low as -196C
(-320"F), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled. Does not
include (1) self-contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to require-
ments of Underwriters' Laboratories or any other nationally recognized
testing laboratory, (2) water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or
internal pressure not exceeding 103 kPa (15 psig) regardless of size.
B3 1.8 Gas Transmission and Gas compressor stations, gas metering and regulation stations, gas mains,
Distribution Piping Systems and service lines up to the outlet of the customer's meter set assembly. Gas
storage lines and gas storage equipment of the close-pipe type that is either
fabricated or forged from pipe, or fabricated from pipe and fittings.
The addition of boron to steel in the range portional to the increase of pressure on it; or p,V, =
of .0025% to .0030% gives steel a greater depth of p2V2,where
hardenability. The addition of more than .003% adds
very little additional hardenability, and if over .006% p1 = initial absolute pressure, Pa (lb/in.2)
boron is added, the steel rapidly loses ductility and v1= initial volume, m3 (ft3)
breaks up much like steel with high sulphur content. p2 = final absolute pressure, Pa (lb/in.*)
If .O 1% boron is added, the steel will break up during v2= final volume, m3 (ft3).
rolling. For example, this law expresses the fact that if the
pressure of a certain volume of gas is doubled, the vol-
BORON CARBIDE
ume will be reduced to one-half the original volume,
(Chemical symbol: B&). A very hard compound provided the temperature remains constant.
produced by heating boric acid (B2O3) and coke
together at about 2500C (5430F), used on an abra- BRAKE HORSEPOWER
sive cutting tool when extreme hardness is required. The actual power of a machine or engine as mea-
At ordinary temperatures, boron carbide is highly sured by a dynamometer or brake.
resistant to chemical reagents
BRASS
BOlTLE
The generic name for alloys consisting essentially
A nonstandard term when used for GAS CYLINDER. of copper and zinc.
BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE Gauge
The solid solubility of zinc in copper is over 38% at
450C (850F) and drops to about 30% at room
See PRESSURE GAUGE.
temperature; therefore most brasses are single-phase
BOXING solid solution at normal processing and service
temperatures.
The continuation of afillet weld around a corner of
a member as an extension of the principal weld. See BRAZE
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure B-10.
A weld produced by heating an assembly to the
brazing temperature using a filler metal having a liq-
uidus above 450C (840F) and below the solidus of
the base metal. The filler metal is distributed between
the closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capil-
lary action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZEABILITY
The capacity of a metal to be brazed under the
imposed fabricating conditions into a spec@c, suitably
designed structure, and to petform satisfactorily in the
intended service. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZE INTERFACE
The inteeace between filler metal and base metal in
a brazed joint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZEMENT
An assembly whose component parts are joined by
Figure B-1 O-An Example of Boxing
brazing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZER Applications
One who pe forms manual (or semi-automatic) The brazing process is used to join together various
brazilzg. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. materials for numerous reasons. By using the proper
joint design, the resulting braze can function better
BRAZE WELDING (BW) than the base metals being joined. In many instances it
A welding process that uses afiller mela1 with a liq- is desirable to join different materials to obtain the
uidus above 450C (840F) and below the solidus of maximum benefit of both materials and have the most
the base metal. The base metal is not melted. Unlike cost- or weight-effective joint. Applications of brazing
brazing, in braze welding the filler metal is not distrib- cover the entire manufacturing arena from inexpensive
uted in the joint by capillary action. See STANDARD toys to highest quality aircraft engines and aerospace
WELDING TERMS. See also FLOW WELDING. vehicles. Brazing is used because it can produce
The term braze welding is sometimes used to results which are not always available with other
describe the joining of bronzes with a filler rod of joining processes. Brazing provides the following
bronze. In this instance, there is complete fusion of advantages:
base metal with filler metal since both have approxi- (1) It is economical for complex assemblies.
mately the same melting point. This provides complete (2) It is a simple way to join large joint areas.
metallurgical bonding, as in fusion welding of steel. (3) It provides excellent stress and heat distribution.
(4) Coatings and claddings can be maintained dur-
BRAZING (6)
ing brazing.
A group of welding processes that produce coales- (5) Dissimilar materials can be joined.
cence of materials by heating them to the brazing tem-
(6) Nonmetals can be joined to metals.
perature in the presence of a filler metal having a
liquidus above 450C (84OOF) and below the solidus (7) Widely different thicknesses can be joined.
of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed (8) Complex arrangements of precision parts can
between the closelyfitted faying sufaces of the joint be joined.
by capillary action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. (9) Joints require little or no finishing.
Brazing must meet each of three criteria: (10) Many parts can be joined at one time (batch
(1) The parts must be joined without melting the processing).
base metals. Process Advantages and Disadvantages
(2) The filler metal must have a liquidus tempera- Among the advantages of brazing is that it is gen-
ture above 450C (840F). erally very economical when done in large batches,
(3) The filler metal must wet the base metal sur- with costs varying with the heating method
faces and be drawn into or held in the joint by capil- employed. A major benefit of brazing is that brazed
lary action. joints can be taken apart at a later time. Dissimilar
To achieve a good joint using any of the various metals can be joined by brazing without melting the
brazing processes described in this chapter, the parts base metals as required by other joining methods. In
must be properly cleaned and must be protected by many instances, several hundred parts with multiple
either flux or atmosphere during the heating process to joints can be brazed at one time. When protective
prevent excessive oxidation. The parts must be atmosphere brazing is used, parts are kept clean and a
designed to afford a capillary for the filler metal when heat treatment cycle may be employed as part of the
properly aligned, and a heating process must be brazing cycle.
selected that will provide the proper brazing tempera- There are some disadvantageous factors of brazing
ture and heat distribution. that should be considered. In the brazing process, a
Brazing differs from soldering, in that soldering molten metal flows between the materials to be joined;
filler metals have a liquidus below 450C (840F). consequently there is the possibility of liquid metal
Braze welding is also different from brazing, since the interactions which are unfavorable. Depending on the
filler metal is not distributed by capillary action. material combinations involved and the thickness of
Brazing with silver alloy filler metals is sometimes the base sheets, base metal erosion may occur. In
called silver soldering, a nonpreferred term. Silver many cases, the erosion may be of little consequence,
brazing filler metals are not solders; they have liquidus but when brazing heavily loaded or thin materials, the
temperatures above 450C (840F). erosion can weaken the joint and make it unsatisfac-
Welding Encyclopedia BRAZING (B) 59
tory for its intended application. Also, the formation of filler metal since capillary action may be insufficient
brittle intermetallics or other phases can make the to draw a viscous filler metal into closely fitted joints.
resulting joint too brittle to be acceptable. Brazing is sometimes done under an active gas,
A disadvantage of some of the manual brazing pro- such as hydrogen, or in an inert gas or vacuum. Atmo-
cesses is that highly skilled technicians are required to sphere brazing eliminates the necessity for postbraze
perform the operation. This is especially true for gas cleaning and ensures the absence of corrosive mineral
torch brazing when using a brazing filler metal with a flux residue. Carbon steels, stainless steels, and super-
high melting point. Nevertheless, with the proper joint alloy components are widely processed in atmo-
design, brazing filler metal, and process selection, a spheres of reacted gases, dry hydrogen, dissociated
satisfactory brazing technique can be developed for ammonia, argon, or vacuum. Large vacuum furnaces
most joining applications. Brazing is often selected are used to braze zirconium, titanium, stainless steels,
when it is not feasible, because of strength or eco- and the refractory metals. With good processing proce-
nomic considerations, to join the materials with a dures, aluminum alloys can also be vacuum-furnace
fusion welding process. brazed with excellent results.
Principles of Operation Brazing is economically attractive for the produc-
tion of high strength metallurgical bonds while pre-
Capillary flow is the dominant physical principle
serving desired base metal properties.
that assures good brazements when both faying sur-
faces to be joined are wet by the molten filler metal. Brazing Processes
The joint must be spaced to permit efficient capillary Brazing processes are customarily designated
action that results in coalescence. Specifically, capil- according to the sources or methods of heating. Indus-
lary action is a result of surface tension between base trial methods currently significant are the following:
metal(s) and filler metal, protected by a flux or atmo- (1) Torch brazing
sphere, and promoted by the contact angle between (2) Furnace brazing
base metal and filler metal. In actual practice, brazing (3) Induction brazing
filler metal flow is influenced by dynamic consider- (4) Resistance brazing
ations involving fluidity, viscosity, vapor pressure, ( 5 ) Dip brazing
gravity, and especially the effects of metallurgical (6) Infrared brazing
reactions between filler metal and base metal. Whatever the process used, the filler metal has a melt-
Brazing Procedure. The typical brazed joint has a ing point above 450C (840"F), but below that of the
relatively large area and very small gap. In the sim- base metal, and it spreads within the joint by capillary
plest brazing application, the surfaces to be joined are action.
cleaned to remove contaminants and oxides. Next, Torch Brazing
they are coated with flux. A flux is a material which is Torch brazing is accomplished by heating with one
capable of dissolving solid metal oxides and also pre- or more gas torches. Depending on the temperature
venting new oxidation. The joint area is then heated and the amount of heat required, the fuel gas Le., acet-
until the flux melts and cleans the base metals, which ylene, propane, or natural gas, may be burned with air,
are protected against further oxidation by the layer of compressed air, or oxygen. Flame temperature
liquid flux. increases as the oxygen content of the gas is increased.
Brazing filler metal is then melted at some point on For manual torch brazing, the torch may be
the surface of the joint area. Capillary attraction equipped with a single tip, either single- or multiple-
between the base metal and the filler metal is much flame. Manual torch brazing is particularly useful on
higher than that between the base metal and the flux. assemblies involving sections of unequal mass.
Accordingly, the flux is displaced by the filler metal. Machine operations can be set up, where the rate of
The joint, on cooling to room temperature, will be production warrants, using one or more torches
filled with solid filler metal, and the solid flux will be equipped with single or multiple-flame tips. The
found on the joint periphery. machine may be designed to move either the work or
Joints to be brazed are usually made with clearances the torches, or both.
of 0.025 to 0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010 in.). The fluidity Torch heating for brazing can be used with filler
of the filler metal, therefore, is an important factor. metals supplied with flux or self-fluxing. The list
High fluidity is a desirable characteristic of brazing includes aluminum-silicon, silver, copper-phosphorus,
60 BRAZING (8) Welding Encyclopedia
copper-zinc, and nickel. With the exception of the cop- low melting constituents of the filler metal may
per-phosphorus filler metals, they all require fluxes. evaporate.
For certain applications even the self-fluxing copper- Furnace Brazing
phosphorus filler metals require added flux.
The filler metal can be placed on the joint and Furnace brazing, as illustrated in Figure B-11, is
fluxed before heating, or it may be face-fed. Heat is used extensively. This process is selected in applica-
applied to the joint, first melting the flux, then con- tions where multiple brazed joints are to be formed
tinuing until the brazing filler metal melts and flows simultaneously on a completed assembly, and when
into the joint. Overheating of the base metal and braz- many similar assemblies are to be joined. It is success-
ing filler metal should be avoided because rapid diffu- ful when the following conditions can be met: (1) the
sion and "drop through" of the metal may result. parts to be brazed can be preassembled or jigged to
Natural gas is well suited for torch brazing because its hold them in the correct position, (2) the brazing filler
relatively low flame temperature reduces the danger of metal can be placed in contact with the joint, and (3)
overheating. the complex parts can be heated uniformly to prevent
Brazing filler metal may be preplaced at the joint in the distortion that would result from local heating of
the forms of rings, washers, strips, slugs, or powder, or the joint area.
it may be fed from hand-held filler metal, usually in Electric, gas, or oil heated furnaces with automatic
the form of wire or rod. In any case, proper cleaning temperature control capable of holding the tempera-
and fluxing are essential. ture within k6"C (_+10"F)should be used for furnace
Torch brazing techniques differ from those used for brazing. Fluxes or specially controlled atmospheres
oxyfuel gas welding. Operators experienced only in that perform fluxing functions must be provided.
welding techniques may require instruction in brazing Parts to be brazed should be assembled with the
techniques. It is good practice, for example, to prevent filler metal and flux, if used, located in or around the
the inner cone of the flame from coming in contact joints. The preplaced filler metal may be in the form of
with the joint except during preheating, since melting wire, foil, filings, slugs, powder, paste, or tape. The
of the base metal and dilution with the filler metal may assembly is heated in the furnace until the parts reach
increase its liquidus temperature and make the flow brazing temperature and brazing takes place. The
more sluggish. In addition, the flux may be overheated assembly is then removed. These steps are shown in
and thus lose its ability to promote capillary flow, and Figure B- 11.
FILLER METAL
\
-
I FILLER METAL MELTS AND FLOWS I BRAZED JOINT
I
FLUX
FURNACE
I 1 I I
CONVEYOR A b
Many commercial fluxes are available for both gen- cial where the remelt temperature of the filler metal is
era1 and specific brazing operations. Satisfactory to be increased and where diffusion will improve joint
results are obtained if dry powdered flux is sprinkled ductility and strength. Times of 30 to60 minutes at the
along the joint. Flux paste is satisfactory in most cases, brazing temperature are often used toincrease the
but in some cases it retards the flow of brazing alloy. braze remelt temperature.
Flux pastes containing water can be dried by beating Furnaces. Furnaces used for brazing are classified
the assembly at 175 to 200C (350 to 400F) for 5 to as (1) batch type with either air or controlled atmo-
15 minutes in drying ovens or circulating air furnaces. sphere, (2) continuous type with either air or con-
To avoid excessive interaction between the filler trolled atmosphere, (3) retort type with controlled
metal and base metal, brazing time should be restricted atmosphere, or (4) vacuum. Figure B-12 shows a high-
to the time necessary for the filler metal to flow temperature, high-vacuum brazing furnace with con-
through the joint. Normally, one or twominutes at the trol panel and charging carriage.
brazing temperature is sufficient to make the braze. A Most brazing furnaces have a temperature control
longer time at the brazing temperature will be benefi- of the potentiometer type connected to thermocouples
Figure 9-12-A High Temperature,High Vacuum Brazing Furnace with Control Panel
and Charging Dolly
62 BRAZING (B) Welding Encyclopedia
and gas control valves or contactors. Most furnaces are Surface cleanliness is nevertheless required for good
heated by electrical resistance using silicon-carbide, wetting and flow.
nickel-chromium, or refractory metal (Mo, Ta, W) Induction Brazing
heating elements. When a gas or oil flame is used for Induction brazing is used when very rapid heating
heating, the flame must not impinge directly on the is required. Time for processing is usually in the
parts. range of seconds when large numbers of parts are
With controlled atmosphere furnaces, a continuous handled automatically. Induction brazing has been
flow of the atmosphere gas is maintained in the work used extensively to produce consumer and industrial
zone to avoid contamination from outgassing of the products; structural assemblies; electrical and elec-
metal parts and dissociation of oxides. If the controlled tronic products; mining, machine, and hand tools;
atmosphere is flammable or toxic, adequate venting of military and ordnance equipment; and aerospace
the work area and protection against explosion are assemblies.
necessary. The heat for brazing with this process is obtained
Batch type furnaces heat each workload separately. from an electric current induced in the parts to be
When a furnace is lowered over the work, it is called a brazed, hence the name induction brazing. For induc-
bell furnace. tion brazing, the parts are placed in or near a water-
Continuous furnaces are equipped with conveyors cooled coil carrying alternating current. They do not
so that the furnace receives a steady flow of incoming form a part of the electrical circuit. Parts to be heated
assemblies. The parts move through the furnace either act as the short circuited secondary of a transformer
singly or in trays or baskets. Continuous furnaces usu- where the work coil, which is connected to the power
ally contain a preheat or purging area which the parts source, is the primary. On both magnetic and nonmag-
enter first. In this area, the parts are slowly brought to netic parts, heating is obtained from the resistance of
a temperature below the brazing temperature. If braz- the parts to currents induced in them by the trans-
ing atmosphere gas is used in the brazing zone, it also former action.
flows over and around the parts in the preheat zone, The brazing filler metal is preplaced. Careful design
under positive pressure. The gas flow removes any of the joint and the coil setup are necessary to assure
entrapped air and starts the reduction of surface that the surfaces of all members of the joint reach the
oxides. Atmosphere gas trails the parts into the cooling brazing temperature at the same time. Flux is
zone. employed except when an atmosphere is specifically
Retort furnaces are batch furnaces in which the introduced to perform the same function.
assemblies are placed in a sealed retort for brazing.
Frequencies for induction brazing generally vary
The air in the retort is purged by controlled atmo-
from 10 kHz to 450 kHz. The lower frequencies are
sphere gas and the retort is placed in the furnace. After
obtained with solid-state generators and the higher fre-
the parts have been brazed, the retort is removed from
quencies with vacuum tube oscillators. Induction gen-
the furnace, cooled, and its controlled atmosphere is
erators are manufactured in sizes from one kilowatt to
purged. The retort is opened, and the brazed assem-
several hundred kilowatts output.
blies are removed. A protective atmosphere is some-
times used within a high-temperature furnace to Assemblies may be induction brazed in a controlled
reduce external scaling of the retort. atmosphere by placing the components and coil in a
nonmetallic chamber, or by placing the chamber and
Vacuum furnace brazing is widely used in the aero-
space and nuclear fields, where reactive metals are work inside the coil. The chamber can be quartz Vycor
joined or where entrapped fluxes would be intolerable. or tempered glass.
Stainless steels, superalloys, aluminum alloys, tita- Resistance Brazing
nium alloys, and metals containing refractory or reac- The heat necessary for resistance brazing is
tive elements are brazed with vacuum brazing obtained from the flow of an electric current through
equipment. Base metals that can generally be brazed the electrodes and the joint to be brazed. The parts
only in vacuum are those containing more than a few comprising the joint become part of the electric circuit.
percent of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, or other The brazing filler metal, in some convenient form, is
elements with particularly stable oxides.Vacuum is a preplaced or face-fed. Fluxing is done with due atten-
relatively economical atmosphere which prevents tion to the conductivity of the fluxes. (Most fluxes are
oxidation by removing air from around the ;assembly. insulators when dry.) Flux is employed except when
Welding Encyclopedia BRAZING (B) 63
an atmosphere is specifically introduced to perform firmly together when they are removed from the bath
the same function. The parts to be brazed are held until the brazing filler metal has fully solidified.
between two electrodes, and proper pressure and cur- Molten Chemical (Flux) Bath. This brazing method
rent are applied. The pressure should be maintained requires either a metal or ceramic container for the
until the joint has solidified. flux and a method of heating the flux to the brazing
For copper and copper alloys, the copper-phospho- temperature. Heat may be applied externally with a
rus filler metals are most satisfactory since they are torch or internally with an electrical resistance heating
self-fluxing. Silver base filler metals may be used, but unit. Suitable controls are provided to maintain the
a flux or atmosphere is necessary. A wet flux is usually flux within the brazing temperature range. The size of
applied as a very thin mixture just before the assembly the bath must be such that immersion of parts for braz-
is placed in the brazing fixture. Dry fluxes are not used ing will not cool the flux below the brazing tempera-
because they are insulators and will not permit suffi- ture. See Figure B-13.
cient current to flow.
Electrodes for resistance brazing are made of high-
resistance electrical conductors, such as carbon or
graphite blocks, tungsten or molybdenum rods, or
even steel in some instances. The heat for brazing is
mainly generated in the electrodes and flows into the
work by conduction. It is generally unsatisfactory to
attempt to use the resistance of the workpieces alone
KRM+/
BRAZING SHEET
as a source of heat.
The pressure applied by a spot welding machine,
clamps, pliers, or other means must be sufficient to
maintain good electrical contact and to hold the pieces
firmly together as the filler metal melts. The pressure
must be maintained during the time of current flow
and after the current is shut off until the joint solidi-
fies. The time of current flow will vary from about one
second for small, delicate work to several minutes for Figure 8-13-Illustration of Chemical Bath Dip
larger work. This time is usually controlled manually Brazing
by the operator, who determines when brazing has
occurred by the temperature and the extent of filler
metal flow. Parts should be cleaned, assembled, and preferably
held in jigs prior to immersion into the bath. Brazing
Dip Brazing filler metal is preplaced as rings, washers, slugs,
Two methods of dip brazing are molten metal bath paste, or as a cladding on the base metal. Preheat may
dip brazing and molten chemical (flux) bath dip be necessary to assure dryness of parts and to prevent
brazing. the freezing of flux on parts which may cause selec-
tive melting of flux and brazing filler metal. Preheat
Molten Metal Bath. This method is usually limited to temperatures are usually close to the melting tempera-
the brazing of small assemblies, such as wire connec- ture of the flux. A certain amount of flux adheres to
tions or metal strips. A crucible, usually made of the assembly after brazing. Molten flux must be
graphite, is heated externally to the required tempera- drained off while the parts are hot. Flux remaining on
ture to maintain the brazing filler metal in fluid form. cold parts must be removed by water or by chemical
A cover of flux is maintained over the molten filler means.
metal. The size of the molten bath (crucible) and the
heating method must be such that the immersion of Infrared Brazing
parts in the bath will not lower the bath temperature Infrared brazing may be considered a form of fur-
below brazing temperature. Parts should be clean and nace brazing, with heat supplied by long-wave light
protected with flux prior to their introduction into the radiation. Heating is by invisible radiation from high
bath. The ends of the wires or parts must be held intensity quartz lamps capable of delivering up to
64 BRAZING ALLOY Welding Encyclopedia
5000 watts of radiant energy. Heat input varies The brazing blowpipe is used for intricate work,
inversely as the square of the distance from the source, such as in dental and jewelry applications. A flame
but the lamps are not usually shaped to follow the con- produced by any means may be used. A portion of the
tour of the part to be heated. Concentrating reflectors flame is blown to the desired location for the required
focus the radiation on the parts. time by the blowpipe.
For vacuum brazing or inert-gas protection, the
assembly and the lamps are placed in a bell jar or BRAZING, Carbide Tools
retort that can be evacuated or filled with! inert gas. Carbide tool tips used for turning metals on a lathe
The assembly is then heated to a controlled tempera- can be brazed with silver base copper-zinc alloys and
ture, as indicated by thermocouples. copper. Silver alloys containing nickel (B Ag-3 and B
Brazing Filler Metals Ag-4) are preferred because of their improved wetta-
Brazing filler metals must have the following bility. The 85% Ag-15% Mn and 85% Cu-15% Mn
properties: alloys are suitable for torch brazing. Carbide tip manu-
(1) Ability to form brazed joints with mechanical facturers recommendations for brazing tips should be
and physical properties suitable for the intended ser- consulted. Reference: American Welding Society,
vice application Brazing Handbook, Chapter 30, Carbide Tools,
(2) Melting point or melting range compatible with Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1994.
the base metals being joined, and sufficient fluidity at Brazing Procedures
brazing temperature to flow and distribute themselves In general, brazing procedures are as follows:
into properly prepared joints by capillary action (1) Make .sure that all joint surfaces on the tip and
(3) Composition of sufficient homogeneity and sta- shank recess are clean. These surfaces can be cleaned
bility to minimize separation of constituents (liqua- by rubbing on silicon carbide abrasive cloth or the flat
tion) during brazing face of a silicon carbide wheel, then wiping with an
(4) Ability to wet surfaces of base metals and form organic solvent.
a strong, sound bond
(2) Cut a thin sheet of brazing filler metal to fit into
(5) Depending on requirements, ability to produce the recess as shown in Figure B-14 (A). An alternate
or avoid filler-metal interactions with base metals. method is to pre-coat all joint surfaces with the braze
To simplify filler metal selection, ANSYAWS A5.8, alloy.
Specification for Brazing Filler Metal, divides filler
metals into seven categories and various classifica- (3) Apply brazing flux (silver or copper) to the
tions within each category. The specification lists shank recess, carbide tip and brazing alloy sheet. Fit
products which are commonly used, commercially the fluxed braze sheet and carbide tip into position on
available filler metals. Other brazing filler metals not the tool shank.
currently covered by the specification are available for (4) Apply torch heat to the underside of the shank,
special applications. as shown in Figure B-14 (B), so the heat will be con-
Two sources of further information on brazing are: ducted up to the carbide tip. Use a holding rod to keep
American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook, the tip in position. Keep the flame in constant motion
American Welding Society, Miami, Florida. 1991 to avoid hot spots and do not apply it to the tip at any
American Welding Society, The Welding Hand- time.
book, V01.2, 8th Edition. American Welding Society, ( 5 ) Watch for the flux to become clear and liquid,
Miami, Florida. 1991. indicating that the flow temperature of the braze is
being approached. Just as soon as the tip can be moved
BRAZING ALLOY on the molten alloy, withdraw the flame and apply a
A nonstandard term for BRAZING FILLER METAL. light pressure with a slight circular motion of the hold-
ing rod, to ensure a strong bond and squeeze out
BRAZING BLOWPIPE excess flux and gas bubbles.
A device used to obtain a small, accurately directed (6) As soon as the braze alloy has solidified, cool
flame forJine work. A portion of any flame is blown to the tool slowly in a powdered insulating material, such
the desired location by the blowpipe, which is usually as mica or lime, to prevent cracking the tip by rapid
mouth operated. See STANDARD WELDING TERbIS. cooling.
Welding Encyclopedia BRAZING PROCESSES 65
II K?NG
CUT SILVER ALLOY AND FASTENING WITH
HEAT SHANK
TO 1500-1 600F FLAME
LIGHT CHERRY RED MOVING
APPLY FLUX
AGAIN BEFORE
SURFACES HEATING
OF TIP TO -. . ...
BE BRAZED FLUX
ALL SURFACES FORTORCH I1 BRAZING FOR FURNACE BRAZING
A B C
BRAZING, FLOW BRAZING, INFRARED BRAZING, LASER sured in kilograms), D is the diameter of the steel ball
BEAM BRAZE WELDING, and STEP BRAZING. (measured in millimeters) and d is the diameter of the
Brazing processes may also be classed according to impression (measured in millimeters), then
the brazing alloy and the brazing temperature range;
for example, copper brazing, silver brazing and nickel P
B.H.N. =
alloy brazing. nD2 (D - J D T )
BRAZING SHEET
Brazing filler metal in sheet form. See STANDARD in which B.H.N. is the Brinell hardness in kilograms
WELDING TERMS. per square millimeter. See HARDNESS TESTING.
times added to act as deoxidizing agents. Bronze In controlling the weave, the operator should take
alloys have been used since ancient times for making particular care that the molten edges of the bead do not
castings, coins, and ornaments. solidify in a way that causes undercutting and entraps
slag. This can be avoided by hesitating slightly at the
BRONZE FACING edges of the bead and keeping the frequency of the
See BRONZE SURFACING. weave fast enough to maintain a completely molten
pool of deposited weld metal. This relatively wide
BRONZE SURFACING weaving motion also enables the operator to control the
The deposition of a thin layer of bronze on cast iron molten metal to minimize slag inclusions, impurities
or steel to provide corrosion resistance or to reduce and porosity. While the angle of the electrode in relation
sliding friction. Bronze is used to build up worn sur- to the work surface is not critical, inclining the electrode
faces to restore them to original size. Bronze surfacing slightly back in the direction of welding will float the
is frequently used to repair pistons, valves, and other molten slag back over the deposited weld metal. This
sliding surfaces on pumps, engines, and machines. will protect the deposit from oxidation while cooling
Many bronze alloys are available. Those of the and prevent the slag from rolling ahead of the weld
softer type (phosphor bronzes) are intended to wear metal as it fuses with the base metal. It minimizes any
more than the mating surface, and the harder type tendency for slag inclusions and poor fusion.
(hard aluminum bronzes) are intended to wear less Slag Cleaning
than the mating surface. All slag should be completely removed from the
Bronze surfaces can be deposited with the oxyacet- surface of deposited metal, especially between beads
ylene process; however, most surfaces are deposited of overlay work and layers of multi-layer deposits.
by shielded metal arc welding and submerged arc Generally, the deposit should be wire-brushed thor-
welding. Shielded metal arc welding electrodes are oughly after removing the slag and before making the
available for use with direct current, electrode positive next deposit. Careful attention to cleaning can avoid
(DCEP) and alternating current. These are basically slag inclusions and porosity in the weld deposit.
flat-position electrodes, but can be used in the vertical
position by skilled welders. Electrodes and wires BRONZE WELDING
available for these applications are listed in ANSV A nonstandard term when used for BRAZE
AWS A5.13, Specification for Solid Su$acing Welding WELDING.
Rods and Electrodes.
Base Metal Preparation BRUSHES, Arc Welding Generators
It is important that the base metal and filler metal A brush is the sliding connection which completes a
are thoroughly clean before overlay welding is started. circuit between a fixed and a moving conductor. Arc
All foreign matter, such as grease, rust, oxides, paint, welding generator brushes are designed to function
and other impurities should be completely removed. under the conditions of varying output of arc welding.
Both should be free of moisture to prevent porosity in
BRUSHES, Weld Cleaning
the deposit of aluminum bronze and other bronzes.
Rotary or manual brushes, usually made of stiff
Minimum Penetration wire, are used to remove loose particles of dirt, slag,
Penetration must be minimized when overlaying spatter, and other foreign materials from the weld, to
iron base metals. Excessive dilution of the overlay eliminate any possibility of inclusion of these foreign
with base metal, particularly cast iron, may result in a particles in the weld beads. See WELD CLEANING.
deposit so hard that it is essentially unmachineable.
Deposition by stringer bead is not recommended, BUCKLING
because this technique tends to increase penetration Distortion caused by the heat of a welding process.
and dilution of the deposit with base metal. In general, See EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION.
the largest size electrode consistent with the mass and
thickness of the base metal should be used. The elec- BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CODES
trode should be manipulated in a rapid weaving The latest edition of the ANSVAWS D l . l Struc-
motion to deposit a bead width three to five times the tural Welding Code-Steel should be used to design,
diameter of the electrode. fabricate, inspect, and repair welded steel structures.
68 BUILDUP Welding Encyclopedia
BUTTING MEMBERS
NONBUTTING MEMBERS
occurs in this type of weld. See RESISTANCE WELDING, to form a seam or junction, and welded. Two butt-
FLASH WELDING, and UPSET WELDING. welded plates form a flat plane; two bars butt-welded
form a single straight bar.
BUTT WELD
A nonstandard term for a weld in a butt joint. BY-PASS
A butt weld is one in which two plates, surfaces, or A passage in a cutting torch connecting the oxygen
bars are brought together edge to edge, or end to end, supply and the preheating oxygen tube.
C.G.S. same size as the electrode cable. The workpiece cable
Abbreviation for centimeter-gram-second units; the does not need to be as flexible as the electrode cable,
centimeter is the unit of length, the gram is the unit of since it stays in one spot most of the time.
weight, and the second is the unit of time. The shortest cable possible should be used. If the
distance from the machine is too great, the voltage
C.P.
drop becomes so large that it affects the amount of
Abbreviation for constant potential. See CONSTANT
electrical energy transmitted to the welding arc. If the
VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE.
work has to be located at a considerable distance from
CABLE AND CABLE CONNECTORS the welding machine, it is important that the connect-
Two cables, an electrode cable and a workpiece ing cable be larger in diameter than if the distance is
cable, are required to complete the electrical circuit short. The cable size must be selected for length as
between the welding machine and the workpiece. The well as amperage. Table C-1 shows recommended
correct size and the quality of cable are basic to weld- copper cable sizes for distances from 7.5 to 38 m (25
ing operations. If the cable is too small for the current, to 125 ft) from the welding machine (distance = total
it will overheat and could cause rapid deterioration of length of electrode and workpiece cables divided by
the cable insulation. It will also cause a voltage drop two) and currents from 100 to 600 amp.
which could affect the welding conditions. Aluminum Cable
Copper Cable Construction One of the advantages of aluminum cable is that it
The cable most frequently chosen for welding weighs less than half that of copper, although the
applications is a neoprene-covered, multiple-strand diameter must be about 30% larger to compensate for
copper cable specifically developed for welding ser- its greater resistivity.
vice. Neoprene, a synthetic rubber, is used as the outer If the duty cycle is medium to high, a good rule of
jacket because of its superior toughness, flexibility, thumb is to increase the size of aluminum cable by one
and resistance to heat, abrasion, and oil or grease. size or number of the American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Size of Workpiece Cable rating over the size of copper cable normally used. As
In arc welding, the work forms part of the electrical an example, if 1/0 copper cable is used for an applica-
circuit, so it is essential that the workpiece cable be the tion, it can be replaced by 2/0 aluminum cable.
Table C-I
Recommended Copper Welding Cable Sizes
Power Source AWG Cable Size for Combined Length of Electrode and Workpiece Cables
Rating in Duty Cycle 0 to 15 m 15to30m 30to46m 46to61m 61to76m
Amperes % (0 to 50 ft) (50 to 100 ft) (100 to 150 ft) (150 to 200 ft) (200 to 250 ft)
100 20 6 4 3 2 1
180 30 4 4 3 2 1
200 60 2 2 2 1 110
300 60 1IO 1IO 110 210 310
400 60 210 210 210 310 410
500 60 210 210 3fO 310 4fO
600 60 210 210 310 410 *
*Use two 3/0 cables in parallel.
71
72 CADMIUM Welding Encyclopedia
To obtain the lowest resistivity, electrolytic alumi- cuit should be made to check for cable breaks or
num is used for welding cable. This grade of alumi- shorts, followed by checking the lugs and terminals
num cable is only half as strong as copper, so to bolted to the machine studs for tightness and possible
achieve the same flexibility and resistance to breaking, corrosion at the contact points.
the aluminum wire is semi-annealed, while the copper
wire can be dead soft. CADMlUM
To assure a good connection, it is important to thor- (Chemical symbol: Cd). A malleable, ductile, toxic,
oughly clean the aluminum conductor prior to making bivalent metallic element added to plating to protect
either a soldered or mechanical joint. against corrosion, and used in bearing metals. It is also
Connections
used in low-friction alloys, solders, brazing alloys, and
nickel-cadmium storage batteries. Cadmium is found
Every welding circuit has at least four cable con- in nature as a carbonate or sulphide of certain zinc
nections and possibly more. All are extremely impor- ores. Cadmium has an atomic weight of 112.41;
tant. If a cable connection is inadequate, the resulting atomic number, 48; specific gravity, 8.65; melting
voltage drop in the electrical circuit will affect the point, 321C (610F).
quality of welding as seriously as an inadequate cable.
The four necessary connections are those connect- CADMIUM FUMES
ing the two cables to the welding machine; cable to a See WELDING FUMES.
device for the electrode to receive the welding current;
and cable to workpiece clamp. CALCIUM
Many of the difficulties encountered in welding can (Chemical symbol Ca). A silvery, metallic element
be traced to the workpiece cable. If a welder attempts that occurs in nature in shells, limestone and gypsum. In
to get by with an inefficient contact between the the field of welding, calcium is commody associated
workpiece cable and the workpiece, the result will be with carbon to form calcium carbide. Calcium has a
unsatisfactory welding and lost time. strong affinity for oxygen and becomes coated with an
Although there are several ways in which the work- oxide film when exposed to air.When heated in nitrogen,
piece cable can be connected to the work, the prime it forms calcium nitride. It decomposes readily in water
requisite is to ensure a positive means of contact. with the evolution of hydrogen and formation of calcium
Regardless of which connection is used, it must pro- hydroxide. Atomic number, 20; atomic weight, 40.07;
vide suffcient contact surface held firmly in place to melting point, 810C (1490F); specific gravity, 1.54.
complete the electrical circuit. Cleanliness of the con-
tact area is of utmost importance. A dirty contact can CALCIUM CARBIDE (CaC,)
allow arcing between the workpiece connector and the Historical Background
work, which not only heats the workpiece connection, In 1836, English chemist Edmund Davy observed
but results in poor arcing characteristics between the that a by-product incidental to the production of potas-
electrode and the work.
sium decomposed water and produced a gas which
The welding machine frame should be connected to contained acetylene. In 1862, a German chemist,
an earth ground, or a person accidentally touching it Wohler, discovered that acetylene could be produced
may receive a noticeable shock. The cable connecting from calcium carbide which he had made by heating a
the power supply frame to ground should not be con- mixture of charcoal and an alloy of zinc and calcium
fused with the workpiece cable and its connection. to a very high temperature. Like Davys material, it
Checking Power Loss decomposed water and yielded acetylene. He also
Voltage drops due to poor connections in a welding reported that the ignited gas produced a brilliant,
circuit may also show up in the welding machine, mis- smoky flame. But it was a French chemist, Berthellot,
leading the welding operator by disguising the exact who in 1862 thoroughly described the reactions.
source of trouble. Before assuming that a welding Unfortunately, for the next thirty years only a few
machine is at fault, the operator should check the cable chemists observed the acetylene flame, and none of
and cable connections to assure that they are tight. them saw any commercial potential.
Loose connections in the machine, or overloaded However, with the development of the electric arc
usage, can cause a transformer winding or insulation furnace, Thomas Willson, an electrical engineer in
to burn. A visual inspection of the entire welding cir- Spray, North Carolina, attempted to produce metallic
Welding Encyclopedia CAPACITY REACTANCE 73
calcium from lime and coal tar. Instead of calcium Gas Production
metal, he produced a dark molten mass which cooled The value of calcium carbide comes from the reac-
to a brittle solid. When he discarded it in a stream, a tion which occurs when placed directly in contact with
large quantity of gas was suddenly liberated. On being water according to the following equation:
ignited, the gas produced a bright but smoky flame. It
CaC2 + 2 H20 + Ca(OH)2+ C2H2
was not the clean hydrogen flame which would have
been produced by the reaction of calcium and water, Carbide + water yield slaked lime + acetylene
but obviously because of the soot, was a rich hydrocar-
bon. Repeating the smelt and analyzing the solid, One kg (2.2 lb) of calcium carbide will produce
which showed it to contain calcium carbide, Willson 0.33 m3 (11.5 ft3) of acetylene at room temperature.
sent a specimen with a letter to Lord Kelvin in Glas-
gow on September 16, 1892. This dated document CALESCENT
secured Willson the honor of being the first to produce See CURIE POINT.
calcium carbide on a commercially promising scale.
CALORIE
During the same time, others in French and German A unit of heat. The amount of heat required to raise
laboratories had been studying and describing car- the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius.
bides, but none were able to produce them on a com-
mercial scale. Thus, as the result of an accident, the CALORlZlNG
industrial possibilities of calcium and acetylene were A process of coating a metal with a fine deposit of
recognized for the first time. The practicality of using aluminum similar to galvanizing with zinc. It is used
acetylene as a means of illumination was demon- primarily as a means of protecting steel from oxidation
strated in 1892, and with the establishment of the Will- at elevated temperatures, rather than from the more
son Illuminating Company in Spray, in the spring of familiar types of corrosion.
1895, the first factory to manufacture calcium carbide
came into being. CAP
Calcium Carbide Production A nonstandard term for the final layer of a groove weld.
Calcium carbide is produced in electric arc furnaces CAPACITANCE
which attain temperatures of about 2760 to 3900C
The property of an electric non-conductor that per-
(5000 to 7000F). The arc established between two mits the storage of energy as a result of electric dis-
electrodes is used to heat a mixture of lime and coke, placement when opposite surfaces of the non-
causing the following changes to occur:
conductor are maintained at a difference of potential.
CaO + 3C + CaC2 + CO
CAPACITOR
Quicklime + coke yield calcium carbide + A condenser. An element of an electrical circuit used
carbon monoxide to store charge temporarily; the primary purpose is to
introduce capacitance in an electric circuit. It usually
To obtain high quality acetylene, it is necessary to use consists of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric.
quicklime that is essentially 99% pure, and low-ash
coke. The phosphorus and sulfur levels of both must CAPACITOR DISCHARGE STUD WELDING
also be very low.
The solidified calcium carbide resembles dark See ARC STUD WELDING.
brown or black or bluish black stone; its density is
2.24 times greater than water. It will not burn except at CAPACITY
very high temperatures in the presence of oxygen. It is The capability of holding or carrying an electric
not affected by organic solvents and it is unaffected by charge. Capacity is measured in farads or microfarads.
shock. It can be stored indefinitely if sealed from air. It
is odorless, but gives off a smell due to the presence of CAPACITY REACTANCE
small amounts of acetylene produced by the interac- The measure of the opposition to the passage of
tion of moisture in the air. In the presence of that mois- alternating current through a condenser as expressed
ture, it slowly slakes to a dry lime. in ohms.
74 CAPILLARY ACTION Welding Encyclopedia
atmosphere by resorting to simple methods. As an This type of job can be simplified by imbedding the
example, the oxidizing effect of air aspirated into the ends of the parts to be joined in carbon paste to main-
arc was reduced by inserting a string of combustible tain alignment. Just two daubs of carbon paste on top
material into the arc alongside the electrode to com- of a fire brick are adequate to hold most parts in the
bine with at least some of the oxygen in the arc area. If correct position. The welding can then be done in a
the string consisted of tightly rolled-up paper, it minute or two, thus saving much time and frustration.
burned to form water vapor and carbon dioxide, both See BACKUP BARS AND PLATES.
of which are more protective of the molten steel than
oxygen. The string was fed into the upper part of the CARBON DIOXIDE
arc, the narrowest part which contained the largest (Chemical formula: CO?). A colorless, odorless,
amount of air. By removing a large portion of the noncombustible gas used in several welding pro-
uncombined oxygen from the arc, the combustible cesses; supplied in cylinders, shipped at its vapor pres-
material sometimes permitted welding to be per- sure of 5722 kPa (830 psig) at 21C (70F). Molecular
formed without a flux. When more effective protection weight: 44.011; specific gravity: 1.522 at 21C (70F);
was needed in carbon arc welding, the string of com- critical pressure: 1183 kPa (171.6 psia).
bustible material was impregnated with slag-forming
ingredients. As the string burned, these ingredients CARBON DIOXIDE WELDING
melted and performed their functions right at the point Carbon dioxide is used either alone or as an additive
where they were most needed. The nature of the slag to argon in shielding gases used with the gas metal arc
and flux varied with the metal being welded. For welding (GMAW) process when fabricating steels.
steels, minerals such as clay and asbestos were used Solid Wire GMAW
for forming the slag, and fluorspar was favored as the When C 0 2 is used alone for shielding with solid
flux. From this simple beginning, shielding the arc filler wires, the arc tends to produce excessive spatter
with gases and protecting the molten metal with slag unless it is kept very short. To avoid porosity, the filler
and flux developed into a highly refined and complex wires must be specially deoxidized. However, when
technology. Reference: George E. Linnert, Welding the arc length is properly controlled, the gas offers
Metallurgy, Vol. 1, 4th Edition, 722-23. Miami, Flor- many advantages, such as high welding speeds, deep
ida: American Welding Society, 1994. penetration and low cost. For these reasons, it is often
the gas of choice, particularly for mechanized appli-
CARBON ARC WELDING, Shielded cations. Its use is restricted to mild steels, because
A carbon arc welding process in which the molten both carbon and oxygen pick-up in the welds can be
filler and weld metal are effectively protected from the problems with stainless steels or low-alloy steels when
air by a supplementary shielding gas. toughness or control of weld composition are
requirements.
CARBON BLOCKS AND PASTE Carbon dioxide is also used as an additive to argon.
Carbon in the form of blocks, rods and carbon com- A mixture of 25% C 0 2 and 75% argon is used to
positions, or paste, have been used to support the improve the arc stability and weld quality for the short
workpiece in welding operations. Carbon sheets or circuiting modification of the GMAW process. Lower
blocks are available in various sizes, and can be amounts, 6% to 8% C02, are used with argon to stabi-
shaped as needed. lize the spray transfer mode when welding carbon
In a joining operation, the parts to be welded may steels and low-alloy steels. Still lower concentrations
be small and must be jointed at such an angle that of 1% or 2% C 0 2 are used to stabilize the spray arc
much time and patience is required to fit up the parts mode when welding stainless steels.
before the actual welding can begin. Often, just as the Flux-CoredArc Welding
welding torch is applied, the parts which have been The effects of C02 on the welding arc and control
balanced very sensitively are blown apart, and they are of weld deposit composition are completely different
much too hot to pick up and re-position without first when C 0 2 is used to shield flux-cored wires. Because
allowing them to cool. This sequence may occur three of arc stabilizers in the wire cores, the arcs can be very
or four times before the welder is successful in fusing stable and free of spatter. Also, carbon pick-up can be
the two parts. controlled, allowing the gas to be used alone to deposit
76 CARBON ELECTRODE Welding Encyclopedia
acceptable welds in stainless steels. However, since Investigators have measured the effects of alloy
better control of the arc and carbon is obtained by content on the preheat temperatures needed to prevent
using a mixture of 25% C 0 2 and 75% argon, this mix- hydrogen-induced cracking or poor toughness, and
ture is frequently used for shielding cored wires. have determined the relative importance of the alloy-
ing elements on that temperature. This is another mea-
CARBON ELECTRODE sure of carbon equivalence (CE). One example
A nonfiller metal electrode used in arc welding and follows:
cutting, consisting of a carbon or graphite rod, which
Mn+Si
may be coated with copper or other materials. See CE = C+-
6
+ C r + M5 o + V +-N i 15
+Cu
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Such strains are similar to welding strains which result common of the cast irons. The gray irons are readily
from the solidification and cooling of weld metal. machinable.
The white cast irons exhibit crystalline, whitish
CAST IRON fractures because the carbon remains in solution dur-
A large family of alloys, generally containing more ing solidification, producing massive carbides in a
than 2% carbon and between 1% and 3% silicon. pearlitic matrix. They are very brittle and hard, but
Unlike steels, they are not malleable when solid, and very wear-resistant.
most have low ductility and very poor resistance to The ductile irons are also known as nodular irons.
impact loading. However, cast irons are very useful They contain alloys which cause the graphite to nucle-
when intricate or inexpensive castings are required, ate as spheres. These nodules are encased in a layer of
and they provide a high damping capacity (the ability ferrite and are in a pearlitic matrix, making them very
of a material to absorb vibration) which can be impor- ductile. Some nodules exhibit elongations of up to
tant for precision machinery. Cast irons have a low 18%.
melting temperature, are very fluid when molten, and Malleable cast irons are produced by heat treating
shrink very little during solidification. specially alloyed white cast irons. Heat treating results
Unlike steels, cast irons contain free graphite in the development of graphite nodules (temper car-
grains, and it is the shape and distribution of the free bon) in a ferrite matrix. Malleable cast irons are used
graphite grains which have the strongest effect on the when good strength, toughness, and casting and
properties of the cast iron. Also important is the matrix machining properties are required.
in which they occur. The microstructure of the matri-
ces depends on the alloys present in the metal, and the CAST IRON, Arc Welding
rate at which it solidifies and cools. If this sequence is Most welds in cast irons are made with an arc weld-
very rapid, the dissolved carbon does not have enough ing process such as shielded metal arc welding
time to nucleate as graphite during solidification; (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas metal
while the matrix transforms to harder microstructure. arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding
Subsequent heat treatments are also important to tem- (GTAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW). The
per the very hard structures. high energy concentration associated with these pro-
cesses allows highly localized fusion of both the cast
Silicon is added to cast iron primarily to control the
irons and the electrodes. But this results in high cool-
solubility of carbon, and therefore the characteristics ing rates and localized thermal expansion, neither of
of the graphite. Additionally, silicon serves as a deoxi-
which is desirable. Even so, reliable, high-quality
dizer, promotes fluidity, and decreases shrinkage. Sul- welds can be produced when proper procedures and
fur might be present in the alloy but is not added
suitable filler metals are used. Prior to the develop-
intentionally, since it causes hot cracks and can pro- ment of the SMAW processes, the carbon arc welding
duce porosity if present in high concentrations. Phos-
(CAW) process was used extensively for welding cast
phorous is also undesirable, because it produces a
irons. Few, if any, shops still consider CAW as a viable
hard, brittle compound; its low melting temperature
technique.
contributes to hot-cracking problems. However, phos-
phorous increases the fluidity of these irons, which is a Welding Considerations
desirable characteristic when casting very thin sec- Because of the considerable differences in the com-
tions. Manganese is added to tie up the sulphur as a position and microstructure of the cast irons, it is
high-melting compound in order to reduce the prob- essential to identify the type of cast iron before weld-
lem of hot cracking. Manganese is also used to control ing begins. Some insight about the type of iron can be
the microstructure of welds, improving the strength determined from the appearance of fractures, an exam-
and ductility as well as machinability. ination of the microstructure, or from hardness mea-
surements. A chemical analysis would also be helpful.
Types of Cast Irons
When no information is obtainable, the iron could be
The four basic types of cast iron are gray, white, assumed to be gray cast iron because of its general use,
ductile, and malleable. and the procedures selected on that basis.
The gray cast irons contain flake graphite, which The selection of the filler metal, the energy input,
imparts a gray surface in fractures, and are the most and the preheat are very important to successful weld-
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Arc Welding 79
ing. Selection of the welding process is also important what the temperature should be, and how it should be
in establishing the procedures and materials to be distributed. Preheat prevents cracks caused by thermal
used. stresses, reduces residual stresses, distortion, and hard-
When welding cast iron with a steel electrode, there ness in the HAZ. It burns off undesirable organic con-
are four important zones in the vicinity of the weld: taminants such as oils and greases. As a general rule,
the weld metal area, the alloyed weld metal zone, the to prevent cracking, the minimum preheat temperature
heat-affected zone, and the original cast iron. See Fig- should be about 40C (100F) for malleable irons;
ure C-1. In C-1, Section A is deposited steel, unaf- between 150 and 260C (300 and 500F) for gray
fected by dilution. Section B is also steel deposited irons, depending on the alloy content; between 200
from the electrode, but changed from a soft steel to a and 315C (400 and 600F) for ductile irons, depend-
rather high-carbon steel. This is due to alloying with ing on the alloy content, and above 315C (600F) for
carbon from the cast iron. white irons to prevent the formation of martensite. The
filler metal is an important consideration in preheat-
ing, with lower temperatures being acceptable with
weaker welds. The temperature selected and the distri-
bution of heat within a casting are also dependent on
LINE OF FUSION7 h > C the complexity of the shape and size of the casting,
(with the more complex shapes and larger sizes requir-
ing more heat), and the need to produce compressive
stresses in the vicinity of the weld joint. Slow cooling
of the casting after welding is also necessary. Very
slow cooling can be accomplished by burying the cast-
ing in sand or other material or, at the very least, cov-
A -Steel deposited but unaffected. ering it with a heat resistant fabric to minimize
B - Steel deposited and hardened by absorption of carbon. radiation and convective cooling.
C - Cast iron which has been hardened.
D - Original cast iron. Thermal Stresses
Figure C-1-Steel Electrode Deposit on Cast Iron When a section of metal is heated or cooled, the
expansion or contraction which takes place will pro-
duce stresses. This can be visualized by comparing
Cast iron which was brought up to melting tempera- this effect to that produced by driving a wedge
ture, then chilled by the cold mass of the casting, is between the sections at the point of heat application.
shown as Section C, the heat-affected zone. The result The greatest stress is exerted at a time when the metal
is a metal which is extremely hard and brittle. This is just below the point of fusion, or at the time contrac-
hardening is due to rapid cooling, which prevents the tion has taken place. The effect of these stresses is
iron carbide from changing into iron and graphite. The illustrated in Figure C-2. Assume that Item 1 is to be
metal in this area is white iron; the controlling compo- welded at the point marked W and that the casting
nent is cementite.
section at the point of welding is 13 by 2.5 cm (5 by
Section D is the original cast iron. 1 in.). An application of welding heat at the point W
Failure of a welded joint of the type shown in Fig- continues to expand the metal at this point until a point
ure C-1 will usually occur in the cast iron adjacent to just below the fusion is reached. This expansion
the line of fusion, because the hardened cast iron is causes the free end to move outward in order to
more brittle than the high-carbon steel on the steel side accommodate the greater bulk of material at the weld,
of the line of fusion. just as if a wedge were being driven into the metal.
A specific reference is ANSI/AWS D11.2, Guide After the metal solidifies, this greater bulk begins to
for Welding Iron Castings, published by the American recede or contract and continues to do so until a point
Welding Society. is reached at which the casting has cooled to ambient
Preheat temperature. With this contraction there is a corre-
Preheating to slow the rate at which the welds cool sponding movement of the free end of the casting. If,
is important to the success of welding cast irons. It is instead of the casting having the flat section shown in
not a question of whether to use preheat or not, but Item 1, it takes the form of that shown in Item 2, where
80 CAST IRON, Arc Welding Welding Encyclopedia
1 2 3 4 5
Figure C-2-Stresses Set Up During Welding
the leg section is similar to three sides of a square, the positioned as needed in the weld joint to reinforce the
leg, instead of being free to move, is held more rigidly, welded joint. (See CAST IRON STUDDING and ARC
causing considerable strain on the lower side of the STUD WELDING).
section and opposite the weld. Another technique involves weld face grooving, in
Contraction Strains. On cooling, contraction takes which staggered grooves are cut along the faces of
place as in the previous example, causing a severe joints to accept stringer welds. They prevent potential
strain in the lower section. If the casting is solid and cracks from propagating in completed welds.
the section so heavy that the welding heat does not Peening can be very helpful in reducing residual
penetrate all the way through, there is the same expan- tensile stresses. It is most effective when used on
sion and contraction with the accompanying stresses welds which are at red heat, but not below 540C
and strains which often result in warpage and break- (1000F). Peening can be accomplished by hand with
age. Items 3,4 and 5 in Figure C-2 show similar exam- a ball peen hammer or with an air hammer.
ples; the points W representing the places of Preventing Cracks. Cracking can also be reduced by
welding and the points S where the greatest strain is depositing the welds in a specific sequence and direc-
exerted. Breakage from expansion and contraction tion. In welding castings with irregular sections, the
stresses does not always occur at the point of greatest area of least strain (the heavy sections) should be
stress application, but at a point where the strength of welded first, and the area of the greatest strain (the
the section is less than that required to withstand the light sections) should be welded last. When welding
stress applied at that point. An example of this is areas of the various sections, the direction of the weld
shown in Item 3, where the weld is made in the cross should be from the heavy section toward the light
member between the legs, and the strain is distributed section, and always toward a comer or edge when
about the apex of the angle formed at the junction of possible.
the legs. If the section of the apex is heavy enough to Joint Preparation
withstand the energy exerted, the breakage, if any,
would then take place in the leg sections and at a point Sound, clean cast iron is an essential requirement
which is less able to withstand the applied stress at that for joints to be repaired by welding. Sometimes the
particular point. A close study of the construction of weld zone is impregnated with sand and other contam-
each particular casting is necessary so that proper pre- inants which accumulated while the cast component
cautions and care can be exercised when designing the was in use. All foreign materials must be removed,
joint, preparing it for welding, and completing the including casting skins, sand, rust, paint, or oil. All of
weld. the defective metal must be removed before the welds
are made. Sufficient metal must be removed to provide
Special Techniques the welder with a large enough opening to achieve full
The reliability of welds in cast irons can be penetration in the root and side walls. The presence of
improved with several techniques. One involves a contaminants might not be detected until after some
mechanical method called studding, in which studs are weld metal has been deposited. If such a condition is
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Arc Welding 81
found, that metal as well as more of the casting must very low solubility for carbon, so carbon dissolved in
be removed so that sound weld metal can be deposited. the weld metal as the result of dilution is rejected as
Cracks are often pinned by drilling holes at the ends graphite during solidification. This minimizes shrink-
of the cracks. This reduces the high stress concentra- age in the weld metal which, in turn, reduces residual
tions at the cracks and keeps them from propagating stresses in the weld joint. Additionally, the nickel-rich
while preparing the joint for welding and while weld- alloys are soft, easy to machine and offer high resis-
ing. Air carbon arc is the most common process used tance to hot cracking when restrained.
for removing defects and opening the joints. Follow- There are four basic categories of nickel-base
ing this, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) should be electrodes:
removed by grinding. (1) High-nickel-containing about 85% nickel and
The type of weld groove to be prepared depends on alloyed with carbon, silicon, manganese and copper.
many factors, such as accessibility, anticipated appli- They are used in applications where the diluted weld
cation, the type of cast iron, thickness, the welding metal must be machined.
process and the filler metal. For example, when using (2) Nickel-iron-a 50/50 mix of nickel and iron
high-nickel fillers, adjustments need to be made for containing the same alloy additions as the high-nickel
the sluggishness of this material, meaning a wider electrodes. The welds are stronger and more ductile,
root opening and larger groove angle. making them more useful for welding ductile or high-
Shielded Metal Arc Welding strength gray irons. They are effective for joining cast
irons to dissimilar alloys, such as carbon steel or
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is probably nickel base alloys. Stainless steels should be buttered
the most widely used process for arc welding cast with a high-nickel electrode first to keep chromium
irons because of its versatility, because it offers the carbide from forming in the final weld. This alloy has
greatest selection of filler metal compositions, and the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion, making it
because it can be used in all positions. The SMAW more useful for welding heavy sections.
process also has a number of other advantages, such as
(3) Nickel-manganese-iron- a 40/40 mix of nickel
reasonable deposition rates, low distortion and a nar-
and iron, containing about 12% manganese. This alloy
row heat-affected zone.
has the good combination of strength, ductility and
Filler Metals for SMAW cracking resistance. It is used for welding the nodular
Gray Iron Rods. These rods can match the composi- irons, and in surfacing applications where wear resis-
tions of the castings to be welded, including those with tance is important.
high carbon levels. They are used in the flat position at (4) Nickel-copper-a 60/40 nickel copper alloyed
high currents to produce large fluid puddles. To avoid with a little silicon and manganese. These electrodes
hot cracking, the arc current should not be interrupted are used only in applications where dilution can be
quickly, but should be decreased slowly to fill the cra- kept very low, because the addition of iron can cause
ter and allow it to solidify without cracking. Gray iron weld cracking.
rods produce welds which can match the color of the Copper Alloy Electrodes. Copper alloy electrodes
casting as well as its mechanical properties. are used for braze welding cast irons. (See BRAZE
Mild Steel Electrodes. Mild steel electrodes such as WELDING). The most commonly used of these are
E7018 are used to repair defects in castings when strengthened with either tin or aluminum. The copper
color match is important, but easy machining is not. To alloy electrode containing aluminum is considerably
keep the weld hardness down, it is important to mini- stronger, but both offer the advantages of being very
mize dilution and discourage procedures which cause soft and ductile when hot. This allows it to yield while
high cooling rates. Another problem is associated with cooling, relieving stresses that could cause cracking.
the large shrinkage differences with mild steel and cast The strength increases rapidly as the alloys cool to
iron: the resultant stresses can be severe enough to ambient temperature.
cause cracking in the HAZ. To avoid them, preheat is Technique for Deep Welds
essential. When the weld is deep enough to require that sev-
Nickel Alloy Electrodes. Nickel-alloy electrodes eral layers be deposited, a special technique is used.
have a special place in the fabrication of cast irons. This technique utilizes a coated electrode in combina-
Nickel offers a number of advantages. First, it has a tion with a filler rod of silicon bronze. The first layer is
82 CAST IRON, Braze Welding Welding Encyclopedia
always made with the electrode alone; the silicon cuiting transfer, these wires can be used for braze
bronze is not added until subsequent layers. The oper- welding. See BRAZE WELDING.
ator uses one hand to maintain the arc with the elec- Flux-CoredArc Welding
trode and feeds the bronze wire into the pool with the Like the solid wires used for the GMAW process,
other hand. The filler rod is held close to the arc and is the cored wires used with this modification of GMAW
added by intermittently bringing its end into contact must be ductile. However, since alloys can be incorpo-
with the pool behind the electrode. Care has to exer- rated in the core, many compositions can be produced
cised so that the feed rod will not make contact with without causing either drawing or feeding difficulties.
the electrode. See CAST IRON; CAST IRON, Oxyacety- In addition, some of the cored wires can incorporate
lene Welding, and CAST IRON, Malleable. constituents which provide protection to the arc and
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) weld pool, eliminating the need for shielding gases.
These are the self-shielded cored wires, some of which
The GMAW process is most commonly used with
offer the advantages of high deposition rates and low
the spray-arc mode of metal transfer, a high-energy
penetration at relatively low welding currents. They
technique. Producing a large heat-affected zone (HAZ) can be used to great advantage for welding heavy sec-
and deep penetration, it is more likely to cause weld or
tions of cast irons. Some also have basic slags which
HAZ cracking. The buried-arc mode, which is some- increase the tolerance for sulfur, thereby reducing the
times used for welding carbon steels with C02-rich possibility of hot cracking.
gases, also produces a deeply penetrating weld. In the
globular mode, however, using argon-rich gases and Filler Metals. Wires containing 70/30 nickel-iron
currents below that at which spray occurs, the weld compositions are available for welding heavy castings.
penetration is very low. Unfortunately, this mode can- Although these wires are effective for welding thick
not be used in any position except the flat or, possibly, sections, the welds produced are generally too hard to
for horizontal fillet welds. The short-circuiting mode be machined. Nickel-iron-manganese electrodes with
allows low penetration welds to be made in all posi- a 60/40 ratio of Ni/Fe deposit stronger and more duc-
tions; seemingly an ideal combination for welding cast tile welds which are machinable. They also can be
irons. However, due to the very low energy associated used to weld cast irons to dissimilar metals.
with this mode, lack-of-fusion defects must be CAST IRON, Braze Welding
expected when welding thicknesses greater than 6 mm
Cast iron braze welding can be used for the repair of
(1/4 inch).
breaks in iron castings, from very small castings to
Filler Metals. The variety of electrodes available for those weighing several tons. The term brazing
GMAW is not as extensive as those available for includes metal arc processes and oxyacetylene braze
SMAW. This is because small diameter wires are welding.
required for the gas shielded processes, meaning that Castings must be thoroughly clean and free of
the alloys must have reasonably good ductility in order graphite; they must be preheated before brazing is
to be drawn. For this reason, high-carbon, nickel-rich applied. Joints are prepared for brazing in the same
wires cannot be made economically. It is possible to way as for welding. See CAST IRON; ARC WELDING,
use the same alloys designed for welding steels. They JOINT PREPARATION; and PREHEAT.
provide an excellent color match; however, they must When braze welding, a black heat is all that is
be used with care, and because dilution causes the necessary (instead of the dull red heat necessary when
welds to be very hard, they cannot be machined. Pre- fusion-welding with the torch and cast iron rods).
heat is essential. There are a number of bronze welding rods on the
When dilution must be tolerated and the welds must market which may be used for brazing cast iron.
be machined, alloys containing 95% or more nickel Procedure
are required. Nickel-iron wires are also available, but A flux should be used when braze welding cast
they deposit hard welds which are crack sensitive. The iron with the oxyacetylene process. The torch flame
same nickel-manganese-iron alloy used for SMAW should be either neutral, slightly carburizing or
offers the same high strength and crack resistance for slightly oxidizing, depending on the recommendations
GMAW welding. Copper-tin and copper-aluminum of the rod manufacturer for the type of rod and the
wires can also be used and, with globular. or short-cir- specific application.
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Malleable 83
One of the principal factors in cast iron braze weld- tooth or boss on a gear wheel or other large casting, if
ing is good tinning. This is accomplished by careful the casting is cold and the filler rod is added, the metal
cleaning and preparation, the use of a good tinning cools immediately on being welded, and results in a
flux, and by heating the metal to the correct heat, a hard, chilled weld, which lacks strength and is impos-
black heat adjacent the area to be welded. sible to machine.
It is good practice to position the pieces being braze Hard, porous and unacceptable welds can also
welded so that the weld is made uphill. A short length result from using an incorrect flux or an excessive
of seam, about 5 cm (2 in.), is heated with the torch, quantity of flux, impurities in the filler rod, or rods
the rod is dipped into the flux, and this area tinned. It low in silicon.
is easy to recognize when the bronze is tinning well
because of the manner in which it flows over the hot CAST IRON, Malleable
casting. If it does not flow readily, tinning is not being Malleable cast iron is capable of being bent,
properly accomplished; the flux should be placed so extended or shaped to some extent. For example, if a
that the metal ahead of the molten film of bronze is malleable casting is placed in a vise and an attempt is
covered. If tinning becomes difficult, as is sometimes made to break it, it will bend before breaking. If cast-
the case with an old casting, it is often possible to file ings are subjected to great strains and rough usage,
the surface with a coarse file while the surface is hot malleable cast iron is required. Malleable cast iron can
so that the bronze will adhere. be distinguished from gray cast iron if a fracture is
After a two-inch section of the joint has been broken clear through the casting. The malleable iron
welded, another two-inch section is tinned, and subse- has a clearly discernible white, steely skin extended
quently built up until the joint is completed. Any ten- slightly from the surface of the casting toward the cen-
dency of the bronze to become liquid and run can ter. A fracture showing the interior of a gray iron cast-
always be prevented by drawing the torch away imme- ing lacks the bright skin at the surface.
diately. This enables the welder to control the bronze
Annealing. Malleable iron castings are not used in
pool and to make an acceptable weld.
the as-cast condition. They must be annealed to make
When braze welded in this manner, the strength of
them malleable. The castings are packed for annealing
this joint is such that if the weld is broken, pieces of
in different ways, depending on the product desired.
the bronze will actually pull areas of the cast iron out
For example, black heart castings are made by tightly
of the cast iron base metal, indicating that the weld is
packing the white iron castings in the annealing boxes,
stronger than the cast iron base.
surrounding them with mill scale (oxide of iron), and
CAST IRON, Hard Spots
covering them. They are then placed in the annealing
furnaces and maintained at 730 to 815C (1350 to
A cast iron weld will very often contain hard spots,
1500F) for approximately 60 hours. During this time,
or will be hard in some places and soft in others. The
chief cause of this is the chilling of the metal from the the carbon in the iron changes from the chemically
molten state. combined form, separating from the iron and becom-
ing interspersed among the grains of the iron as very
When molten cast iron is suddenly cooled, the dis-
fine particles of a coke-like carbon called temper cur-
solved carbon remains in the iron as such, but when
bon. While this change is occurring, the mill scale, or
cooled slowly the carbon separates from the iron in the
iron oxide, surrounding the castings in the annealing
form of graphite. A fracture in a suddenly cooled
boxes combines with the carbon in the surface of the
metal would show white iron, and on testing with a
castings, decarburizing the surface metal, thus chang-
file, would prove to be very hard; a fracture in slowly
ing it into a grade of steel. If a black heart malleable
cooled metal would show gray iron and would be soft.
casting is broken by blows from a sledge hammer, the
Sudden cooling of cast iron makes it hard. When a fracture shows a bright steel skin for a slight depth
cold welding rod is plunged into the pool of molten around the surface of the casting, and a black interior.
metal under the flame, the rod chills the metal it comes
in contact with, and causes small round hard spots in Pipe Fittings. Many pipe fittings, and some other
the metal. These hard spots make it difficult to types of castings which do not require great strength,
machine or finish the weld. To overcome this problem, are made in all black form, and are called all-black
the rod should be red hot before it is brought in contact malleable castings. These castings are packed in the
with the melted iron. As an example, when welding a annealing boxes in an inert medium like sand. The
84 CAST IRON, Malleable Welding Encyclopedia
packing prevents warping of the castings .while they depending on the thickness of the metal. A single-V
are heated at red heat in the annealing boxes. In some should extend to within about 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) from
cases, no packing at all is used. the bottom, and when the two pieces are placed
White Heart Castings. Another grade of malleable
together, there should be about 1.6 mm (1/16 in.)
castings is known as white heart castings, and are between the edges at the point where the bevels meet.
more common in Europe than in the United States. The groove angle should be approximately 90".
They are packed in mill scale or iron ore, and are The surfaces of the V should be thoroughly wire-
decarburized throughout the casting so that the frac- brushed, or sandblasted if equipment is available. If
ture is white. the casting is covered with grease or oil, a solvent
should used to clean it.
Shrinkage in Malleable Castings. The shrinkage of
malleable castings is important to welders. Gray iron Temperature Control. It is important that the casting
shrinks about 10.4 mm/m (1/8 in./ft) during solidifi- be kept as cool as possible: first, to prevent change in
cation and cooling. White iron shrinks about 21 mm/m the form of the carbon, and second, to prevent strains
(1/4 in./ft). Cast steel shrinks about 26 d m (5/16 in./ in the casting itself. The arc should never, at any time,
ft). An interesting observation is that during the be held on the casting long enough to heat the metal to
annealing of white cast iron, it regains about half of its a red heat.
shrinkage, growing in size during the annealing pro- Cleaning Weld Beads. Before welding a second bead
cess so that the net shrinkage of malleable castings is over one already made, the first bead should be thor-
about the same (10.4 mm/m [1/8 in./ft]) as that of gray oughly cleaned: wire-brushed until the steel is bright
iron castings. and free from any particles of the coating or of the
Welding Malleable Castings slag. Cleanliness is an absolute necessity, otherwise
Considering the changes in the iron which take foreign particles may become embedded, causing a
place during the annealing process, it follows that if pocket or hole.
the torch or the arc is applied to the malleable iron and When using a steel electrode, the weld is a likely to
the temperature of the section to be welded is actually be hard, too hard for machining. However, this is not
raised to the point of fusion, the entire structure of the important when making an average repair on a mallea-
casting is altered, and the weld section reverts approx- ble casting, because machining is not usually required.
imately to white iron. Therefore, an ordinary fusion If machining is required, it is better to use a bronze
weld on a malleable casting produces a weld area electrode.
which does not have the strength or the toughness of If the casting is heavy and the section is thick, it
the rest of the casting, may not even be as strong as a may be better to drill and tap holes at various points
gray iron casting, and would also be hard and brittle. and insert threaded studs.
Any weld which requires actual fusion of the base
metal of the casting might be counter to the objective Electrodes for SMAW
of annealed castings. This is usually what takes place, Electrodes made of phosphor-bronze and heavily
and the fusion welding process is not recommended. coated to shield the molten metal from the air can be
Arc Welding, Malleable Iron
used in making malleable iron welds. The work should
be prepared and cleaned in exactly the same way as for
When arc welding is used for malleable cast iron, other types of welding, and the electrodes should be
the procedure is generally very much the same as for used with DCEP. A 4 mm (5/32 in.) electrode can be
cast iron, however, special precautions are necessary used with a current from 70 to 170 amp, and 24 to 28
because malleable iron and cast iron have very differ- arc volts. If a 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) electrode is used, cur-
ent characteristics. Malleable iron is affected by the
rent should be from 90 to 220 amp, with voltage from
heat of fusion to a greater extent. If the casting must 24 to 28 volts. It is desirable to hold the electrode at
have malleable characteristics when the weld is com- approximately 90" to the work. It may be necessary to
pleted, there is no alternative but to heat treat it again, reduce the current somewhat as the work progresses
as it was first treated to make it a malleable casting. and the heat increases. It should be remembered that
Joint Preparation. In preparing the joint for arc with these rods, as with others, the casting must not be
welding, the joint opening should be chipped out, or heated too hot: the lowest current required to achieve
ground to either a single- or double-V opening, fusion should be used.
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Oxyacetylene Welding 85
Monel@alloy electrodes may also be used to pro- completed, continuing with short increments until the
duce machinable welds of high strength. Because of entire braze is completed.
the higher melting point of Monel@, about 1360C Penetration. When braze welding a small casting
(2480F), higher currents are needed to produce with the oxyacetylene torch, the welder is often
proper flow and fusion. Each layer or bead is moder- tempted to fit the two parts together in alignment, and
ately peened to diminish stresses, and thoroughly to flow the bronze on the surface, believing that the
cleaned between beads. braze metal will penetrate the depth of the break and
OxyacetyleneTorch Brazing adhere to it. This procedure may work in a furnace
To make a repair weld in a malleable casting, the brazing process in which castings are heated for a long
crack or break must be chipped or ground out to form time until the heat penetrates evenly to the center of
a V to an included angle of approximately 60. The the casting. The bronze spelter used for this purpose
surfaces of the V should be vigorously wire-brushed to penetrates entirely to the bottom of the casting, and
clean them thoroughly. If the casting is completely such repairs are very strong when properly made. It is
broken, the parts should be placed in correct align- difficult, however, to heat the center of a small mallea-
ment, and supported on the welding table to prevent ble casting sufficiently with the torch without over-
sagging or warping out of shape. It is a good practice heating the surface. As a rule, any attempt to torch-
to use a bronze rod with a rather low melting point. braze in this manner will result in fusing only to the
Heating malleable iron to the point of fusion will surface skin of the casting, with no appreciable fusing
change its characteristics, so the temperature should be at the center. It is usually a better practice to form a V
kept as low as possible to avoid overheating. in the casting and tin a weld from the bottom up to
make sure that all portions of the weld actually adhere
Temperature Control. The melting temperature of a to the iron surface.
bronze welding rod is about 885C (1626F); a man- As a general rule, whether an arc or a torch is used
ganese-bronze welding rod will melt at approximately to weld malleable iron, bronze welding rods and elec-
925C (1700F). Therefore, it is necessary to heat the trodes are preferred because of the lower temperature
casting only to the melting temperature of the particu- at which they can be applied, to avoid fusion of the
lar rod being used, which is about a red heat, in order malleable iron during the process.
to flow the bronze over the metal. It will adhere to the
surface, or tin the metal. CAST IRON, OxyacetyleneWelding
Flux. As in most brazing, a suitable flux is needed. Welding cast iron with a torch and cast iron welding
The flux should be a malleable iron flux, so designated rods can readily be accomp1ished.Preheatingthe weld
on the label, and not the type of flux used for brazing area or the entire casting is required, except when very
cast iron. The object of the flux is to clean the surface small castings are involved. See PREHEAT.
of the casting, so that the metal will tin readily. The same techniques for cleaning and preparing the
Tinning. The most important part of any braze is the
casting for welding that are used for other processes
initial tinning, or coating, of the base metal with the are used with gas welding. See CAST IRON, ARC
WELDING.
bronze. If this coating readily flows over the metal at
the right temperature, the balance of the weld can be Procedure
built up to the top of the V. In this respect, malleable The cast iron weld joint is prepared and preheated.
iron does not differ from gray iron castings, except A neutral oxyacetylene flame is used, along with a cast
that it is critical not to overheat the malleable castings. iron welding flux, which is essential to break down the
Gray castings can be placed in a preheating furnace surface oxide and increase the flowing qualities of the
and preheated without any danger of changing the metal. Assuming that the weld is to be made on a V-
structure of the metal, but greater attention must be joint, the torch is applied to the edges of the V, and the
given to preventing such changes when heating mal- cast iron welding rod is heated and dipped into the
leable castings. flux, which adheres to it. The sides of the V are melted
When braze welding malleable castings, a short down, and the molten rod is added to the puddle.
section of the V should be tinned as described, and this A short section of the weld is built up in this man-
section should be built up to completion as rapidly as ner; successive sections are added until the weld is fin-
possible. The next section should then be tinned and ished. With cast iron, it is often good practice to begin
86 CAST IRON PIPE WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
at the center of a weld and back the torch out to the either brushed with the solution or dipped in it. They
edge of the weld. Then the flame is always pointing are then rinsed and allowed to dry before soldering.
toward the completed weld, and as the edge is Some welders prefer to prepare cast iron for solder-
approached, the metal can be controlled to good ing by tinning it with half-and-half solder, 50% tin and
advantage. The edge can be built up square, or to the 50% lead. A grinder is used to remove all of the scale
appropriate shape. If the torch is pointing toward the from the surface so that it is clean and bright. The
edge, the hot metal is likely to be driven over the edge ground surface is then cleaned of grease by dipping it
by the force of the flame and will produce a weld with in a lye solution, then rinsed and dipped in muriatic
a ragged, incomplete finish. acid. The surface is then treated with rosin and tinned
Manipulating the torch helps finish the weld. If the with half-and-half solder. The casting may have to be
torch is withdrawn momentarily from the hot puddle, dipped in acid several times before it becomes thor-
the weld metal will instantly solidify, enabling the oughly tinned. Rubbing the surface of the iron casting
welder to control the metal and make a neat, square with a piece of zinc while the surface is covered with
edge weld. The opposite side of the weld can be com- acid will facilitate the tinning. The tinned surface can
pleted using the same procedure. then be soldered with the half-and-half solder.
Porosity CAST IRON STUDDING
Porosity in a weld is formed by gas entrapment dur- Steel can be welded to cast iron if the work-
ing solidification. The cavities or holes (blowholes) pieces are free to align themselves after contraction
which appear in the molten puddle during welding are strains which result during cooling. Studding can be
usually the result of overheating the metal, or holding done when the weld is in a position in which the parts
the flame in one place too long, thus driving the gases are not free to align themselves. A steel weld made to
produced by the flame into the molten cast iron. Poros- cast iron appears acceptable until just about the time it
ity can also be caused by gas produced in the metal is being most admired during cooling, when it invari-
during overheating. If gases are allowed to remain in ably cracks along the edge of the weld. This is easily
the metal, the weld will be porous and will lack explained when we consider that steel has approxi-
strength. mately four times the strength of cast iron. The defi-
Porosity in cast iron welds can be avoided in many nite location of the break comes about because the cast
cases by correct manipulation of the torch. The flame iron adjacent to the weld has become chilled cast iron,
should be directed so that it is not pointed at the mol- no matter whether it was originally so or not, and a
ten puddle for more than a moment, then it is quickly sharp demarcation of structure, together with a possi-
moved to a colder part of the seam, or to the rod as it is ble layer of weaker cast iron, invariably causes the
held in the molten metal. break to take place in this layer of cementite. Studding
Standards for welding cast iron are contained in is recommended for large castings where strength is
ANSYAWS D 11.2, Guidefor Welding Iron Castings. required.
Properly aligned and spaced holes are drilled care-
CAST IRON PIPE WELDING fully so that they are not drilled all the way through the
casting. The holes are tapped for the correct threading
See PIPE WELDING. and the headless stud bolts are screwed into these
holes; they should project from 3.2 mm to 6 mm (1/8
CAST IRON SOLDERING to 1/4 in.) above the surface of the casting.
Soldering cast iron presents many problems, the Studs can be ordinary steel headless stud bolts, and
most difficult of which is properly tinning the cast iron are welded with a low-carbon steel electrode. While
surface to be soldered. If plating facilities are avail- shielded metal arc welding is usually chosen for the
able, it is best to copper plate the parts that are to be studding procedure, any process which uses this elec-
soldered. If not, a substitute tinning process can be trode can be used. The thickness and spacing of the
developed by thoroughly cleaning the surfaces and studs should be proportioned so that the studs will
copper plating them with a solution of copper sul- have at least the full strength of the cast iron section.
phate. This solution should be made up of 30 ml(1 oz) The space between the studs should be about 2-1/2
copper sulphate and 15 ml (112 0 2 ) acid added to times the diameter of the stud, and they should be stag-
240 ml (8 0 2 ) of water. The parts to be: soldered are gered. They should also have a reasonably fine thread.
Welding Encyclopedia I CAULKING 87
Strength Welding the stud to the cast iron makes the stud an
Since steel has four times the strength of cast iron, integral part of the casting. Welding from stud to stud
the problem is to proportion the studs so that the diagonally or crosswise draws the fractured surfaces
ratio of the cross section of the steel to the cross together to their original contact if a small amount of
section of the remaining cast iron is something less the original break has been left intact at the bottom of
than four to one at any one section that will be sub- the V. This can be done in most instances, but not if
jected to cooling strains at the same time. Simply pieces are broken out and lost, in which case they must
stated, this means large studs for large sections and be replaced by a casting or forging.
smaller studs for smaller sections. Steam-tight joints In this steel studding process for cast iron, espe-
on cast iron can be made with the efficient use of cially for cylinders and similar work, machining is
studs. often necessary after welding. The hard stratum of
Another good application of studding is the use of metal directly under the weld prevents ordinary cut-
large studs as an anchor or nucleus for breaks in cast- ting operations, so it must be ground. There are other
ings such as gear teeth. One to three of these large means of taking care of this hardened layer for
anchor studs, together with some small regular studs machining on the surface; one of the methods is to fin-
appropriately distributed, will provide the necessary ish the machined part with a nickel-copper electrode,
weld strength to the cast iron, as well as strength to which has the property of merging with the cast iron so
withstand some shear and thrust strains. The weld, that no hard layer of cementite is formed. This nickel-
built up to size and machined off, finishes into a per- copper electrode was developed for repairing scored
fect wearing or bearing surface. This method of stud- cylinders and similar applications.
ding is also applied to cast steel, in cases where the
original section has not been adequate to withstand the CAST IRON THERMITE
strains. A thermite mixture containing additions of ferro-
Studding Methods silicon and mild steel. See THERMITE WELDING.
Following are procedures to produce studded welds
to repair breaks in cast iron: CAST IRON, White
(1) Grind or chip the crack to form a V from one A cast iron in which the carbon is in combined form
surface, if only one surface is accessible for welding, rather than in the form of graphite. It is hard, brittle
or half way from both faces if both are accessible, sav- and highly resistant to abrasive wear, and can be
ing enough pieces of the original assembly to keep the machined only with great difficulty with special cut-
piece securely clamped in alignment. Before any of ting tools. A freshly made fracture has a silvery white
the welding is done, the stud holes are to be drilled and Color. See CAST IRON.
tapped with a bottoming tap, and the studs screwed in
tightly, completely filling the hole for a depth of at CAST STEEL
least four times the diameter of the studs. A conve- Any object made by pouring molten steel into a
nient way of doing this is to have rods threaded for mold. See STEEL, CAST.
their entire length, screw these in tightly, and saw
them off 3.2 to 6 mm (1/8 to 114 to in.) above the sur- CATHODE
face of the work, depending on accessibility. A narrow
V should have the studs closer to the work than a more The negative terminal of a power supply; the elec-
open one. trode when using direct current electrode negative
(DCEN). In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the
(2) Weld around the studs so that they are part of the source of electrons.
cast iron; then weld between the studs crosswise or
diagonally until the entire surface of the V and the
adjacent surface forming the underside of the pad is CAULKING
completely covered before proceeding with the main Plastic deformation of weld and adjacent base
filling in of the weld. Add metal one bead at a time so metal surj5aces by mechanical means to seal or
that no large section of the weld solidifies from the obscure discontinuities. See STANDARD WELDING
molten state at any one time. TERMS.
88 CAULKWELD - Welding Encyclopedia
include excellent wear resistance, high hardness, practically impossible because most ceramic materials
excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance, low ther- are brittle even at elevated temperatures. Also, in some
mal expansion, high electrical resistivity, and high development programs like those for advanced heat
strength-to-weight ratio. Structural ceramics are being engines, some complex parts are being made as mono-
used or considered for use as cutting tools, bearings, liths by difficult processing schemes or by extensive
machine tool parts, dies, pump seals, high temperature machining of densified billets.
heat exchangers, and a variety of internal combustion While this approach to component manufacturing is
and turbine engine parts. Typical properties for some acceptable for development purposes, it is impractical
metals and structural ceramic materials are given in for mass production because of high costs. The diffi-
Table C-2. culty of machining ceramics also makes it costly. By
Ceramic joining, especially ceramic-to-metal join- reducing the complexity of individual parts, signifi-
ing, has been the subject of much developmental c a n t reductions in machining cost can be expected.
research over the years. However, with high interest in Effective methods of joining ceramics may eliminate
using ceramics as structural components in demanding machining altogether in some cases.
applications, such as internal combustion engines, tur- Effective ceramic joining techniques also can play
bine engines, and heat exchangers, there is a height- an important role in improving the reliability of
ened interest in ceramic joining technologies. The ceramic structures. Because ceramics are brittle mate-
development of more effective joining techniques for rials, they are very sensitive to flaws resulting from the
structural ceramics could also have a great impact on quality of raw materials used in their production and to
their use in mass-produced components. the characteristics of various processing techniques,
One of the most important functions of joining tech- including machining. A single flaw can cause the
niques is to provide the means for economic fabrication rejection or, or if undetected, the failure of a ceramic
of complex, multi-component structures. Development part. Rather than dealing with complicated monolithic
of effective ceramic joining techniques will be espe- parts, it is easier to inspect and detect flaws in simple-
cially significant because of limitations on component shaped components before they are joined to form
manufacturing due to ceramic processing techniques complex structures.
and to the materials themselves. For example, deforma- The electronics industry has the largest fraction of
tion of densified ceramics to form complex shapes is advanced ceramics actually in use. Also, while the
Table C-2
Typical Properties of Some Pure Metals and Structural Ceramicsa
Coefficient of Linear Electrical Thermal
Strengthb Modulus of Elasticity Thermal Expansion Resistivity, Conductivity,
Material MPa ksi GPa ksi ym/m/"C in./inJ"F pR-cm W/(m-K)
A1 34 4.9 62 8992 23.6 13.10 2.6548 221.75
cu 69 10.0 110 15 954 16.5 9.17 1.6730 393.71
Fe 130 18.9 196 28 427 11.7 6.50 9.71 75.31
Mo 345 50.0 324 46 992 4.9 2.72 5.20 142.26
Ni 152 22.0 207 30 023 13.3 7.39 6.84 92.05
Ti 207 20.0 116 16 824 8.4 4.67 42.00 21.90
A1203 300 43.5 380 55 114 6.8 3.78 1020 27.20
Sic 500 72.5 480 69 618 4.2 2.33 107 62.80
Si3N4 1000 145.0 304 44 091 3.2 1.78 >I 020 10.00
Zr02 700 101.5 205 29 733 9.7 5.39 >io17 2.00
a. Values given are typical values for each material at or near room temperature. Property values of both metals and ceramics can vary
significantly with composition.
b. Yield strengths are given for metals; modulus of rupture strengths are given for ceramics.
90 CERAMIC ROD FLAME SPRAYING Welding Encyclopedia
CHIPPING HAMMER
A tool for removing slag, scale or unwanted metal
when preparing a surface for welding or finishing a
weld.
A chipping hammer may be equipped with either
drift or chisel ends, chisels on each end set at right
angles to each other,or with adjustable chisels. Clean-
ing a surface with a chipping hammer is accompanied
by a peening action which helps knock off particles of
slag or scale, but also has a tendency to compact the
weld metal slightly. Peening results in higher density
of the weld and improves soundness and strength.The
peening is usuallyfollowed by avigorousbrushing
with a stiff wire brush.
CHOKE COIL
A coil of low resistance and highinductance which
will oppose changes inelectric current but allow regu-
lar, steadycurrents to flow through easily.Choke coils
Figure C-&Typical Charpy Testing Machine are also known as reactors or reactance coils.
CHROMIUM
The elements of the periodictable,theirchemical (Chemical symbol: Cr). A lustrous, hard, very brit-
symbols and atomic numbers are listed in Appendix tle, steel-graymetallicelementused to hardensteel
14. alloys, to produce stainless steels, and in corrosion-
resistantplating.Meltingpoint:1615C (2939T);
CHEMICAL FLUX CUTTING
boiling point: 2200C (3992'F); atomic number: 24;
A nonstandard term for
nux CUTTING. atomic weight, 5.996.
CHILL CAST PIG Chromium is of great technical importance in met-
pig iron cast in metal molds or chills. If a machine allurgy because of its hardening effect on steel, and
is used the product is called machine cast pig. because of its corrosion resistant properties.It is unaf-
fected by the action of air at ordinary temperatures and
CHILL RING is also resistant to chemicals.
A nonstandard term when used
for BACKING RING. A material containing chromiumis difficult to weld
because of the formation of chromiumoxide. This
CHILL TIME oxide forms a coating on the surface during welding,
A nonstandard term when used
for QUENCH TIME. but the coating can beremovedbygrinding or by
using special fluxes.
CHIPPING Chromium is one of the basic ingredients used in
A methodof removing surface defects with achisel, producing stainless steels. As aningredientinalloy
so that thedefects will not be worked intothe finished steel, chromium is ahardening element which also
product.Chipping is oftenusedsimply to remove tends to increase the strength of the steel. When the
metal, for example when preparing joint
a for welding. percentage is from 12% to 30%, chromium increases
See CHIPPING HAMMER. the corrosion and oxidation resistance of the steels;
Chipping is used to remove scale, rust, or other for- thisholds true at bothhighandlowtemperatures.
eign materialsfrom the workpiece. Itcan also be used There is little loss of strength in chrome steels at tem-
between beads to remove slag, and after welding to peratures up to480C(900F). See STAINLESS STEEL.
ensure a neatly finished weld. Chipping is often used
in combination with wire-brushing to prepare surfaces. CIRCULAR ELECTRODE
If defects and foreign matter are removed by gas See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See RESISTANCE
cutting, the termsde-seaming or de-sca$ng are used. WELDING ELECTRODE.
92 CLAD BRAZING SHEET Welding Encyclopedia
support. It is appropriately bound to maintain its WELDING TERMS. See also DIFFUSION WELDING,
shape. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. FORGE WELDING, and HOT PRESSURE WELDING,
A characteristic of the cold welding process is the
COIL WITH SUPPORT absence of heat, either applied externally or generated
A filler metal package consisting of a continuous by the welding process itself. A fundamental requisite
length of welding wire in coil form wound on a simple for satisfactory cold welds is that at least one of the
cylinder without flanges. See STANDARD WELDING metals to be joined is highly ductile and does not
TERMS. exhibit extreme work-hardening. Both butt and lap
joints can be cold welded.
COLD CHISEL
Cold welding involves two concurrent steps: (1)
A chisel made from steel for cutting metal. Cold distorting the contact surfaces of two ductile metals to
chisels are usually made from a 0.70 to 0.80 carbon rupture their surface oxide layers, thus exposing clean
tool steel. A steel of this type should be forged at metal, and (2) applying enough pressure across those
870C (1600F) and hardened at 760 to 782C (1400 surfaces to allow interatomic bonding. The oxides and
to 1440F) to get the combination of toughness and other surface contaminants become scattered as
hardness required. minute particles within the joint. Although most com-
monly used to join sheets of nonferrous metals such as
COLD CRACK
aluminum and copper, cold welding also allows dis-
A crack which develops after solidification is com- similar metals and other shapes to be joined.
plete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
In all cases, however, the contacting surfaces must
Cold cracking, commonly called delayed cracking,
be clean of surface contaminants and then deformed
occurs some time after a fusion weld has been made
sufficiently to force the surface oxides to rupture and
and has fully solidified, often well after it has cooled
intimate contact of the surfaces to be made. Since
to room temperature. The origin of this type of trans-
work hardening is inevitable, the joints are somewhat
granular cracking is embrittlement of susceptible
stronger than might be expected. When joining sheet
microstructure (most commonly untempered ferrous
metals these objectives can be accomplished with dies.
martensite) by diffusible atomic or nascent hydrogen
The ends of bars also can be joined by using strong
in the presence of a tensile internal (i.e., residual) or
clamping shoes, powerful hydraulic forces and con-
applied stress. The fact that this type of cracking can
tainment dies to deform the ends. Even tubes can be
take considerable time to occur gives it the name
cold welded by positioning one tube inside the other
delayed cracking. See also UNDERBEAD CRACK and
and pulling them between a drawing die and a mandrel
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT.
to cause the needed surface deformation.
COLD LAP Materials for Cold Welding
A nonstandard term #hen used for INCOMPLETE Materials with face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice
FUSION or OVERLAP. structure are best suited for cold welding, provided
they do not work-harden rapidly. Soft tempers of met-
COLD SOLDERED JOINT als such as aluminum and copper are most easily cold
A joint with incomplete coalescence caused by welded. It is more difficult to weld cold worked or
insuficient application of heat to the base metal dur- heat treated alloys of these metals. Other FCC metals
ing soldering. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. that may be cold welded readily are gold, silver, palla-
dium and platinum.
COLD SHORTNESS
A little-used expression applied to a metal to Dissimilar Metal Welds
describe the characteristic of brittleness at ordinary or Joining copper to aluminum by cold welding is a
low temperatures. good application of the process, especially where alu-
minum tubing or electrical conductor grade aluminum
COLD WELDING (CW) is joined to short sections of copper to provide transi-
A solid-state welding process in which pressure is tion joints between the two metals. Such cold welds
used to produce a weld at room temperature with sub- are characterized by substantially greater deformation
stantial deformation at the weld. See STANDARD of the aluminum than the copper because of the differ-
Welding Encyclopedia COLLAR 95
ence in the yield strengths and work-hardening behav- diameter stainless steel wire, brushing at a surface
iors of the two metals. speed of about 15 m/s (3000 ft/min) is recommended.
Numerous dissimilar metals may be joined by cold Chemical and abrasive cleaning methods are not satis-
welding, whether or not they are soluble in one factory because the chemical residue or abrasive parti-
another. In some cases, the two metals may combine to cles in or on the surface may prevent the formation of
form intermetallic compounds. Since cold welding is a sound weld.
carried out at room temperature, there is no significant Equipment
diffusion between dissimilar metals during welding. Pressure for welding may be applied to overlapped
The alloying characteristics of the metals being joined or butted surfaces with hydraulic or mechanical
do not affect the manner in which the cold welding presses, rolls, or special manually or pneumatically
operation is carried out. However, the interdiffusion at operated tools. A hand tool of the toggle cutter type is
elevated temperatures can affect the choice of suitable for very light work; common manually oper-
postweld thermal treatments and the performance of ated presses can be used for medium size work. Heavy
the weld in service. work requires power operated machines. The rate of
Welds made between metals that are essentially pressure application does not usually affect the
insoluble in each other are usually stable. Diffusion strength or quality of the weld.
can form an intermetallic compound at elevated ser- Pressure required to effect a weld depends on the
vice temperatures. In some cases, this intermetallic working area of the dies. Pressures are generally
layer can be brittle and cause a marked reduction in slightly above the flow point of the material, and range
the ductility of the weld. Such welds are particularly from 186 to 276 MPa (27 000 to 40 000 psi) for alumi-
sensitive to bending or impact loading after an inter- num, and from two to four times as much for copper.
metallic layer has formed. Time during which the pressure is applied is not criti-
Applications cal; good welds can be made with either slow squeeze
Butt Joints. Cold welding is commonly used to pro- or impact. Hand welding by impact on an anvil is quite
duce butt joints in wire, tubing, and simplk extruded feasible, provided correct penetration of the die can be
shapes of like and unlike metals. A major application achieved.
is in the manufacture of aluminum, copper, gold, sil- Given a suitable arrangement of workpieces and
ver, and platinum wire. The most common use is to dies, the application of pressure forces the work sur-
join successive reels of wire for continuous drawing to faces into close contact while the flow takes place,
smaller diameters. Diameters ranging from 0.06 to welding them solidly together. The work hardening
12.7 mm (0.0025 to 0.50 in.) have been successfully that necessarily takes place is an advantage, because it
welded. tends to balance the loss in strength resulting from the
Lap Welds. Lap welds can be used for joining alumi- decrease in the cross section.
num sheet or foil to itself and also to copper sheet or The term cold welding is also applied to the self-
foil. Commercial uses of lap welding include packag- diffusion property of a material. For example, two
ing applications, as well as electrical applications, sheets or strips of silver in contact with one another
which is probably the major use for cold welding. It is will adhere at temperatures ranging from 200 to 400C
especially useful in the fabrication of electrical (400 to 750") at pressures up to 310 MPa (45 000 psi).
devices in which a transition from aluminum windings Lead and other materials have this same quality.
to copper terminations is required. The range of elec- COLD WORK
trical applications covers large distribution transform- The plastic deformation of metals at a temperature
ers to small electronic devices. A variation of cold lap below that at which recovery and recrystallization take
welding is applied to the sealing of commercially pure place. Cold work generally refers to the plastic defor-
aluminum, copper, or nickel tubing.
mation of metals at ordinary temperature. Cold work
Surface Preparation causes metals to harden, thereby becoming stronger
The contacting surfaces must be clean of surface but less ductile.
contaminants. Dirt, absorbed gas, oils, (even finger-
prints) or oxide films on the surfaces interfere with COLLAR
metal-to-metal contact and must be removed to obtain The reinforcing metal of a nonpressure thermite
strong welds. Rotary brushes of 0.1 mm (0.004 in.> weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
96 COLLARING, Thermal Spraying Welding Encyclopedia
COLLARING, Thermal Spraying reversal of the current into the coils in the case of a
Adding a shoulder to a shafi or similar component motor.
as a protective confining wall for the thermal spray
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure COMMUTATOR-CONTROLLEDWELDING
c-5. The making of multiple groups of resistance spot or
projection welds sequentially with the same welding
COMBINED CARBON contactor through the use of a commutating device.
The carbon in steel and cast iron which is in the See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
form of iron carbide (Fe3C) as distinguished from
graphite and tempered carbon. See METALLURGY. COMPANION PANEL
A nonstandard term when used for SPRAY TAB.
COMBUSTIBLE
Capable of burning. Any substance which will unite COMPLETE FUSION
with oxygen is combustible.
Fusion over the entirefision faces and between all
COMBUSTION adjoining weld beads. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See also INCOMPLETE FUSION.
The process of burning, or oxidation producing heat
and light. In welding, the term is extended to a flame
COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (CJP)
consuming fuel, oil, or gas, and includes oxidation, as
when metals are heated in air or oxygen. A joint root condition in a groove weld in which
weld metal extends through the joint thickness. See
COMMUTATION STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See ah0 COMPLETE
Changing alternating current produced in the arma- JOINT PENETRATION WELD, INCOMPLETE JOINT PENE-
ture windings into direct current using a commutator. TRATION, PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION WELD, and
JOINT PENETRATION.
COMMUTATOR
A device by which alternating current produced in a COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATIONWELD
generator is changed into direct current. A series of A groove weld in which weld metal extends through
bars or segments connected to armature coils of a the joint thickness. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
dynamo so that rotation of the armature, in conjunc- See also COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION, INCOMPLETE
tion with fixed brushes, will result in unidirectional JOINT PENETRATION, PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION
current output in the case of a generator, and in the WELD, and JOINT PENETRATION.
7
COLLAR AlTACHED TO SHAFT
CONDUCTOR
A wire or part through which a current of electricity
flows; a carrier of electric current.
CONCAVE ROOT SURFACE
CONDUIT
Figure C-7-Example of a Concave Root Surface A pipe, tube or duct for enclosing electric wires or
cables.
CONCAVE WELD In gas metal arc, flux cored arc, and submerged arc
A weld in which the top layer ends below the plane welding, a flexible metal tube which conducts elec-
of the surrounding material in a butt joint, or beneath a trode wire from a spool or reel to the welding torch.
plane of 45" for a fillet weld. Although considered to Some conduits are lined with a material such as Teflon
be undesirable for many applications because of the to reduce friction and improve wire feeding.
reduced throat section and because of the increased CONE
possibility of hot cracking, properly fused concave fil-
let welds can be beneficial for resistance to fatigue in The conical part of an oxyfiel gas flame adjacent to
service. The absence of mechanical discontinuities in the tip orifice. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
these welds minimizes crack initiation due to concen- Figure A- 1.
trated residual stresses. CONICAL SEAT
CONCAVITY
A joint in the torch head which receives and
securely fastens an interchangeable tip and forms a
The maximum distance from the face of a concave gas-tight seal.
fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld
toes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix CONNECTED LOAD
11. The sum of the power usage rating of all the lamps,
motors, welders, heating devices, etc., drawing from a
CONCENTRIC CABLE
particular electric circuit.
A number of wires wound spirally around a central
conductor or cable and insulated from the conductor or CONNECTION
cable. A nonstandard term when used for a welded,
brazed, or soldered joint.
CONCURRENT HEATING
The application of supplemental heat to a structure CONNECTOR
during welding or cutting. See STANDARD WELDING A device used to connect or join one circuit or ter-
TERMS. minal to another.
CONDENSER CONSTANTAN
A device consisting of two conductors separated by An alloy composed of 40% nickel and 60% copper.
an insulating material, capable of holding an electric Constantan is a high-resistance alloy used in winding
charge. See CAPACITOR. resistance coils, and as a thermocouple alloy.
Welding Encyclopedia CONTACT ARC WELDING 99
CONTACT JAW
An electric terminal used in a flash welding
machine to securely clamp the workpieces and con-
duct electric current to the workpieces.
CONTACTOR
A device which opens and closes an electrical
circuit.
CONTACT POINT
An electric terminal used in a spot welding machine
to apply electric current and mechanical pressure to
the workpieces. The contact point insert is a small disc
of metal inserted in a contact, projecting beyond its
surface. I MARTENSITE
TIME-
CONTACT RESISTANCE, Resistance Welding
Resistance to the flow of electric current between Figure Cd-Simplified Continuous Cooling
two workpieces or an electrode and a workpiece. See Diagram
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
CONTACT ROLLER With very slow cooling rates (A), a mixture of fer-
An electric terminal used in a seam welding rite and pearlite is likely, and forms at a relatively high
machine to apply electric current and mechanical pres- temperature. These are the lowest strength steels and
sure to the workpieces. are very ductile. At higher cooling rates (B), but lower
temperatures, bainite can be formed. Bainite has
CONTACT TUBE higher strength and has considerable notch toughness.
A device that transfers current to a continuous At still higher rates (C), and the lowest temperature,
electrode. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See martensite can be expected. Martensite is very strong
Appendix 10. but tends to be brittle in the as-quenched condition. In
most cases, the martensite is considered to be undesir-
CONTACT TUBE SETBACK, Flux Cored Arc Welding and able because it lacks toughness and because it is prone
Gas Metal Arc Welding to hydrogen-induced cracking. By using low-hydrogen
The distance from the contact tube to the end of the welding processes, however, the martensitic welds can
gas nozzle. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See provide very high strengths when that property is
Appendix 10. See also ELECTRODE SETBACK. desired.
Welding Encyclopedia COPPER 101
CONTINUOUSSEQUENCE
A longitudinal sequence in which each weld pass is
made continuously from one end of the weld to the
othel: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
CONTINUOUSWAVE LASER
CONVEX ROOT SURFACE
A laser having an output that operates in a continu-
ous rather than a pulsed mode. A laser operating with
Figure C-9-Example of a Convex Root Surface
a continuous output for a period greater than 25 milli-
seconds is regarded as a continuous wave laser: See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. COOLING RATE
The rate at which designated points in a weld cool
CONTINUOUS WELD through well-defined temperature bands where metal-
A weld that extends continuously from one end of a lurgical changes can occur. The rates of cooling
joint to the other: Where the joint is essentially circu- depend on a number of factors, such as the thickness
lac it extends completely around the joint. See STAN- of the material being welded, its thermal conductivity,
DARD WELDING TERMS. the preheat or interpass temperature, and the energy
input used to make the weld. The effects these vari-
CONTRACTION ables have on the cooling rate of steel are generally
The shrinkage of heated metal during cooling. See measured at 590 or 700C (1 100 or 1300"F), tempera-
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, Arc Welding. tures at which significant metallurgical changes are
expected to occur while cooling. The maximum cool-
CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE WELDING ing rates occur in heavy sections, generally thicker
Welding performed in an enclosure in which the than about 25 mm (1 in.). In thinner sections the cool-
conventional atmosphere has been replaced by an inert ing rates will be less because the heat sink provided
gas or a vacuum. has been reduced.
In very thin sheet, the cooling rate due to a heat sink
CONTROLLER
will be very low and most of the cooling will be due to
A device that controls the action of electrical radiation or convection. See CRITICAL COOLING RATE,
machines connected to it. PREHEAT, and INTERPASS TEMPERATURE, Welding.
CONVERTER
COOL TIME, ResistanceWelding
A machine that changes a-c electrical energy into
dc, or dc into ac. The time interval between successive heat times in
multiple-impulse welding or in the making of seam
CONVEX FILLET WELD welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Afillet weld having a convex face. See STANDARD
COPPER
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11.
(Chem. symbol: Cu). A lustrous, reddish brown
CONVEXITY metallic element which is malleable, ductile, and an
The maximum distance from the face of a convexfil- excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It is
let weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld toes. extremely tough, but very ductile. When heated to just
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11. under its boiling point, the metal becomes so brittle
that it can be powdered. Copper is very resistant to
CONVEXITY RATIO atmospheric oxidation and corrosion. Copper has an
The ratio of the reinforcement of a fillet weld to the atomic weight of 63.5; atomic number, 29; melting
theoretical throat of the weld. See FILLET WELD. point, 1082C (1980F); boiling point, 2310C
(4190F); specific gravity, 8.4.
CONVEX ROOT SURFACE Copper is widely used for electrical conductors and
The configuration of a groove weld exhibiting root for the manufacture of electrical equipment. It is used
reinforcement at the root surface. See STANDARD in water tubing, valves, fittings, heat exchangers,
WELDING TERMS. See Figure c-9. chemical equipment and bearings. Copper is the elec-
102 COPPER ACETYLIDE Welding Encyclopedia
trical conductivity standard of the engineering world, 7xxxx are wrought alloys, and 8xxxx and 9xxxx are
with a rating of 100% IACS (International Annealed cast alloys. An alloy manufactured in both a wrought
Copper Standard). Copper and most copper alloys can form and cast form can have two UNS numbers,
be welded, brazed and soldered. depending on method of manufacture. Copper and
copper alloys have commonly used names, such as
COPPER ACETYLIDE oxygen-free copper, beryllium copper, Muntz metal,
An unstable substance which forms when acetylene phosphor bronze, and low-fuming bronze; these names
comes in contact with copper. This substance is likely have been replaced with UNS numbers.
to explode spontaneously and cause fire. Copper tub- The following physical properties of copper alloys
ing must not be used to convey acetylene. are important to welding, brazing, and soldering: melt-
ing temperature range, coefficient of thermal expan-
COPPER ALLOYS sion, and electrical and thermal conductivity. Physical
Copper is used extensively as an ingredient of properties for some of the most widely used copper
bronze, brass and other nonferrous alloys. Molten cop- alloys are listed in Table C-5. The table includes data
per has the distinctive characteristic of expanding on for electrical and thermal conductivity, and illustrates
solidification. that when alloying elements are added to copper, elec-
Historical Background trical and thermal conductivity decrease drastically.
Dr. R. H. Thurstons work on the strength of The electrical and thermal conductivity of an alloy
bronzes included an exhaustive series of tests on the will significantly affect the welding procedures used
strength and ductility of the copper-zinc series during for the alloy.
the period 1875 to 1881. Base Metals
In 1876, approximately five years before the publi- Copper alloy base metals are available as (1) sheet
cation of Dr. Thurstons work, John A. Tobin of the metal and plates, (2) pipes and tubes, (3) rods and
US.Engineer Corps patented the alloy known as Tobin shafts, (4) wire and cable, ( 5 ) bars and extruded archi-
bronze, a high-strength yellow bronze of approxi- tectural shapes, and (6) castings.
mately 60% copper, 1% tin, and 39% zinc composition. Alloying Elements
Classification Copper is capable of alloying with at least thirty of
Because there are hundreds of copper alloys in the known elements. Seventeen of these elements, used
common use, they are classified in several general singly or in combination and in varying proportions,
groups, based on (1) a similarity of the characteristics combine with copper in a large number of commercial
of the elements added to copper, and (2) a similarity in copper alloys with a wide range of properties. Zinc is
the reaction to the various welding processes of the the most important commercial alloying element and is
alloys in a given group. used in proportions from 1% to 50% to make approxi-
Copper and copper alloys are classified into nine mately fifteen different commercial brasses.
groups: Aluminum. Copper-aluminum alloys may contain
Coppers-99.3% Cu minimum up to 15% aluminum as well as additions of iron,
High-copper alloys-up to 5 % alloying element nickel, tin, and manganese. The solubility of alumi-
Copper-zinc alloys (brass) num in copper is 7.8%, although this is slightly
Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze) increased with the addition of iron. Alloys with less
Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze) than 8% aluminum are single phase, with or without
Copper-silicon alloys iron additions. When the aluminum is between 9 and
Leaded coppers 15%, the system is two-phase and capable of either a
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel-silver) martensitic or a eutectoid type of transformation.
Special alloys Increasing amounts of aluminum increase tensile
Copper and Copper Alloy Designations strength, increase yield strength and hardness, and
Copper alloys are divided into the wrought and cast decrease elongation of the alloy. Aluminum forms a
alloy categories shown in Table C-4. The Unified surface refractory oxide that must be removed during
Numbering System (UNS) uses a five-digit number welding, brazing, or soldering.
(following the prefix letter C to designate copper Arsenic. Arsenic is added to copper alloys to inhibit
alloys) to classify metals. Copper alloys lxxxx to the dezincification corrosion of copper-zinc alloys in
Welding Encyclopedia COPPER ALLOYS 103
Table C-4
Classification of Copper and Copper Alloys
-
Category Description Range of UNS Numbersa
Wrought alloys
Copper Copper-99.3 percent minimum C 10100-C 15760
High-copper alloys Copper-96 to 99.2 percent C16200-C19750
Brasses Copper-zinc alloys C20500-C28580
Leaded brasses Copper-zinc-leadalloys C31200-C38590
Tin brasses Copper-zinc-tin alloys C40400-C49080
Phosphor bronzes Copper-tin alloys C50100-C52400
Leaded phosphor bronzes Copper-tin-leadalloys C53200-C54800
Aluminum bronzes Copper-aluminum alloys C60600-C64400
Silicon bronzes Copper-silicon alloys C6470O-C66 100
Miscellaneousbrasses Copper-zinc alloys C66400-C69950
Copper-nickels Nickel-3 to 30 percent C70100-C72950
Nickel-silvers Copper-nickel-zincalloys C73150-C79900
Cast alloys'
Coppers Copper-99.3 percent minimum C80100-C81200
High-copper alloys Copper-94 to 99.2 percent C81300-C82800
Red brasses C83300-C83810
Copper-tin-zinc and C84200-C84800
Semi-red brasses copper-tin-zinc-leadalloys
Yellow brasses C85200-C85800
Manganese bronze Copper-zinc-ironalloys C861OO-C86800
Silicon bronzes and silicon brasses Copper-zinc-siliconalloys C87300-C87900
Tin bronzes Copper-tin alloys C90200-C9 1700
Leaded tin bronzes Copper-tin-leadalloys C92200-C94500
Nickel-tin bronzes Copper-tin-nickelalloys C94700-C94900
Aluminum bronzes Copper-aluminum-iron and C95200-C95900
copper-aluminum-iron nickel alloys
Copper-nickels Copper-nickel-ironalloys C96200-C96900
Nickel-silvers Copper-nickel-zincalloys C97300-C97800
Leaded coppers Copper-lead alloys C98200-C98840
Special alloys C99300-C99750
a. Refer to ASTMISAE mtblication DS-56/HS 1086, Metals and Alloys in the Un$ed Numbering System, 6th Ed., 1933. ASTM, Philadel-
phia, PA., and Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa.
b. For composition and properties, refer to Standards Handbook, Part 2-Alloy Data, Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Mill Products,
8th Ed., New York: Copper Development Association, Inc., 1985.
c. For composition and properties, refer to Standards Handbook, Part 7-Data/Specij?cations, Cast Copper and Copper Alloy Products,
New York: Copper Development Association, Inc., 1970.
104 COPPER ALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
Table C-5
Physical Properties of Typical Wrought Copper Alloys
Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion Thermal
at 200-300C Conductivity at
Melting Range (68472F) 20"c (68"F) Electrical
C
dl pin./ W/ BTU/ Conductivity,
Alloy UNS No. "C "F (m."K) (in.."F) (m-"K) (ft-h."F) % IACS
Oxygen-free copper C10200 1066-1088 1948-1991 17.6 9.8 370 214 101
Beryllium-copper C17200 866-9 82 1590-1800 17.8 9.9 107-130 62-75 22
Commercial bronze c22000 1021-1 043 1870-1910 18.4 10.2 188 109 44
Red brass C23000 988-1 027 1810-1 880 18.7 10.4 159 92 37
Cartridge brass C26000 9 16-955 1680- 1750 20.0 11.1 121 70 28
Phosphor bronze c51000 955-1049 1750-1920 17.8 9.9 69 40 15
Phosphor bronze (252400 943-999 1550-1830 18.4 10.2 50 29 11
Aluminum bronze C61400 1041-1 046 1905-1 915 16.2 9.0 67 39 14
High-silicon bronze C65500 97 1-1027 1780-1880 18.0 10.0 36 21 7
Manganese bronze C67500 866-888 1590-1630 21.2 11.8 105 61 24
Copper-nickel, 10% C70600 1099-1 149 2 101-2 100 17.1 9.5 38 22 9
Copper-nickel, 30% C71500 1171-1238 2140-2260 16.2 9.0 29 17 4.6
Nickel-silver, 65-15 C75200 1071-1 110 1960-2030 16.2 9.0 33 19 6
water. Arsenic additions to copper alloys do not cause Cadmium-copper rod is RWMA (Resistance Weld-
welding problems unless the alloy also contains ing Manufacturers Association) Class 1 alloy. The
nickel. Arsenic is detrimental to the welding of copper small amount of cadmium strengthens pure copper
alloys that contain nickel. while maintaining very high conductivity. This combi-
Beryllium. The solubility of beryllium in copper is nation of properties makes this material ideal for elec-
approximately 2% at 870C (1600F) and only 0.3% trodes used for resistance welding high-conductivity
at room temperature. Therefore, beryl1ium easily alloys such as aluminum. Because of federal restric-
forms a supersaturated solution with copper that will tions regarding the use of heavy metals in manufactur-
precipitate in an age-hardening treatment. Because ing, cadmium-alloyed copper has been essentially
thermal conductivity and melting point decrease with replaced by an over-aged chromium copper. The weld-
increased beryllium content, the higher beryllium con- ing operator must carefully avoid exposure to cad-
tent alloys are more easily welded. Beryllium forms a mium fumes.
refractory oxide that must be removed for welding, Chromium. The solubility of chromium in copper is
brazing, or soldering. The welding operator must care- approximately 0.55% at 1038C (1900F) and less
fully avoid exposure to beryllium fumes. than 0.5% at room temperature. The phase that forms
Boron. Boron strengthens and deoxidizes copper. during age hardening is almost pure chromium. Like
Boron deoxidized copper is weldable with matching aluminum and beryllium, chromium can form a refrac-
filler metals, and other coppers are weldable with filler tory oxide on the molten weld pool that makes oxyfuel
metals containing boron. gas welding difficult unless special fluxes are used.
Arc welding requires a protective atmosphere over the
Cadmium. The solubility of cadmium in copper is
molten weld pool.
approximately 0.5% at room temperature. The pres-
ence of cadmium in copper up to 1.25% causes no Iron. The solubility of iron in copper is approxi-
serious difficulty in fusion welding because it readily mately 3% at 1040C (1900F) and less than 0.1% at
evaporates from copper at the welding temperature. A room temperature. Iron is added to aluminum bronze,
small amount of cadmium oxide may form in the mol- manganese bronze, and copper-nickel alloys to
ten metal, but it can be removed by using a flux. increase strength by solid solution and precipitation
Welding Encyclopedia COPPER ALLOY WELDING 105
hardening. Iron increases the erosion and corrosion Silicon oxide forms on copper-silicon alloys at tem-
resistance of copper-nickel alloys. Iron must be kept in peratures as low as 204C (400F). This oxide will
solid solution or in the form of an intermetallic to interfere with brazing and soldering operations unless
maintain the desired corrosion resistance benefit, par- a suitable flux is applied prior to heating.
ticularly in copper-nickel alloys. Iron also acts as a
Tin. The solubility of tin in copper increases rapidly
grain refiner. Iron has little effect on weldability when
with temperature. At 788C (1450"F), the solubility of
used within the alloy specification limits.
tin is 13.5%; at room temperature, it is probably less
Lead. Lead is added to copper alloys to improve than 1%. Alloys containing less than 2% tin may be
machinability or bearing properties and the pressure single-phase when cooled rapidly.
tightness of some cast copper alloys. Lead does not Copper-tin alloys tend to be hot-short and to crack
form a solid solution with copper and is almost com- during fusion welding. Tin oxidizes when exposed to
pletely insoluble (0.06%) in copper at room tempera- the atmosphere, and this oxide may reduce weld
ture. Lead is present as pure, discrete particles and is strength if trapped within the weld metal.
still liquid at 327C (620F). Leaded copper alloys are
hot-short and susceptible to cracking during fusion Zinc. Zinc is the most important alloying element
welding. Lead is the most detrimental alloying ele- used commercially with copper. Zinc is soluble in cop-
ment with respect to the weldability of copper alloys. per up to 32.55% at 927C (1700F) and 37% at room
The welding operator must carefully avoid exposure to temperature. A characteristic of all copper-zinc alloys
lead fumes. is the relative ease that zinc will volatilize from the
molten metal with a very slight superheat.
Manganese. Manganese is highly soluble in copper.
It is used in proportions of 0.05 to 3.0% in manganese Zinc is also a residual element in aluminum bronze
bronze, deoxidized copper, and copper-silicon alloys. and copper-nickel, and may cause porosity or crack-
Manganese additions are not detrimental to the weld- ing, or both.
ability of copper alloys. Manganese improves the hot
working characteristics of multi-phase copper alloys. COPPER ALLOY WELDING
Copper and copper alloys can be joined by welding,
Nickel. Copper and nickel are completely solid sol-
brazing, and soldering processes. Table C-6 summa-
uble in all proportions. Although copper-nickel alloys
rizes the application of the most commonly used pro-
are readily welded, residual elements may lead to
cesses for major alloy classifications. The following
embrittlement and hot cracking. There must be suffi-
information concerns some of the more important cop-
cient deoxidizer or desulfurizer in the welding filler
per alloys and their weldability by various processes.
metal used for copper-nickel to provide a residual
amount in the solidified weld metal. Manganese is Copper Alloys, Weldability
most often used for this purpose. Copper presents a unique welding problem because
Phosphorus. Phosphorus is used as a strengthener of its combined properties of (1) a relatively high
and deoxidizer in certain coppers and copper alloys. melting temperature, 1083C (1981"F), and (2) very
Phosphorus is soluble in copper up to 1.7% at the high thermal conductivity. This means that a lot of
eutectic temperature of 650C (1200"F), and approxi- energy is lost due to the very deep heat sink encoun-
mately 0.4% at room temperature. When added to cop- tered by the arc. Fortunately, the problem is reduced
per-zinc alloys, phosphorus inhibits dezincification. by the alloys, because they can lower the thermal con-
The amount of phosphorus that is usually present in ductivity by as much as 70%, while simultaneously
copper alloys has no effect on weldability. lowering the melting temperature by as much as
195C (350F). Heat losses due to high thermal con-
Silicon. The solubility of silicon in copper is 5.3% at
ductivity can be reduced by controlling the preheat
816C (1500F) and 3.6% at room temperature. Sili- and interpass temperatures.
con is used both as a deoxidizer and as an alloying ele-
ment to improve strength, malleability, and ductility. Arc Welding. Copper and most copper alloys can be
Copper-silicon alloys have good weldability, but are joined by arc welding. Welding processes that use gas
hot-short at elevated temperatures. In -welding, the shielding are generally preferred, although shielded
cooling rate through this hot-short temperature range metal arc welding (SMAW) can be used for many non-
should be fast to prevent cracking. critical applications.
106 COPPER ALLOY WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
Table C-6
Applicable Joining Processes for Copper and Copper Alloys
Oxyfuel Solid- Electron
Gas Resistance State Beam
Alloy UNS No. Welding SMAW GMAW GTAW Welding Welding Brazing Soldering Welding
F NR G E G NR
NR G G NR E E E G
Deoxidized C12000 NR E E NR E E E G
Copper C123000
Berylium- C17000- NR F G G F F G G F
Copper C17500
Cadmium/ 16200
Chromium c18200 NR NR G G NR F G G F
Copper
Red Brass- C23000
85%
F NR G G F G E E
Low Brass-
80%
C24000 F NR G G G G E E
C26000 F NR F F G G E E
Brass-70%
Leaded C31400- NR NR NR NR NR NR E G -
Brasses C38590
Phosphor C50100- F G G G G E E
Bronzes (252400
Copper- C7 1500 F F
Nickel-30%
G G G G E E F
Copper-
Nickel-10%
C70600 F G E E G G E E G
c75200 G NR G G F G E E -
Nickel-Silvers
Aluminum C61300 NR G E E G G F NR G
Bronze C61400
Silicon C65100 F E E G G E G G
Bronzes C65500
E = Excellent G = Good F = Fair NR = Not Recommended
Welding Encyclopedia COPPER ALLOY WELDING 107
Argon, helium, or mixtures of the two are used as Available as filler metals are copper, phosphor-,
shielding gases for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), aluminum- and silicon-bronzes and copper-nickel.
plasma arc welding (PAW), and gas metal arc welding Filler metal specifications include: ANSUAWS A5.6,
(GMAW). In general, argon is used when manually Specifications for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy
welding material that is either less than 3.2 mm (1/8 Arc Welding Electrodes; A5.7, Specifications for Cop-
in.) thick, or has low thermal conductivity, or both. per and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Elec-
Helium or a mixture of 75% helium and 25% argon is trodes; and A5.27, Specifcation for Copper and
recommended for mechanized welding of thin sections Copper Alloy Rods for Oxyfuel Gas Welding.
and for manual welding of thicker sections or alloys Gas Metal Arc Welding. The GMAW process is an
having high thermal conductivity. Small additions of excellent choice for welding thicknesses of copper and
nitrogen or hydrogen to the argon shielding gas may its alloys which are greater than 3.2 mm (1/8 in.). It
be used to increase the effective heat input. offers the advantages of high energy concentration at
The SMAW process can be used to weld a range of the weld pool, a reasonable deposition rate, and ease
thicknesses of copper alloys. Covered electrodes of of use. Single-V joints are used with thicknesses up to
copper alloys for SMAW are available in standard 12 mm (1/2 in.), while double-V joints are preferred
sizes ranging from 2.4 to 4.8 mm (3/32 to 3/16 in.). for thicker section sizes. Argon-rich gases are the rule.
Other sizes are available in certain electrode classifica- Helium in amounts up to 80% or 90% can be added to
tions. Submerged arc welding (SAW) has been used increase the heat input without affecting the desirable
for welding copper alloys, although the use of this pro- spray-arc transfer. Although very effective, the spray
cess is not widespread. transfer is associated with a driving arc and fluid pool
Arc welding should be done in the flat position which preclude its use except in the flat or horizontal
when practical. In positions other than flat, particu- positions. The pulsed-spray mode allows welds to be
larly in the overhead position, GTAW or SMAW is made in all positions and also in thinner section sizes.
preferred. For the vertical and overhead positions with A large range of alloy systems is available as filler
metals. (See ANSUAWS A5.7, Specifications for
some copper alloys, GMAW with pulsed power and
Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and
small diameter electrodes is also suitable. Higher ther-
Electrodes.)
mal conductivity and thermal expansion of copper and
its alloys result in greater weld distortion than in com- Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Compared to the gas
parable steel welds. The use of prehcar, fixtures, shielded methods, SMAW requires larger joint open-
proper welding sequence, and tack welds can mini- ings, higher welding currents, higher preheat and
mize distortion or warping. interpass temperatures, and more welder skill. In spite
of the disadvantages, it still is being used by job shops
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. The GTAW process can which rely heavily on the process for welding other
be used without filler metal to make square-butt joints metals. Available as filler metals are copper; phosphor,
on copper thinner than 3.2 mm (118 in.). Heavier sec- aluminum and silicon bronzes, and copper-nickel. (See
tions, up to about 12 mm (1/2 in.), require the joints to ANSUAWS A5.6, Specifications for Covered Copper
be opened up and, therefore, filler metals are required. and Copper Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes.)
In many situations, the use of pulsed GMAW should
Plasma Arc Welding. The PAW process offers some
be considered for thicknesses above 3.2 mm (1/8 in.).
unique advantages for welding copper and its alloys.
With the exception of the oxidizable alloys, direct-cur- Most important is the electrical energy concentration
rent straight polarity (DCEN) is the preferred type of which is produced. This allows higher welding speed
current for GTAW. and reduces the size of the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Although argon shielding can be used, helium-rich Also, the high velocity plasma protects the tungsten
gases are more suitable because they produce more electrode from the fumes produced by volatile alloys
heat at the work surface for a given welding current. such as zinc and tin. Because of the high speeds and
When oxides might form on the surface of the base narrow welds, it lends itself nicely to mechanization.
metal, especially with beryllium copper, alternating When filler metals are required, those used with the
current is a better choice because of the cleaning GTAW process are recommended. A precautionary
action produced during the DCEP half cycle. In this note: The plasma arc process often uses hydrogen in
case, argon-rich gases must be used. the plasma gas to increase the energy concentration.
108 COPPER BACK-UP BARS Welding Encyclopedia
This must be avoided because the hydr0ge.n can cause COPPER BACK-UP BARS
embrittlement due to the formation of water vapor See BACKUP BARS AND PLATES.
when it reduces the oxides of copper which can be
found in copper alloys. COPPER WELDING
Submerged Arc Welding. The SAW process is See COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
typically used for making mechanized welds in thick
CORD, Thermal Spraying
sections.
References for information on copper include the Surfacing material in the form of a plastic tube
following: filled with powder that has been extruded to a com-
pact, flexible cord with Characteristics similar to a
ASTWSAE Publication DS-56/HS 1086, Metals
wire. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 6th Edi-
tion, 1993. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa., and Society of CORE
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa.
The iron or steel in the center of a coil in magnets,
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th
transformers, generators or motors through which
Edition, Vol. 3, Materials and Applications, Miami,
magnetic lines of force pass.
Florida. 1996.
American Welding Society. ANSUAWS A5.6, CORE LOSS
Specification for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy
The power loss in a machine due to eddy currents
Arc Welding Electrodes, Miami, Florida, Latest and hysteresis losses.
Edition.
For composition and properties, refer to Standards CORED SOLDER
Handbook, Part 2-Alloy Data, Wrought Copper and A solder wire or bar containingflzn as a core. See
Copper Alloy Mill Products; 8th Edition: Copper STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Development Association, Inc., New York. 1985.
For composition and properties, refer to Standards CORE TRANSFORMER
Handbook, Part 7-DatalSpecifications, Cast Copper Transformer with the windings placed on the out-
and Copper Alloy Products: Copper Ilevelopment side of the core.
Association, Inc., New York. 1970.
Manufacturers of copper alloy base metals, rods, CORNER-FLANGE WELD
fluxes and electrodes are an excellent source of infor- A nonstandard term for an edge weld in a flanged
mation on material specification, recommended weld- corner joint.
ing procedures, and safe handling for the particular
metals and supplementary materials used in joining CORNER JOINT
the copper alloys. A joint between two members located approxi-
Safe Practices mately at right angles to each other in the form of an
In addition to safe practices required for the weld- L. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ing, brazing or soldering process used on copper, a A comer joint is formed by the angular placement
good ventilation system must be provided when weld- of an edge of one base metal part on an edge or surface
ing copper alloys. This is particularly important when of another base metal part so that neither part extends
welding beryllium copper, or when using a beryllium- beyond the outer surface plane of the other part.
copper welding rod. The dust, fumes and mist of
beryllium compounds in virtually every form are CORONA, Resistance Welding
highly toxic. Because no safe maximum concentration The area sometimes surrounding the nugget of a
has been established, extreme precaution should be spot weld at the faying s u ~ a c e swhich provides a
taken to reduce dust, fumes and mist to zero. An effec- degree of solid-state welding. See STANDARD WELD-
tive high velocity ventilating system should be used ING TERMS.
regardless of the degree of contamination. The weld-
ing operator should also be protected with clothing, CORRECTIVE LENS
gloves and a breathing mask of the most improved A lens ground to the wearers individual corrective
type. See Appendix 12. prescription. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Weldina EncvcloPedia CRACKING OF WELD METAL 109
A weld pass made primarily to enhance appear- A nonstandard term for a round cover plate.
ance. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
COVER PLATE
Cop WELDING A removable pane of colorless glass, plastic-coated
A nonstandard term for gas metal arc welding with glass, or plastic that covers the filter plate and pro-
carbon dioxide shielding gas. tects it from weld spattel; pitting, or scratching. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
COVALENT BOND
A primary bond arising from the reduction in CRACK
energy associated with overlapping half-jilled orbitals A fracture type discontinuity characterized by a
O f two atoms. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. sharp tip and high ratio of length and width to opening
displacement. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
COVERED ELECTRODE Appendix 9.
A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a
core of a bare electrode or metal cored electrode to CRACKING OF WELD METAL
which a covering suficient to provide a slag layer on Causes: Joint too rigid; welds too small for size of
the weld metal has been applied. The covering may parts joined; poor welds; improper joint preparation;
contain materials providing such functions as shield- unsuitable electrode.
110 CRANKSHAFT JOURNAL REBUILDING Welding Encyclopedia
Corrections: Design the structure and develop a eliminated by allowing the arc to dwell in the crater
welding procedure to eliminate rigid joints; increase for a short time instead of removing the electrode
weld size to handle the load; make a full :size weld in quickly. In this way, the crater can fill up and reduce
short sections; develop a welding sequence that leaves the shrinkage forces. Also helpful with gas tungsten
the ends of the joint free to move as long as possible; arc welding (GTAW) is a technique which allows the
proper fusion; preheating; prepare uniform.joints. current to decay slowly at the end of a weld to reduce
the solidification rate.
CRANKSHAFT JOURNAL REBUILDING
Automotive industry metallurgists have developed CRATER FILL CURRENT
superior crankshafts that eliminate most problems of The current value during craterfill time. See STAN-
the past. However, if it is necessary to repair an older, DARD WELDING TERMS.
badly worn crankshaft journal, it can be built up with
either SMAW, GTAW, or GMAW. Before welding, it CRATER FILL TIME
is usually good practice to turn the worn surface and The time interval following weld time but prior to
shoulder down evenly, so that when the weld metal is meltback time during which arc voltage or current
added it will be of uniform thickness and structure. reach a preset value greater or less than welding val-
The shoulder should be turned down to solid base ues. Weld travel may or may not stop at this point. See
metal and rebuilt with weld metal. STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Because of its low heat input, GMAW is probably
the fastest and least expensive method of rebuilding CRATER FILL VOLTAGE
crankshaft journals. The short-arc method of GMAW The arc voltage value during crater fill time. See
deposits a steel bond on the crankshaft which is equal STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
to the shaft in density. The alloy of the shaft mixes
with the welding wire to form a homogeneous deposit CREEP
which blends with the original metal. The flow, or plastic deformation, of metals when
The shaft can be built up with GMAW and an auto- held for long periods of time at stresses below their
matic welding head. The shaft is centered in a lathe normal yield strength. The effect is particularly notice-
and turned. The welding head is attached in a fixed able when the temperature during stressing approaches
position, then indexed over the weld zone. The weld- the recrystallization temperature of the metal.
ing wire is fed automatically to the arc. Creep may produce effects of consequential magni-
The weld deposit is made while the crankshaft tude at normal temperatures as well as at elevated tem-
rotates in the lathe at 2 rpm. Welding is done uphill, peratures, depending on the material and the degree to
using a high-tensile steel electrode, 0.8 rnm (.030 in.) which freedom from continuing deformation can be
diameter, with a 75% argon-25% carbon dioxide tolerated.
shielding gas mixture. Distortion is held to 0.13 mm In addition to determination of creep rate at ele-
(0.005 in.), and the average weld time for rebuilding a vated temperatures, timed testing includes measure-
journal is three to five minutes. Shielded metal arc ment of time for fracture, when sufficient load is
welding can also be used with either bare or coated applied, and measurement of stress relaxation by
electrodes. creep. These additional tests are called creep rupture,
stress rupture, notched-bar rupture and relaxation
CRATER tests. Standard practices for most of these long time
A depression in the weld face at the termination of a tests can be found in ASTM E139, Conducting Creep,
weld bead. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Creep Rupture and Stress Rupture Tests of Metallic
Materials. These tests are conducted with a relatively
CRATER CRACK slow heating rate.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
Radial cracks formed in weld craters as the weld CREEP, (Regulator)
pool solidifies and shrinks. They are caused by low Any increase in the outlet pressure of a regulator; a
melting constituents which are segregated in the pool term applied to gas regulators which may creep
during solidification and cause the metal to tear due to (because of slow pressure increases) when the seat
shrinkage stresses. When possible, they should be does not close against the inlet nozzle, allowing gas to
Welding Encyclopedia CROSS WIRE WELDING 111
panied by considerable embedding of one wire into using a process developed by Dr. Karl von Linde about
anothel: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. 1890. By 1910, air separation plants, although small,
A typical cross wire resistance weld i s shown in became relatively common in the United States.
Figure C-10. See also PROJECTION W,LDING and Air separation plants have increased in size to the
RESISTANCE WELDING. extent that a single plant can produce 2800 tons of
oxygen per day. Air separation plants use high volume,
low pressure pumps, turbo-expanders and reversing
exchangers to drop the incoming air temperature
below the -198C (-325F) needed to liquefy it. The
liquid is then separated by fractional distillation in
bubble towers; the liquid oxygen is removed at the
bottom and the cooler nitrogen from the top. The sepa-
ration and purification processes continue until the
gases listed in Table C-7 are produced at the purity
levels required by customers.
In addition to the welding industry, a diversity of
industries depend heavily on cryogenic gases for their
Figure C-10-Section of a Typical Cross Wire Weld technology. For example, liquid oxygen and argon are
supplied by the ton for refining steel and heat treating;
liquid nitrogen is used for freezing foods.
CRYOGENICS
Cryogenics is the science of very low temperatures CRYOGENIC VESSELS
and their phenomena. The definition for cryogenic Cryogenic vessels are containers that are used
temperatures has changed during the years as it to store products at temperatures lower than -128C
became easier to produce cryogenic products. In (-200F).
about 1950, the definition of a cryogenic temperature One of the most important aspects of storing gases
was -73C (-100F). Now it has been reduced to -128C in the cryogenic (liquid) state is the saving in space.
(-200F). Carbon dioxide, which boils at -78C (-109F) Gaseous oxygen requires 862 times more storage vol-
is no longer considered a cryogenic gas. ume than liquid oxygen. Gaseous nitrogen requires
The commercial gas components in air, boiling tem- 696 times more storage volume.
peratures at atmospheric pressure, and volume fraction Cryogenic vessels must be fabricated of materials
in air are shown in Table C-7. that retain good impact values at extremely low tem-
peratures, and must have effective insulation around
the inner vessels to protect them from atmospheric
Table C-7
heat.
Commercial Components of Air
The main problem in cryogenics is to maintain the
Boiling Point Fraction gases at temperatures ranging from -70 to -270C (-100
Gas "C "F Volume to 452F). The solution is in the correct selection and
fabrication of materials for low temperature applica-
Nitrogen -196 -320 78% tions. Materials generally used are 9% nickel steel,
Oxygen -183 -297 21% 304 stainless steel, and various aluminum alloys, most
Argon -1 86 -303 1%
notably 5083. All have good weldability and ductility,
Neon -246 -411 15 PPm prime requirements for use in low-temperature ser-
Krypton -153 -244 1 PPm vice. While these are good selections, there is always a
Xenon -108 -163 0.1 ppm reasonable concern that these high-strength materials
may be subject to brittle fracture under certain condi-
The welding industry relies heavily on cryogenic tions. A notched specimen must be used in ductility
technology, because oxygen is needed for oxyfuel tests. Smooth specimens may show amazing ductility
welding and cutting, and argon is needed for the at low temperatures, but a notched specimen may fail
GMAW and GTAW processes. These gases, along in brittle fracture, indicating its notch sensitivity. See
with nitrogen, are produced in air separation plants CHARPY TEST.
Welding Encyclopedia CRYOGENIC VESSELS 113
Actually, copper was the most widely used material electrodes. Weld joint strength, however, was some-
for early low-temperature work. One of the more suc- what below the minimum specified tensile strength.
cessful alloys in such service is silicon bronze contain- Thus, the designer could not make full use of the
ing 3% silicon and 1% manganese. strength of this steel. In all other aspects, the 25Cr,
9% Nickel Steel 20Ni stainless steel joint was satisfactory.
Nine percent nickel steel is a low-carbon, high- Fluorine, which is a super-cryogenic deoxidizer
nickel, steel plate material primarily intended for used as a rocket propellent, is highly corrosive, and
pressure vessel use at low temperatures. When must be stored in Monel@vessels. Fluorine is the most
quenched and tempered, or double-normalized and powerful oxidizing agent known, reacting with practi-
tempered, it has good notch toughness characteristics cally all known organic and inorganic substances.
down to -195C (-320F). Aluminum
Fabrication with 9% nickel steel has been done with For cryogenic service in the range of -100 to -195C
a high-nickel, chromium-iron electrode (Into@ Weld (-150 to -320"F), two weldable aluminum alloys,
A). The composition of this electrode produces joints 5083 and 5086, are frequently used for cryogenic ves-
with strengths higher than the minimum specified for sels. These are both high-strength alloys of aluminum,
the A353 steel. magnesium and manganese, but they have the excel-
A quenched and tempered 9% nickel steel in the as- lent weld ductility characteristic of other alloys in the
welded condition exhibits low-temperature notch 5XXX series.
toughness equal to that of the double-normalized and One of the most popular of these aluminum-magne-
tempered metal. A basic requirement in welding 9% sium-manganese alloys, 5083, offers a combination of
nickel steel is extreme cleanliness. Before fabrication, properties required for cryogenic service: good weld-
components should be pickled or sandblasted. ability and weld ductility, resistance to corrosion and
Immediately prior to fitting the components stress concentration, and in addition, light weight.
together to close or restrict access to inner surfaces of Since high-strength materials may be subject to
a vessel, these surfaces should be cleaned again to brittle fracture under certain conditions, ductility at
ensure removal of all dirt and oil. A muriatic acid low temperatures is a major concern. An extensive
wash, followed by a water rinse, is suggested. battery of tests, however, has proved that at tempera-
For stress relieving after welding, a furnace with a tures as low as -195C (-320"F), 5083-H113 alumi-
neutral or reducing atmosphere is recommended. Nor- num alloy plate and welds made with 5 183 alloy filler
mally, a detrimental scale should not appear under can be used without the occurrence of ductile-brittle
these stress relief conditions. However, as a final pre- transition.
caution, another muriatic acid wash and water rinse The 5083-H113 aluminum alloy plate was used for
after stress relief will remove any remaining scale and the study because its temper is much stronger than the
loose particles. annealed 5083-0, and since the latter is a softer, more
Stress relief should be conducted in accordance ductile-tempered plate, it would be at least equivalent
with American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) to the H113 in brittle fracture resistance.
and ASME code specifications. Nine percent nickel In the unnotched tensile impact tests, the increased
steel can meet and exceed these specifications in the strain rate did not produce a ductile-brittle transition in
as-welded condition. either the 5083 plate or its welds. In the notched ten-
Stainless Steel sile impact tests, a ductile-brittle transition was not
The stainless steels, especially type 304, are the produced in either the 5083 plate or its heat-affected
most widely used material for containers subject to zone, or in the 5183 weld deposit. Plate properties
temperatures lower than -195C (-320F). Although were virtually insensitive to testing temperature.
somewhat expensive, austenitic stainless steel has In the Charpy keyhole impact tests (most likely
been a favored material for cryogenic containers. A to produce a ductile-brittle transition in fracture-
disadvantage of austenitic stainless is that it may susceptible material) the results were the same as in
transform to brittle martensitic stainless when the tensile impact tests.
exposed to extremely low temperatures over a pro- Vessel Construction
longed period. Some of the first vessels fabricated The basic construction of this type of vessel con-
with A363 steel were welded with 310 stainless steel sists of two or more concentric tanks, one inside the
114 CUP Welding Encyclopedia
FLOOR LINE
I I
Figure C-12-Typical Arrangement for a Stationary Gas Manifold
117
118 DEEP WELDING Weldina EncvcloPedia
ventional and high travel speeds. Note that deposited may be needed. In general, the first indication of
weld metal is minimized. excess current is a poor surface appearance of the
weld.
Effect of Arc Length
In a further comparison of the arc to the stream of
water from a hose, to dig deeply into the dirt the noz-
SMALL zle must be kept as close to the ground as possible in
AMOUNT order to avoid letting the stream of water spread out
OF ADDED
into an ineffective spray. In welding, when a long arc
d 12 mm (1I2 in.)
r PLATE
METAL
is held, heat is dissipated into the air, the stream of
molten metal from the electrode to the work is scat-
tered in the form of spatter, and the arc force is spread
over a large area. The result is a wide, shallow bead
instead of a narrow bead with deep penetration.
The advantages of deep-welding are: (1) less depos-
ited metal, (2) increased rate of deposit, and (3) lower
costs and simplified process.
' PENETRATES
3.2 mm (118 in.) INTO Less Deposited Metal. By getting deeper penetra-
CORNER tion, the welded joint is comprised of more fused base
metal and less deposited metal than in conventional
1 TRAVEL SPEED:
welding. Since the deposited metal is relatively costly
and the fused base metal can be utilized at practically
127 mmlmin. (5 in./min.)
300 AMPS. 7 300 mm/min. (12 inhin.)
350 AMPS. no additional cost (other than labor to make the weld),
the deep-welded joint is made at a proportionately
Figure D-l-Comparison of Arc Penetration at reduced cost.
Conventional and High Travel Speeds Greater penetration also allows changing joint prep-
aration from a V-butt in 3/8-inch plate to a plain
Effect of Current square-edge butt joint, reducing the amount of filler
An increase in current increases the arc force, metal deposited by about 50%. This, in turn, reduces
which increases penetration, just as an incre.ase in the labor by almost 80%. Figure D-2 shows the use of arc
analogous volume of water through the same size hose penetration to reduce plate edge preparation.
nozzle increases the digging power of the stream of Travel Speed. On welds where penetration is the
water. To use higher currents, larger size electrodes major consideration, such as square-edge butt welds
\
PLATE 7
and fillet welds made by deep-welding procedures, the (4) Porosity resulting from entrapped air or volatile
travel speed is not proportional to the current, since the contaminants
limiting factor for travel speed is the rate at which the ( 5 ) Shrinkage, voids or cracks resulting from poor
slag will follow and cover the weld. Thus, the travel fit-up or excessive restraint
speed with this type of joint is determined by the slag- (6) Underfill caused by poor fit
covering characteristics of the coated electrode, rather (7) Excessive dilution resulting from improper
than by the melt-off rate. design or process selection.
Fusion-ZoneDefects
DEFECT
Potential defects that can occur in the fusion zone of
A discontinuity or discontinuities that by nature or a weld include:
accumulated effect (for example, total crack length)
(1) Porosity caused by dissolved gases being
render a part or product unable to meet minimum
released on solidification
applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
(2) Entrapped slag within or between passes from
The term designates rejectability. See STANDARD
the coatings of electrodes, the cores of flux-cored
WELDING TERMS. See also DISCONTINUITY and FLAW.
wires, or other sources, in processes employing slag
Defects in welds are points, areas or volumes of a (3) Solidification hot cracks resulting from low-
weld that are unsound, indicating that there is either a melting constituents at grain boundaries being pulled
geometric or metallurgical discontinuity in the struc- open by shrinkage stresses
ture. Such defects may involve regions where metal is (4) Severe macro-segregation resulting from gross
absent and there is no solid present (e.g., pores, voids, unmixed dissimilar base metals or unmatched fillers
cracks), regions where there are low-density (com- and base metals
pared to the weld metal) non-metallic inclusions (e.g., ( 5 ) Cold cracks caused by hydrogen embrittlement
entrapped slag), regions where there are high-density (6) High-density inclusions resulting from contam-
(compared to the weld metal) inclusions (e.g., tungsten
ination by non-consumable tungsten electrodes used in
inclusions), or various geometric discontinuities ( e g ,
gas tungsten arc welding.
lack of penetration, missed seam, mismatch, or
undercut). Partially-MeltedZone Defects
Defects in welds can arise from one or more of the The three major defects in the partially-melted zone
following sources: in fusion welds are solidification hot cracks, back-
( 1) Improper joint design, preparation, alignment, filled hot cracks, and hydrogen cold cracks.
or fit-up Heat-AffectedZone Defects
(2) Inherent base or filler metal characteristics Defects in the heat-affected zone of fusion welds
(3) Process characteristics include:
(4) Environmental factors (1) Hydrogen cold cracks
Regardless of origin, defects almost always act as (2) Liquation, reheat, or strain-age cracks
points of stress concentration, often reduce the cross- (3) Stress-corrosion cracks, weld decay cracks, or
sectional load-bearing area, and sometimes degrade knife-line attack cracks (e.g., in sensitized stainless
the properties of the metal, especially ductility and steels).
toughness. (4) Lamellar tears in base metals containing exten-
Joint-Induced Defects
sive non-metallic inclusions in the form of stringers
Improper or inappropriate joint design, preparation, DELAYED CRACKING
alignment, or fit-up can lead to the following types of A nonstandard term when used for cold cracking
defects: caused by hydrogen embrittlement. See COLD CRACK.
(1) Lack of complete penetration of the joint
groove or seam because of improper design or inap- DELONG DIAGRAM
propriate process or parameter selection Named after W. T. DeLong. The DeLong Diagram
(2) Mismatch or surface offset due to misalignment is a method of calculating the Ferrite Number (FN) of
of joint elements a stainless steel weld deposit from its chemical com-
(3) Severe distortion caused by unbalanced masses position. The DeLong Diagram is a modified Schaef-
or excessive heat input fler Diagram predicting the Ferrite Number up to a
120 DELTA IRON Welding Encyclopedia
maximum of 18. Ferrite is important in a weld because phosphorus, silicon, manganese, cadmium, zinc or
it is known to be beneficial in reducing cracking or fis- aluminum. All of these agents act to reduce the
suring in weld metal. See SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM, cuprous oxide and thus entirely purge the metal of
WRC 1992 (FN) Diagram, and ANSUAWS A5.22, oxygen. Deoxidized copper is preferred when the
Specification for Stianless Steel Electrodes for Flux metal is to be welded because weaknesses due to the
Cored Arc Welding and Stainless Steel R.ods for Gas cuprous oxide are avoided. See COPPER ALLOY
Tungsten Arc Welding. WELDING.
ratio of weight added to the plate to the weight of the DEPTH OF FUSION
electrode used is the deposition efficiency. Typical The distance that fusion extends into the base metal
deposition efficiencies for various processes are or previous bead from the su face melted during weld-
shown in Table D- 1. See also ARC WELDING DEPOSI- ing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also JOINT
TION EFFICIENCY. PENETRATION. Figure D-3 illustrates depths of fusion
for various types of welds.
Table D-1 DESCALING
Typical Deposition Efficiencies
for Various Weldinn Processes A process of removing scale (i.e., mill oxide) from
steel surfaces with a multi-flame torch. The term also
Deposition refers to removal of mill or process-induced oxide by
Process Efficiency
means of any of various mechanical or chemical pro-
Shielded Metal Arc Welding 60 to 70% cesses (e.g., etching).
Flux Cored Arc Welding (Self-Shielded) 70 to 80%
Flux Cored Arc Welding (Gas Shielded) 80 to 90% DETONATIONFLAME SPRAYING
Gas Metal Arc Welding ( C 0 2 Shielded) 85 to 90% A thermal spraying process variation in which the
Gas Metal Arc Welding (Argon/C02Shielded) 90 to 96%
controlled explosion of a mixture of fuel gas, oxygen,
Submerged Arc Welding 100%
and powdered sufacing material is utilized to melt
and propel the sufacing material to the substrate. See
DEPOSITION RATE STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The weight of material deposited in a unit of time.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Deposition rate is a direct measure of the amount of Qualitative or quantitative tests which involve the
weld metal deposited in kg/h (lb/h) or kg/min (Ib/min) destruction of a complete welded unit, or selected rep-
under a given set of conditions. resentative specimens that have been cut from the unit
The deposition rate of a specific electrode varies to be tested. Among the destructive tests are tensile,
according to the type of power source. In a test using bend, nick break, impact, fatigue, specific gravity,
E6012 electrodes, the deposition rate with a d-c motor- hardness, drift and crush.
generator welding machine was about 9% greater than
the transformer-rectifier type, and 15% greater than DIAL, DIAL GAUGE, or DIAL INDICATOR
one powered with an a-c transformer. The deposition
rate of an electrode is always less than the melting rate The graduated face of a gauge, instrument or meter.
because of losses by spatter and fumes.
The melting rate of an electrode, sometimes called DIAPHRAGM
the burn-off rate, is the rate at which the electrode The flexible partition in a gas regulator under the
of a specific type and size is melted by a specific regulator spring.
welding current. It is usually expressed in c d m i n
(in./min.). The melting rate increases rapidly as the DIE
current is increased, especially for small diameter In resistance flash welding, a device on a fixture
electrodes. which holds the moving part. In manufacturing, a per-
DEPOSITION OR DEPOSIT SEQUENCE
forated block through which metal or plastic is drawn
A nonstandard term when used for WELD PASS or extruded.
SEQUENCE. A die is a tool or device which imparts a desired
shape, form or finish to a material, or which is used to
DEPTH OF BEVEL impress an object or material. Also, a die is the larger
The perpendicular distance from the base metal of a pair of cutting or shaping tools, which, when
surface to the root edge or the beginning of the root moved toward one another, produce a certain form or
face. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen- impression by pressure or by a forceful blow. See
dix 6. RESISTANCE WELDING and FORGE WELDING.
122 DIE CASTING Welding Encyclopedia
DEPTH OF FUSION
FUSION FACE rx DEPTH OF FUSION
FUSION FACE
INTERFACE INTERFACE
FAYING
WELDlNTERFACE\I SIZE ,/- SURFACE
DEPTH OF FUSION
DEPTH OF FUSION
mines the rate of diffusion that governs void elimina- (3) The processes are not adaptable to a high pro-
tion during the second and third stages of welding. duction rate, although a number of assemblies may be
(2) Pressure is necessary only during the first stage joined simultaneously.
of welding to produce a large area of contact at the (4) Adequate nondestructive inspection techniques
welding temperature. Removal of pressure after this for quality assurance are not available, particularly
stage does not significantly affect joint formation. those that assure design properties in the joint.
However, removal of pressure before completion of ( 5 ) Suitable filler metals and procedures have not
the first stage is detrimental to the process. yet been developed for all structural alloys.
(3) Rough initial surface finishes generally (6) The faying surfaces and the fit of joint members
adversely affect welding by impeding the first stage generally require greater care in preparation than for
and leaving large voids that must be eliminated during conventional hot pressure welding or brazing pro-
the later stages of welding. cesses. Surface smoothness may be an important fac-
(4) The time required to form a joint depends on tor in quality control in the case of diffusion brazing.
the temperature and pressure used; time is not an inde- (7) The need to apply heat and a high compressive
pendent variable. force simultaneously in the restrictive environment of
This description of diffusion welding is not applica- a vacuum or protective atmosphere requires special-
ble to diffusion brazing or hot pressure welding pro- ized equipment.
cesses where intimate contact is achieved through the
use of molten filler metal and bulk deformation, Gas Pressure Bonding. This process is a type of dif-
respectively. fusion welding. In gas pressure bonding, the work-
pieces to be joined are finished to final size, cleaned to
Advantages and Limitations
an acceptable surface condition, and assembled inside
Diffusion welding and brazing have a number of a container. The container may be an expendable sheet
advantages over the more commonly used welding metal box, or it may be made from the parts them-
and brazing processes, as well as a number of distinct selves, by fusion welding around the edges. After the
limitations on their applications. Following are advan- container holding the parts is made pressure-tight, it
tages of diffusion welding and brazing: is evacuated and then placed in an autoclave contain-
(1) Joints can be produced with properties and ing an inert gas at high pressure, usually around
microstructure very similar to those of the base metal. 10 000 psi. Under this extreme pressure the matched
This is particularly important for lightweight surfaces are pressed into intimate contact, regardless
fabrications. of the surface contour. After only a few hours the
(2) Components can be joined with minimum dis- joints are diffusion welded.
tortion and without subsequent machining or forming. In addition to gas pressure, fusion welding can be
(3) Dissimilar alloys can be joined that are not achieved by pressing the workpieces together between
weldable by fusion processes or by processes requir- dies after heating by resistance heating. This system
ing axial symmetry, such as friction welding. works well for small parts, but is not appropriate when
(4) A number of joints in an assembly can be made the pieces to be joined are large, since it is difficult to
simultaneously keep the dies hot. See COLD WELDING, FORGE WELD-
(5) Members with limited access can be joined. ING, and HOT PRESSURE WELDING. Reference: Ameri-
(6) Large joint members of base metals that would can Welding Society, Welding Handbook, 8th Edition,
require extensive preheat for fusion welding can be Vol 2, Welding Processes. Miami Florida: American
more readily joined. An example is thick copper. Welding Society, 1992.
(7) Defects normally associated with fusion weld-
ing are not encountered. DILUTION
Among the disadvantages of diffusion welding and The change in chemical composition of a welding
brazing are the following: filler metal caused by the admixture of the base metal
(1) The thermal cycle is normally longer than that or previous weld metal in the weld bead. It is mea-
of conventional welding and brazing processes. sured by the percentage of base metal or previous weld
(2) Equipment costs are usually high, and this can metal in the weld bead. See STANDARD WELDING
limit the maximum size of components that can be TERMS. See Figure D-4, which shows a cross-section
produced. of a weld deposit.
Weldina EncvcloDedia DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN) 125
\e ELECTRODE HOLDER 7
ELECTRODE
\
/-ELECTRODE LEAD
WORKPIECE CONNECTION
WORKPIECE LEAD -7
ELECTRODE HOLDER -\
ELECTRODt L t A U
ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE CONNECTION
WORKPIECE LEAD
11
Im NEGATIVE
GROUND CONNECTION
Straight Polarity. The term straight polarity has been DIRECT CURRENT STRAIGHT POLARITY
used to describe this type of current, but the more A nonstandard term for DIRECT CURRENT ELEC-
accurate and standardized description is direct current TRODE NEGATIVE.
electrode negative.
DIRECT DRIVE FRICTION WELDING
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP) A variation of friction welding in which the energy
The arrangement of direct current arc welding required to make the weld is supplied to the welding
leads in which the electrode is the positive pole and machine through a direct motor connection for a pre-
the workpiece is the negative pole of the welding arc. set period of the welding cycle. See STANDARD WELD-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure D-5 (B). ING TERMS. See Figure D-6.
Reverse Polarity. The term reverse polarity has been One of the workpieces is held in a locked position
used to describe this type of current, but the more while the other is rotated by a direct motor connection.
accurate and standardized description is direct current When the rotated part is up to speed, pressure is
electrode positive. applied to move the rotating part against the stationary
part. The resulting friction melts the forging surfaces.
DIRECT CURRENT REVERSE POLARITY Molten metal is ejected from the joint as the pressure
A nonstandard term for DIRECT CURRENT ELEC- is increased. When the rotational force is stopped,
TRODE POSITIVE. forging pressure is increased to complete the weld.
i%?hN 4
w
-G
FRICTION WELDING FORCE
6-1-8
WELDING STARTS COMPLETED WELD
- - - -\
FORGE FORCE
/
/
/ I FORGE UPSET
/ DISTANCE
FRICTION SPEED
/
FRICTION WELDINGFORCE
-__- I I UPSETDISTANCE
n I i
PULLING EFFECTS
OF WELD CENTER
\f--- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - -- ----_ _ _
/ - - - - - - - - - -
Shrinkage of the weld can cause various types of in Figure D-7 (E); if the welds are below the neutral
distortion and dimensional changes. A butt weld axis, the bending of the member is in the opposite
between two pieces of plate, by shrinking trans- direction, as in Figure D-7 (F).
versely, changes the width of the assembly as shown Control of Shrinkage
in Figure D-7 (A). It also causes angular distortion, as Shrinkage from the effects of the heating and cool-
in Figure D-7 (B). Here, the greater amount of weld ing cycles cannot be prevented, but can be controlled.
metal at the top of the weld produces greater shrink- There are various practical procedures and design
age at the upper surface, causing the ends of the plate strategies for minimizing the distortion caused by
to lift. Increasing either the included angle or the weld shrinkage.
reinforcement will cause even greater distortion. Lon- (1) Keep the shrinkage forces as low as possible by
gitudinal shrinkage of the same weld would have a using only the amount of weld metal required by the
tendency to deform the joined plate, as shown in Fig- joint. The more metal placed in a joint, the greater the
ure D-7 (C). shrinkage forces will be. See Figure D-8 (A).
Angular distortion, as in Figure D-7 (D), is a prob- Correctly sizing the weld for the service require-
lem with fillet welds. If fillets in a T-assembly are ment of the joint helps control distortion. In a conven-
above the neutral axis (center of gravity) of the assem- tional fillet weld, only the effective throat is used in
bly, the ends of the member tend to be bent upward, as determining the strength of the weld. The amount of
130 DISTORTION Welding Encyclopedia
,
c ; ;%
EXCESSIVE WELD METAL USE DOUBLE V
PREPARATION --
x
(A) DO NOT OVERWELD...
U PREPARATION
2z 300
REDUCEBEVEL 4 MAX./C\
ANGLES WITH LARGE
ROOT OPENINGS
I
0.8 TO 1.6 m m 4
E
(C) INTERMIlTENT WELDING (1/32 TO 1/16 in.) MAX.
WRONG RIGHT
(D) MINIMUM NUMBER OF PASSES
C
D
A B
Y
I DISTORTION
C D LESS
(E) WELD NEAR THE DISTORTION
(G) BACKSTEP
NEUTRAL (F) BALANCE WELDS AROUND
CENTER OF GRAVITY
weld metal can be minimized in a fillet by using a flat (6) Make shrinkage work in the desired direction.
or slightly convex bead. Excess weld metal in a highly By locating parts out-of-position before welding,
convex bead does not increase the allowable strength shrinkage can be utilized constructively to pull them
in code work, yet it adds to the development of shrink- back into alignment. See Figure D-8 (H).
age forces. Pre-bending or pre-springing the parts to be welded,
In a butt joint, proper edge preparation, fit-up and as shown in Figure D-8 (I), is a simple example of
reinforcement are important to minimize the amount using mechanically-induced opposing forces to coun-
of weld metal required. When maximum economy is teract weld shrinkage. The top of the weld groove,
the objective, the plates should be spaced from .8 to which will contain the bulk of the weld metal, is
2 mm (1/32 to 1/16 in.) apart. A bevel not exceeding lengthened when the plates are sprung, since it
30" on each side will give proper fusion at the root of becomes the convex side of a curve. Thus, the com-
the weld, yet require minimum weld metal. pleted weld is slightly longer than it would be if it
For thicker plates, the bevel may be decreased by were made on a flat plate. When the clamps are
increasing the root opening, or a J- or U-groove prepa- released after welding, the plates tend to resume their
ration adopted, to further reduce the amount of weld flat shape, and the longitudinal shrinkage stresses of
metal. A double-V joint requires about half of the weld the weld can be relieved by shortening it to a straight
metal of a single-V joint. See Figure D-8 (B). line. The two actions coincide, and the welded plates
Another way to minimize the amount of weld metal assume the desired flatness.
is to use intermittent welds where possible, rather than (7) Balance shrinkage force with opposing forces.
continuous welds. As an example, when attaching Opposing forces may be:
stiffeners to plate, intermittent welds will reduce the (a) other shrinkage forces
volume of weld metal by 75%, yet will provide all the (b) restraining forces imposed by clamps, jigs,
strength needed. See Figure D-8 (C). and fixtures
(2) Use as few weld passes as possible. When (c) restraining forces arising from the arrange-
transverse distortion is a potential problem, a few ment of members in the assembly
passes with large electrodes are preferable to a large (d) the counter force produced by the force of
number of passes with small electrodes, because the gravity action on the sag in a member.
shrinkage resulting from each pass tends to be cumula- A common practice for balancing shrinkage forces
tive. See Figure D-8 (D). in identical weldments is to position the workpieces
(3) Place welds near the neutral axis, as shown in back-to-back and then clamp them tightly together.
Figure D-8 (E). This reduces distortion by providing a See Figure D-8 (J). The welds are completed on both
smaller leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the assemblies and allowed to cool before the clamps are
plates out of alignment. released. Pre-bending can be combined with this
(4) Balance welds around the center of gravity. method by inserting wedges at suitable positions
This will balance one shrinkage force against another. between the workpieces before clamping.
This design and welding sequence will effectively Locking the workpieces in the desired position in
control distortion. See Figure D-8 (F). clamps, jigs or fixtures to hold them until welding is
( 5 ) Use backstep welding. With this technique, the finished is probably the most widely used method of
general progression of welding may be, for example, controlling distortion in small assemblies of compo-
from left to right, but each bead is deposited from right nents. The restraining forces provided by clamps cause
to left. As shown in Figure D-8 (G), as each bead is the build-up of internal stresses in the weldment until
placed, the heat from the weld along the edges causes the yield point of the weld metal is reached. For typi-
expansion, temporarily separating the plates at B. cal welds on low-carbon plate, this would probably be
However, as the heat moves out across the plate to C, approximately 310 MPa (45 000 psi). After welding,
the expansion along the outer edges CD brings the one might expect this stress to cause considerable
plates back together. Expansion of a plate is most pro- movement or distortion when the workpiece is
nounced when the first bead is laid. With successive removed from the jig or clamps. This does not occur,
beads, the plates expand less and less because of the however, since the strain (unit contraction) can be cal-
locking effect of prior welds. In some cases, backstep- culated to be a very low value compared to the amount
ping may have less effect, and it cannot be economi- of movement that would have occurred if no restraint
cally used in fully automatic welding. were used during welding.
132 DOPED SOLDER Welding Encyclopedia
The rigidity of the members and their arrangement To deposit a weld in thick plate with a process oper-
in relation to one another may provide the balancing ating at 175 amps, 25 volts and 7.6 cm (3 in.) per
forces needed, particularly in heavy weldments. How- minute, 34 400 joules of energy per linear centimeter
ever, if these natural balancing forces are not present, are required. The same size weld produced with a pro-
other means can be used to counteract the distortion. cess operating at 310 amps, 30 volts, and 20.3 cm
Shrinkage forces in the weld metal can be balanced (8 in.) per minute requires only 27 500 joules per lin-
against one another, or an opposing force can be cre- ear centimeter of weld. The difference represents
ated by using a fixture. excessive heat available for transmission farther into
(8) A well planned welding sequence is often help- surrounding metal, increasing its temperature, and
ful in balancing shrinkage forces against each other. producing added expansion and displacement of
The intent should be to place weld metal at different metal.
points on the structure so that as it shrinks in one
place, it will counteract the shrinkage forces of welds DOPED SOLDER
already made. An example of this is welding alter- A solder containing a small amount of an element
nately on both sides of the neutral axis in making added to ensure retention of one or more characteris-
abutt weld, as shown in Figure D-8 (K). Another tics of the base materials on which it is used. See
is making intermittent fillet welds, shown in Figure STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
D-8 (L).
(9) One way to help control shrinkage forces DOUBLE ARCING
occurring during or after welding is by peening, but
peening is not a definitive practice. Peening is a A condition in which the welding or cutting arc of a
mechanical method of applying force to the weld to plasma arc torch does not pass through the constrict-
make it thinner, thereby making it longer and relieving ing orifice but transfers to the inside sur$ace of the
nozzle. A secondary arc is simultaneouslyestablished
residual stresses.
A root bead should never be peened because of the between the outside su$ace of the nozzle and the
workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
danger of either concealing a crack or causing one.
Generally, peening is not permitted on the final pass
DOUBLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
because of the possibility of covering a crack and
interfering with inspection, and also because of a pos- A type of edge shape having two prepared suq4aces
sible work-hardening effect, so the utility of this tech- adjacent to opposite sides of the material. See STAN-
nique is limited. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 3.
In special cases, stress relief by controlled heating
of the weldment to an elevated temperature, followed DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
by controlled cooling is another way to remove shrink- A type of groove weld. See Appendix 6 , Section 5.
age forces. Sometimes two identical weldments are
placed back-to-back, clamped together, welded and DOUBLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVEWELD
then stress-relieved while held in this straight condi- A weld in grooves formed by a member with
tion. The residual stresses that would tend to distort acuwed sur$ace in contact with a planar membel:
the weldment are thus removed. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6,
(10) Reduce welding time. Since complex cycles of Section 5.
heating and cooling are in progress during welding,
and time is required for heat transmission, the time DOUBLE-FLARE-V-GROOVEWELD
factor affects distortion. In general, it is advantageous
to finish the weld quickly before too great a volume of A weld in grooves formed by two members with
surrounding metal expands because of the heat. The curved su$aces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
amount of shrinkage and distortion is affected by the Appendix 6, Section 5.
welding process used, the type and size of electrode,
welding current, and travel speed. Using mechanized DOUBLE-GROOVE WELD, Fusion Welding
welding equipment reduces the time of welding and A groove weld that is made from both sides. See
the amount of metal affected by heat, and conse- STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6,
quently tends to reduce distortion. Section 5.
Welding Encyclopedia DROP-WEIGHT TEST 133
crack-starter bead down. A weight is dropped on the considering the materials ability to absorb impact, as
specimen from a height selected to give the necessary measured by the Charpy (or related) tests.
impact energy. The impact energy is determined by the
approximate yield strength of the weld metal being DUPLEX CABLE
tested. A cable consisting of two wires insulated from one
When the weight strikes the specimen, it either another, with a common insulation covering both.
bends until it hits a deflection stop, or cracks in two
pieces, with little or no bending. DURALUMIN
The drop-weight test is also used to determine the An old term applied to aluminum alloys, especially
nil-ductility transition temperature of the weld metal. in Germany.
This test is conducted by impacting a series of speci-
mens, each tested at a different temperature. The max- DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
imum temperature at which a specimen breaks is the The term duplex stainless steel describes steel with
nil-ductility transition. This temperature must be microstructure containing austenite and ferrite in
determined within 5C (10F). Details of the Drop which the lesser phase is at least 30% by volume. First
Weight Test are published in ASTM Standard E208. generation duplex stainless steels (typically 26% Cr,
4.5% Ni, 1.5% Mo) were about 75 to 80% ferrite.
DRUM Unlike the common-grade austenitic stainless
A filler metal package consisting of a continuous steels, duplex stainless steels are highly resistant to
length of welding wire wound or coiled in a cylindrical chloride-ion stress corrosion cracking (SCC); they
container: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. have excellent resistance to pitting and crevice corro-
sion, and have approximately twice the strength of the
DUCTILITY common austenitics.
The property of a material that allows it to undergo In general, poor weldability was a characteristic of
some reasonable degree of irreversible permanent the first generation duplex stainless steels. Corrosion
plastic deformation without fracturing. Ductility is the resistance and toughness of the base metal heat-
property of metals and alloys that allows them to be affected zone (HAZ) were poor due to the effects of
drawn or stretched. In general, metals and alloys with the welding operation. However, HAZ problems were
face-centered cubic structures exhibit the greatest duc- greatly decreased with the advent of the argon-oxygen
tility, followed by body-centered cubic structures, and decarbonization process used in steel making which
then hexagonal close-packed structures. The order of made it possible to precisely alloy with nitrogen.
ductility of certain materials is shown in Table D-3. Nitrogen, which is a strong austenite former, permitted
lower nickel contents and improved tensile properties
and resistance to pitting and corrosion. These alloys
Table D-3 are typically higher in chromium than the common-
Order of Ductilitv grade austenitics. Utilization of molybdenum as high
(1) Gold (7) Aluminum as 4.5% accounts for resistance to pitting and crevice
(2) Silver (8) Tungsten corrosion.
(3) Platinum (9) Zinc The duplex stainless alloys are characteristically
(4) Iron (10) Tin stronger than either of their two phases considered
( 5 ) Nickel (11) Lead
separately. The coefficient of expansion and heat
(6) Copper transfer characteristics are, as would be expected,
intermediate between the ferrite and austenitic stain-
DUCTILE-BRITTLETRANSITION less steels. Many duplex stainless steels, as with most
The behavior of certain metals and alloys, most of the other stainless steels, are proprietary alloys.
notably those with body-centered cubic structures, in The second generation duplex materials, especially
which they exhibit a pronounced decrease in ability to alloy 2205, have found increasing uses in the brewery
absorb energy without fracturing below a certain tem- business, chemical process industry and various chem-
perature @e., the ductile-to-brittle transition tempera- ical shipping containers including tankers and barges.
ture) or above a certain strain rate. The ductile-to- This use includes heat exchangers, pressure vessels,
brittle transition temperature is especially important in tanks, columns, pumps, valves, shafts and pulp digest-
Welding Encyclopedia DYNE 135
ers where the increased resistance to chloride ion These electrodes were more commonly used when
SCC pitting and crevice corrosion, and increased arc welding electrodes were initially introduced. The
strength give advantages over the molybdenum- coating of a dust-coated electrode did not affect the
bearing austenitics. character of deposited weld metal, but served to pro-
Because of the large quantities of ferrite in the duce more uniform arc characteristics than those
microstructure, the duplex stainless steels are subject obtained with bare wire. The dust coating did not
to embrittlement when exposed to the 704 to 927C affect the prevention of oxidation, and no slag was
(1300 to 1700F) temperature range due to the forma- formed on the weld bead. See ELECTRODE MANUFAC-
tion of chi and sigma phases. For minimization of this TURE, Historical Background.
form of metallurgical reaction, high levels of nitrogen
are beneficial and high levels of molybdenum are DUTY CYCLE
detrimental. The percentage of time during an arbitrary test
Weldability. Acceptable techniques have been devel- period that a power source or its accessories can be
oped for SMAW, SAW, GTAW, GMAW and PAW of operated at rated output without overheating. See
duplex stainless steels. The complexity of welding STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
these alloys is related to the increased concern for
hydrogen-related embrittlement due to large percent- DWELL TIME, Thermal Spraying
ages of ferrite, the ability to reform austenite on the The length of time that the swfacing material is
welding thermal cycle, and concern for formation of exposed to the heat zone of the thermal spraying gun.
embrittling intermetallics. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Machinability. Special tool angles, low speed and
heavy feed are required to machine duplex stainless DYNAMIC ELECTRODE FORCE
steels. Due to the combination of high strength and The force exerted by electrodes on the workpieces
toughness, machinability is considerably poorer for during the actual welding cycle in making spot, seam,
these steels than the common-grade materials. or projection welds by resistance welding. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
DUST
See WELDING FUMES. DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION
DUST-COATED ELECTRODE See NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION, and LIQUID
This term refers to an obsolete electrode which was PENETRANT TESTING.
lightly coated with an arc-stabilizing chemical. This
coating might simply have been the lime retained from DYNE
the lubricant used in the drawing operation, or a light A unit of power or force required to cause the accel-
rust coating which formed on the electrode after it was eration of one centimeter per second in a mass of one
drawn. gram.
136 Welding Encyclopedia
I
An automobile door panel is welded with automated resistance spot welding
E
Symbol for volts.
E.M.F.
Abbreviation for electromotive force.
EARTH GROUND
The side of an electric circuit grounded to the earth
by means of a copper rod driven into the ground.
EDDYCURRENT
A current running contrary to the main current. The
eddy current in armatures, pole pieces, and magnetic
cores is induced by changing electromotive force. It is
wasted energy and creates heat.
137
138 EDGE SHAPE Welding Encyclopedia
Weld Cleaning and seams. Water-based solvents are not easily rinsed
Preweld and postweld cletaningare part of the weld- from edges, pockets and seams. Solvent cleaners are
ing operation. Preweld cleaning occurs by default in ideal for cleaning nonferrous metal particles in appli-
some types of acetylene wellding, where the pre-heat- cations where water and steam might allow corrosion
ing operation of the torch automatically cleans the or contamination.
weld site. In other instances welding and brazing Petroleum Spirit Cleaners. These cleaning agents
fluxes aid in the cleaning. Gas welding operations primarily remove processing contaminants, and do not
rarely require postweld cleaning unless they include a provide the chemically cleaned surface required by
corrosive type of flux, in which case the operation some finishing operations, such as plating. Petroleum
includes flux removal to prevent weld or base metal spirit cleaners are highly flammable and present a fire
corrosion. hazard.
Cleaning processes are: usually chemical or
mechanical. The condition of the workpieces, the Emulsified Cleaners. Emulsified cleaners do not
nature of any contamination, the degree of cleanliness damage or attack the metal surface. This type of
required, and the type, shape, size, and thickness of the cleaner is effective as a spray or in a bath. Exposure
workpieces to be cleaned determine the choice time is usually short, sometimes as little as 30 seconds.
between mechanical or chemical cleaning. After a brief drainage period, a water spray rinse
Chemical Cleaners
removes contaminants and cleaning solution. An alter-
native to solvent and alkaline cleaners, emulsified
A chemical bath provides uniform cleaning. This cleaners are not temperature dependent, although a hot
uniformity is necessary, for example, to produce con- water rinse assures more satisfactory results and rapid
sistent welds in resistance welding operations. Certain self-drying.
chemical cleaners require accurate timing, and the
operators ability to control the exposure time of the Mechanical Cleaning
material in the bath is critical to achieving a high Mechanical cleaning requires skilled operators who
degree of uniformity. The cleaning solution will be must remove undesirable surface coatings and parti-
ineffective if the exposure time of the workpiece is cles without roughening the surface of the material or
insufficient. If left in the bath too long, the chemical causing other undesirable surface conditions. Mechan-
may react with the base metal and cause a high-resis- ical cleaning is effective for both resistance and arc
tance film or other undesirable chemical reaction. welding applications. A wire brush or abrasive wheel
Chemical cleaning processes also present a safety haz- is the most common mechanical cleaner.
ard and require precautionaxy measures to prevent The major advantage of mechanical cleaning is that
injury to workers. it requires cleaning at the weld site only; chemical
Chemical cleaning solutions are usually one of cleaning involves the entire surface of the workpiece.
four types: alkaline, solvent, petroleum spirits, and
emulsifiable. EDGE SHAPE
The shape of the edge of the joint membel: See
Alkaline Cleaners. The alkaline cleaner is probably
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6,
the most popular because it will emulsify greases and Section 3.
oils, and because of its low cost. Since alkaline clean-
The shape of the edge will vary with plate thick-
ers are sprayable at high pressure, the mechanical
ness. See Figure E-2 for typical edge shapes based on
action of the spray assists in removing solid particles
plate thickness.
and dirt. Most alkaline cleaners are not caustics and
therefore are less hazardous to the worker. Alkaline EDGE WELD
cleaners are effective in almost all metal cleaning A weld in an edge joint, a flanged butt joint or a
applications, although they may cause corrosion in flanged corner joint in which the full thickness of the
various nonferrous alloys, especially aluminum, brass, members is fused. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
and zinc. See Figure E- 1.
Solvent Cleaners. These cleaners are commonly
used in resistance welding operations. In this applica- EDGE WELD SIZE
tion, the workpieces are soaked in a tank of solvent The weld metal thickness measured from the weld
so that the cleaning penetrates rolled edges, pockets, root. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure E-3.
Welding Encyclopedia EFFICIENCY 139
Lo
JOINT PENETRATION The length of the correctly proportioned cross sec-
ROOT PENETRATION I tion of a weld. In a curved weld, it is measured along
the weld axis.
t t
SIZE
EFFECTIVETHROAT
The minimum distance minus any convexity
between the weld root and the face of afillet weld. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11, (A).
EFFICIENCY
The ratio of the amount of useful energy, power or
Figure E-3-Edge Weld Size work delivered by a machine to the amount of energy,
140 ELASTIC LIMIT Welding Encyclopedia
power or work required to operate it, or effective oper- tained for one hour, 30 kW-hr of energy will be
ation measured by a comparison of production with expended.
cost.
ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY
ELASTIC LIMIT The electrical conducting characteristics of a mate-
The maximum load (or stress) a metal will sustain rial; the reciprocal of electrical restivity. Table E- 1
before it deforms permanently or plastically. See shows a comparison of the electrical conductivity of
ELONGATION. various metals, considering copper as 100.
ELASTICITY
The resilience of a material; the property of resist- Table E-1
ing deformation by stretching,.Elasticity is the charac- Electrical Conductivity of Various Metals
teristic of a material to return to its original shape Silver 108 Iron 17
quickly after the deforming force is removed. Copper 100 Steel 17
Aluminum 56 Nickel 15
ELECTRIC ANNEALING Magnesium 38 Tin 15
See ANNEALING, Electric. Zinc 29 Lead 9
Electric tempering is a useful application for the Metal Arc Electrode. Filler metal in the form of a
electric butt welding machine. Small pieces can be wire or rod, either bare or covered, through which cur-
tempered by clamping them between the jaws of a butt rent is conducted between the electrode holder and the
welder and heating them quickly by turning on the arc.
current, then quenching them in water or oil. Carbon Arc Electrode. A carbon or graphite rod
through which current is conducted between the elec-
ELECTRIC WELDING trode holder and the arc.
The joining of metals by concentrating heat from an
electric circuit at the point to be welded. The sources Atomic Hydrogen Electrode. One of two tungsten
of heat are the electric arc established to the work- rods between the points of which the arc is maintained.
piece, or losses from internal resistance. See ARC See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING.
WELDING and RESISTANCE WELDING. Resistance Welding Electrode. The part or parts of a
resistance welding machine through which the weld-
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE PYROMETER ing current and the pressure are applied directly to the
See PYROMETER. work. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
Table E-2
Electrode Classification
Notes:
a. The abbreviations indicate the welding positions as follows:
F =Flat
H = Horizontal
H-fillets = Horizontal fillets
V-down = Vertical with downward progression
V = Vertical ( For electrodes 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) and under, except 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) and under for classifications E7014,
OH =Overhead E7015, E7016, E7018, and E7018M.
b. The term dcep refers to direct current electrode positive (dc, reverse polarity). The term dcen refers to direct current electrode neg-
ative (dc, straight polarity).
c. Electrodes of the E6022 classification are intended for single-pass welds only.
144 ELECTRODE CLASSlFllCATlON Welding Encyclopedia
EXXl8. The operational characteristics parallel those (5) Clays and gums to aid in coating extrusion
of the typical E60XX low-h:ydrogen electrode. (6) Calcium fluoride to provide shielding, adjust
In alloy steel electrodes, the basic four- or five-digit slag basicity, and provide fluidity and solubility to
number designation for an electrode is usually fol- metal oxides
lowed by a letter symbol, such as Al, B2, B3. These (7) Mineral silicates to provide slag and give
AWS suffixes have been added to indicate specific strength to the coating
additions of alloying elements as indicated in Table (8) Alloying metals (Le., Ni, Mo, Cr and others) to
E-3. provide alloy content to the deposit
(9) Iron or manganese oxide to adjust slag fluidity,
and, for small amounts of iron oxide, help stabilize the
Table E-3 arc
AWS Designation of Maijor Alloying Elements (10) Iron powder to enhance deposition rate
in Shielded Metal Arc Electrodes By using different combinations and amounts of
SUEX to Alloying Element these and other ingredients, a tremendous diversity of
Electrode coatings can be produced. Following are descriptions
Number Cr Mn Mo Ni Va
of electrodes used for mild and low-alloy steels.
A1 0.40-0.65
E6010 Electrodes. Electrodes in this classification
B1 0.40-0.65 0.45-0.65 have a cellulose/sodium coating and are designed to
B2 1.00-1.50 0.45-0.65 produce the best possible mechanical properties con-
B3 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20 sistent with good usability characteristics in all weld-
B4 1.75-2.25 0.40-0.65 ing positions, using DCEP.
B5 0.40-0.60 1 .00-1.25 0.05 They are best suited for vertical and overhead weld-
c1 2.00-2.75 ing and some sheet metal applications. The spray-type
arc produced by the E6010 electrode has a digging
c2 3.00-3.75 characteristic to produce deep penetration. This calls
c3 0.15 0.35 0.80-1.10 0.05 for electrode manipulation by the welder to minimize
D1 1.25-1.75 0.25-0.45 spatter and the tendency to undercut.
D2 1.65-2.00 0.25-0.45 Fillet welds made with 6010 electrodes are rela-
D3 1.00-1.75 0.40-0.65 tively flat in profile and have a rather coarse, unevenly
G 0.30 1.00 0.20 0.50 0.10 spaced ripple. These electrodes are highly recom-
mended when quality of deposit is of prime impor-
NM 0.05 0.80-1.25 0.40-0.65 0.80-1.10 0.02
tance, particularly on multi-pass applications in
Note: Single values are maximum percentages. vertical and overhead positions, and when radio-
graphic requirements must be met. Most applications
General Coating Types for the E6010 electrode are on mild steel; however,
Coated or shielded metal-arc electrodes achieve they may be used to advantage on galvanized plate and
performance characteristics through design or formu- some low-alloy steels.
lation of the coating. The coatings of electrodes for E6011 Electrode. These electrodes are sometimes
welding mild and low-alloy steels may be designed to considered the a-c counterpart of the E6010. Perfor-
include as many ingredients and performance charac- mance characteristics of the two are similar; however,
teristics as necessary from among the following: the E601 1 electrode performs equally well with either
(1) Cellulose to provide a gaseous shield on disinte- a-c or d-c power sources. These electrodes produce a
gration forceful digging arc resulting in deep penetration.
(2) Metal carbonates to adjust slag basicity and pro- While the coating is slightly heavier on the E6011,
vide a reducing atmosphere the resulting slag and weld profiles are similar to those
(3) Titanium dioxide to irnprove slag fluidity and of the E6010. The coatings are high in cellulose and
freezing, and to aid in ionization are designated as the high cellulose potassium type. In
(4)Ferromanganese and ferrosilicon to help with addition to the other ingredients usually found in the
deoxidation of molten weld metal and supplement the E6010 electrode coating, small quantities of calcium
Mn or Si content in the deposit and potassium are usually present.
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION 145
As in the case of the E6010 electrodes, sizes larger While the E6012 electrode produces convex fillet
than 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) diameter are not usually used weld contour characteristics, the E6013s produce a flat
for all welding positions. The current ranges usually fillet weld similar to that of the E6020 electrode classi-
recommended are identical to those for the E6010, but fication. The E6013 electrodes are also used for mak-
similarly, high currents result in high spatter losses. ing groove welds because of the concave bead shape
Usually the ductility, tensile strength and yield and easily removed slag. In addition, the weld metal
strength of the deposited weld metal from an E601 1 is contains fewer slag and oxide inclusions than E6012
higher than that of an E6010. weld metal, and quality verified by radiography is
better.
E6012 Electrodes. The E6012 electrodes are
designed for all purpose welding in all positions, using The E6013 coating is very similar to that of the
E6012, containing rutile, silicious materials, cellulose,
either DCEN or an a-c power source. They are specifi-
cally recommended for horizontal and most downhill ferromanganese and silicate binders. An important dif-
welding applications. They are especially recom- ference, however, is that easily ionized materials are
incorporated in the coating, permitting establishment
mended for single pass, high-speed, high-current hori-
and maintenance of an arc with ac at lower welding
zontal fillet welds. Characteristics of the E6012 are
currents and low open-circuit voltages. Some manu-
ease of handling, medium penetration, no spatter, and
facturers have also introduced small quantities of iron
good fillet weld profile. These electrodes can with-
powder into the E6013 coating.
stand high current and can bridge gaps caused by
poor-fit-up conditions. E7014 Electrodes. This designation supersedes the
The 6012 electrodes are referred to as titania or E6014 designation. As the first two numbers of E7014
rutile type, since the coating is high in titania, usually electrodes indicate, this is a 70,000 psi minimum ten-
exceeding 35% by weight. In addition to titania, the sile strength electrode. Although similar to E6013
coatings usually contain various silicious material electrodes, the coating of E7014 electrodes is consid-
such as feldspar and clay, small amounts of cellulose, erably thicker, since it contains substantial amounts of
and ferromanganese, with sodium silicate as the iron powder (30% of coating weight). The amount of
binder. Small amounts of calcium may be used to pro- coating and the percentage of iron powder in it is usu-
duce satisfactory arc characteristics on DCEN, and a ally less than that found in the E7020 electrodes.
small amount of iron powder is added to improve arc The presence of iron powder in E7014 permits
characteristics. The slag coverage is complete and is higher welding currents and means higher deposition
easily removed. rates and welding speeds. While the electrode is classi-
fied for all-position welding, the thicker coating is not
When E6012 electrodes are used with a d-c power
ideally suited for out-of-position production welding
source, DCEN is preferred.
on thin-gauge materials. Performance characteristics
E6013 Electrodes. Although E6013 electrodes are make it particularly suited for production welding of
very similar to the E6012s, there are some notable dif- irregularly shaped products, where some out-of-posi-
ferences. They are designed for welding in all posi- tion welding is required.
tions, ac or dc. They produce a minimum spatter and Mechanical properties of the E7014 weld metal are
have a minimum tendency to undercut. The beads superior to those of E6012 or E6013. Slag removal is
have a fine ripple and are superior in appearance. very easy, sometimes almost self-cleaning. General
Slag removal is somewhat better and the arc can penetration and the rapid solidification characteristics
be established and maintained more readily, particu- make it well suited for handling poor fit-up conditions.
larly with the small (1.6,2.0, and 2.4 mm [1/16,5/64, E7015 Electrodes. This electrode is commonly
3/32 in.]) electrodes, thus permitting satisfactory oper- referred to as a low-hydrogen electrode. It was the first
ation at a lower open-circuit voltage. These character- DCEP, all-position electrode designed for welding
istics make the E6013 ideally suited to welding thin high-sulphur and high-carbon steels, materials which
metals; the arc is soft and penetration very light. tend to develop porosity and sometimes crack under
Mechanical and radiographic properties are slightly the weld bead.
better than E60 12. Underbead cracks usually occur just below the weld
These electrodes were originally designed specifi- metal in the base metal, and are caused by hydrogen
cally for sheet metal work. absorption from arc atmospheres. Elimination of
146 ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION Welding Encyclopedia
hydrogen with its subsequent underbead cracking producing sound welds on troublesome steels, such as
improves welding conditions, and permits welding of the high-sulfur, high-carbon, and low-alloy grades.
difficult-to-weld steels ,with less preheat than As is common with all low-hydrogen electrodes, a
required for electrodes which are not classified as low- short arc should be maintained at all times. Fillet
hydrogen electrodes. Although underbead cracks do welds made in a horizontal or flat position are slightly
not occur in mild steel, they may occur when an elec- convex in profile, with a smooth, finely rippled sur-
trode that is not low-hydrogen is used on high tensile face. Electrodes are characterized by a smooth, quiet
steels. arc, low penetration, very low spatter, and they can be
The E7015 coating is high in limestone, sodium, used at high lineal speeds.
and other ingredients with low-hydrogen content, The minerals in the low-hydrogen electrode coat-
which prevents the introduction of hydrogen in the ings are limited to inorganic compounds such as cal-
weld. The arc is moderately penetrating; the slag is cium fluoride, calcium carbonate, magnesium-
heavy, friable and easily rernoved, and the deposited aluminum-silicate, ferroalloys and such binding agents
weld metal lies in a flat bead, or may even be slightly as sodium and potassium silicate. These electrodes are
concave. referred to as lime-ferritic electrodes because of the
The E7015s, through 4 nun (5/32 in.) diameter, can lime-type coatings (since this lime is a decomposed
be used in all positions. The larger diameters are use- product of such compounds as calcium carbonate).
ful for fillet welds and horizontal and flat positions. Since the coating of E7018 electrodes is heavier
Welding currents are somewhat higher than recom- than most, vertical and overhead welding are usually
mended for E6010s of compixable diameter. Also rec- limited to the smaller diameter electrodes. Currents
ommended: as short an arc as possible for all welding used are somewhat higher than for the E6010 elec-
positions will produce best results. A short arc reduces trodes of corresponding size.
the tendency for underbead cracking.
E6020 Electrodes. These electrodes are designed to
The E7015 electrode was originally developed for
welding hardenable steels, in addition to alloy, high- produce high quality, horizontal fillet welds at high
welding speeds, using either ac or DCEN. In the flat
carbon and high-sulfur steels. They are useful in weld-
ing malleable irons, spring steel, and the mild steel position, the E6020 can be used with ac or DCEN or
sides of clad plates. These electrodes are commonly DCEP.
used for making small welds on heavy weldments, The E6020 electrodes are characterized by a force-
since they are less susceptible to cracking than non- ful spray-type arc and heavy slag, which completely
low-hydrogen electrodes. They are also extensively covers the deposit and is easily removed. Penetration
used for welding steels which are subsequently enam- is medium at normal welding speeds, but high current
eled, and on all steels which contain selenium. and high travel speeds result in deep penetration.
The successful performance of this electrode led to Deposits are usually flat or may be slightly concave in
development of the E7016 and E7018 electrodes, profile, and have a smooth, even ripple. Radiographic
which also have a coating with very low moisture qualities are excellent, but the electrode produces
content. medium spatter and has a tendency to undercut.
The E6020 electrodes are essentially mineral-
E7016 Electrodes. These electrodes have all the coated electrodes, with high percentages of iron oxide,
characteristics of the E7015. The core wire and coat- with manganese compounds and silicates, and suffi-
ings are very similar except that the coatings of the cient deoxidizers to give the deposit the desired com-
E7016 contain certain amounts of potassium silicate position. The slag coverage is so extensive and the
and other potassium salts, which makes this electrode slag-metal reaction of such a nature that the electrodes
suitable for use with ac as well as DCEP. All the char- generally do not depend on gaseous protection.
acteristics attributed to the lE7015 also apply to the The coatings of E6020 electrodes usually produce
E70 16 electrodes. iron oxide, manganese oxide, and silica slag. Other
E7018 Electrodes. Similar to the E7016 electrodes, materials such as aluminum, magnesium or sodium
E7018 electrodes are all-position, low-hydrogen, and may be present in the coating to modify this slag. Fer-
have a coating of 25% to 40% iron powder. They oper- romanganese is used as the main deoxidizer; sodium
ate with either a-c or DCEI?. The E7018 electrodes silicate is used as a binder. The quantity of basic oxide,
have all the desirable low-hydrogen characteristics of acid silica and silicates and deoxidizers must be care-
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRODE FORCE 147
fully controlled to assure satisfactory operation and to E7028 Electrodes. The E7028 electrodes are the last
produce good weld metal. The heavy slag produced of the mild steel series. They have a low-hydrogen
will be well honeycombed on the underside, while coating containing 50% iron powder. These electrodes
completely covering the deposit. It can be readily are very much like the E7018 electrodes, but have sev-
removed. eral different characteristics.
The E7018s are all-position electrodes; but E7028s
E7024 Electrodes. These electrodes, ideally suited
are suitable for horizontal fillet and flat position weld-
for production fillet welding, are designed for horizon-
ing only. The coating of the E7028 electrode is much
tal fillet or flat positions using either an a-c or d-c
thicker than that of the E7018 because of its higher
power source.
iron powder content, so it has a much higher deposi-
The E7024, although generally used on mild steel, tion rate on horizontal fillet and flat welding than
also produces satisfactory welds on many low-alloy, E7018 electrodes of comparable size. (The coating of
medium and high carbon steels. The welds are slightly E7028 represents about 50% of its weight).
convex in profile, with a smooth surface and an The means of metal transfer of these two electrodes
extremely fine ripple. The electrodes are characterized is also different. The E7028 has a spray transfer; the
by a smooth, quiet arc, very low spatter, low penetra- E7018 has a globular transfer. Both these electrodes
tion, and can be used at high lineal speeds. are capable of producing the physical properties and
The coating contains 50% iron powder, which helps weld quality typical of low-hydrogen electrodes.
produce deposition rates and welding speeds consider-
ably higher than those of the E6012, E6013 or E7014 ELECTRODE EFFICIENCY
types which have similar performance characteristics. The ratio of the weight of the metal deposited from
Except for the high percentage of iron powder, the an electrode to the weight of the electrode consumed,
coating ingredients of the E7024 are similar to those times 100.
used in the E6012 and E6013 electrodes.
ELECTRODE EXTENSION, Flux Cored Arc Welding,
E6027 Electrodes. With a 50% iron powder design, Electrogas Welding, Gas Metal Arc Welding, and
these electrodes have arc characteristics which closely Submerged Arc Welding
duplicate the E6020. They are designed to produce sat- The length of electrode extending beyond the end of
isfactory fillet or groove welds in the flat position with the contact tube. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
ac or dc, either polarity, and will produce flat or Appendix 10.
slightly concave horizontal fillet welds with either ac The length of electrode extending beyond the elec-
or DCEN. trode holder (for carbon arc cutting), or the end of the
The E6027 has a spray-type metal transfer and contact tube (for flux-cored, electrogas, gas-metal arc,
deposits metal at a high lineal speed. Penetration is or submerged arc welding).
medium and spatter loss is very low. The slag, though
very heavy and honeycombed on the underside, crum- ELECTRODE EXTENSION, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
bles for easy removal. The E6027 is particularly suited The length of tungsten electrode extending beyond
for multi-pass, deep groove welding. the end of the collet. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Welds produced with the E6027 have a flat to See Appendix 10.
slightly concave profile with a smooth, fine, even rip-
ple, and with good metal wash up the joint sides. The ELECTRODE FORCE
weld metal might be somewhat inferior in soundness The force applied to the electrodes in making spot,
to that produced with E6020. seam, or projection welds by resistance welding. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also DYNAMIC ELEC-
High current can be used; a considerable portion of TRODE FORCE, STATIC ELECTRODE FORCE, and THEO-
the electrical energy passing through the electrode is RETICAL ELECTRODE FORCE.
needed to melt the coating and the iron powder con-
tained in it. These electrodes are well suited to welding Dynamic. In spot, seam and projection welding, the
fairly heavy sections. force (pounds) between the electrodes during the
In many respects, the E6027 electrodes produce actual welding cycle.
high quality weld metal with physical properties Theoretical. In spot, seam and projection welding,
closely duplicating those of E6010. the force, neglecting friction and inertia, available at
148 ELECTRODE GAP Welding Encyclopedia
the electrodes of a resistance welding machine, by vir- order at all times. Under extreme heat, springs some-
tue of the initial force application and the theoretical times lose temper and must be replaced. A weak
mechanical advantage of the system. spring slows up welding and reduces the quality of the
Static. In spot, seam and projection welding, the weld.
force between the electrodes under welding condi-
ELECTRODE INDENTATION,Resistance Welding
tions, but with no current flowing and no movement in
the welding machine. The depression formed on the sugace of workpieces
by electrodes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ELECTRODE GAP
ELECTRODE LEAD
A nonstandard term for ARC LENGTH.
The electrical conductor between the source of arc
ELECTRODE HOLDER welding current and the electrode holdel: See STAN-
A device used for mechanically holding and con- DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure D-5.
ducting current to an electrode during welding or cut-
ting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure D-5. ELECTRODE MANUFACTURE
An electrode holder is it clamping device which Electrodes are designed by metallurgists and weld-
allows the welder to hold and control the electrode. It ing engineers who specify the composition of coated
also serves as a device for conducting the welding cur- electrodes to achieve various results in weld metal and
rent from the welding cable to the electrode. An insu- the finished weld. Manufacturers of electrodes have
lated handle on the holder separates the welder's hand developed arc welding electrodes to weld ferrous
from the welding circuit. The current is transferred to alloys such as cast iron, rolled steel, chrome steel,
the electrode through the jaws of the holder. To assure nickel chrome steel, manganese steel, and non-ferrous
minimum contact resistance and to avoid overheating alloys such as bronze, brass, copper, or nickel alloys.
of the holder, the jaws must be kept in good condition. They have also developed electrodes for welding
Overheating of the holder not only makes it uncom- materials in the pure state, such as aluminum. The
fortable for the welder, but also it can cause excessive ingredients of the electrode coatings can be selected to
voltage drop in the welding circuit. Either can impair provide shielding gas, flux, and slag during welding.
the welder's performance and reduce the quality of the See ELECTRODE.
weld. Historical Background
The holder must grip the electrode securely and In the early years of welding, strips of sheet, bare
hold it in position with good electrical contact. Instal- steel rod or wire (sometimes baling wire) were used as
lation of the electrode and removal of the expended consumable electrodes to provide the filler material
electrode stub must be quick and easy. The holder for metal arc welding. These early electrodes produced
needs to be light in weight and easy to handle, yet it an unstable arc which was difficult to initiate, and
must be sturdy enough to withstand rough use. Most resulted in welds that were porous and brittle. Better
holders have insulating material around the jaws to welds seemed to result when the wire and rod were
prevent grounding of the jaws to the work. slightly coated with a film of rust, or when the wire or
Electrode holders are produced in sizes to accom- rod had a light lime coating remaining after lime had
modate a range of standard electrode diameters. Each been used as a lubricant in the drawing process. It was
size of holder is designed to ixrry the current required soon determined that the bare electrode must be either
for the largest diameter electrode that it will hold. The sul-coated, which is a special rust-coated finish pro-
smallest size holder that can be used without overheat- duced by spraying the wire with water before the last
ing is the best one for the job. It will be the lightest, drawing, or lime coated. The light lime coating
and it will provide the best operator comfort. assisted in keeping the arc steady by producing a
The electrode holder must be kept clean to ensure vapor which would conduct the current, but it did not
maximum operating life. Clean jaws and contact significantly improve weld quality. Many materials
points maintain good electrical connection and conse- were used in experiments to find substances that could
quently less heating and buining of the holder. The be added to improve weld results. When the lime
insulation must be kept tight and in good repair. If the coated or sul-coated electrode was wrapped in news-
jaws are closed by a spring, the electrode holder paper, a gaseous shield for the arc was formed which
should be inspected to see that the spring i:; in good improved the weld, apparently the result of the cellu-
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRODE PICKUP 149
lose in the paper. Among the other materials used Principal stabilizers for both the cellulosic and min-
experimentally to form cellulosic coatings were saw- eral coatings are titanium dioxide, feldspar and cal-
dust, cotton, wood flour, wheat flour and rice flour. cium carbonate. Ferromanganese also appears in both
The carbon content of welding rods for arc welding types of coatings as a deoxidizer used for porosity
steel changed the characteristics of the weld. Carbon control. It also tends to balance the manganese burned
steel electrodes were manufactured in two grades. A out in arc transfer. In some coatings, alloy ingredients
higher carbon content was supplied for arc welding such as molybdenum, which has good transfer charac-
and a lower carbon content for gas welding. Today, teristics, are added.
electrodes containing from 0.13% to 0.18% carbon are Cellulosic. This coating contains such ingredients as
widely used for welding mild steel. sodium silicate, ferromanganese, titanium dioxide and
Coatings alpha and beta cellulose. This type of coating is some-
In general, there are two types of electrodes for times referred to as the high ignition loss type, because
welding ferrous alloys: medium or semicoated, and a considerable portion of the coating burns away to
heavily coated electrodes. form a gas in the arc.
Medium or semicoated electrodes are made by dip- The cellulosic coating is a high-quality coating used
ping the core wire material in a liquid flux, and with- for all-position electrodes; however, it is suitable only
drawing it to allow the flux coating to dry. A coating for DCEP. Arc action produces a forceful spray weld
of this type usually represents only 1% to 2% of the metal transfer with deep penetration.
weight of the electrode. Mineral. A mineral electrode coating usually con-
The heavily coated electrodes are dipped several sists of metallic oxides and silicates. This type of coat-
times to obtain the desired thickness, or they are ing produces an abundance of slag which provides
passed through an extrusion press, the generally ample coverage and complete shielding. Electrodes
accepted practice, where a coating is applied with mineral coatings are usually confined to welding
uniformly by extrusion. Specifications require that in the horizontal and flat position. These electrodes
the extruded coating be concentric with the electrode; produce high quality weld metal using either ac or dc.
a coating which is 3% or more off center is The mineral ingredients in this coating form gases
unsatisfactory. around the molten and vaporized material from the
Core Wire Material core iron as they pass through the arc, protecting them
The most suitable core material for steel electrodes from the atmosphere as they form a molten slag cover-
is a high-grade rimmed steel. Killed or semi-killed ing the weld metal.
steels do not function as well. A typical specification Rutile (titanium dioxide) is an important substance
for a widely used type of electrode follows: in mineral-coated electrodes. The rutile coated elec-
trodes have a coating of moderate thickness so that
Carbon .13 to .18% globular transfer and a rapid rate of solidification
Manganese .40 to .60% occurs. This feature adapts well to joints with a rela-
Silicon 0.06% tively poor fit-up. In addition to an abundance of
Sulphur 0.04% rutile, these electrode coatings include some ferroman-
Phosphorus 0.04% ganese, feldspar, and sodium silicate. These general
The tensile strength of the metal, and to some purpose, all-position electrodes operate on ac or
extent, the smoothness and soundness of the deposit DCEN.
are affected by the carbon and manganese content. ELECTRODE MUSHROOMING
Minimum sulfur content is important; it should be as
The enlargement of a resistance spot or projection
far below 0.04% as reasonably possible.
welding electrode tip due to heat or pressure so it
Compositionof Coatings resembles a mushroom in shape. See STANDARD
Electrode coatings usually contain substances such WELDING TERMS.
as silicon, calcium, barium, and magnesium. Water
glass, a solution of sodium silicate, is usually used as a ELECTRODE PICKUP
binder, but various gums, glues and lacquers are also Contamination of the electrode tips or wheel faces
used. They are classed as cellulosic and mineral. by the base metal or its coating during resistance spot,
150 ELECTRODESETBACK Welding Encyclopedia
MOVING SHOES OR
STATIONARY SHOES
FOR CONSUMABLE
GUIDE TUBE WELDING
STATIONARY SHOE
4I_ 4 mm (5/32in.)
MOVING SHOE
to be welded in a vertical position in materials ranging (5) High duty cycle; the process is automatic and
in thickness from 10 to 100 mm (3/8 to 4 in.) thick. once started, continues to completion; there is little
Advantages operator fatigue.
Some of the advantages associated with EGW have (6) Minimum materials handling; the work needs to
resulted in considerable cost savings, particularly in be positioned only to place the axis of the weld in the
joining thicker materials, when compared to the more vertical or near vertical position; there is no manipula-
conventional joining methods such as submerged arc tion of the parts once welding has started.
welding and flux cored arc welding. Even in some (7) Elimination of weld spatter, which results in
applications involving thinner base materials, EGW 100%filler metal deposition efficiency.
may result in cost savings because of its efficiency and (8) Minimum distortion; there is no angular distor-
simple joint preparation. The following advantages
tion in the horizontal plane. Distortion is minimal in
can be achieved with EGW
the vertical plane, and this is easily compensated for.
(1) Extremely high metal deposition rates; EGW
has a deposition rate of 16 to 20 kg (35 to 45 Ibs) per Limitations
hour per electrode. (1) The EGW process welds only carbon and low
(2) Preheating is normally not required, even on alloy steels, and some stainless steels.
materials of high hardenability.
(2) The joint must be positioned in the vertical or
(3) High-quality weld deposit; the weld metal stays
near-vertical position.
molten for an appreciable time, allowing gases to
escape and slag to float to the top of the weld. (3) Once welding has started, it must be carried to
(4) Minimum joint preparation and fit-up require- completion or a defective area is likely to result.
ments; mill edges and flame-cut square edges are nor- (4) Complex material shapes may be difficult or
mally employed. impossible to weld using EGW.
152 ELECTROGAS WELDING IEGW) Weldina EncvcloDedia
DRIVE ROLLS
WELDING WIRE
-OSCILLATOR
WELD_/
SUPPLEMENTARY
SHIELDING
SOLIDIFIED GAS
WELD METAL
Flux Cored Electrode. The principles of operation (1 in.) from the bottom of the joint. As the weld
and characteristics of the self-shielded flux cored elec- progresses vertically, the electrode melts back to the
trode are identical to the solid electrode variation, guide tube. Initially, the wire electrode penetrates
except that no separate gas shielding is needed. See about an inch beyond the end of the guide tube. Then a
Figure E-7. The flux cored electrode creates a thin steady-state relationship develops between melting of
layer of slag between the weld metal and copper shoes the end of guide tube and the electrode wire. This rela-
to provide a smooth weld surface. tionship remains until the weld is completed. The con-
Electrogas welding with a flux cored electrode may sumable guide process is shown schematically in
be done with an external gas shield or a self-shielding Figure E-7.
electrode. Self-shielded electrodes operate at higher The American Welding Society publishes ANSI/
current levels and deposition rates than shielded types. AWS A5.26, Specification for Carbon and Low Alloy
Diameters of flux cored electrodes commonly vary Steel Electrodes for Electrogas Welding, which pre-
from 1.6 mm to 3.2 mm (1/16 in. to 1/8 in.). The wire scribes requirements for solid and flux cored elec-
(electrode) feeder must be capable of smooth, continu- trodes for electrogas welding.
ous feeding of small diameter wires at high speeds and
larger diameter wires at slower speeds. Equipment
Consumable Guide Process The basic mechanical equipment for electrogas
EGW with a consumable guide is similar to con- welding consists of a direct current power supply, a
sumable guide electroslag welding. This variation of device for feeding the electrode, shoes for retaining
EGW is primarily used for short weldments in ship- molten metal, an electrode guide, a mechanism for
building, and in column and beam fabrication. Con- oscillating the electrode guide, and equipment needed
sumable guide EGW uses relatively simple for supplying shielding gas, when used. In a typical
equipment; the principle difference is that none of the electrogas welding system, the essential components
equipment moves vertically during consumable guide (with the exception of the power supply) are incorpo-
welding. Instead, the electrode is fed through a con- rated in an assembly that moves vertically as welding
sumable guide tube which extends to about 25 rnm progresses.
WORKPIECE
WORKPIECE
1
- JOINT (ROOT)
OPENING
Power Supply. Direct current electrode positive able shoe a specific distance above the molten weld
(reverse polarity) is normally used for EGW, with the pool.
power supply either constant voltage or constant cur- Safety
rent. The power source should be capable of delivering
the required current without interruption cluring the Specific instructions for safe operation of electrogas
welding of a seam that may be of considerable length. welding equipment are available in the manufacturers
Power sources used for electrogas welding usually literature. General safety instructions for all welding
have ratings of 750 to 1000 amperes at 30 to 55 volts and cutting can be found in ANSYASC 249.1, Safety
and 100% duty cycle. Direct current is usually sup- in Welding and Cutting, published by the American
Welding Society. Mandatory Federal safety regula-
plied by transformer-rectifier power sources, although
tions are established by the U.S. Labor Departments
motor-driven and engine-driven generators may be
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and
used.
are available in the latest edition of OSHA Standards,
Wire feed for the electrode is of the push type, such Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Part 1910, from
as used with automatic GMAW or FCAW. The wire the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Printing
feeder is normally mounted as an integral part of the Office, Washington DC 20402.
vertical-moving welding machine. Wire feed speeds Personnel should be protected against exposure to
may vary up to 230 mm/s (550 in./min). The wirefeed noise generated in welding and cutting operations. See
system may include a wire straightener to eliminate Paragraph 1910.95, Occupational Noise Exposure,
the cast and helix in the electrode to minimize elec- Code of Federal Regulations.
trode wander at the joint.
The total radiant energy produced by the EGW pro-
Electrode Guide. Electrode guides are similar to the cess can be higher than that produced by the SMAW
welding guns used for semiautomatic GMAW or for process because EGW has a more exposed arc, espe-
FCAW. The guide may have a shielding gas outlet to cially when using an argon shielding gas and when
deliver gas around the protruding electrode. welding on aluminum. Suggested filter glass shades
for EGW are shown in Appendix 18.
Electrode Guide Oscillator. The horizontal motion
needed when welding base metals 30 mm to 100 mm For general information on metallurgical consider-
(1-1/4 in. to 4 in.) thick to move the arc back and forth ations, mechanical properties, process variables, joint
design, fit-up and assembly, training of operators, and
between the shoes and over the weld pool is accom-
troubleshooting guide, refer to: American Welding
plished by a system that oscillates the electrode guide
Society, Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 1;
and provides adjustable dwell times at either end of
Miami, Florida 1987; and Welding Handbook, 8th
the oscillation.
Edition Vol. 2; Miami, Florida: American Welding
Retaining Shoes. Retaining shoes (also called Society 1991.
dams), are pressed against each side of the gap
between the base metals to be welded to retain (dam) ELECTROLYTE
the molten weld metal in the groove. Nonfusing A nonmetallic conductor of electricity in which cur-
ceramic backups are sometimes used. Sliding shoes rent is carried by the movement of ions.
may or may not contain gas ports to supply shielding In the cells of an electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen
gas directly into the cavity formed by the shoes and generator, a chemical, (caustic soda or potash) serves
the weld groove. When gas ports are not used in the as the conductor.
shoes, a gas box arrangement may be mounted on
the shoes to surround the el-ectrode and welding arc ELECTROLYTICOXYGEN AND HYDROGEN
with shielding gas; these are not required when using See OXYGEN PRODUCTION.
self-shielding flux cored electrodes.
Controls. With the exception of the vertical travel ELECTROMAGNET
control, EGW controls are primarily adaptations of the A soft iron core wound with a coil through which an
devices used with GMAW and FCAW. Vertical travel electric current is passed. The core is magnetized
controls, either electrical, optical, or manual, maintain while the current flows, but is demagnetized when the
a given electrode extension, with the top of the mov- current stops.
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW) 155
ANODE-
4-
ACCELERATING
VOLTAGE
are mainly in the nuclear, aircraft, aerospace, and elec-
tronic industries. Typical products include nuclear fuel
elements, special alloy jet engine components, pres-
sure vessels for rocket propulsion systems, and her-
e
metically sealed vacuum devices.
High production applications take advantage of the
low heat input and the high reproducibility and reli-
MAGNET1C
ability of electron beam welding if a high-purity envi-
ronment is not required. These relaxed conditions
permit welding of components in the semifinished or
finished condition, using both medium and nonvac-
uum equipment. Typical examples are gears, frames,
steering columns, and transmission and drive-train
parts for automobiles; thin-wall tubing; bandsaw and
hacksaw blades, and other bimetal strip products.
The major application of nonvacuum electron beam
welding is in high-volume production of parts, the size
or composition of which preclude effective welding in
a vacuum. The automotive industry employs nonvac-
uum EB welding for many applications. An example is
a torque converter assembly. Manufacturers of welded
tubing also use nonvacuum EB welding. Integrated EB
welding machinehube mill units have been built to
weld copper or steel tubing continuously at speeds up
to 500 mm/s (100 fdmin).
Advantages
Figure E-&Simplified Representation of a Triode Electron beam welding has unique performance
Electron Beam Gun Column capabilities. The high-quality environment, high
power densities, and outstanding control solve a wide
range of joining problems. The following are advan-
Applications tages of electron beam welding:
In general, metals and a:lloys that can be fusion (1) EBW is extremely efficient because it directly
welded by other welding processes can also be joined converts electrical energy into beam output energy.
by electron beam welding. The weldability of a (2) Electron beam weldments exhibit a high depth-
particular alloy or combination of alloys will depend to-width ratio. This feature allows for single-pass
on the metallurgical characteristics of that alloy or welding of thick joints.
combination, in addition to the part configurations, (3) The heat input per unit length for a given depth
joint design, process variation, and selection of of penetration can be much lower than with arc weld-
welding procedure. Considering these variables, the ing; the resulting narrow weld zone has low distortion,
electron beam process can be used to weld steels, and fewer deleterious thermal effects.
stainless steels, aluminum alloys, titanium and (4)A high-purity environment (vacuum) for weld-
zirconium, the refractory metals, and dissimilar ing minimizes contamination of the metal by oxygen
metals. and nitrogen.
Electron beam welding is primarily used for two (5) The ability to project the beam over a distance
distinctly different types of applications: high preci- of several feet in vacuum often allows welds to be
sion and high production. made in otherwise inaccessible locations.
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW) 157
(6) Rapid travel speeds are possible because of the tom of the electron beam gun column to the work will
high melting rates associated with this concentrated limit the product design in areas directly adjacent to
heat source. This reduces welding time and increases the weld joint.
productivity and energy efficiency. (8) With all modes of EBW, radiation shielding
(7) Reasonably square butt joints in both thick and must be maintained to ensure that there is no exposure
relatively thin plates can be welded in one pass with- of personnel to the x-radiation generated by EB
out the addition of filler metal. welding.
(8) Hermetic closures can be welded with the high (9) Adequate ventilation is required with nonvac-
or medium vacuum modes of operation while retain- uum EBW, to ensure proper removal of ozone and
ing a vacuum inside the component. other noxious gases formed during this mode of EB
(9) The beam of electrons can be magnetically welding.
deflected to produce various shaped welds, to improve Equipment
weld quality, or increase penetration. High vacuum, medium vacuum, and nonvacuum
(10) The focused beam of electrons has a relatively EBW equipment employs an electron beam gudcol-
long depth of focus, which will accommodate a broad umn assembly, one or more vacuum pumping systems,
range of work distances. and a power supply. High and medium vacuum equip-
(11) Full penetration, single-pass welds can be pro- ment operates with the work in an evacuated welding
duced with nearly parallel sides, and exhibiting nearly chamber. Although nonvacuum work does not need to
symmetrical shrinkage. be placed in a chamber, a vacuum environment is nec-
(12) Dissimilar metals and metals with high thermal essary for the electron beam gun column. All three
conductivity, such as copper, can be welded. basic modes can be performed using so-called high-
Limitations voltage equipment, i.e., equipment using gun columns
Some of the limitations of electron beam welding with beam accelerating voltages greater than 60 kV.
are: Nonvacuum electron beam welding performed directly
(1) Capital costs are substantially higher than those in air requires beam accelerating voltages greater than
of arc welding equipment. However, depending on the 150 kV. High vacuum and medium vacuum welding
volume of parts to be produced, the final per-piece can also be performed with so-called low-voltage
cost attainable with EBW can be highly competitive. equipment (Le., equipment with gun columns that
(2) Preparation for welds with high depth-to-width employ beam accelerating voltages of 60 kV and
ratio requires precision machining of the joint edges, lower). Because high-voltage gun columns are gener-
exacting joint alignment, and good fit-up. In addition, ally fairly large, they are usually mounted on the exte-
the joint gap must be minimized to take advantage of rior of the welding chamber, and are either fixed in
the small size of the electron beam. However, these position or provided with a limited amount of tilting or
precise part preparation requirements are not manda- translational motion, or both. Low-voltage gun col-
tory if high depth-to-width ratio welds are not needed. umns are usually small. Some units are fixed exter-
nally. Others are internally mounted mobile units
(3) The rapid solidification rates achieved can cause
capable of being moved about, with up to five axes of
cracking in highly constrained, low ferrite stainless
combined translational motion.
steel.
(4) For high and medium vacuum welding, work Electron Beam Guns. An electron beam gun gener-
chamber size must be large enough to accommodate ates, accelerates, and collimates the electrons into a
the assembly operation. The time needed to evacuate directed beam. The gun components can logically be
the chamber will influence production costs. divided into two categories: (1) elements that generate
(5) Partial penetration welds with high depth-to- free electrons (the emitter portion), and (2) a rod- or
width ratios are susceptible to root voids and porosity. disc-type filament indirectly heated by an auxiliary
(6) Because the electron beam is deflected by mag- source, such as electron bombardment or induction
netic fields, nonmagnetic or properly degaussed met- heating. The specific emitter design chosen will affect
als should be used for tooling and fixturing close to the the characteristics of the final beam spot produced on
beam path. the work.
(7) With the nonvacuum mode of electron beam Power Supplies. The electron gun power source
welding, the restriction on work distance from the bot- used for an electron beam welding machine is an
158 ELECTRONICCONTROLS, Resistance Welding Welding Encyclopedia
assembly of at least one main power supply and one or actions, (2) to start and stop the current to the welding
more auxiliary power supplies. It produces high- transformer, and (3) to control the magnitude of the
voltage power for the gun arid auxiliary power for the current. There are three general groups of controls:
emitter and beam control. timing and sequencing controls, welding contactors,
Vacuum Pumping Systems. Vacuum pumping sys- and auxiliary controls.
tems are required to evacuate the electron beam gun Electronic control of resistance welding machines
chamber, the work chamber for high and medium vac- has enabled manufacturers to use this process in preci-
uum modes, and the orifice assembly used on the sion production, and made possible its extension to
beam exit portion of the gudcolumn assemblies for welding a wide variety of metals and alloys, such as
medium vacuum and nonvacuum welding. Two basic stainless steel, brass, bronze and aluminum.
types of vacuum pumps are used: one is a mechanical For information on electronic controls for resistance
piston or vane-type, and the other is an oil-diffusion- welding, and such auxiliary electronic equipment as
type pump used to reduce the: pressure. heat controls, upslope and downslope current controls,
Work Chambers. Work chambers of low-voltage quench and temper controls, forge delay controls, elec-
systems are usually made of carbon steel plate. The tronic current and voltage regulators, electrical power
thickness of the plate is designed to provide adequate load distribution, and monitoring and adaptive con-
x-ray protection and the structural strength necessary trols, see Resistance Welding Controls, American
to withstand atmospheric pressure. Lead shielding Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edi-
may be required in certain areas to ensure total radia- tion. Miami, Florida: American Welding Society,
tion tightness of the system. 1991.
Safely
ELECTRONIC HEAT CONTROL
Since electron beam welding machines employ a
A device used in resistance welding for adjusting
high-energy beam of electrons, the process requires
the heating value (rms value) of current, and con-
users to observe several safety precautions not nor- trolling the firing or ignition of the electronic circuit.
mally necessary with other types of fusion welding
The control uses vacuum tubes (in older systems) or
equipment. The four primary potential dangers associ-
ated with electron beam equipment are electric shock, solid-state devices (e.g., SCRs). The flow of current
is initiated each half-cycle at an adjustable time (or
x-radiation, fumes and gases, and damaging visible
firing angle) with respect to the zero point on the volt-
radiation. In addition to the potential dangers associ-
ated with welding specific materials, such as beryl- age wave. See ELECTRONIC CONTROLS, Resistance
Welding.
lium, there may also be a potential danger associated
with collateral materials (solvents, greases and others) ELECTRONICTUBE
used in operating the equipment. Precautionary mea-
A vacuum tube containing a filament heated by
sures should be taken to assure that all required safety
low-voltage current and emitting extremely small neg-
procedures are strictly observed. ANSUAWS F2.1,
atively charged particles of electricity (electrons). In a
Recommended Safe Practices for Electron Beam Weld-
welding circuit, the electronic tube functions as a sin-
ing and Cutting, and ANSIIASC 249.1, Safety in
gle-pole contactor, making and breaking circuits.
Welding and Cutting (latest editions) give the general
Small electronic tubes are used as relays and contac-
safety precautions that must be taken.
tors in timing and control circuits; large tubes are used
For information on fundamentals of electron beam
as power contactors.
welding, process variations, equipment, weld charac-
teristics, welding procedures, fixturing, filler metal Electronic tubes have largely been replaced by tran-
additions, selection of welding variables, weldability sistors and other solid-state devices; however, some
of metals, weld quality, safety precautions, and bibli- vacuum tube equipment is still in use.
ography, see American Welding Society, Welding ELECTROSLAGWELDING (ESW)
Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
can Welding Society, 1991. A welding process that produces coalescence of
metals with molten slag that melts the filler metal and
ELECTRONIC CONTROLS, Resistance Welding the surfaces of the workpieces. The weld pool is
The principal functions of resistance welding con- shielded by this slag, which moves along the full cross
trols are (1) to provide signals to control machine section of the joint as welding progresses. The process
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTROSLAG WELDING (ESW) 159
is initiated by an arc that heats the slag. The arc is ( 5 ) Minimum joint preparation and fit-up require-
then extinguished by the conductive slag, which is kept ments; mill edges and flame-cut square edges can usu-
molten by its resistance to electric current passing ally be used.
between the electrode and the workpieces. See STAN- (6) High duty cycle; the process is automatic and
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also ELECTROSLAG once started, continues to completion; there is little
WELDING ELECTRODE and CONSUMABLE GUIDE ELEC- operator fatigue.
TROSLAG WELDING. (7) Minimum materials handling; the work needs to
The electroslag welding process is most often used be positioned only to place the axis of the weld in ver-
to join metals in the vertical or near vertical position, tical or near vertical position; there is no manipulation
usually in a single pass. However, it has been shown of the parts once welding has started.
that ESW can be used at angles of 45" or greater from (8) Elimination of weld spatter, which results in
vertical. Some of the advantages associated with ESW 100% filler metal deposition efficiency.
have resulted in considerable cost savings, particularly (9) Low flux consumption; approximately 1 pound
in joining thicker materials. Savings have been of flux is used for each 20 pounds of weld metal.
achieved where components are joined to make larger (10) Minimum distortion; there is no angular distor-
units instead of initially producing massive castings or tion in the horizontal plane. Distortion is minimum in
forgings. ESW is often less expensive than more con- the vertical plane, but this is easily compensated for.
ventional joining methods such as submerged arc (11) Minimum welding time; ESW is the fastest
welding in thicker section weldments. Even in some welding process for thick metal.
applications involving thinner base materials, ESW Limitations
has resulted in cost savings because of its efficiency (1) The ESW process welds only carbon and low
and simple joint preparation. The ESW process offers alloy steels, and some stainless steels.
many opportunities for reducing welding costs on spe- (2) Joining must be positioned in the vertical or
cific types of joints. near vertical position.
Applications (3) Once welding has started, it must be carried to
Many types of carbon steels can be electroslag completion or a defective re-start area is likely to
welded in production, such as AISI 1020, AISI 1045, result.
ASTM A36, ASTM A441, and ASTM A515. They (4)ESW cannot be used on materials thinner than
can generally be welded without post-weld heat about 19 mm (3/4 in).
treatment. ( 5 ) Complex material shapes may be difficult or
In addition to carbon steels, other steels are success- impossible to weld using ESW.
fully electroslag welded. They include AISI 4 130, Principles of Operation
AISI 8620, ASTM A302, HY80, austenitic stainless To set up for an electroslag weld, a square groove
steels, ASTM A514, ingot iron, and ASTM A387. joint is positioned so that the axis or length of the weld
Most of these steels require special electrodes and a is vertical or nearly vertical. The process is initiated by
grain refining post-weld heat treatment to develop starting an electric arc between the electrode and the
required weld or weld heat-affected zone properties. joint bottom. Granulated welding flux is then added
Advantages and melted by the heat of the arc. As soon as a suffi-
ciently thick layer of molten slag (flux) is formed, all
(1) Extremely high metal deposition rates; ESW has arc action stops, and the welding current passes from
a deposition rate of 16 to 20 kg (35 to 45 Ibs) per hour the electrode through the slag by electrical conduction.
per electrode. Welding is started in a sump or on a starting tab to
(2) Capability to weld very thick materials in one allow the process to stabilize before the welding action
pass; there is one equipment setup and no interpass reaches the work. Figure E-9 is a schematic represen-
cleaning, since there is only one pass. tation of an electroslag welding operation.
(3) Preheating is normally not required, even on Heat generated by the resistance of the molten slag
materials of high hardenability. to passage of the welding current is sufficient to fuse
(4) High-quality weld deposit; the weld metal stays the welding electrode and the edges of the workpiece.
molten for an appreciable time, allowing gases to The interior temperature of the bath is in the vicinity
escape and slag to float to the top of the weld. of 1925C (3500F). The surface temperature is
160 ELECTROSLAGWELDING (ESW)
BATH
MOLTEN WELD
s s- \\
Welding Encyclopedia
CURVED ELECTRODE
UBE
ELECTRODE
WATER-COOLED SHOE
COMPLETED WELD
WORKPIECE
WORKPIECE
approximately 1650C (3000F). The melted electrode cess should have a minimum open circuit voltage of
and base metals collect in a pool beneath the molten 60 V and be capable of delivering 600 A continuously
slag bath and slowly solidify to form the weld. There (100% duty cycle). The power supplies should be
is progressive solidification from the bottom upward, equipped with remote controls. The number of power
and there is always molten metal above the solidifying supplies required depends on the number of welding
weld metal. electrodes being used to fill the joint. One power sup-
Run-off tabs are required to allow the molten slag ply is required for each welding electrode. Special
and some weld metal to extend beyond the top of the constant-voltage d-c power supplies designed for elec-
joint. Both starting and run-off tabs are usually troslag and electrogas welding are available. Typical
removed flush with the ends of the joint. power supplies are transformer-rectifiers having 74 V
open circuit and a current rating of 750 A at 50 V out-
Equipment
put, 100% duty cycle. The primary input is 60 Hz,
The equipment used for electroslag (and electrogas) three phase, 2301460 V.
welding is very similar to that required for submerged
arc welding (SAW) or flux cored arc welding Safety
(FCAW). The same power sources can be used for As in any type of welding, reasonable care must be
either process, with one exception: both a-c and d-c exercised in the set-up, welding, and post-welding
power supplies are used with the electroslag process, procedures for ESW. Various potential hazards exist,
while in the electrogas process, a-c power supplies are some minor and others serious, but all can be elimi-
not used. Standard power sources used for either pro- nated. Failure to use safety protection equipment or
Welding Encyclopedia ETCHING 161
Exothermic brazing uses simplified tooling and lower the amount of heat applied to a welded seam, the
equipment. The reaction heat brings adjoining metal smaller the expansion and contraction effect will be.
interfaces to a temperature at which preplaced brazing A bar of iron expands as it is heated and contracts
filler metal melts and wets the base metal interface when cooling; both actions are attended by great force.
surfaces. Several commercially available brazing filler Expansion in length, width, and thickness is governed
metals have suitable flow temperatures. The process is by a rise in temperature; contraction is regulated by a
limited only by the thickness of the base metal and the fall in temperature. Expansion rates of various metals
effect of brazing heat, or any previous heat treatment, differ. A copper bar one foot long expands 0.1 in. per
on the metal properties. 1000F. A gray iron bar of the same size would expand
Reference: American Welding Society. Welding a little over 0.1 in. when heated to 1500"F, an expan-
Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri- sion rate of 0.067 in. per ft per 1000Frise in tempera-
can Welding Society, 1991. ture. The expansion of aluminum is 0.148 in. per ft for
each 1000F.
EXPANDED TEMPLATE Expansion in Welding
A durable pattern designed to be expanded or con- One of the greatest challenges in welding is adapt-
tracted so that similar objects of different sizes can be
ing welding conditions to control the expansion and
outlined.
contraction brought about by differences in tempera-
ture of different parts of the workpiece. When welding
EXPANSION, Thermal
ductile metals like iron and steel, allowances must be
The increase in the dimensions of metals caused by made for expansion and contraction, because warping,
heat. See COEFFICIENTOF LINEAR EXPANSION. distortion or buckling will inevitably take place. In
When metals are heated they expand in every direc- non-ductile materials, such as cast iron, aluminum
tion. The expansion in length is linear expansion; the alloys and copper, the strains produced by heat may
increase in volume is cubical expansion. Conversely, a cause the metal to crack or fracture, because the
decrease in temperature causes the metal to contract, strength of these materials is lower when near the
decreasing the cubical and linear dimensions. melting point. Although in many cases distortion or
Each metal is susceptible to this change in volume, fracture have not taken place, the expansion and con-
and each metal expands a specific amount in relation traction effects have produced serious internal strains,
to a specific rise in temperature. In many cases, the which require only a slight additional strain to produce
only practical concern is the increase in length. The failure by exceeding the strength of the metal. It is for
amount of linear expansion can be calculated by mea- this reason that failure can occur in articles which
suring the unit length of a specimen rod of the metal appear to have been successfully welded.
when it is raised through one degree of temperature. The metalworker cannot restrain by force the
This amount is the coeficient of linear expansion. expansion of metals caused by raising the material to a
The increase in length produced by a rise in tempera- high temperature, and the contraction to approximate
ture is equal to the original length, multiplied by the original dimensions caused when the heat diminishes
coefficient of expansion, multiplied by the rise in tem- and disappears. The forces of expansion and contrac-
perature in "E The cubical expansion is calculated at tion are irresistible, and if attempts are made to control
three times the linear expansion. them by force, using clamps, jigs, or other means, dis-
Assuming that the arc is producing a given amount tortion, serious internal strains, or failures will result.
of heat, the amount of expansion at a given point in the
structure being welded will depend on the length of EXPANSIONGAUGE
time the arc is operating at that point. The contraction A device for indicating the degree of distortion of
will be equal in amount to the expansion, assuming metal due to expansion caused by heat. If two or more
that no internal strain is left. Therefore, it is evident gauges are placed at different points on the metal that
that total expansion or contraction tending to deform is being heated, the various readings on the gauges
the workpieces will be less if 105 kT/h (100 BTUh) is will show clearly where expansion or distortion is the
applied than if heat is applied at the rate of 1050 kJh greatest. A change in the heating arrangement can then
(1000 BTUh). The total expansion or contraction be made to prevent unequal distortion and to preserve
depends on the amount of heat applied; in general, the alignment.
164 EXPLOSION CUlTlNG (IEXC) Welding Encyclopedia
DsTA
forming programs indicates that the capacity of a EXPLOSIVE
metal to be formed by explosives is a direct function
of one mechanical property: percentage of elongation. I
Four factors are critical in determining the success PRIME
of an explosion forming or welding operation: type, COMPONENT
amount, shape, and location of the charge. A charge
BASE
placed in water, or in some other media (e.g., talc, COMPONENT
clay, plastic, or oil) that will transmit the force of the
blast, can be 1/10 of the size of a charge used in open
Figure E-1+Typical Component Arrangement for
air to do the same job. Explosion Welding
The explosive is adjusted to provide a force having
correct distribution and quantity for a specific
forming. Fundamentally, there are three components: base
Patents were granted on the explosion forming pro- metal, prime or cladding metal, and explosive. The
cess to British and German engineers as early as 1900; base component remains stationary as the prime com-
this process is presently used in the aircraft and aero- ponent is welded to it. The prime component is usually
space industry. positioned parallel to the base component; however,
Welding Encyclopedia EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW) 165
for special applications it may be at some small angle localized plastic flow in the immediate area of the col-
with the base component. In the parallel arrangement, lision point. At the same time, a jet is formed at the
the two are separated by a specified spacing, referred collision point, as shown in Figure E-11. The jet
to as the stand08 distance. The explosion locally sweeps away the original surface layer on each com-
bends and accelerates the prime component across the ponent, along with any contaminating film that might
standoff distance at a high velocity so that it collides at be present. This exposes clean underlying metal which
an angle with and welds to the base component. This is required to make a strong metallurgical bond. Resid-
angular collision and welding front progresses across ual pressures within the system are maintained long
the joint as the explosion takes place. enough after collision to avoid release of the intimate
The explosive, almost always in granular form, is contact of the metal components and to complete the
distributed uniformly over the top surface of the prime weld.
component. The force which the explosion exerts on Capabilities and Limitations
the prime component depends on the detonation char- One attribute of the explosion welding process is its
acteristics and the quantity of the explosive. A buffer
ability to join a wide variety of similar and dissimilar
layer, such as a neoprene material, may be required
metals. The dissimilar metal combinations range from
between the explosive and the prime component to those that are commonly joined by other welding pro-
protect the surface of that component from erosion by
cesses, such as carbon steel to stainless steel, to those
the detonating explosive. The action that occurs during
that are metallurgically incompatible for fusion weld-
explosion welding is illustrated in Figure E- 11. ing or diffusion bonding processes, such as aluminum
or titanium to steel.
The process can be used to join components of a
wide range of sizes. Surface areas ranging from less
than 6.5 cm2 (1 in.2) to over 37 m2 (400 ft2) can be
DETONATION welded. Since the base component is stationary during
welding there is no upper limit on its thickness. The
thickness of the prime component may range from .25
, -, -, \ /
to 31.8 mm (0.001 to 1.25 in.) or more depending on
the material.
?
Geometric configurations that can be explosion
welded are those which allow a uniform progression
of the detonation front and, hence, the collision front.
These include flat plates as well as cylindrical and
COMPONENT conical structures. Welds may also be made in certain
complex configurations, but such work requires thor-
WELD ough understanding and precise control of the process.
Applications
COMPONENT As a general rule, any metal can be explosion
welded if it possesses sufficient strength and ductility
Figure E-11-Action Between Components During to withstand the deformation required at the high
Explosion Welding velocities associated with the process. Metals that will
crack when exposed to the collision of the two compo-
There are three important interrelated variables of nents cannot be explosion welded. Metals with elonga-
the explosion welding process: collision velocity, col- tions of at least 5 % to 6% (in a 51 mm [2 in.] gauge
lision angle, and prime component velocity. The length), and Charpy V-notch impact strengths of 13.65
intense pressure necessary to make a weld is generated (10 ft-lb) or better can be welded with this process.
at the collision point when any two of these three vari- The commercially significant metals and alloys that
ables are within certain well defined limits. These lim- can be joined by explosion welding are given in Figure
its are determined by the properties of the particular E-12. Metallurgical and mechanical properties of the
metals to be joined. Pressure forces the surfaces of the materials must be considered when selecting EXW as
two components into intimate contact and causes a welding process and specifying welding conditions.
166 EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW) Welding Encyclopedia
fz
.....
r r I
g w
> J 3
O d O
Q W O
CARBON !STEELS 0 0 0
ALLEYSTEEG .Io Io 11
.01~1
STAINLESS STEELS 000
ALUMINUM ALLOYS 0.
COPPER ALLOYS 0 0 0
NICKEL ALLOYS 0
TITANIUM 0.
TANTALUM 0 .
COLUMBIUM 0
SILVER
GOLD
PLATINUM
-
COBALT ALLOYS
MAGNESIUM
~
ZIRCONIUM
Figure E-l2--Commercially Significant Metals and Alloys that can be Joined by Explosion Welding
Cladding. The cladding of plate constitutes the copper, and steel are the most commonly used materi-
major commercial application of explosion welding. It als, and joints between them are often necessary to
is customary to supply explosion clad plate in the as- take advantage of the special properties of each. Tran-
welded condition because the hardening which occurs sition joints cut from thick explosion welded plates of
immediately adjacent to the interface does not signifi- aluminum and copper, or aluminum and steel, provide
cantly affect the bulk engineering properties of the efficient conductors of electricity. This concept is rou-
plate. Despite this, some service requirements may tinely used in the fabrication of anodes for the primary
demand postweld heat treatment. Clad plates are usu- aluminum industry.
ally distorted somewhat during explosion welding and Tubular transition joints in various configurations
must be straightened to meet standard flatness specifi- can be machined from thick clad plate. While the
cations. Pressure vessel heads and other components majority of explosion welded tubular transition joints
can be made from explosion clad plates by conven- are aluminum to steel, other metal combinations for
tional hot or cold forming techniques. this type of joint include titanium to stainless steel, zir-
Explosion welding can be used to clad the inside conium to stainless steel, zirconium to nickel base
and outside surfaces of cylinders. Transition joints alloys, and copper to aluminum.
between two incompatible metals can be made with Explosion welding can be used to make tube-to-
EXW techniques. In electrical systems, aluminum, tube sheet joints in heat exchanger fabrication. Most
Weldina Encvclopedia EYE PROTECTION 167
might lead to cataracts, retina injuries, as well as to makes it unnecessary for the welder to wear a helmet,
opacity of the cornea and the aqueous chamber. and adequately protects all workers in the vicinity
The intensity of the ultraviolet and the infrared radi- from the rays of the arc.
ation is determined by the temperature of the welding Flashed Eyes
source, consequently the intensity is greater from an
arc than from a gas flame. Surroundings also affect the Despite all precautions, flashed eyes are sometimes
intensity, depending on how much of the radiation is experienced, more often among persons working in
absorbed or reflected. the vicinity than those engaged in the actual welding.
Despite the many potential hazards that exist in the The symptoms of flashed eyes are a pronounced
welding environment which might be hannful to the irritation under the eyelids, a feeling as if there were
eyes, strictly following recommended safety precau- sand in the eye. These symptoms usually develop
tions will prevent visual deterioration or other ocular several hours after exposure, which means that they
damage. frequently develop after the worker has left for the
The American Welding Society has developed day, sometimes occurring late at night in places where
specifications for protective lenses recommended for a doctor is not readily available. To prevent incidents
various welding and cutting operations, shown in of flashed eyes, it is extremely important that co-work-
Appendix 18. ers and all visitors are either completely screened from
In addition to welding personnel, other workers in the welding operation, or provided with the correct
the area may be indirectly or temporarily exposed to protective goggles.
harmful radiant energy and must also be protected. Standards for welding helmets, hand shields, face
These persons can be protected by surrounding the shields, goggles, and spectacles are given in ANSI
welding operation with screens or booths. A booth 287.1, Practice for Occupational and Educational
provides the best protection from the arc rays. When Eye and Face Protection. New York: American
building a booth for arc welding, the interior walls and National Standards Institute (latest edition).
surfaces should be covered with paint which will
absorb the dangerous arc rays. EYE SHIELD
Automatic arc welding operations are frequently A plastic mask with a transparent section to protect
enclosed in a cabinet equipped with a colored glass the eyes of workers in grinding, coating or resistance
protective window, through which the operator may welding operations. The transparent portion of the eye
watch the progress of the welding. This enclosure shield may be either clear or colored.
169
170 FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR Welding Encyclopedia
was made. The spokes were riveted to a steel rim, the edge and in building up the point; but if desired,
and repairs were made by brazing. If a spoke of low-carbon rods can be used on the land side where
an older wheel is broken loose in the hub, it should the wear is not as great.
be cut free where it is riveted at the rim and then
One-Piece Design. Another method commonly used
brazed to the hub, using as little heat as possible. consists of welding a new part to the old share, which
After the brazing has been completed between the amounts to a rather wide cutting edge and point forged
spoke and the hub, the otheir end of the spoke can be all in one piece. The worn portion of the share is cut
quickly welded to the rim with steel welding rods, off with a cutting torch, and the new section is
and the distortion of the rim will be very slight. It is clamped to the old section or held in a jig. The weld is
necessary, however, to wail until the spoke and the made with a gas or arc torch.
braze at the hub are cold before making the weld in
the rim. Forged Point. If the cutting edge of the share is not
Plowshares. Plowshares are made from various
so badly worn that an entirely new edge is necessary
grades of steel for service in different types of soil. and only the point is worn away, the worn point can be
One type of plowshare is call-eda crucible share, prob- cut off with the cutting torch and a new forged point
ably because it was originally made from crucible welded to it. The original shape of the share should be
steel. Most of these shares are made of open-hearth carefully preserved so that it will have a controllable
steel containing approximately 0.55 to 0.65% carbon, digging effect. These forged points are available in a
varying with the manufacturers specifications. grade of steel which can be heat treated and will pro-
duce an acceptable repair job. The electrode or weld-
Another type is a soft-center plowshare. It is a
ing rod must match the grade of steel in the plowshare
tough plowshare with hard outer surfaces that will
as closely as possible. If they are not well matched, the
withstand rough usage. This type is made of three
repaired section might wear hollow or form a groove
sheets of steel placed together; the center section is a
along the weld.
low-carbon steel and the outside faces are steel with a
higher carbon content. These three sheets of steel are Welding Rods and Electrodes
preheated and welded together, using SMAW. Many welders make the mistake of welding parts,
A third type of plowshare is made of chilled cast including forged points, to the plowshare with a weld-
iron (white iron) and is used in districts where the soil ing rod or electrode that is too low in carbon. Most
is partly composed of sharp sand. Chilled cast iron is plowshares are heat treated after welding, and unless
very hard and very brittle, consisting largely of the weld metal is high enough in carbon content, it will
cementite. If used in a district where stones or rocks remain soft and unaffected by the heat treatment. This
are part of the soil, this type would be subject to means that there will be a soft spot which will wear to
breaking. a greater extent than the harder metal on both sides of
The soft-center share hiis a hard surface, and the joint.
while not as hard as chilled cast iron, it is tougher.
Low-carbon rods are not recommended for this type
The crucible steel share is hardened throughout
of work. Many high-strength rods and electrodes are
and is used in many soils where other types are not available which contain more carbon, and some con-
practical.
tain alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, and
Repairs. If the point of the plowshare has worn off, vanadium, all of which will produce a better grade of
it can be repaired by cutting off the old point and weld- weld metal for these repairs. Although these rods are
ing a new forged point to replace the old one. more expensive than the low-carbon grades, the rods
If the edge is completely worn down and the point should be selected to match the steel in the plowshare,
is gone, it may be necessary to use the three-piece the points, edges and other parts, (which are also
method of repair, a process in which three new pieces expensive). This will accomplish the purpose of the
of high-carbon steel are welded to the old share to repair, which is to make a serviceable joint. When a
build it out to its original shape. In this process, an soft, low-carbon steel rod is used, the weld metal will
edge piece, or blade, and two point pieces (one placed not harden in subsequent heat treatment. Some weld-
under the share and the other on top), are welded ers make a practice of welding the land side of the
together to form a new point. High-carbon or alloy share with low-carbon rod, and use a high-carbon rod
steel welding rods or electrodes are recommended for on the edge and share portion. Even this is poor prac-
Weldina EncvcloDedia FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR 171
difficult because it is impossible to grind the teeth to fracture results in the remaining structure. If the term
size after the rebuilding job is complete. The teeth is used without qualification, the fatigue limit is usu-
must be carefully shaped and sized with the torch dur- ally the number of cycles of stress necessary to pro-
ing rebuilding. A cast iron deposit seems to offer the duce a complete reverse of flexing stress. See FATIGUE
only successful solution for jobs of this nature. STRESS.
Ensilage Cutter Blades FATIGUE STRESS
Ensilage cutter blades which have been broken or The maximum stress which a material will endure
nicked can be repaired using the following method: without failure no matter how many times the stress is
(1) Place a 6 mm (1/4 in.) square bar of medium repeated.
carbon steel along the tapered side of the blade, with
the blade laid flat and resting on the steel bar. FATIGUE TEST
(2) Make several tack welds with the arc welding A destructive test used to measure the stress to
torch. cause failure by fatigue in a material, part, structure, or
(3) Make an arc weld in the groove formed by the weldment after applying a fixed number of cycles of
square steel bar and the tapered face of the blade. load. Generally, the stress to cause failure is plotted
(4) Turn the blade to rest on the side to which the against the number of load cycles on a logarithmic
bar has been welded, which is the back of the blade. scale. In fatigue testing, it is important to decide on
( 5 ) Apply hardfacing. The hardfacing material fills and document the repetitive loading cycle, including
the opening between the square steel bar and the old base (minimum) load and peak (maximum) load, and
edge of the blade. frequency of loading. Loading is usually expressed as
(6) Grind on the back to smooth the hardfacing a ratio, R = maximum stredminimum stress, consid-
metal, and grind a new taper on the front of the blade ering compressive stresses as positive (+), and tensile
to form an edge in the hardfacing. stresses as negative (-), so that load reversals between
Blades can be repaired in this way even though tension and compression result in a negative (-) value
badly chipped or nicked. Often the hardfacing on the of R (stress ratio).
back of the blade is applied with the torch. Cutter Testing for the fatigue strength of a material is so
blades are ordinarily made of high-carbon steel, rang- laborious that many materials have not been tested at
ing from about 0.70 to 0.80% carbon. all, so data is simply not available. In some cases the
Based on the representative descriptions of these material has been tested by a user, and the resulting
repair jobs, it is obvious that the job shop welder must data is often treated as proprietary and is not available
master a variety of tasks, although almost every break in general references or in the open literature. For a
will be in some way similar to the one which has hard steel, a test of 2 x lo6cycles duration is necessary
previously been fixed. See CAST IRON, Arc Welding; to establish a definite fatigue strength. For soft steel, a
CAST IRON, OXYACETYLENE WELDING, BRAZING,CAR- test of lo7 cycles duration is necessary, while for alu-
BIDE TOOLS; TOOL BRAZING, TOOL WELDING, HARDFAC- minum and magnesium and many other non-ferrous
ING, ELECTRODE, STEEL, Cast; MAGNESIUM ALLOYS. metals and alloys, 5 x lo8 cycles may be necessary,
since these materials exhibit an endurance limit, or
FATlGUE stress below which the material could sustain an infi-
The phenomenon of the progressive fracturing of a nite number of loading cycles without failing.
metal by means of a crack which spreads under There are many types of fatigue testing machines.
repeated cycles of stress. Materials subject to vibration Most commonly used are those which use a rotating
stress frequently fail at much, lower loads than antici- beam or rotating cantilever. These rotating tests give a
pated. Investigation discloses. that each material has a completely reversed stress in which the maximum unit
fatigue stress beyond which it is not safe for repeat- of tensile and compressive stress in the surface of the
edly loading it. specimen is equal. The speed of rotation varies with
this machine from 2000 rpm to 12 000 rpm.
FATIGUE LIMIT Fatigue test specimens can be of almost any size,
A stress level below which the metal will withstand depending on the amount of available material,
an indefinitely large number of cycles of stress without although certain standard sizes (as opposed to non-
fracture. When stress is above the fatigue limit, failure standard, and especially, sub-size specimens) are pre-
occurs by the generation and growth of cracking until ferred (e.g., by ASTM). Cross-sectional shape is
Welding Encyclopedia FILLER MATERIAL 173
TERMS. See also BRAZING FILLER METAL, CONSUM- FILLET WELD SIZE
ABLE INSERT, DIFFUSION AID ; FILLER METAL, SOLDER, For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the
WELDING ELECTRODE, WELDING FILLEF. METAL, largest isosceles right triangle that can be inscribed
WELDING ROD, and WELDING WIRE. within the fillet weld cross section. For unequal leg
fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right triangle
FILLER METAL that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross
The metal or alloy to be added in making a welded, section. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen-
brazed, or soldered joint. See STANDARD WELDING dix 11.
TERMS. See also BRAZING FILLER METAL, CONSUM-
FILLET WELD STRENGTH
ABLE INSERT, DIFFUSION AID, FILLER MATERIAL, SOL-
DER, WELDING ELECTRODE, WELDING FILLER METAL, In structures or systems where service stresses are
WELDING ROD, and WELDING WIRE.
high, such as in heavy machinery, ship and building
construction, extensive framework and intricate angles
FILLER METAL START DELAY TIME may include miles or more of welded joints. Shearing
stresses can affect a large percentage of the total sys-
The time interval from arc initiation to the start of tem of welds. Correct design of a fillet weld on angles
filler metal feeding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. implies an optimum balance between the effective
weld length and the contact area between the weld and
FILLER METAL STOP DELAY TIME either base metal part.
The time delay interval from beginning of downs- A sound engineering approach is mandatory, and
lope time to the stop of filler metal feeding. See STAN- allowable shearing stresses must be accurately calcu-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19(A). lated to specify weld sizes and length which will result
in the most economical application of strength, joint
FILLER ROD efficiency, and safety in service.
The rod or wire which is added to the weld; also In dealing with angles, the welded joints must be
referred to as filler metal and welding rod. See WELD- proportioned correctly and designed to reduce internal
ING ROD and ELECTRODE. stresses and strains which often cause buckling, distor-
tion, and ultimate failure. These stresses are due to the
FILLER WIRE differential expansion occurring with the heating or
A nonstandard term for WELDING WIRE. cooling of a weld.
When designing a fillet weld, weldability must be a
FILLET WELD consideration. A careful investigation must include
A weld of approximately triangular cross section individual welding conditions, e.g., design of the
joining two sur$aces approximately at right angles to workpiece or structure, section thickness, accessibility,
each other in a lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint. See service requirements, and manufacturing cost. It is
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 4. essential to consider the size instead of the throat of a
fillet weld.
FILLET WELD BREAK TEST In fillet welds in which the cross section is an equal
isosceles right triangle, the throat is equal to the prod-
A test in which the specimen is loaded so that the uct of the size and sine 45":
weld root is in tension. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. T = L sine 45" = 0.707L.
See Appendix 11. Any weld metal outside the tri-
FILLET WELDING GAUGE
angle limits is omitted in estimating weld strength, so
A template or other measuring device for checking the material between the dashed line and the curved
the size of a fillet weld. See WELDING MICROMETER. surface of the weld is considered extraneous and dis-
regarded. Theconvexity of a fillet weld should be
FILLET WELD LEG reduced, since a 45" flat fillet is the most desirable
The distance from the join,?root to the toe of thefil- shape for weld performance. For equivalent strength
let weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen- and rigidity, long fillet welds with smaller leg sizes are
dix 11. the most economical.
Welding Encyclopedia FINE WIRE WELDING 175
When the stress in an angle is transmitted entirely ticulate matter from the cooling water or air for weld-
by welds along the toe and heel of the angle, the ing equipment, from compressed air, or from the
required weld strength may be calculated as follows: breathing air for welders.
Alternatively, in radiography, a sheet or strips on
sx S (d-x)
s,= s:!=7 edge (which may be oscillated) of absorptive material
placed between the film and the object being radio-
SI = required weld strength at the angles toe in graphed to reduce blurring in the recorded film image
pounds. caused by secondary and scattered radiation.
S = total stress in the angle in pounds. FILTER GLASS
d = width of angle leg between welds in inches
x = distance from back of angle to its center of A nonstandard term for FILTER PLATE.
gravity.
FILTER LENS
S2 = required strength of weld at the angles heel
A nonstandard term for a round filter plate.
in pounds.
According to the recommendations of AWS D1.l, FILTER PLATE
Structural Welding Code-Steel, and the American An optical material that protects the eyes against
Institute of Steel Construction for steel in buildings, excessive ultraviolet, infrared, and visible radiation.
the allowable shearing unit stress of a section through See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
the throat of a fillet weld is 94 MPa (13 600 psi). This Filter plates are used in helmets, hand shields, and
stress is to be used in conjunction with structural steel goggles to protect the eyes.
ASTM A-7, which is for structural steel having an ulti-
mate tensile strength between 414 and 483 (60 000 FIN
and 70 000 psi). The factor of safety (about 4) applica- Metal exuding from the molten interface of two
ble to building construction has been applied to the parts brought together during flash welding. See
working stress. FLASH.
The required area of contact of a weld in a building
problem, for example, may be determined by the FINAL CURRENT
following:
A current after downslope but prior to current shut-
0.707 X 13 600 = 9600 08See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix
19(A).
F
DL= 9600 FINAL TAPER CURRENT
The current at the end of the taper interval prior to
where D is the weld size; L is the effective weld length
down slope. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
in inches; and F is the rezultant shearing force on the
Appendix 19(A).
weld in pounds.
Before starting to cut off a piece of metal, make or welding operator, wearing dark glasses or a hood,
sure it will not drop where it can start a fire. To prevent cannot see small fires if they are started.
the piece from falling, a rod or bar can be welded to The watcher should remain at the scene of the work
the piece and held by a helper while the cut is made. for at least 30 minutes after the work is completed.
Check to assure that adequate portable fire extin- The watcher should be required to look carefully for
guishing equipment has been provided. If the area has smoke or fire before leaving. This is especially impor-
a sprinkling system, get assurance from the proper tant if welding or cutting sparks may have started
authority that the sprinklers are ready for operation. smoldering fires in wooden structures or in other slow-
Sprinklers should never be shut down while welding is burning materials.
in progress. Reference: National Fire Protection Association.
Sweep the floor clean, and if it is made of wood,
wet it down. FISHEYE
A written permit form should be obtained from the A discontinuity found on the fracture su$ace of a
proper authority to perform cutting operations outside weld in steel that consists of a small pore or inclusion
the usual maintenance shop. surrounded by an approximately round, bright area.
Portable Fire Extinguishers See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The fire extinguishers available must be appropriate Fisheyes in welded metal appear as circular and
to the hazards present. Where wood or other ordinary slightly conical spots, 0.4 to 3.2 mm (1/64 to 1/8 in.)
combustible materials may be ignited, extinguishers diameter, exhibiting a brittle white fracture of two or
approved for use on Class A fires are required. If flam- more concentric rings in contrast with the gray ductile
mable liquids or electrical apparatus may be involved, matrix. Fisheyes often contain one or more radial
extinguishers approved for use on Class B or Class C cracks emanating from a central nucleus (an inclusion,
fires must also be provided. The types of extinguishers a shrinkage or a gas micro-void) and ending in one of
approved for use on different classes of fire are shown the concentric rings. There are several possible causes
in Table F- 1. for the formation of fisheyes:
( 1) Microscopic particles of mechanically entrapped
slag, regardless of the structural constitution of the
Table F-1 deposit, and, depending on interpass temperature, a
Portable Fire Extinguishers
heterogeneous condition of microstructure possessing
Use on Class of Fire differential ductility.
Class A Class B Class C (2) Incipient micro-cracks developed by the drastic
Type of (Ordinary (Flammable (Electrical quenching undergone by filler metal when deposited
Extinguisher Combustibles) Liquids) Equipment) on un-preheated base material.
Pump Tank Yes No No ( 3 )The. fact that the high-pressure hydrogen gas
Gas Cartridge Yes No No contained in small discontinuities exerts an aerostatic
Foam Yes Yes No
stress on the metal surrounding the discontinuity,
but is not large enough to rupture without external
Loaded Stream Yes Yes No
aid.
Only small Yes Yes
Carbon Dioxide surface fires It takes an externally applied stress to actually ini-
Dry Chemical Yes Yes Yes tiate fissuring in steel under stress from hydrogen.
When the sum of the aerostatic and applied stress
Reference: NFPA Booklet No. 10, Standard for Portable Fire exceeds the strength of the steel, the metal ruptures
Extinguishers.
internally to the extent indicated by the surrounding
circular area; the pressure of the gas is reduced, tearing
Where any danger of setting fire to combustible abates and a flake remains in a plane perpendicular to
materials exists, it is important to station a person with the direction of that stress. The concentric rings are
appropriate hand-held extinguishers who will stand by probably associated with the degree of hydrogen
the work throughout its progress, no matter what other embrittlement around the defect. It is believed that the
precautions have been taken. An extra person is central nucleus, the circular form, and the brittle break
needed for fire extinguishing duty because the cutting identify a hydrogen defect.
178 5F Welding Encyclopedia
FLAME CLEANING and (3) the temperature of the surface at the moment
A metal surface cleaning process accomplished by quenching begins.
movement of a multi-flame oxyacetylene torch over
the surface. The quick, intense heat causes deposits of FLAME MACHINING
oxide, rust, scale or old paini, to be consumed or loos- Flame machining is a little-used variation of the
ened so that they pop off easily. When a workpiece oxyfuel gas cutting process. This technique is used to
is being primed for painting, the surface may be swept turn down the diameter of a piece of cylindrical stock
or wiped free of loosened foreign material and painted similar to machining on a lathe. The cutting oxygen
while at an elevated temperature. This improves paint stream impinges on the work (a cylindrical piece) at an
adherence and extends the life of the paint. acute angle, almost tangentially. The oxygen cutting
orifices used are the expanding low-stream velocity
FLAME CUITING
type, with a comparatively large-diameter exit. Rela-
Flame cutting is a commonly used term for manual tively low oxygen pressures are used. The cut is not
or mechanized OXYGEN CLITTING. Oxygen cutting permitted to penetrate through the work, as in sever-
applications are shape cutting, stack cutting, powder ing, but is restricted to removal of material from the
cutting, piercing, gouging, and underwater cutting. See surface.
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING. See tdso GOUGING, THERMAL
SPRAYING, METAL POWDER CUTTING, UNDERWATER
This change in the angle of impingement of the cut-
CUTTING.
ting oxygen stream has created a variety of oxyacety-
lene cutting operations. Because of the similarity to
FLAME HARDENING customary tool machining, these operations are collec-
Flame hardening is a process used to harden steel or tively termed flame machining. See OXYFUEL GAS
other ferrous metals. In this process, an oxyacetylene CUTTING.
torch is used to heat the surface of the material to a
high temperature, then a rapid quench is administered FLAME PRIMING
to produce a hard martensitic surface. See FLAME CLEANING.
Among the advantages of flame hardening are:
(1) The hardness may be limited to a comparatively FLAME SHRINKING
thin casing, leaving the balance of the metal unaf- An oxyacetylene flame process in which buckled or
fected by the heat of the torch. This makes it possible warped plates are spot-heated and quenched immedi-
to heat treat a casting or forging for desired core prop- ately with either water or a mixture of compressed air
erties, such as ductility, toughness, and resistance to and water. This sequence accomplishes an upsetting
impact, and subsequently harden the surfaces to be action in the metal, resulting in the shrinking (with
exposed to wear. consequent straightening, when applied properly) of
(2) Because carbon is the principal hardening agent the plate.
in steel, it is possible in many applications to use a
flame-hardened plain carbon steel instead of an expen- FLAME STRAIGHTENING
sive alloy. Straightening structural steel with an oxyacetylene
(3) Flame hardening is done on finished surfaces flame process is based on three combined facts of
after all machining has been completed, thus saving physics: the expansion of steel as its temperature rises,
the difficulty and expense of machining a hardened the lowering of the yield point of steel as the tempera-
metal. ture is increased, and the ability of steel to flow plasti-
Technique. Flame hardening is done in two stages: cally when the stress imposed exceeds the yield point.
heating and quenching. First an oxyacetylene flame is The reverse of the first two facts is also utilized in
used to raise the surface temperature of the area to be flame straightening under certain conditions.
hardened to just over the Ac3 critical point. Then a As heat is applied to a small area of a given section,
rapid quench traps the iron carbide existing in solid there remains enough cold metal to confine, or limit,
solution in the austenite to produce a martensitic struc- the expansion in certain directions. The lowered yield
ture of high hardness. The degree of hardness pro- point of the heated area is exceeded by the stress
duced will depend on three factors: (1) the constitution caused by expansion, therefore the heat area flows
of the steel before hardening, (2) the rate of cooling, plastically in the confined directions.
Welding Encyclopedia FLANGE WELD 181
The flame straightening procedure must be con- weld is applicable. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
trolled by a person who thoroughly understands struc- See Figure F-2.
tures and has a working knowledge of the behavior of
steel under stress at elevated temperatures. FLANGED EDGE JOINT
Flame straightening can also be applied to A form of an edge joint in which at least one of the
straighten bent Plates, angle frames, Pipes, and members has a flanged edge shape at the joint. See
fabrications. STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure F-2.
FLANGED T-JOINT
A form of a T-joint in which the butting member has
aflanged edge shape at the joint, and an edge weld is
Figure F-2-Edge Weld in a Flanged Corner Joint not applicable. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Figure F-4.
FLANGED CORNER JOINT
A form of a comer joint in which the butting mem- FLANGE WELD
ber has a flanged edge shape at the joint, and an edge A nonstandard term for a weld in a flanged joint.
182 FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE:WELD Welding Encyclopedia
- -
( 5 ) The parts to be joined must have almost identi-
cal cross sections.
Applications
Base Metals. Many ferrous and nonferrous alloys
I \ can be flash welded. Typical metals are carbon and
low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys,
nickel alloys. and copper alloys. Titanium alloys can
be flash welded, but an inert gas shield to displace
air from around the joint is necessary to minimize
embrittlement.
Dissimilar metals may be flash welded if their
upsetting characteristics are similar. Some dissimilar-
ity can be overcome with a difference in the initial
extensions between the clamping dies, adjustment of
flashing distance, and selection of welding variables.
Typical examples are welding of aluminum to copper
or a nickel alloy to steel.
Typical Products. The automotive industry uses
wheel rims produced from flash welded rings that are
formed from flat cold-rolled steel stock. The electrical
industry uses motor and generator frames produced by
flash welding plate and bar stock previously rolled
into cylindrical form. Cylindrical transformer cases,
circular flanges, and seals for power transformer cases
are other examples. The aerospace industry uses flash
welds in the manufacture of landing gear struts, con-
trol assemblies, hollow propeller blades, and rings for
jet engines and rocket casings.
The petroleum industry uses oil drilling pipe with
Figure F-6-The Basic Steps in Flash Welding: fittings attached by flash welding. Several major rail-
roads are using flash welding to join relatively high
(A) Position and Clamp the Parts carbon steel track. In many cases, welding is done in
(B) Apply Flashing Voltage and the field using welding machines and portable generat-
Start Platen Motion ing equipment mounted on railroad cars.
(C) Flash Miter joints are sometimes used in the production of
(D)Upset and Terminate Current rectangular frames for windows, doors, and other
Welding Encyclopedia FLAW 185
architectural trim. These products are commonly made will vary with section thickness. This tendency can
of plain carbon and stainless steels, aluminum alloys, often be counteracted by proper design of the clamp-
brasses, and bronzes. Usually the service loads are ing dies, provided the ratio of the thicknesses does not
limited, but appearance requirements of the finished exceed about 4 to 1.
joints are stringent.
Welding Procedures
Equipment
Every welding operation involves numerous vari-
Typical Machines. A typical flash welding machine
consists of six major parts: ables that affect the quality of the resulting weld. For
this reason, a welding procedure should be developed
(1) The machine bed which has platen ways
attached that prescribes the settings for the welding variables to
ensure consistent weld quality. Flash welding involves
(2) The platens which are mounted on the ways
dimensional, electrical, force, and time variables.
(3) Two clamping assemblies, one of which is rig-
These and other considerations in flash welding, such
idly attached to each platen to align and hold the parts
as surface preparation, heat balance, initial die open-
to be welded
ing, flash removal, process variables, weld quality,
(4) A means for controlling the motion of the mov-
testing and inspection, and recommended reading list
able platen
are covered in the following reference: American
(5) A welding transformer with adjustable taps Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th Edition,
(6) Sequencing controls to initiate part motion and Vol. 2, Miami, Florida: American Welding Society,
flashing current
1991.
Flash welding machines may be manual, semi-
automatic, or fully automatic in their operations; how- Safety. Operating personnel should be given
ever, most of them are either semi-automatic or fully instructions on how to operate the machinery in a safe
automatic. manner. Hands must be kept clear of moving machin-
Controls and Auxiliary Equipment. Electrical con- ery, and contact with electrically charged surfaces
trols on flash welding machines are integral types must be avoided. The area around the machine must
designed to sequence the machine, control the welding be kept free of combustibles that might be ignited by
current, and precisely control the platen position dur- molten flash. Additional information on safe practices
ing flashing and upsetting. for welding may be found in American National
Standard 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, latest
Dies. Flash welding dies, compared to spot and edition.
seam welding electrodes, are not in direct contact with
the welding area. Dies may be considered work- FLAT-COMPOUND GENERATOR
holding and current-conducting clamps. The dies are
usually mechanically fastened to the welding machine A generator designed to produce a constant output
platens. voltage under different loads and speeds.
Fixtures and Backups
FLAT POSITION
The functions of fixtures for flash welding are (1) to
rapidly and accurately locate two or more parts rela- See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See FLAT WELD-
tive to each other, (2) to hold them in proper location ING POSITION, and WELDING POSITION.
while they are being welded, and (3) to permit easy
release of the welded assembly. A fixture is either fas- FLAT WELDING POSITION
tened to the machine or built into it. Parts are loaded The welding position used to weld from the upper
directly into the fixture and welded. side of the joint at a point where the weld axis is
Joint Design approximately horizontal, and the weld face lies in an
In general, the two parts to be welded should have approximately horizontal plane. See STANDARD WELD-
the same cross section at the joint. Bosses may have to ING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
be machined, forged, or extruded on parts to meet this
requirement. In the flash welding of extruded or rolled FLAW
shapes with different thicknesses within the cross- An undesirable discontinuity. See STANDARD WELD-
section, the temperature distribution during flashing ING TERMS. See DEFECT.
186 FLOOD COOLING, ResistanceSeam Welding Welding Encyclopedia
FLOOD COOLING, Resistance Seam Welding (cubic ft per hour) for the particular gas being used.
The application of liquid coolant directly on the The welder can set the meter for the required flow rate.
work and the contacting elactrodes. See STANDARD The flowmeter tube is calibrated at a positive pres-
WELDING TERMS. sure which normally exceeds any back pressure pro-
duced by the welding equipment. This makes it
FLOWABILITY possible to get a true reading of the gas flow.
The ability of molten filler metal to jlow or spread
over a metal su$ace. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. FLOW RATE
The rate at which gas is caused to flow for oxyfuel
FLOW BRAZING (FLB) cutting or welding, or to provide shielding during arc
A brazing process that uses heat from molten non- welding by any of several processes, including gas
ferrous filler metal poured over the joint until brazing metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding
temperature is attained. This is an obsolete or seldom (GTAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW), or electro-
used process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. gas welding (EGW).
The flow rate is controlled by flow meters that are
FLOW BRIGHTENING, Soldering calibrated either in liters per minute or cubic feet per
Fusion of a metallic coating on a base metal. See hour.
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The flow rate of shielding gases for GMAW (Mig)
should be sufficient to exclude air from the weld loca-
FLOW COATING tion; the flow of gas should maintain adequate and
A finishing method in which a paint or coating is effective coverage of the weld arc. This is influenced
applied with a spray gun or brush to weldments or by a number of variables: (1) the shielding gas used,
workpieces which are too large for dipping or are in an (2) design of weld joint, (3) distance of gas nozzle ori-
inaccessible area. Special paints or coatings are fice from the work surface, (4) size of the gas nozzle,
needed for this application, since some do not flow ( 5 ) shape of the gas nozzle, (6) the presence of drafts
satisfactorily. or air currents, (7) inclination of the torch, (8) arc
length, (9) welding speed, (10) size of the weld pud-
FLOW INDICATOR dle, (11) position of the workpiece, and (12) metal or
In welding, a measuring instrument which deter- alloy being welded.
mines the exact amount of gas being used by a torch. A flow rate of 3 Lpm (6 cu ft/hr) for helium and
The flow indicator allows an experienced operator to 2 Lpm (4 cu f m ) for argon generally provides effec-
watch the position of the indicator to find the most tive shielding in still atmospheres. While these rates are
efficient mixture of gases for a certain class of work, only about one-third the rates normally used for aver-
and enables the operator to duplicate the same flame at age welding conditions, they indicate that cost control
any time. This instrument also serves as an accurate is possible when all other factors are under control.
check on the quantity of gas being used and the effi- Excessive gas flow is not only wasteful, but can
ciency with which the gas is used by the operator. also be detrimental to the weld metal and the welding
operation. Excessive flow may also cause an unstable
FLOW METER arc at low welding currents and result in undercutting
A flowmeter measures and control the flow of a liq- the work surface by the weld bead.
uid or gas, used especially to control the flow of
shielding gases in welding operations. When used on a FLOW WELDING (FLOW)
high pressure cylinder, a flowmeter is usually com- A braze welding process variation that uses molten
bined with a regulator into a regulator-flowmeter unit filler metal poured over the fusion faces as the heat
which reduces the high-pressure gas in the cylinder or source. This is an obsolete or seldom used process. See
cylinder manifold to a lower working pressure. The STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
lower pressure is received by the flowmeter and the
required gas flow to the welding head is controlled by FLUORINE
manual adjustment of a throttle valve. (Chemical symbol: F). A pale yellow gas which
The flow of shielding gat; is indicated on a flow- forms fluoride compounds with a number of elements,
meter tube, which is calibrated in liters per minute some of which are used as ingredients of welding fluxes.
.
Welding Encyclopedia FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 187
Atomic weight 19; melting point -223C (-369F); bicarbonate of soda make a good compound for this
specific gravity, (gas) 1.31 (liquid) 1.41 at -200C. purpose. Also, for cast iron arc welding, various fluxes
prevent oxidation and rapid cooling of the melt, and by
FLUSH WELD combining with the excess carbon prevent the forma-
A term applied to a weld when the top layer is fin- tion of hard compounds of iron and carbon.
ished perfectly flat or on the same plane as the adjoin- Copper requires a filler rod containing phosphorus
ing material. The weld is made with a minimum of to produce weld metal without oxides. Powdered
reinforcement, with deposits of a minimum number of borax is often used as a flux with copper alloys.
layers of weld metal. This application is used when a Aluminum requires flux because there is a tendency
maximum tensile strength is not critical and must be for the heavy slag formed to mix with the melted alu-
specified by the designer. minum and weaken the weld. For sheet aluminum
welding it is customary to dissolve the flux in water
FLUX and apply it to the rod. After welding aluminum, all
A material used to hinder or prevent the formation traces of the flux must be removed.
of oxides and other undesirable substances in molten Flux coatings often increase the speed of arc weld-
metal and on solid metal su$aces, and to dissolve or ing, although this is not universally true. They also
otherwise facilitate the removal of such substances. concentrate the deposit, reduce spatter, and tend to
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. prevent oxidation of the weld metal, as well as reduce
Fluxes are used in fusion welding, brazing, and sol- the rate of cooling.
dering to prevent the formation of oxides. They are
used in brazing and soldering to dissolve or facilitate FLUX COATED ELECTRODE
removal of oxides. See ACTIVE FLUX and NEUTRAL A metal arc welding electrode coated with a flux.
FLUX. The purpose of the flux is (1) to unite with undesirable
The oxides of all the commercial metals and alloys impurities in the fused metal and float them away as a
except steel have higher melting points than the metals heavy slag, (2) to protect the weld from the atmo-
themselves. Oxides are usually viscous (some are even sphere, and (3) to slow down the rate of cooling. See
insoluble) when the metal is fluid and at its proper ELECTRODE. See also FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
welding temperature. An efficient flux combines with
oxides to form fusible slag with a melting point lower FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
than the metal. This slag forms a coating over the mol- An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
ten metal and thus serves as a protection against atmo- continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool.
spheric oxidation. The chemical characteristics and The process is used with shielding gas from afZux con-
melting points of the oxides of different metals vary tained within the tubular electrode, with or without
greatly and therefore there is no one flux that will be additional shielding from an externally supplied gas,
satisfactory for all applications. and without the application of pressure. See STAN-
The melting point of a flux must be lower than that DARD WELDING TERMS. See also FLUX CORED ELEC-
of either the metal or the oxides formed so that it will TRODE, GAS SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING,
be liquid during the welding operation. and SELF-SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
Fluxes are available packed in powder form in The feature that distinguishes the FCAW process
metal or plastic containers. Some lose their effective- from other arc welding processes is the enclosure of
ness if overexposed to atmosphere, and in such cases fluxing ingredients within a continuously fed elec-
small containers are best. Some welders use a flux trode. The remarkable operating characteristics of the
box, a short section of large pipe welded to a heavy process and the resulting weld properties are attribut-
plate about 150 mm (6 inches) square. This prevents able to this electrode development. The flux cored
the flux from tipping over during a job and holds only electrode is a composite tubular filler metal electrode
a small amount of flux so accidental losses are consisting of a metal sheath and a core of various pow-
minimal. dered materials. During welding an extensive slag
Fluxes differ in their composition according to the cover is produced on the face of a weld bead.
metals with which they are used. In cast iron welding, Note that metal cored electrodes are not included in
a slag forms on the puddle and the flux serves to break this description, because their powdered core materials
up this slag. Equal parts of carbonate of soda and produce no more than slag islands on the face of a
188 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) Welding Encyclopedia
weld bead. Thus, they do not match the detfinition of The FCAW features, as well as those that distin-
flux cored electrodes. guish the two major versions of the process, are shown
FCAW offers two major process variations that dif- in Figure F-7, illustrating the gas-shielded version, and
fer in their method of shielding the arc and weld pool Figure F-8, illustrating the self-shielded type. Both
from atmospheric contamination (oxygen and nitro- figures emphasize the melting and deposition of filler
gen). One type, self-shielded FCAW, protects the mol- metal and flux, together with the formation of a slag
ten metal through the decomposition and vaporization covering the weld metal.
of the flux core by the heat of the arc. The other type, In the gas shielded method, shown in Figure F-7,
gas shielded FCAW, makes use of a protective gas the shielding gas (usually carbon dioxide or a mixture
flow in addition to the flux core action. With both of argon and carbon dioxide) protects the molten metal
methods, the electrode core material provides a sub- from the oxygen and nitrogen of the air by forming an
stantial slag covering to protect the solidifying weld envelope around the arc and over the weld pool. Little
metal. need exists for de-nitrification of the weld metal
Flux cored electrodes are also used in electrogas because air with its nitrogen is mostly excluded. How-
welding (EGW). That process is a single pass, verti- ever, some oxygen may be generated from dissociation
cal-up welding process. See ELECTROGAS WELDING. of C 0 2 to form carbon monoxide and oxygen. The
Flux cored arc welding is normally a semiautomatic compositions of the electrodes are formulated to pro-
process. The process is also used in machine and auto- vide deoxidizers to combine with small amounts of
matic welding. oxygen in the gas shield.
Historical Background In the self-shielded method shown in Figure F-8,
Flux cored wires were initially introduced in the shielding is obtained from vaporized flux ingredients
1920s, basically for hardfacing, with the first patents which displace the air, and by slag compositions that
granted to Stoody in 1926. There was little develop- cover the molten metal droplets, to protect the molten
ment work in this area for a time because of improve- weld pool during welding. Production of C 0 2 and
ments in the performance of coated electrodes and introduction of deoxidizing and denitriding agents
lack of a suitable power supply to obtain the benefits from flux ingredients right at the surface of the weld
of flux cored welding. The development of GMAW in pool explain why self-shielded electrodes can tolerate
the early 1950s renewed interest in the use of flux stronger air currents than gas shielded electrodes.
cored arc welding. Widespread use of the product Thus self-shielded FCAW is the usual choice for field
started in 1957 with the development of competitively work.
priced flux cored wires for welding steel. It was found One characteristic of some self-shielded electrodes
that a small quantity of flux combined with C 0 2 gas is the use of long electrode extensions. Electrode
protection produced weld metal with very good prop- extension is the length of unmelted electrode extend-
erties. However, when used in the field for welding ing beyond the end of the contact tube during welding.
steel structures, for example, the wind would often Self-shielded electrode extensions of 19 to 95 mm (3/4
blow the gas away. Welds produced under these condi- to 3-3/4 in.) are generally used, depending on the
tions would be defective. To correct this problem, a application. A self-shielded electrode nozzle is shown
self-shielded flux cored wire was developed. Fluxing in Figure F-9.
materials were introduced into the core that would
produce greater quantities OF C 0 2to shield the weld. Increasing the electrode extension increases the
resistance heating of the electrode. This preheats the
Process Advantages electrode and lowers the voltage drop across the arc.
The benefits of FCAW are achieved by combining At the same time, the welding current decreases,
three general features: which lowers the heat available for melting the base
(1) The productivity of continuous wire welding metal. The resulting weld bead is narrow and shallow.
(2) The metallurgical benefits that can be derived This makes the process suitable for welding light
from a flux gauge material and for bridging gaps caused by poor
(3) A slag that supports and shapes the weld bead fit-up. If the arc length (voltage) and welding current
FCAW combines characteristics of shielded metal are maintained (by higher voltage settings at the power
arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding supply and higher electrode feed rates), longer elec-
(GMAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW). trode extension will increase the deposition rate.
Welding Encyclopedia FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 189
GAS NOZZLE
TUBULAR ELECTRODE
POWDERED METAL,
FLUX AND SLAG
FORMING MATERIALS
WELD METAL
I \
L WELDPOOL
ARC AND METAL
TRANSFER
TUBULAR ELECTRODE
WIRE GUIDE
f POWDERED METAL, VAPOR
FORMING MATERIALS,
AND CONTACT TUBE
DEOXIDIZERS AND SCAVENGERS
v L/WELDPooL
WELD METAL
pared to those of other processes when it is evaluated surfacing, joining dissimilar metals, and maintenance
for a specific application. and repair.
Higher productivity, compared to shielded metal arc The major disadvantages, compared to the SMAW
welding, is the chief appeal of flux cored arc welding process, are the higher cost of the equipment, the rela-
for many applications. This generally translates into tive complexity of the equipment in setup and control,
lower overall costs per pound of metal deposited in and the restriction on operating distance from the elec-
joints that permit continuous welding and easy FCAW trode wire feeder. Self-shielded FCAW may generate
gun and equipment accessibility. The advantages are large volumes of welding fumes, which, except in field
higher deposition rates, higher operating factors, and work, require suitable exhaust equipment. Compared
higher deposition efficiency (no stub loss). to the slag-free GMAW process, the need for remov-
FCAW has found wide application in fabricating ing slag between passes is an added labor cost. This is
shops, in maintenance, and field erection work. It has especially true in making root pass welds.
been used to produce weldrnents conforming to the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the rules of Equipment
the American Bureau of Shipping, and ANSVAWS Semiautomatic Equipment. As shown in Figure
D1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel. FCAW enjoys F-10, the basic equipment for self-shielded and gas
prequalified status in ANSUAWS D 1.1. shielded flux cored arc welding is similar. The major
Stainless steel, self-shielded, and gas shielded flux difference is the provision for supplying and metering
cored electrodes have been used in general fabrication, gas to the arc of the gas shielded electrode. The recom-
Welding Encyclopedia FLUX CORED ELECTRODE 191
-
located at a sufficient distance behind the top of the
gun nozzle to draw in the fumes rising from the arc
FLUX CORED without disturbing the shielding gas flow.
ELECTRODE
FLUX CORED ELECTRODE
A composite tubular filler metal electrode consist-
WORK
ing of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered
materials, producing an extensive slag cover on the
Figure F-%Cut Away View of a Self-shielded
face of a weld bead. External shielding may be
Electrode Nozzle Showing Electrode Extension required. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A flux cored electrode consists of a mild steel
sheath surrounded by a core of flux or alloying com-
mended power source is the dc constant-voltage type, pound, or both. The compounds contained in flux core
similar to sources used for gas metal arc welding. The make up about 15% to 20% of the weight of the elec-
power supply should be capable of operating at the trode and serve the following functions:
maximum current required for the specific application. (1) Act as a deoxidizer or scavenger, helping to
Most semiautomatic applications use less than 500 A. purify the metal and produce solid weld metal.
The voltage control should be capable of adjustments (2) Form slag to float on the molten weld pool and
in increments of one volt or less. Constant-current (dc) protect it from the atmosphere during solidification.
power sources of adequate capacity with appropriate (3) Act as an arc stabilizer, which produces a
controls and wire feeders are also used, but these smooth welding arc and reduces spatter.
applications are rare. (4) Add alloying elements to the weld metal to
The purpose of the wire feed control is to supply the increase strength and provide other desirable weld
continuous electrode to the welding arc at a constant metal properties.
preset rate. The rate at which the electrode is fed into ( 5 ) Provide for shielding gas. However, to assure
the arc determines the welding amperage that a con- weld quality, externally supplied shielding gas is
stant-voltage power source will supply. If the electrode oftenused to supplement and guarantee weld metal
feed rate is changed, the welding machine automati- shielding.
192 FLUX CORED ELECTRODE Welding Encyclopedia
DIRECT CURRENT
CONSTANT VOLTAGE
-$
POWER SOURCE
I
TO SOLENOID VALVE
- VOLTAGE CONTROL SHIELDING
GAS
VOLTMETER AND SOURCE
CONTACTOR CONTROL
I AMMETER
II
I! I-
C I
I
WIRE FEED I
---- I
WIRE DRIVE
MOTOR II
ELECTRODE POWER CABLE
Metal Transfer Characteristics. Metal transfer from size, because the flux covering on a stick electrode
flux cored electrodes is in glotmlar form. Molten drop- must have a binder to make it adhere to the electrode
lets appear to form on the sheath of the electrode; as wire and must also contain materials that aid in
one is transfenred, another droplet forms in another the extrusion process. As a result, the fluxing mate-
location on the sheath. The flux material appears to be rial on a coated stick electrode is about 24% of its
transported to the weld deposit independent of the weight, compared to a flux content of 15% in flux
metal transfer. The droplets are larger at low current cored wire.
intensity. This means there is less visible spatter, the
arc appears smoother and deposition efficiency is Advantages
higher when welding is done at high current Among the advantages of flux cored welding is that
intensities. flux cored wires can be used at high current densities,
The flux content of a flux cored electrode is less which achieves high deposition rates and good weld-
than that for a coated stick electrode of cornparable ability. The efficiency of flux cored welding is greater
Welding Encyclopedia FLUX CORED ELECTRODE 193
than stick electrode welding. For coated electrodes, electrodes are classified according to the requirements
the process efficiency is 65% to 70%, and for flux of ANSIIAWS A5.20, latest edition, Specification for
cored wires, nearly 85%. Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Flux cored wire is also good in welding conditions Table F-2 explains the significance of the last digit of
which include narrow grooves. The minimum angle of the FCAW designations.
preparation is 40 to 45", so joints can be welded with
about half of the amount of weld metal in less time.
The lower total heat input also minimizes distortion. Table F-2
Shielding and Polarity Requirements
Manufacture. Flux cored wire manufacturing is a for Mild Steel FCAW Electrodes
highly specialized and precise operation. Most flux
cored electrode wire is made by passing low-carbon External
steel strip through a contour forming roll which bends Shielding Current and
the strip into a U-shape cross section. This cross sec- AWS Classification Medium Polarity
tion is filled with a measured amount of granular flux EXXT- 1 (Multiple-pass) C02 dc, electrode positive
cored material, after which the U-shape section passes EXXT-2 (Single-pass) C02 dc, electrode positive
through closing rolls that form it into a tube with EXXT-3 (Single-pass) None dc, electrode positive
tightly compressed core material. This tube, which EXXT-4 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode positive
may have assumed a variety of interior shapes, is then EXXT-5 (Multiple-pass) C02 dc, electrode positive
pulled through drawing dies to reduce its diameter and EXXT-6 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode positive
further compress the core material. After the wire has EXXT-7 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode positive
been reduced to the specified diameter, it may or may EXXT-8 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode negative
not be baked, depending on the flux content. It is then EXXT-9 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode negative
wound on 10 or 20 kg (25 or 50 lb) spools or 30 kg EXXT- 10 (Single-pass) None dc, electrode negative
(60 lb) coils. EXXT-11 (Multiple-pass) None dc, electrode negative
Classification of Electrodes
EXXT-G (Multiple-pass) * *
EXXT-GS (Single-pass) * *
Figure F- 11 illustrates the identification system for
mild steel FCAW electrodes. Most mild steel FCAW *As agreed upon between supplier and user.
DESIGNATES AN ELECTRODE.
FLUX COVER, Metal Bath Dip Brazing and Dip Soldering as metal movement occurs, especially in projection
A layer of molten flux over the molten filler metal welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
bath. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
FORCE
FLUX CUlTlNG (FOC) Energy exerted between two or more bodies which
An oxygen cutting process that uses heat from an tends to change their relative shapes or positions.
oxyfuel gas flame, with a flea in the flame 1'0 aid cut-
ting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. FOREHAND WELDING
Flux cutting is primarily intended for cutting stain- A welding technique in which the welding torch or
less steels. The flux is designed to react with oxides of gun is directed toward the progress of welding. See
alloying elements, such as chromium and nickel, to STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRAVEL ANGLE,
produce compounds with melting points near those of WORK ANGLE, and PUSH ANGLE.
iron oxides. A special apparatus is required to intro-
duce the flux into the kerf. With a flux addition, stain- FORGE-DELAY TIME, Resistance Welding
less steels can be cut essentially the same as carbon The time elapsing between a preselected point in
steels. Cutting speeds approaching those for equiva- the welding cycle and the initiation of the forging
lent thicknesses of carbon steel can be attained. The tip force. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
sizes will be larger, and the cutting oxygen flow will
be somewhat greater than for the carbon steels. See FORGE FORCE
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING. A compressive force applied to the weld after the
heating portion of the welding cycle is essentially
FLUXED ELECTRODE complete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A metal electrode provided with a flux.
FORGE WELDING (FOW)
FLUX INJECTIONCUlTING A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, FLUX CUTTING and by heating the workpieces to welding temperature and
METAL POWDER CUTTING. applying blows sufficient to cause permanent defor-
mation at the faying sugaces. See STANDARD WELD-
FLUX, Magnetic ING TERMS. See also COLD WELDING, DIFFUSION
The magnetic lines of force existing between the WELDING, and HOT PRESSURE WELDING.
two opposite magnetic poles of a magnet. Forge welding was the earliest welding process and
the only one in common use until well into the nine-
FLUX OXYGEN CUlTlNG teenth century. Blacksmiths used this process. Pressure
A nonstandard term for FL,UX CUTTING. vessels and steel pipe were among the industrial items
once fabricated by forge welding. The process finds
FOCAL POINT some application with modern methods of applying
A nonstandard term for FOCAL SPOT. the heat and pressure necessary to achieve a weld. The
chief present day applications are in the production of
FOCAL SPOT, Electron Beam Welding and Cutting, and tubing and clad metals.
Laser Beam Welding and Cutting
A location at which the beam has the most concen- Principles of Operation
trated energy and the smallest cross-sectional area. The sections to be joined by forge welding may be
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. heated in a forge, furnace, or by other appropriate
means until they are very malleable. A weld is accom-
FOCUS FILM DISTANCE plished by removing the parts from the heat source,
The distance in centimeters (inches) between the superimposing them, and then applying pressure or
focal spot of the X-ray or the radiation source and the hammer blows to the joint.
film. Heating time is the major variable that affects joint
quality. Insufficient heat will fail to bring the surfaces
FOLLOW-UP, Resistance Welding to the proper degree of plasticity, and welding will not
The ability of the moveable electrode to maintain take place. If the metal is overheated, a brittle joint of
proper electrode force and contact with the workpiece very low strength may result. The overheated joint is
Welding Encyclopedia FORGING SPEED, Friction Welding 195
likely to have a rough, spongy appearance where the Joint Design. The five joint designs applicable to
metal is severely oxidized. The temperature must be manual forge welding are the lap, butt, cleft, jump, and
uniform throughout the joint interfaces to yield a satis- scarf types shown in Figure F-12. The joint surfaces
factory weld. for these welds are slightly rounded or crowned. This
Process Modes
shape ensures that the center of the pieces will weld
first so that any slag, dirt, or oxide on the surfaces will
Hammer Welding. In hammer welding, coalescence be forced out of the joint as pressure is applied. %a$-
is produced by heating the parts to be welded in a ing is the term applied to the preparation of the work-
forge or other furnace and then applying pressure by pieces of forge welding. Similarly, the prepared
means of hammer blows. Manual hammer welding is surface is referred to as a scarfed surface. Each work-
the oldest technique. Pressure is applied to the heated piece to be welded must be upset sufficiently for an
members by repeated high-velocity blows with a com- adequate distance from the scarfed surface to provide
paratively light sledge hammer. Modern automatic and metal for mechanical working during welding.
semiautomatic hammer welding is accomplished by
4
blows of a heavy power-driven hammer operating at
low velocity. The hammer may be powered by steam,
hydraulic, or pneumatic equipment.
The size and quantity of parts to be fabricated will
e SCARF BUT
determine the choice of either manual or power-driven
hammer welding. This process may still be used in
some maintenance shops, but it largely has been JUMP
replaced by other welding processes.
LAP CLEFT
Die Welding. This is a forge welding process where
coalescence is produced by heating the parts in a fur-
Figure F-12-Typical Joint Designs Used for
nace and then applying pressure by means of dies. The
Manual Forge Welding
dies also shape the work while it is hot.
Metals Welded
Low carbon steels in the form of sheets, bars, tub- Flux
ing, pipe and plates are the metals most commonly In the forge welding of certain metals, a flux must
joined by forge welding. be used to prevent the formation of oxide scale. The
The major influences on the grain structure of the flux and the oxides present combine to form a pro-
weld and heat-affected zone are the amount of forging tective coating on the heated surfaces of the metal.
applied and the temperature at which the forge weld- This coating prevents the formation of additional
ing takes place. A high temperature is generally neces- oxide and lowers the melting point of the existing
sary for the production of a sound forge weld. oxide.
Annealing can refine the grain size in a forge welded Two commonly used fluxes for steels are silica sand
steel joint and improve joint ductility. and borax (sodium tetra borate). Flux is not required
Thin, extruded sections of aluminum alloy are for very low-carbon steels (ingot iron) and wrought
joined edge-to-edge by a forge welding process with iron because their oxides have low melting points. The
automatic equipment to form integrally stiffened pan- flux most commonly used in the forge welding of
els. The panels are used for lightweight truck and high-carbon steels is borax. Because it has a relatively
trailer bodies. Success of the operation depends upon low fusion point, borax may be sprinkled on the metal
the use of correct temperature and pressure, effective while it is in the process of heating. Silica sand is suit-
positioning and clamping devices, edge preparation, able as a flux in the forge welding of low-carbon steel.
and other factors. Although the welding of aluminum
for this application is called forge welding, it could be FORGING SPEED, Friction Welding
classified as hot pressure welding because the edges to The relative velocity of the workpieces at the instant
be joined are heated to welding temperature and then the forge force is applied. See STANDARD WELDING
upset by the application of pressure. TERMS.
196 FORGING STRAINS Welding Encyclopedia
FRICTION SURFACING
A process variation of friction welding. See FRIC-
Figure F-13-Basic Steps in Friction Welding
TION WELDING.
FRICTION UPSET DISTANCE First, one workpiece is rotated and the other is held
The decrease in length of work pieces during the stationary, as shown in Figure F-l3(A). When the
time of friction welding force application. See STAN- appropriate rotational speed is reached, the two work-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figures D-6 and 1-8. pieces are brought together and an axial force is
applied, as in Figure F-l3(B). Rubbing at the interface
FRICTION WELDING (FRW) heats the workpiece locally and upsetting begins, as in
A solid-state welding process that produces a weld Figure F-l3(C). Finally, rotation of one of the work-
under compressive force contact of workpieces rotat- pieces stops and upsetting is completed, as in Figure
ing or moving relative to one another to produce heat F- 13(D).
and plastically displace material from the faying sur- The weld produced is characterized by a narrow
faces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figures heat-affected zone, the presence of plastically
D-6 and 1-8. deformed material around the weld (flash), and the
While considered a solid-state welding process, absence of a fusion zone.
under some circumstances a molten film may be pro- Energy Input Methods
duced at the interface. However, even then the final There are two methods of supplying energy in fric-
weld should not exhibit evidence of a molten state tion welding. Direct drive friction welding, sometimes
because of the extensive hot working during the final called conventional friction welding, uses a continu-
stage of the process. Filler metal, flux, and shielding ous input. Inertia friction welding, sometimes called
gas are not required with this process. The basic steps flywheel friction welding, uses energy stored in a
in friction welding are shown in Figure F- 13. flywheel.
198 FRICTIONWELDING (FFIW) Welding Encyclopedia
t
Friction welding can be used to join a wide range of
similar and dissimilar materials, including: metals,
some metal matrix composites, ceramics, and plastics.
F Some combinations of materials that have been joined
according to the literature and equipment manufac-
Figure F-14-Friction Surfacing turers data are indicated in Figure F-15. This table
should only be used as a guide. Specific weldability
Advantages may depend upon a number of factors including spe-
Friction welding, like any welding process, has its cific alloy compositions, applicable process variation,
specific advantages and disadvantages. The following component design, and service requirements.
are some advantages of friction welding: Applications
(1) No filler metal is needed. Friction welded parts in production applications
(2) Flux and shielding gas are not required. span the aerospace, agricultural, automotive, defense,
(3) The process is environmentally clean; no arcs, marine, and oil industries. Everything from tong holds
sparks, smoke or fumes are generated by clean parts. on forging billets to critical aircraft engine compo-
nents are friction welded in production.
(4) Surface cleanliness is not as significant, com- Automotive parts which are manufactured by fric-
pared with other welding ~~rocesses, since friction
tion welding include gears, engine valves, axle tubes,
welding tends to disrupt and displace surface films.
drive line components, strut rods and shock absorbers.
(5) There are narrow heat-affected zones. Hydraulic piston rods, track rollers, gears, bushings,
(6) Friction welding is suitable for welding most axles and similar parts are commonly friction welded
engineering materials and is. well suited for joining by the manufacturers of agricultural equipment. Fric-
many dissimilar metal combinations. tion welded aluminudcopper joints are in wide usage
(7) In most cases, the weld strength is as strong or in the electrical industry. Stainless steels are friction
stronger than the weaker of the two materials being welded to carbon steel in various sizes for use in
joined. marine drive systems and water pumps for home and
(8) Operators are not required to have manual weld- industrial use. Friction welded assemblies are often
ing skills. used to replace expensive castings and forgings.
Welding Encyclopedia FRICTIONWELDING (FRW) 199
When furnaces are used for heat treating in welding too light for satisfactory life and transformers are
operations, it is important to assure correct heat con- necessary.
trol, particularly when heat treating is applied to pres-
Operating Fuel-Fired Furnaces
sure vessels and similar equipment which are subject
to high temperatures or high stress. When metallurgi- Disastrous results can occur if fuel fired furnaces
cal requirements are rigid, the most suitable combusti- are not handled correctly. To operate these furnace
ble fuels are natural gas, liquid petroleum gas, and oil. safely, there are several precautions which must be rig-
Temperature idly followed. On all fuel fired furnaces, all doors are
to be opened before lighting the furnace. When light-
The temperature required determines the method in ing burners, oil, gas or the two-pipe (blast) type, turn
which heat treating furnaces are fired. For those used on the air first, then the fuel. When lighting burners of
in low-temperature operations, usually under 600 "C the low-pressure proportional mixing type, always
(1100 OF), the recirculating type of furnace is used, in
open the gas supply valve wide open. All regulation of
which gas or oil is burned in a separate chamber and
the resulting products of combustion are circulated fuel is by air flow and the ratio adjusting screw on the
through the furnace by a fan. mixer. When shutting off an oil or gas burner of any
type, always shut off the fuel first.
For temperatures up to 1000C (1900"F), indirect
firing is generally used. In this type, the combustion Material Handling Methods
chambers may be above, below or on one side, sepa- Furnaces for heat treating applications are further
rated from the heat chamber by baffles. classified as one of several types, depending on the
The third type of furnace is the direct-fired furnace, method of handling the material to be heated. In a
which is used for temperatures above 1000C batch method, the pieces are handled in groups. The
(1900F). The burner is fired directly into the heat furnace may be a stationary hearth solid bottom, sta-
chamber, usually above the charge. It is possible, but tionary hearth roller bottom, car bottom, or a furnace
not usual, to design direct fired gas furnaces which with removable covers and pits. In a semi-continuous
will operate satisfactorily between 500 and 1000C handling method, a stationary hearth or car bottom fur-
(1000 and 1900F). nace is used in conjunction with cranes designed to
Electric Furnaces remove the material. This reduces the time between
Electric furnaces used for heat treating applications changes to several minutes. The continuous system
are usually the resistor type, and are ordinarily limited conveys the parts through the furnace, and consists of
to applications for which temperatures do not exceed a pusher (direct or on pans or shoes), tunnel kilns, with
1000C (1900F). Above that temperature the operat- cars, chain conveyor and moving finger, walking
ing life of the resistor elements is greatly shortened. If beam, roller hearth, rotary hearth, rotation retort or
carbon resistor elements are used rather than metal miscellaneous special types.
elements, however, the furnace may be used at temper- Furnace Design
atures up to 1300C (2300F). Furnaces with metallic
elements and protective atmospheres have been suc- For the most efficiency, furnaces should be
cessfully operated at 1100C (2100F) for brazing designed by a furnace manufacturer or combustion
applications. engineer. There are many variables, and the size of a
Electric furnaces operate quietly, cleanly and with- furnace required depends on the amount and size of
out the necessity for mufflers. They provide unifor- material to be heated per hour, the heating time, and
mity of temperature in applications for which electric the amount of heat that can be liberated without dam-
heat is specified. The greatest advantages are the con- age to the furnace. See ANNEALING, HEAT TREATMENT
sistency of operation after initial set-up, and freedom and METALLURGY.
from human error resulting from adjustments of fuel.
The main disadvantage of the electric furnace is that FURNACE BRAZING (FB)
it is slow to heat up from a cold condition. Where it is A brazing process in which the workpieces are
possible, an electric furnace can be connected across placed in a f i m a c e and heated to the brazing temper-
the line to save the expense of a transformer. Fre- ature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
quently however, elements based on line voltage are BRAZING.
202 FURNACE BRAZING (FEI) Welding Encyclopedia
I
Welding Encyclopedia FUSED THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT 203
be left in the chamber to eliminate the pressure and to consistent and satisfactory results. Furnace or oven
purge the part if furnace brazing is used. heating should be considered under the following
One important requirement of brazed designs is the circumstances:
need for inspection to assure brazing alloy flow. To (1) When entire assemblies can be brought to the
provide a means of inspection, holes are incorporated soldering temperature without damage to any of the
in the back sides of a joint. When one side of the joint components
is sealed within the assembly, it is a good practice to (2) When production is sufficiently great to allow
put the brazing alloy on the inside. This forces the expenditure for jigs and fixtures to hold the parts dur-
alloy to flow to the outside of the assembly, and per- ing soldering
mits easy and positive inspection. (3) When the assembly is complicated, making
When brazing with alloys such as nickel-chro- other heating methods impractical
mium-boron and other nickel-base brazing alloys, cer- Proper clamping fixtures are important during
tain characteristics of these brazing materials must be oven or furnace soldering. Movement of the joint
considered in the design of the assembly. The nickel- during solidification of the solder may result in a
base brazing alloy is soluble in stainless steel base poor joint.
metals. It will, therefore, readily alloy with the base Furnace or oven soldering is usually carried out
metal while flowing through the joint. It is this solubil- with inorganic fluxes because of the temperature and
ity and the resulting alloying action which provides time requirements. The use of a reducing atmosphere
the desired high-temperature strength, but it can cause in the oven allows joints to be made with less aggres-
some difficulties in the brazing operation itself if the sive types of fluxes, depending on the metal and solder
assembly is not carefully designed. The primary prob- combination. The use of inert atmospheres will pre-
lem is caused by erosion, which occurs when too much vent further oxidation of the parts but still requires
brazing alloy is applied in a single location, or when adequate and appropriate fluxing.
the brazing alloy flows to the bottom of the joint. The It is often advantageous to accelerate the cooling of
erosion problem is easily solved by providing proper the parts on their removal from the oven. An air blast
flow paths for the brazing alloy, and by applying the has been found satisfactory.
correct quantity of alloy in the correct manner. Furnaces should be equipped with adequate temper-
The erosion phenomenon is not confined to nickel- ature controls since the flow of solder has an optimum
base brazing alloys. Aluminum brazing of all kinds, temperature range, depending upon the flux used. The
silver brazing of copper, copper brazing of nickel cop- optimum heating condition exists when the heating
per, and many others require the same attention to capacity of the furnace is sufficient to heat the parts
design and the same care in applying the brazing alloy rapidly under controlled flux application.
to avoid the erosion problem.
Erosion can generally be avoided by providing a FUSE
clearance of 0.05 to 0.10 mm (0.002 to 0.004 in.) for a Fuse (verb): to melt metal and cause fusion, or amal-
joint of 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) or longer. This clearance gamation of sections to be welded. Fuse (noun): A safety
allows sufficient time for the alloy to proceed through device in an electrical circuit to prevent overloading. It
the joint before it picks up sufficient base metal to consists of a short length of conducting metal which
bring its melting point above the brazing temperature. melts at a certain heat and thereby breaks the circuit.
As in all designs, the proof of effectiveness is the
service test of the actual part. Service tests of many FUSED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
assemblies brazed with nickel-base alloys indicate A type of granular fluxproduced by dry mixing the
excellent performance at operating temperatures as ingredientsfollowed by melting in afirnace. The mol-
high as 1100 "C (2000 OF). ten material is cooled to its solid state and processed
to produce the desired particle size. See STANDARD
FURNACE SOLDERING (FS) WELDING TERMS.
A soldering process in which the workpieces are
placed in a furnace and heated to the soldering tem- FUSED THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT
perature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. A self-jluxing thermal spray deposit that is subse-
There are many applications, especially in high- quently heated to coalescence within itself and with
volume soldering, where furnace soldering produces the substrate. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
204 FUSEDZONE Welding Encyclopedia
I x
205
206 GAMMA RAY INSPECTION OF WELDS Welding Encyclopedia
perature, time and degree of working; it is non-mag- It is very dangerous to use oil or grease on oxygen
netic. Gamma iron is denser than alpha iron. cylinders or regulators because contact with oxygen
causes oil and grease to ignite spontaneously. It is a
GAMMA RAY INSPECTION OF WELDS dangerous practice to use or store oxygen cylinders
A nondestructive method of testing welds using where oil and oxygen will be brought together. Also, it
gamma waves emitted by radio isotopes to produce is dangerous to attempt to use cylinders which have
radiographs. See RADIOGRAPHICEXAMINATION. contained petroleum products for oxygen, because
they will contain a certain amount of residual oily
GAP deposit. Only apparatus that has been manufactured
A nonstandard term when used for ARC: LENGTH, expressly for oxygen service should be used, and man-
JOINT CLEARANCE, and ROOT OPENING. ufacturers specifications should be followed.
Fuel gases commonly used in oxyfuel gas welding
GAS BACKUP and cutting are acetylene, methyl acetylene-propadi-
A term for protecting the back side of a weldment ene (MPS), natural gas, propane and propylene.
using an inert gas. Argon arid helium are satisfactory Hydrogen is used in a few applications. Gasolene is
for the gas backup purge when welding all materials. sometimes used as fuel for oxygen cutting. These
Nitrogen may be used satisfactorily for welds in auste- gases should always be referred to by the correct
nitic steels, copper and copper alloys. name.
GAS BRAZING Acetylene. Acetylene cylinders must be handled
A nonstandard term for TORCH BRAZING. carefully. They should never be used at pressures over
100 kPa (15 psi). If heated, the gas in the cylinder
GAS CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW-G) could become unstable; if shocked, an explosion could
A carbon arc welding process variation that uses a occur.
shielding gas. This is an obsolete or seldom used pro- As a safety measure, the cylinders are equipped
cess. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. with fusible safety plugs that melt at 99C (210F).
Therefore, if acetylene cylinders are in a fire, the
GAS CUP safety plugs should vent the internal pressure rather
A nonstandard term for GAS NOZZLE. than let the pressure build up and cause an explosion.
Acetylene and MPS should never be used in contact
GAS CUTTER with silver, mercury, or alloys containing 70% or more
A nonstandard term for OXYGEN CUTTER. See also copper. These gases react with these metals to form
THERMAL CUTTER. unstable compounds that may detonate under shock or
heat. Valves on fuel gas cylinders should never be
GAS CUTTING opened to clean the valve outlet, especially not near
A nonstandard term for OXYGEN CUTTING. possible sources of flame ignition or in confined
spaces.
GAS CYLINDER
When fuel gases are used for a brazing furnace
A portable container used for transportation and atmosphere, they must be burned or vented to a safe
storage of compressed gas. See STANDARD WELDING location. Prior to filling a furnace or retort with fuel
TERMS.
gas, the equipment must first be purged with a non-
GAS, Safe Practices flammable gas, such as nitrogen or argon, to prevent
formation of an explosive air-fuel mixture.
Oxygen. Oxygen is nonflammable but it supports
the combustion of flammable materials. It can initiate Special attention must be given when using hydro-
combustion and vigorously accelerate it. Therefore, gen. Flames of hydrogen may be difficult to see and
oxygen cylinders and liquid oxygen containers should parts of the body, clothes, or combustibles may come
not be stored in the vicinity of combustibles or with in contact with hydrogen flames without the operators
cylinders of fuel gas. Oxygen should never be used as knowledge.
a substitute for compressed air, for example, to power Shielding Gases. Argon, helium, nitrogen, and car-
compressed air tools, because they are almost always bon dioxide (C02) are used for shielding with some
lubricated with oil. welding processes. All, except COz, are used as braz-
Welding Encyclopedia GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) 207
ing atmospheres. They are odorless and colorless and process. Gas metal arc cutting first occurred acciden-
are hazardous because they can displace air needed for tally during a welding operation, when it was found
breathing. that if the electrode feed rate was set too high, it would
Confined spaces filled with these gases must be penetrate through the plate. When the torch was
well ventilated before personnel enter them. If there is moved, a cut was made. GMAC is used to cut shapes
any question, the space should be checked first for in stainless steel and aluminum. Using gas metal arc
adequate oxygen concentration with an oxygen ana- welding equipment and a 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) diameter
lyzer. If an analyzer is not available, an air-supplied electrode, stainless steel up to 38 mm (1-1/2 in.) thick,
respirator should be worn by anyone entering the and aluminum up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick can be cut.
space. Containers of these gases should not be stored The chief limitations to GMAC are the high con-
in confined places. sumption of welding electrodes and the high currents
(up to 2000 amperes) required for cutting.
GASES FOR SHIELDING
See SHIELDING GAS. GAS METAL ARC SPOT WELDING
GAS FLOW RATE Gas metal arc spot welding is a variation of continu-
The measure in liters per minute (cubic feet per ous GMAW, in which two pieces of sheet metal are
hour) of the flow of shielding gas in gas metal arc fused together by penetrating entirely through one
welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and other piece into the other. The process has been used for
processes. joining light-gauge materials, up to approximately 5
mm (3/16 in.) thick. No joint preparation is required
GAS GOUGING other than cleaning the overlapping areas. Heavier sec-
A nonstandard term for OXYGEN GOUGING. tions can also be spot welded with this technique by
drilling or punching a hole in the upper piece, through
GAS HAZARDS
which the arc is directed for joining to the underlying
Gases can be explosive, toxic, corrosive, and piece. This is called a plug weld. A comparison
asphyxiating. For safe handling and use, refer to the between a gas metal arc spot weld and a resistance
specific gas; also refer to the manufacturers Materials spot weld is shown in Figure G- 1.
Safety Data Sheets. See GAS, Safe Practices; see also
Appendix 12.
SOLIDIFIED
GAS HOSE WELD NUGGET
Flexible tubing used to convey gas from a regulator
to the welding or cutting equipment. See HOSE,
Welding.
GAS LASER
A laser in which the lasing medium is a gas. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
RESISTANCE GMA
GAS LENS SPOT WELD SPOT WELD
One or more fine mesh screens located in the torch
nozzle to produce a stable stream of shielding gas. Pri- Figure G-1-Comparison of a Resistance Spot
marily used for gas tungsten arc welding. See STAN- Weld with a Gas Metal Arc Spot Weld
DARD WELDING TERMS.
GAS METAL ARC CUTTING (GMAC) GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
An arc cutting process that uses a continuous con- An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
sumable electrode and a shielding gas. See STANDARD continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool.
WELDING TERMS. This is an obsolete process. The process is used with shielding from an externally
Gas metal arc cutting was developed soon after the supplied gas and without the application of pressure.
commercial introduction of the gas metal arc welding See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also PULSED GAS
208 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
METAL ARC WELDING and SHORT CIRCUIT GAS METAL (2) GMAW overcomes the restriction of limited
ARC WELDING. electrode length encountered with shielded metal arc
The basic concept of GMAW was introduced in the welding.
1920s, but it was not until 1948 that it was made com- (3) Welding can be done in all positions, a feature
mercially available. At first it was considered to be not found in submerged arc welding.
fundamentally a high current density, small diameter, (4) Deposition rates are significantly higher than
bare-metal electrode process using an inert gas for arc those obtained with shielded metal arc welding.
shielding. Its primary application was for welding alu- (5) Welding speeds are higher than those with
minum. As a result, the term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) shielded metal arc welding because of the continuous
was used to describe the process and is still a common electrode feed and higher filler metal deposition rates.
reference. The term MIG has been superseded by (6) Because the wire feed is continuous, long welds
GMAW. can be deposited without stops and starts.
(7) When spray transfer is used, deeper penetration
Subsequent process devdopments included opera- is possible than with shielded metal arc welding,
tion at low-current densities and pulsed direct current, which may permit the use of smaller size fillet welds
application to a broader range of materials, and the use for equivalent strengths.
of reactive gases (particularly COz) and gas mixtures. (8) Minimal postweld cleaning is required due to
This latter development has led to the formal accep- the absence of a heavy slag.
tance of the term gas metal arc welding (GMAW) for These advantages make the process particularly
the process, because both inert and reactive gases are well suited to high production and automated welding
used. applications. This has become increasingly evident
A variation of the GMAW process uses a tubular with the advent of robotics, where GMAW has been
electrode in which metallic powders make up the bulk the predominant process choice.
of the core materials (metal cored electrode). Such Limitations
electrodes require a gas shield to protect the molten As with any welding process, there are certain limi-
weld pool from atmospheric: contamination.
tations which restrict the use of gas metal arc welding.
Metal cored electrodes are considered a segment of Some of these are the following:
GMAW by the American Welding Society. Foreign (1) The welding equipment is more complex, more
welding associations may group metal cored elec- costly, and less portable than that for SMAW.
trodes with flux cored electrodes. (2) GMAW is more difficult to use in hard-to-reach
GMAW may be operated in semiautomatic, places because the welding gun is larger than a
machine, or automatic modes. All commercially shielded metal arc welding holder, and the welding
important metals such as carbon steel, high-strength, gun must be close to the joint, between 10 and 20 mm
low-alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, tita- (3/8 and 3/4 in.), to ensure that the weld metal is prop-
nium, and nickel alloys can be welded in all positions erly shielded.
with this process by choosing the appropriate shield- (3)The welding arc must be protected against air
ing gas, electrode, and welding variables. drafts that will disperse the shielding gas. This limits
In addition to joining, the GMAW process is widely outdoor applications unless protective shields are
used for surfacing where an overlay weld deposit may placed around the welding area.
provide desirable wear or corrosion resistance or other (4) Relatively high levels of radiated heat and arc
properties. Overlays are normally applied to carbon or intensity can result in operator resistance to the
manganese steels and must be carefully engineered process.
and evaluated to assure satisfactory results. Fundamentalsof the Process
Uses and Advantages The GMAW process incorporates the automatic
feeding of a continuous, consumable electrode that is
The uses of the process are, of course, dictated by shielded by an externally supplied gas. The process is
its advantages, the most important of which are the illustrated in Figure G-2. After initial settings by the
following: operator, the equipment provides for automatic self-
(1) It is the only consumable electrode process that regulation of the electrical characteristics of the arc.
can be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys. Therefore, the only manual controls required by the
Welding Encyclopedia GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) 209
ELECTRODE
CURRENT
SHIELDING CONDUCTOR
GAS IN
DIRECTION
GAS NOZZLE
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE
BASE
METAL
welder for semiautomatic operation are the travel provides a drooping volt-ampere curve, and the elec-
speed and direction, and gun positioning. Given trode feed unit is arc-voltage controlled.
proper equipment and settings, the arc length and With the constant-potentiakonstant wire feed com-
the current (wire feed speed) are automatically bination, changes in the torch position cause a change
maintained. in the welding current that exactly matches the change
in the electrode stick-out (electrode extension), thus
Equipment
the arc length remains fixed. For example, an
Equipment required for GMAW is shown in Figure increased stick-out produced by withdrawing the torch
G-3. The basic equipment components are the welding reduces the current output from the power supply,
gun and cable assembly, electrode feed unit, power thereby maintaining the same resistance heating of the
supply, and source of shielding gas. electrode.
The gun guides the consumable electrode and con- In the alternative system, self-regulation results
ducts the electric current and shielding gas to the when arc voltage fluctuations readjust the control cir-
work, thus providing the energy to establish and main- cuits of the feeder, which appropriately changes the
tain the arc and melt the electrode, as well as the wire feed speed. In some cases (when welding alumi-
needed protection from the ambient atmosphere. Two num, for example), it may be preferable to deviate
combinations of electrode feed units and power sup- from these standard combinations and utilize a con-
plies are used to achieve the desirable self-regulation stant-current power source with a constant-speed elec-
of arc length. Most commonly this regulation consists trode feed unit. This combination provides only a
of a constant-potential (CP) power supply (characteris- small degree of automatic self-regulation, and there-
tically providing an essentially flat volt-ampere curve) fore requires more operator skill for semiautomatic
in conjunction with a constant-speed electrode feed welding. However, some users think this combination
unit. Alternatively, a constant-cunent power supply affords a range of control over the arc energy (current)
210 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
SHIELDING GAS
REGULATOR
ELECTRODE SUPPLY
WELDING GUN
r
WORKPIECE
*WATER
:I:
I
I ,
W
I
M
r
1
8 1 WORKLEAD
2 WATER TO GUN
3 WATER FROM GUN
@ GUN SWITCH CIRCUIT
0 SHIELDING GAS TO GUN
86
7
8
CABLE ASSEMBLY
SHIELDING GAS FROM CYLINDER
WELDING CONTACTOR CONTROL
@ POWERCABLE
@ PRIMARY INPUT POWER
,
aside, clear the short circuit, and create excessive ter conditions vary with the electrode material and
spatter. diameter. As a general rule, higher short circuit cur-
Inductance. When the electrode shorts to the work, rents and higher inductance are needed for larger
the current increases rapidly to a higher level. The cir- diameter electrodes.
; X C E S S I Y E CURRENT,
HIGH SPATTER
CURVE 8- NO INDUCTANCE
SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT
a
z
w
a: CURVE A- INDUCTANCE ADDED
a:
DESIRED CURRENT
FOR GOOD STABILITY
AND LOW SPATTER
TIME, s
Power sources are available with fixed, stepped, or ( 5 ) Electrode extension (stick-out)
continuously adjustable inductance levels. (6) Electrode orientation (trail or lead angle)
Metal Transfer Mechanisms (7) Weld joint position
The characteristics of the GMAW proce,ss are best (8) Electrode diameter
described in terms of the three basic means by which (9) Shielding gas composition and flow rate
metal is transferred from the electrode to the work: Knowledge and control of these variables is essen-
(1) Short circuiting transfer tial to produce welds of satisfactory quality consis-
(2) Globular transfer tently. These variables are not completely independent,
( 3 ) Spray transfer and changing one generally requires changing one or
The type of transfer is determined by a number more of the others to produce the desired results. Con-
of factors, the most influential of which are the siderable skill and experience are needed to select opti-
following: mum settings for each application. The optimum values
(1) Magnitude and type of welding current are affected by (1) type of base metal, (2) electrode
(2) Electrode diameter composition, ( 3 ) welding position, and (4) quality
(3) Electrode composition requirements. Thus, there is no single set of parameters
(4)Electrode extension that gives optimum results in every case.
( 5 ) Shielding gas Welding Current
Process Variables When all other variables are held constant, the
The following are some of the variables that affect welding amperage varies with the electrode feed speed
weld penetration, bead geometry, and overall weld or melting rate in a nonlinear relation, As the electrode
quality: feed speed is varied, the welding amperage will vary
(1) Welding current (electrode feed speed) in a like manner if a constant-voltage power source
(2) Polarity (DCEN or DCEP) is used. This relationship of welding current to wire
( 3 ) Arc voltage (arc length) feed speed for carbon steel electrodes is shown in
(4)Travel speed Figure G-7.
t t
W
-- 20 w
+
I-
I-
I3
3 z
zz 700 5
a
4
k
3
600 -- 15
5
5 500 k
W
z I
-- 10
W W
a a
(I) cn
n
W
W W
LL LL
z
W 200 --5 w
100
I
I I I
0
I I I I I I I 1
Figure G-7-Welding Current as a Function of Wire Feed Speed for Various Diameters of Carbon Steel Wires
Welding Encyclopedia GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) 213
I
I
At the low-current levels fbr each electrode size, the The vast majority of GMAW applications use direct
curve is nearly linear. HoweQer, at higher welding cur- current electrode positive (DCEP). This condition
rents, particularly with smalf diameler electrodes, the yields a stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively
\
curves become nonlinear, progmsively increasing at a low spatter, good weld bead characteristics, and great-
higher rate as welding amperage increases. This is est depth of penetration for a wide range of welding
attributed to resistance heating of the electrode exten- currents.
sion beyond the contact tube. Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is seldom
With all other variables held constant, an increase in used because axial spray transfer is not possible with-
welding current (electrode feed speed) will result in out modifications that have had little commercial
the following: acceptance. DCEN has a distinct advantage of high
(1) An increase in the depth and width of the weld melting rates that cannot be exploited because the
penetration transfer is globular. With steels, the transfer can be
(2) An increase in the deposition rate improved by adding a minimum of 5% oxygen to the
(3) An increase in the size of the weld bead argon shield (requiring special alloys to compensate
Pulsed spray welding is ii variation of the GMAW for oxidation losses) or by treating the wire to make it
process in which the current is pulsed to obtain the thermionic (adding to the cost of the filler metal). In
advantages of the spray mode of metal transfer at aver- both cases, the deposition rates drop, eliminating the
age currents equal to or less than the globular-to-spray only real advantage of changing polarity. However,
transition current. because of the high deposition rate and reduced
Since arc force and deposition rate are exponen- penetration, DCEN has found some use in surfacing
tially dependent on current, operation above the rransi- applications.
tion current often makes the arc forces uncontrollable Attempts to use alternating current with the GMAW
in the vertical and overhead positions. By reducing the process have generally been unsuccessful. The cyclic
average current with pulsing, the arc force and deposi- wave form creates arc instability due to the tendency
tion rates can both be reduced, allowing welds to be of the arc to extinguish as the current passes through
made in all positions and in thin sections. the zero point. Although special wire surface treat-
With solid wires, another advantage of pulsed ments have been developed to overcome this problem,
power welding is that larger diameter wires, i.e., the expense of applying them has made the technique
1.6mm (1/16 in.) can be used. Although deposition uneconomical.
rates are generally no greater than those with smaller
diameter wires, the advantage is in the lower cost Arc Voltage (Arc Length)
per unit of metal deposited. There is also an increase Arc voltage and arc length are terms that are often
in deposition efficiency because of reduced spatter used interchangeably. It should be pointed out, how-
loss. ever, that they are different even though they are
With metal cored wires, pulsed power produces an related. With GMAW, arc length is a critical variable
arc that is less sensitive to changes in electrode exten- that must be carefully controlled. For example, in the
sion (stickout) and voltage compared to solid wires. spray-arc mode with argon shielding, an arc that is too
Thus, the process is more tolerant of operator guidance short experiences momentary short circuits. They
fluctuations. Pulsed power also minimizes spatter cause pressure fluctuations which pump 'air into the
from an operation already low in spatter generation. arc stream, producing porosity or embrittlement due to
Polarity absorbed nitrogen. Should the arc be too long, it tends
The term polarity is used to describe the electrical to wander, affecting both the penetration and surface
connection of the welding gun with relation to the bead profiles. A long arc can also disrupt the gas
terminals of a direct current power source. When the shield.
gun power lead is connected to the positive terminal, With all variables held constant, arc voltage is
the polarity is designated as direct current electrode directly related to arc length. Even though the arc
positive (DCEP), arbitrarily called reverse polarity. length is the variable of interest and the variable that
When the gun is connected to the negative terminal, should be controlled, the voltage is more easily moni-
the polarity is designated as direct current electrode tored. Because of this, and the normal requirement that
negative (DCEN), originally called straight polarity. the arc voltage be specified in the welding procedure,
214 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
i
\
it is the term that is more cornmonly used. See Appen- Con umables
dix 10.
Electrode E:KtenSiOn
The electrode extension is the distance between the
i
In addition to equipm nt components, such as con-
tact tips and conbit line s that wear out and have to be
replaced, the process cmsumables in GMAW are elec-
trodes and shielding gases. The chemical composition
end of the contact tube and the end of the ele,ctrode,as of the electrode, the base metal, and the shielding gas
shown in Appendix 10. An increase in the electrode determine the weld metal chemical composition. This
extension results in an increase in its electrical resis- weld metal composition, in turn, largely determines
tance. Resistance heating in turn causes the electrode the chemical and mechanical properties of the weld-
temperature to rise, and resdts in a small increase in ment. The following are factors that influence the
electrode melting rate. Overall, the increased electrical selection of the shielding gas and the welding
resistance produces a greater voltage drop from the electrode:
contact tube to the work. This is sensed by the power (1) Base metal
source, which compensates by decreasing the current.
That immediately reduces the electrode melting rate, (2) Required weld metal mechanical properties
which then lets the electrode shorten the physical arc (3) Base metal condition and cleanliness
length. Thus, unless there is an increase in the voltage (4) Type of service or applicable specification
at the welding machine, the filler metal will be depos- requirement
ited as a narrow, high-crowned weld bead. ( 5 ) Welding position
The desirable electrode extension is generally from (6) Intended mode of metal transfer
6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.) for short circuiting transfer
Electrodes
and from 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1 in.) for other types of
metal transfer. The electrodes (filler metals) for gas metal arc
welding are covered by various AWS filler metal spec-
Weld Joint Position ifications. Other standards writing societies also pub-
Most spray type GMAW is done in the flat or hori- lish filler metal specifications for specific applications.
zontal positions, while at low-energy levels, pulsed For example, the Aerospace Materials Specifications
and short circuiting GMAW can be used in all posi- are written by SAE, and are intended for aerospace
tions. Fillet welds made in the flat position with spray applications. The AWS specifications, designated as
transfer are usually more uniform, less likely to have A5.XX standards, and a listing of GMAW electrode
unequal legs and convex profiles, and are less suscep- specifications are shown in Table G-1. They define
tible to undercutting than similar fillet welds made in requirements for sizes and tolerances, packaging,
the horizontal position. chemical composition, and sometimes mechanical
To overcome the pull of gravity on the weld metal properties. The AWS also publishes Filler Metal
in the vertical and overhead positions of welding, Comparison Charts, in which manufacturers may
small diameter electrodes are usually used, with either show their trade name for each of the filler metal
short circuiting metal transfer or spray transfer with classifications.
pulsed direct current. Electrode diameters of 1.1 mm
(0.045 in.) and smaller are best suited for out-of-posi-
Table G-1
tion welding. The low-heat input allows the molten Specifications for Various GMAW Electrodes
pool to freeze quickly. Downward welding progres-
sion is usually effective on sheet metal in the vertical Base Material Type AWS Specification
position. Carbon Steel A5.18
When welding is done in the flat position, the incli- Low Alloy Steel A5.28
Aluminum Alloys A5.10
nation of the weld axis with respect to the horizontal
Copper Alloys A5 .l
plane will influence the weld bead shape, penetration, Magnesium A5.19
and travel speed. In flat position circumferential weld- Nickel Alloys A5.14
ing, the work rotates under the welding gun and incli- 300 Series Stainless Steel A5.9
nation is obtained by moving the welding gun in either 400 Series Stainless Steel A5.9
direction from top dead centler. Titanium A5.16
Welding Encyclopedia GAS SYSTEMS 215
ting and Allied Processes for safe practices in the use One face of the cut is usually dross-free, with dross
of gases when welding and cutting. adhering to the side of the workpiece away from the
work lead. The cut quality on the dross-free side is
GAS TORCH usually acceptable while the other requires consider-
A nonstandard term for WELDING TORCH and CUT- able cleanup.
TING TORCH. Equipment
Standard gas tungsten arc welding torches can be
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUTTING (GTAC) used for cutting. Cutting currents up to 600 amperes ~ "
An arc cutting process that uses a single tungsten are used. Welding torches can be used for cutting at
electrode with gas shielding. See STANDARD WELDING currents up to 175% of their nominal ratings because
TERMS. there is little reflected heat from the cutting operation.
This process used a standard GTAW torch with a For example, a 300-ampere torch can be used for cut-
small diameter shielding cup, high arc current, DCEN, ting with 500 amperes for short periods.
and gas flow rates in the range of 25 L/min (50 ft3/h) A constant-current d-c power supply with a mini-
to sever metals. It is generally considered a temporary mum open circuit voltage of 70 V is recommended for
procedure. cutting. Cuts made with a-c power have a plate thick-
ness limitation of 6 mm (1/4 in.). The major difficulty
Principles of Operation encountered when using a-c power is the loss of tung-
Gas tungsten arc cutting can be used to sever non- sten from the electrode at the high currents required.
ferrous metals and stainless steel in thicknesses up to
1/2 in. using standard gas tungsten arc welding equip- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUTTING TORCH
ment. Metals cut include aluminum, magnesium, cop- A device used to transfer current to afixed cutting
per, silicon-bronze, nickel, copper-nickel, and various electrode, position the electrode, and direct the flow of
types of stainless steels. This cutting process can be shielding gas. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
used either manually or mechanized. The same electric
circuit is used for cutting as for welding. Higher cur- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
rent is required to cut a given thickness of plate than to An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
weld it. An increased gas flow is also required to melt tungsten electrode (nonconsumable) and the weld
through and sever the plate. pool. The process is used with shielding gas and with-
In practice, a 4 mm (5/32 in.) diameter, 2% thori- out the application of pressure. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. See also HOT WIRE WELDING and PULSED
ated tungsten electrode is extended approximately
6 mm (1/4 in.) beyond the end of a 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING.
diameter metallic or ceramic gas cup. A mixture of Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) may be used
approximately 65% argon and 35% hydrogen is deliv- with or without the addition of filler metal. Figure G-8
ered to the torch at a flow rate of 30 L/min (60 ft3/h). shows the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Nitrogen can also be used, but the quality of the cut is GTAW has become indispensable as a tool for many
not as good as that obtained with an argon-hydrogen industries because of the high-quality welds produced
mixture. Best cutting results are obtained using DCSP, and low equipment costs. The following information
but alternating current with superimposed high fre- presents the fundamentals of the GTAW process,
quency has produced satisfiictory cuts on material up the equipment and consumables used, the process
to 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick. procedures and variables, applications, and safety
Arc starting can be accomplished with either a high-
considerations.
frequency spark or by scratching the electrode on the Historical Background
workpiece. An electrode-to-work distance of 1.6 to 3.2 The possibility of using helium to shield a welding
mm (1/16 to 118 in.) is used, but this is not a critical arc and molten weld pool was first investigated in the
factor. As the torch is moved over the plate, a small 1920s'. However, little was done with this method
section of the plate is melted by the heat of the arc and until the beginning of World War 11, when a great need
the molten metal is blown away by the gas stream to
form the kerf. At the end of the cut, the torch is raised 1. M. Hobart U.S. Patent 1,746,081, 1926 and P. K. Devers U.S.
from the workpiece to break the arc. patent 1,746,191, 1926.
Welding Encyclopedia GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 217
-fl
CURRENT the electrode and the work. Heat generated by the arc
CONDUCTOR melts the base metal. Once the arc and weld pool are
DIRECTION OF
WELDING \ established, the torch is moved along the joint and the
arc progressively melts the faying surfaces. Filler
wire, if used, is usually added to the leading edge of
the weld pool to fill the joint.
NOZZLE
NONCONSUMABLE
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
FILLER .- GAS SHIELD
L
METAL
ELECTRODE
ARC
SOLIDIFIED
WELD METAL
GAS
~
PASSAGE
Figure Gd-Schematic View of the Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding Operation ARC -
INERT
developed in the aircraft industry to replace riveting .. .-. ..
(1) Deposition rates are lower than the rates possi- metal to be welded. Direct current with the electrode
ble with consumable electrode arc welding jrocesses. negative (DCEN) offers the advantages of deep pene-
(2) There is a need for slightly more dexterity and tration and fast welding speeds, especially when
welder coordination than with gas metal arc welding helium is used as the shield. Helium is the gas of
or shielded metal arc welding for manual welding. choice for mechanized welding.
(3) It is less economical than the consumable elec- Alternating current provides a cathodic cleaning
trode arc welding processes for sections thicker then (sputtering) which removes refractory oxides from the
10 mm (3/8 in.). surfaces of aluminum and magnesium during the por-
(4)There is difficulty in shielding the weld zone tion of the a-c wave that the electrode is positive with
properly in drafty environments. respect to the workpiece. In this case, argon must be
Potential problems with the process include: used for the shield because sputtering cannot be
(1) Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is obtained with helium. Argon is the gas of choice for
allowed to contact the weld pool. manual welding whether used with direct current or
(2) Contamination of the weld metal can occur if alternating current.
proper shielding of the filler metal by the gas stream is A third power option also is available, that of using
not maintained. direct current with the electrode positive. This polarity
(3) There is low tolerance for contaminants on filler is used only rarely because it causes electrode over-
or base metals. heating.
(4)Possible contamination or porosity can be Arc Voltage. The voltage measured between the
caused by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches. tungsten electrode and the work is commonly referred
(5) Arc blow or arc deflection, as with other to as the arc voltage. Arc voltage is a strongly depen-
processes. dent variable, affected by the following:
This process has been called HeZiarc@ (a registered (1) Arc current
trade mark of Union Carbide Corporation), named for (2) Shape of the tungsten electrode tip
the helium shielding gas originally used, and TIG (3) Distance between the tungsten electrode and the
(tungsten inert gas) welding, However, the AWS ter- work
minology for this process is, gas tungsten arc welding (4) Type of shielding gas
(GTAW), because shielding gas mixtures which are The arc voltage is changed by the effects of the
not inert can be used for certain applications. other variables, and is used in describing welding pro-
Process Variables cedures only because it is easy to measure. Since the
The primary variables in GTAW are arc voltage (arc other variables such as the shield gas, electrode shape,
length), welding current, travel speed, and shielding and current have been predetermined, arc voltage
gas. The amount of energy produced by the arc is pro- becomes a way to control the arc length, a critical vari-
portional to the current and voltage. The amount trans- able. Arc length is important with this process because
ferred per unit length of weld is inversely proportional it affects the width of the weld pool; pool width is pro-
to the travel speed. The arc in helium is more penetrat- portional to arc length. Therefore, in most applications
ing than that in argon. However, because all of these other than those involving sheet, the desired arc length
variables interact strongly, it is impossible to treat is as short as possible.
them as truly independent variables when establishing Of course, recognition needs to be given to the pos-
welding procedures for fabricating specific joints. sibility of short circuiting the electrode to the pool or
Arc Current. As a general statement, arc current con- filler wire if the arc is too short. However, with mecha-
trols the weld penetration, the effect being directly nized welding, using a helium shield, direct current
proportional, if not somewhat exponential. Arc current electrode negative (DCEN) power, and a relatively
also affects the voltage, with the voltage at a fixed arc high current, it is possible to submerge the electrode
length increasing in proportion to the current. For this tip below the plate surface to produce deeply penetrat-
reason, to keep a fixed arc length, it is necessary to ing but narrow welds at high speeds. This technique
change the voltage setting when the current is has been called buried arc.
adjusted. Travel Speed. Travel speed affects both the width
The process can be used with either direct or alter- and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. However,
nating current, the choice depending largely on the its effect on width is more pronounced than that on
Welding Encyclopedia GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 219
penetration. Travel speed is important because of its Water-cooled Torches. Water-cooled torches are
effect on cost. In some applications, travel speed is cooled by the continuous flow of water through pas-
defined as an objective, with the other variables sageways in the holder. As illustrated in Figure G-10,
selected to achieve the desired weld configuration at cooling water enters the torch through the inlet hose,
that speed. In other cases, travel might be a dependent circulates through the torch, and exits through an out-
variable, selected to obtain the weld quality and uni- let hose. The power cable from the power supply to the
formity needed under the best conditions possible with torch is typically enclosed within the cooling water
the other combination of variables. Regardless of the outlet hose.
objectives, travel speed generally is fixed in mecha- Water-cooled torches are designed for use at higher
nized welding while other variables such as current or welding currents on a continuous duty cycle than simi-
voltage are varied to maintain control of the weld. lar sizes of gas-cooled torches. Typical welding cur-
Wire Feed. In manual welding, the way filler metal rents of 300 to 500 amperes can be used, although
is added to the pool influences the number of passes some torches have been built to handle welding cur-
required and the appearance of the finished weld. rents up to 1000 amperes. Most machine or automatic
In machine and automatic welding, wire feed speed welding applications use water-cooled torches.
determines the amount of filler deposited per unit Collets. Electrodes of various diameters are secured
length of weld. Decreasing wire feed speed will in the electrode holder by appropriately sized collets
increase penetration and flatten the bead contour. or chucks. Collets are typically made of a copper alloy.
Feeding the wire too slowly can lead to undercut, cen- The electrode is gripped by the collet when the torch
terline cracking, and lack of joint fill. Increasing wire cap is tightened in place. Good contact between the
feed speed decreases weld penetration and produces a electrode and the inside diameter of the collet is essen-
more convex weld bead. tial for proper current transfer and electrode cooling.
Equipment Nozzles. Shielding gas is directed to the weld zone
Equipment for GTAW includes torches, electrodes, by gas nozzles or cups which fit onto the head of the
and power supplies. Mechanized GTAW systems may torch. Also incorporated in the torch body are diffus-
incorporate arc voltage controls, arc oscillators, and ers, or carefully patterned jets, which feed the shield
wire feeders. gas to the nozzle. Their purpose is to assist in produc-
ing a laminar flow of the exiting gas shield. Gas noz-
Welding Torches. GTAW torches hold the tungsten
zles are made of various heat-resistant materials in
electrode which conducts welding current to the arc, different shapes, diameters, and lengths. These nozzles
and provide a means for conveying shielding gas to
are either threaded to the torch or held by friction fit.
the arc zone.
Nozzles are also available with elongated trailing sec-
The majority of torches for manual applications
tions or flared ends which provide better shielding for
have a head angle (angle between the electrode and welding metals such as titanium, which is highly sus-
handle) of 120". Torches are also available with ceptible to contamination at elevated temperatures.
adjustable angle heads, 90" heads, or straight-line
(pencil type) heads. Manual GTAW torches often have Gas Lenses. One device used for assuring a laminar
auxiliary switches and valves built into their handles flow of shielding gas is an attachment called a gas
for controlling current and gas flow. Torches for lens. Gas lenses contain a porous barrier diffuser and
machine or automatic GTAW are typically mounted on are designed to fit inside the gas nozzle and around the
a device which centers the torch over the joint, may electrode or collet. Gas lenses produce a longer, undis-
move the torch along the joint, and may change or turbed flow of shielding gas. They enable operators to
maintain the torch-to-work distance. weld with the nozzle 25 mm (1 in.) or more from the
work, improving their ability to see the weld pool and
Gas-Cooled Torches. The heat generated in the torch
allowing them to reach places with limited access,
during welding is removed either by gas cooling or such as inside comers.
water cooling. Gas-cooled torches (sometimes called
air-cooled) provide cooling by the flow of the rela- Electrodes
tively cool shielding gas through the torch. Gas-cooled In GTAW, the word tungsten refers to the pure ele-
torches are limited to a maximum welding current of ment tungsten and its various alloys used as elec-
about 200 amperes. trodes. Tungsten electrodes are nonconsumable if the
220 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) Welding Encyclopedia
I
r 'TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
F COLLET /
r COLLET HOLDER
r COLLET NUT
process is properly used, because they do not melt or Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting. The color
transfer to the weld. In other welding processes, such code identification system for the various classes of
as SMAW, GMAW, and SAW, the elects-ode is the tungsten electrodes is shown in Table G-2.
filler metal. The function of a tungsten electrode is to Electrodes are produced with either a clean finish or
serve as one of the electrical terminals of the arc which ground finish. Electrodes with a clean finish have been
supplies the heat required for welding. Its melting chemically cleaned to remove surface impurities after
point is 34 10C (6 170F).Approaching this high tem- the forming operation. Those with a ground finish
perature, tungsten becomes thermionic; it is a ready have been centerless ground to remove surface
source of electrons. It reaches this temperature by imperfections.
resistance heating and, were it not for the significant
Electrode Sizes and Current Capacities. Tungsten
cooling effect of electrons boiling from its tip, resis-
and tungsten alloy electrode sizes and current ranges
tance heating would cause the tip to melt. In fact, the
are listed in Table G-3, along with shield-gas cup
electrode tip is much cooler than that part of the elec-
diameters recommended for use with different types of
trode between the tip and the externally-cooled collet. welding power. Table G-3 provides a useful guide for
Classification of Electrodes. Tungsten electrodes are selecting the correct electrode for specific applications
classified on the basis of the-ir chemical compositions, involving different current levels and power supplies.
as specified in Table G-2. R.equirements for tungsten Current levels in excess of those recommended for
electrodes are given in the latest edition of ANSUAWS a given electrode size and tip configuration will cause
A5.12, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy the tungsten to erode or melt. Tungsten particles may
Welding Encyclopedia GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 221
Table G-2
Color Code and Alloying Elements for Various Tungsten Electrode Alloys
Nominal Weight
of Alloying
AWS Classification Colora Alloying Element Alloying Oxide Oxide Percent
EWP Green - - -
EWCe-2 Orange Cerium Ce02 2
EWLa-1 Black Lanthanum La203 1
EWTh-1 Yellow Thorium Tho2 1
EWTh-2 Red Thorium Tho2 2
EWZr-1 Brown Zirconium zro2 .25
EWG Gray Not Specifiedb - -
a. Color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc., at any point on the surface of the electrode.
b. Manufacturer must identify the type and nominal content of the rare earth oxide addition.
Table G-3
Recommended Tungsten Electrodesa and Gas Cups for Various Welding Currents
Electrode Use Gas
Diameter Cup I.D. Direct Current, A Alternating Current, A
Straight Polarityb Reverse Polarityb Unbalanced Balanced
mm in. in. DCEN DCEP WaveC WaveC
0.25 0.010 114 up to 15 up to 15 up to 15
0.50 0.020 114 5-20 5-15 10-20
1.00 0.040 318 15-80 10-60 20-30
1.6 1/16 318 70-150 10-20 50-100 30-80
2.4 3/32 112 150-250 15-30 100-160 60-1 30
3.2 118 112 250-400 25-40 150-210 100-180
4.0 5/32 112 400-500 40-55 200-275 160-240
4.8 3/16 518 500-750 55-80 250-350 190-300
6.4 114 314 750-1 100 80-125 325-450 325-450
a. All values are based on the use of argon as the shielding gas.
b. Use EWCe-2, EWLa-1, or EWTh-2 electrodes.
c. Use EWP electrodes.
fall into the weld pool and become defects in the weld DCEN and DCEP. In general, it is about 50% less than
joint. Current too low for a specific electrode diameter that of DCEN.
can cause arc instability. EWP Electrode Classification. Pure tungsten elec-
Direct current with the electrode positive (DCEP) trodes (EWP) contain a minimum of 99.5% tungsten,
requires a much larger diameter to support a given with no intentional alloying elements. Pure tungsten
level of current because the tip is not cooled by the electrodes are used mainly with ac for welding alumi-
evaporation of electrons but heated by their impact. In num and magnesium alloys. The tip of the EWP elec-
general, a given electrode diameter on DCEP would be trode maintains a shiny, balled end, which provides
expected to handle only 10% of the current possible good arc stability.
with the electrode negative. With alternating current,
the tip is cooled during the electrode negative cycle EWTh Electrode Classifications. The thermionic
and heated when positive. Therefore, the current-car- emission of tungsten can be improved by alloying it
rying capacity of an electrode on ac is between that of with metal oxides that have very low work functions.
222 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) Welding Encyclopedia
As a result, the electrodes are able to handle higher EWZr Electrode Classification. Zirconiated tungsten
welding currents without failing. Thorium oxide is one electrodes (EWZr) contain a small amount of zirco-
such additive. To prevent identification problems with nium oxide (ZrOz), as listed in Table G-2. Zirconi-
these and other types of tungsten electrodes, they are ated tungsten electrodes have welding characteristics
color coded as shown in Table G-2. Two types of tho- that generally fall between those of pure and thori-
riated tungsten electrodes are available. The EWTh- 1 ated tungsten. They are used for ac welding because
and EWTh-2 electrodes contain 1% and 2?&thorium they combine the desirable arc stability character-
oxide (Tho2) called thoria, respectively, e:venly dis- istics and balled end typical of pure tungsten with
persed through their entire lengths. They were the current capacity and starting characteristics of
designed for DCEN applications. They are not often thoriated tungsten. They have higher resistance to
used with ac because it is difficult to maintain the contamination than pure tungsten, and are preferred
balled end, which is necessary with ac welding, with- for radiographic quality welding applications where
out splitting the electrode. tungsten contamination of the weld must be
Thorium is a very low-level radioactive material. minimized.
The level of radiation has not been found to represent EWG Electrode Classification. The EWG electrode
a health hazard. However, if welding is to be per- classification was assigned for alloys not covered by
formed in confined spaces for prolonged periods of
the above classes. These electrodes contain an unspec-
time, or if electrode grinding dust might be ingested, ified addition of an unspecified oxide or combination
special precautions relative to ventilation should be
of oxides (rare earth or others). The purpose of the
considered. The user should consult the appropriate
addition is to affect the nature or characteristics of the
safety personnel.
arc, as defined by the manufacturer. The manufacturer
A discontinued classification of tungsten electrodes must identify the specific addition or additions and the
is the EWTh-3 class. This "striped" tungsten electrode nominal quantity or quantities added.
had a longitudinal or axial segment which contained
Several EWG electrodes are either commercially
1.0%to 2.0% thoria. The average thoria content of the
available or are being developed. These include addi-
electrode was 0.35% to 0.55%. Advances in powder
metallurgy and other processing developments have tions of yttrium oxide or magnesium oxide. This clas-
sification also includes ceriated and lanthanated
caused this electrode classification to be discontinued,
and it is no longer commercially available. electrodes which contain these oxides in amounts
other than as listed above, or in combination with
EWCe Electrode Classification. Ceriated tungsten other oxides.
electrodes were first introduced into the United States
Electrode Tip Configurations. The shape of the tung-
in the early 1980s. These electrodes were developed as
possible replacements for thoriated electrodes because sten electrode tip is an important process variable in
cerium, unlike thorium, is not a radioactive element. GTAW. Tungsten electrodes may be used with a vari-
The EWCe-2 electrodes are tungsten electrodes con- ety of tip preparations. With ac welding, pure or zirco-
taining 2% cerium oxide (CeO2), referred to as ceria. niated tungsten electrodes form a hemispherical balled
Compared with pure tungsten, the ceriated electrodes end. For dc welding, thoriated, ceriated, or lanthanated
exhibit a reduced rate of vaporization or burn-off. tungsten electrodes are usually used. For the latter, the
These advantages of ceria improve with increased end is typically ground to a specific included angle,
ceria content. EWCe-2 electrodes will operate suc- often with a truncated end.
cessfully with ac or dc. Grinding. To produce optimum arc stability, grind-
EWLa Electrode Classification. EWLa- 1 electrodes ing of tungsten electrodes should be done with the axis
were developed around the same time as the ceriated of the electrode perpendicular to the axis of the grind-
electrodes and for the same reason: that lanthanum is ing wheel. The grinding wheel should be reserved for
not radioactive. These electrodes contain I % lantha- grinding only tungsten to eliminate possible contami-
num oxide (La203), referred to as Zunthana. The nation of the tungsten tip with foreign matter during
advantages and operating characteristics of these elec- the grinding operation. Exhaust hoods should be used
trodes are very similar to the ceriated tungsten when grinding thoriated electrodes to remove the
electrodes. grinding dust from the work area.
Welding Encyclopedia GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 223
Wire Feeders
Q /
Wire feeders are used to add filler metal during HIGH SPEED FILLER
WIRE FEEDER
automatic and machine welding. Either room tempera-
AUX.
ture (cold) wire or preheated (hot) wire can be fed into
the molten weld pool. Cold wire is fed into the leading
edge and hot wire is fed into the trailing edge of the
molten pool.
Cold Wire. The system for feeding of cold wire has
three components: (1) wire drive mechanism, (2)
speed control, and (3) wire guide attachment to intro-
duce the wire into the molten weld pool.
The drive consists of a motor and gear train to
power a set of drive rolls which push the wire. The ~ ~~
16i i8
lar to that for cold wire, except that the wire is resis- current, which results in excessive arc deflection and
tance heated to a temperature close to its melting point uneven melting.
just before it contacts the molten weld pool. When
using a preheated (hot) wire in machine and automatic
gas tungsten arc welding in the flat position, the wire 20 9
is fed mechanically to the weld pool through a holder HOT WIRE WITH
from which inert gas flows to protect the hot wire from f 18 oscL
lLATo
lN>/ 7
oxidation. This system is illustrated in Figure G-11.
Normally, a mixture of 75% helium-25% argon is used
to shield the tungsten electrode and the molten weld 0 14 6
W"
pool. $
Deposition rate is greater with hot wire than with
cold wire, as shown in Figure G-12. This rate is com-
parable to that in gas metal arc welding. The current
12
/ /p HOT WIRE
5
5
flow is initiated when the wire contacts the weld sur-
face. The wire is fed into the molten pool directly
behind the arc at a 40 to 60" angle with respect to the
tungsten electrode. The wire is resistance-heated by
alternating current from a constant-voltage power
source. Alternating current is used for heating the " I I -
A I DROOPING
\v
\
CONSTANT
CURRENT
response. An essentially constant-current volt-ampere
characteristic can be provided by electronically con-
7 I OUTPUT trolled power sources, such as the series linear regula-
\ I OUTPUT
'I
>
ARC LENGTH 1
tor, silicon controlled rectifier, secondary switcher,
and inverter designs.
The advantages of electronically controlled power
/ARC LENGTH 2
sources are that they offer rapid dynamic response,
-iiy
provide variable current waveform output, have excel-
lent repeatability, and offer remote control. The disad-
vantages are that they are more complex to operate
1 1 1 1and maintain and are relatively expensive.
CURRENT,A d
'I12 It is important to select a GTAW power source
based on the type of welding current required for a
Figure G-13-Static Volt-Ampere Output
particular application. The types of welding current
Characteristics for Drooping and Constant Current include a-c sine-wave, a-c square-wave, dc, and pulsed
Power Supplies dc. Many power sources are available with a variety of
additional controls and functions such as water and
shielding gas control, wire feeder and travel mecha-
A drooping volt-ampere characteristic is typical of nism sequencing, current up-slope and down-slope,
magnetically controlled power source designs includ- and multiple-current sequences.
ing the moving coil, moving shunt, moving core reac-
Shielding Gases
tor, saturable reactor, or magnetic amplifier designs
and also rotating power source designs. A truly con- Shielding gas is directed by the torch to the arc zone
stant-current output is available from electronically and weld pool to protect the electrode and the molten
controlled power sources. The drooping characteristic weld metal from atmospheric contamination. Backup
is advantageous for manual welding where a remote purge gas can also be used to protect the underside of
foot pedal current control is not available at the site of the weld and its adjacent base metal surfaces from oxi-
welding. With a drooping characteristic, the welder dation during welding. Uniformity of root bead con-
may vary the current level slightly by changing the arc tour, freedom from undercutting, and the desired
length. The degree of current control possible by amount of root bead reinforcement are more likely to
changing arc length can be inferred from Figure G- 13. be achieved when using gas backup under controlled
Welding Encyclopedia GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING, Manual 225
conditions. In some materials, gas backup reduces root times that of argon. The same general relationship is
cracking and porosity in the weld. true for mixtures of argon and helium, particularly
Types of Shielding Gases. Argon and helium, or those high in helium content.
mixtures of the two, are the most common types of The other influential characteristic is that of arc sta-
inert gas used for shielding. Argon-hydrogen mixtures bility. Both gases provide excellent stability with
are used for special applications. direct current power. With alternating current power,
which is used extensively for welding aluminum and
Argon. Welding grade argon is refined to a mini- magnesium, argon provides much better arc stability
mum purity of 99.95%. This is acceptable for GTAW and the highly desirable cleaning action, which makes
of most metals except the reactive and refractory met- argon superior to helium in this respect.
als, for which a minimum purity of 99.997% is
required. Often, such metals are fabricated in cham- Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures. Argon-hydrogen mix-
bers from which all traces of air have been purged tures are employed in special cases, such as mecha-
prior to initiating the welding operation. nized welding of light-gauge stainless steel tubing,
Argon is used more extensively than helium where the hydrogen does not cause adverse metallurgi-
because of the following advantages: cal effects such as porosity and hydrogen-induced
(1) Smoother, quieter arc action cracking. Increased welding speeds can be achieved in
(2) Reduced penetration almost direct proportion to the amount of hydrogen
(3) Cleaning action when welding materials such as added to argon because of the increased arc voltage.
aluminum and magnesium However, the amount of hydrogen that can be added
varies with the metal thickness and type of joint for
(4)Lower cost and greater availability each particular application. Excessive hydrogen will
( 5 ) Lower flow rates for good shielding cause porosity. Hydrogen concentrations up to 35%
(6) Better cross-draft resistance have been used on all thicknesses of stainless steel
(7) Easier arc starting where a root opening of approximately 0.25 to 0.5 mm
The reduced penetration of an argon shielded arc is (0.010 to 0.020 in.) is used. Argon-hydrogen mixtures
particularly helpful when manual welding of thin are limited to use on stainless steel, nickel-copper, and
material, because the tendency for excessive melt- nickel-base alloys.
through is lessened. This same characteristic is advan-
Safe Practices
tageous in vertical or overhead welding, since the ten-
dency for the base metal to sag or run is decreased. The general subject of safety and safe practices in
welding, cutting, and allied processes is covered in
Helium. Welding grade helium is refined to a purity
ANSI 249.1, latest edition, Safety in Welding and Cut-
of at least 99.99%. ting. This publication is available from the American
For given values of welding current and arc length, Welding Society. All welding personnel should be famil-
helium transfers more heat into the work than argon. iar with the safe practices discussed in this document.
The greater heating power of the helium arc can be The potential hazard areas in arc welding and cutting
advantageous for joining metals of high thermal con- include, but are not limited to, the handling of cylinders
ductivity and for high-speed mechanized applications. and regulators, gases, fumes, radiant energy and elec-
Also, helium is used more often than argon for weld- tric shock. See SAFE PRACTICES and Appendix 12.
ing heavy plate. Mixtures of argon and helium are use- Reference: American Welding Society, Welding
ful when some balance between the characteristics of Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol 2, Welding Processes.
both is desired. Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1991.
Characteristics of Argon and Helium. The chief fac-
tor influencing shielding effectiveness is the gas den- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING, Manual
sity. Argon is approximately one and one-third times Manual gas tungsten arc welding requires a fair
as heavy as air and ten times heavier than helium. degree of hand-eye coordination. It is cecessary to
Argon, after leaving the torch nozzle, forms a blanket keep the end of the filler metal inside the argon shield
over the weld area. Helium, because it is lighter, tends whenever it is hot enough to react with the atmo-
to rise around the nozzle. Experimental work has con- sphere. If this is not done, the operator will bring the
sistently shown that to produce equivalent shielding oxidized end of the filler metal into the puddle, which
effectiveness, the flow of helium must be two to three results in contamination.
226 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING, Manual Welding Encyclopedia
DIRECTION OF WELDING
NOTCH
6.4mm
(0.25 in.)
~~~~~
GAS WELDING
A nonstandard term for OXYFTJEL GAS WELDING.
(D) REMOVE ROD
P-
GAUGE
e--- As applied to metals, a standard or scale of mea-
e------- surement of thickness. As applied to gas regulators,
instruments which indicate pressure. See PRESSURE
GAUGE.
GENERATOR
A motor or machine that converts mechanical
energy into electric energy, used as a power source
- ELECTRODE
CONTACT
for arc welding processes. The mechanical power can TUBE
be from an internal combustion engine, an electric
motor, or from a power take-off from other equip-
ment. For welding, two basic types of rotating power
sources are used: the generator, which produces
direct current, and the alternator type, which pro-
duces alternating current, and is capable of producing
low d-c power. Both have a rotating member, called a
rotor or an armature, and a stationary member, called
a stator. A system of excitation is needed for both
types.
Welding power sources are available that produce
both constant current and constant voltage. These units WORKPIECE
are used for field applications where either may be
needed at the job site and utility power is not available.
In many designs, electronic solid-state circuitry is inte-
grated to produce a variety of volt-ampere character-
istics. See Power Source under specific process; i.e.,
GAS METAL ARC WELDING.
Figure G-18-Globular Transfer in GMAW
GLEEBLE
A commercially available unit which is used to sim- cess, arc instability caused by erratic transfer can
ulate the thermal cycling encountered by the base generate pressure fluctuations that draw air into the
metal heat-affected zone of a welded specimen. The vicinity of the arc.
gleeble uses the electrical resistance heating technique
and is capable of producing ( 1) very rapid heating, (2) High speed photography and analysis of oscillo-
short holding time at peak temperature, and (3) con- scope photographs are used to study the different types
trolled cooling to closely simulate a defined thermal of transfer. Transfer through the arc stream of covered
cycle as might be anticipated in a specific base metal electrodes can be characterized as globular (massive
section with a given welding process. drops) or as a showery spray (large number of small
drops). These modes are rarely found alone; generally,
GLOBULAR ARC metal is transferred in some combination of both.
A nonstandard term for GL.OBULAR TRANSFER. Transfer with the GMAW process varies greatly when
used with argon shielding. When the current is above
GLOBULAR TRANSFER, Arc Welding the transition level, the transfer mechanism can best be
The transfer of molten metal in large drops from a described as an axial spray and short circuits are non-
consumable electrode across the arc. See STANDARD existent. When helium or an active gas such as carbon
WELDING TERMS. See Figure G-18. See also SHORT dioxide is used for shielding, the transfer is globular
CIRCUITING TRANSFER and SPRAY TRANSFER. and some short circuiting is unavoidable. The GMAW
Consumable electrode arc welding processes are short circuiting arc process has been adapted to use
used extensively because filler metal is deposited only short circuits for transfer of the metal to the weld
more efficiently and at higher rates than is possible pool.
with other welding processes. To be most effective, the
filler metal needs to be transferred from the electrode GLOVES, Welding
with small losses due to spatter. Uncontrollable short A gauntlet or hand covering made of leather or
circuits between the electrode and the work should be other flexible, heat and flame-resistant materials to
avoided to help the welder or operator to maintain sta- protect the welder from arc rays, molten metal spatter,
bility of the process. In the case of the GMAW pro- sparks and other possible sources of bums.
Welding Encyclopedia GOUGING 229
R THE ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE (-)
GRAINS
Groups of crystals present in metal after it has solid-
ified. See METALLURGY.
GRAPHITE
An allotrope of carbon. In various forms, graphite
has a wide variety of uses in the welding industry. It
may appear in the form of plates and rods, and is
sometimes used as an electrode in place of a carbon
electrode. It is also used as a lubricant, and in putty,
coatings and paint. See CARBON.
GUN
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARC CUT- The extension tube attached in front of the thermal
TING GUN, ARC WELDING GUN, ELECTRON BEAM GUN, spraying gun to permit spraying within confined
RESISTANCE WELDING GUN, SOLDERING GUN, and areas ordeeprecesses. See STANDARD WELDING
THERMAL SPRAYING GUN. TERMS.
A typical deck moduleof an offshore oil drilling installation under construction in Scotland
lor use in the '
North Sea.The principal welding processes used in offshore structural fabrlcatlon am submerged arc
welding (SAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-SS), and
gas shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G).
Photo courtesy of Highlands Fabricators Ltd
HADFIELD STEEL (3) The presence of tensile stresses (elastic or plas-
A manganese steel invented in 1882 by Robert A. tic, residual or applied).
Hadfield in Sheffield, England. It has an austenitic (4) The presence of an electrolyte (water).
structure and an approximate analysis of 12.5% Mn, During SCC, the halide ions dissolve the passive
1.2% C. Patents granted to Hadfield in 1882-85 cov- protection layer on the 18-8 stainless steels; localized
ered alloys from 7 to 30% manganese. The steel was corrosion cells then become active.
first made in the United States in 1892. Austenitic stainless steels with higher nickel, chro-
Hadfield steel has certain characteristics which mium, and molybdenum contents have been devel-
make it very useful. For example, it is work hardening. oped for enhanced resistance to the SCC problem
The metal is relatively soft and very tough after which has plagued the insulation-covered 18-8 stain-
quenching in cold water after it is removed from the less steels.
furnace. Hardness and toughness continue to increase Among the potential trouble-makers are the inks of
as items made from this steel are impacted by repeated several types of metal marking pens with high avail-
blows during service. See MANGANESE STEEL. able halogen content, as well as perspiration from the
workers hands. Clean cotton gloves should be worn
HALF-LIFE when working with stainless steel.
The time required for a radioactive substance to
decay to half its original value. Radioactive materials HAMMERING, Resistance Spot Welding
are used in radiographic inspection of welds. Excessive electrode impact on the surface of the
workpiece at the start of the welding cycle. See
HALOGEN CONTAMINATION STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The presence of halides, particularly chlorides, has
resulted in numerous in-service cracking failures of HAMMER WELDING
insulation-covered 18-8 austenitic stainless steels. A nonstandard term for forge welding and cold
These failures were first discovered in thermally insu- welding.
lated piping in petrochemical plants which had been
HAND SHIELD
built in the 1940s. The elimination of all halide
sources during welding and installation, and the pre- A protective device used in arc welding, arc cutting
vention of halide contamination during subsequent and thermal spraying to shield the eyes,face and neck.
service, have proven to be extremely difficult. Some It is equipped with a filter glass lens and is designed to
failures have been noted even in the presence of very be held by hand. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
low levels (10 ppm) of chlorides.
HARD CRACKING
These failures have been associated with stress cor-
A condition which may develop in the coarse grain
rosion cracking (SCC), an electrochemical reaction,
structure of the heat-affected zone of alloy steels, but
which produces a fine network of transgranular cracks which does not occur in mild steel. It is attributed to
on the surface of the insulation-covered 18-8 stainless the effect of dissolved hydrogen released from austen-
steel. Depending on conditions, failure by SCC may ite as it transforms. It can be avoided in alloy steels by
occur in as little as a few days or weeks.
preheating or by using low-hydrogen electrodes, or
Four conditions are necessary for this SCC to both.
develop:
(1) An 18-8 austenitic stainless steel (such as 304, HARDENABILITY
304L, 316,316L, 317,321,347. The relative ability of a steel to form martensite
(2) The presence of halides (particularly the when quenched from a temperature above the upper
chlorides) critical temperature.
233
234 HARDENING Welding Encyclopedia
Hardenability is common1y measured by the Jom- alloy ferrous materials, carbides, nickel-base alloys, or
iny (end-quench) test, in which the distance is mea- cobalt-base alloys. A few copper-base alloys are
sured from the quenched end to the point where non- sometimes used for hardfacing applications, but for
martensitic transformation occurs. See JOMINY TEST. the most part, hardfacing alloys are either iron, nickel
or cobalt base. The microstructure of hardfacing alloys
HARDENING generally consists of hard-phase precipitates such as
An action which induces hardness. Hardening is a borides, carbides, or inter-metallics bound in a softer
term describing the heating ;and quenching of certain iron, nickel or cobalt-base alloy matrix.
iron-base alloys from a temperature either within or
Cobalt-Base Alloys. The alloys listed in Table H-1
above the critical temperature range.
that contain 2.5% C have more than 30% by volume
HARDFACING total carbides, which results in extremely high abra-
A sugacing variation in which sugacing niaterial is sion resistance. The microstructure of the Co-30, Cr-12,
deposited to reduce weal: See STANDARD WELDING W-2.5, C alloy, sometimes referred to as Alloy No. 1,
TERMS. See also BUILDUP, BUTTERING, and CLADDING. has a large volume fraction of carbides. As the carbon
Hardfacing is the application of a hard, wear-resis- content is increased, the volume fraction of the matrix
tant material to the surface of a workpiece by welding is decreased, and the impact resistance, weldability
or spraying, or allied welding processes, to reduce and machinability are also decreased. Thus, the
wear or loss of material by abrasion, impact, erosion, improvement in abrasive wear resistance is gained
galling and cavitation. at the expense of other properties that may be more
The stipulation that the surface be modified by desirable.
welding, spraying or allied welding processes Nickel-Base Alloys. The commercially available
excludes the use of heat treatment or surface modifica- nickel-base hardfacing alloys can be divided into three
tion processes such as flame hardening, nitriding, or groups: boride-containing alloys, carbide-containing
ion implantation as a hardfacing process. alloys, and Laves phase-containing alloys. The com-
The stipulation that the surface be applied for the positions of some typical nickel-base hardfacing
main purpose of reducing wear excludes the applica- alloys are listed in Table H-2.
tion of materials primarily used for prevention or con- The boride-containing nickel-base alloys are com-
trol of corrosion or high-temperature scaling. mercially produced as spray-and-fuse powders. These
Corrosion and high-tempera.ture scaling may, how- alloys are available from most manufacturers of hard-
ever, have a major effect on the wear rate, and for this facing products under various trade names and in a
reason may become a significant factor in selection of variety of forms, such as bare cast rod, tube wires, and
materials for hardfacing. powders for plasma spraying. This group of alloys is
Hardfacing applications for wear control range primarily composed of Ni-Cr-B-Si-C. Usually, the
from very severe abrasive wear service, such as rock boron content ranges from 1.5% to 3.5%, depending
crushing and pulverizing, to minute mechanical appli- on chromium content, which varies from 0 to 15%.
cations that require minimization of metal-to-metal The higher chromium alloys generally contain a large
wear, such as control valves where 0.05 rnm amount of boron, which forms very hard chromium
(0.002 in.) of wear is intolerable. Hardfacing is used borides with hardness of approximately 1800 DPH
for controlling abrasive wear on mill hammers, dig- (kg/mm2). Other borides high in nickel and with lower
ging tools, extrusion screws. cutting shears, parts of melting points are also present to facilitate fusing. See
earthmoving equipment, ball mills, and crusher parts. Figure H- 1.
It is also used to control wear of unlubricated or poorly The abrasion resistance of these alloys is a function
lubricated metal-to-metal sliding contacts such as con- of the amount of hard borides present. Alloys contain-
trol valves, undercarriage parts of tractors and shovels, ing large amounts of boron such as Ni-14, Cr-4, Si-3.4,
and high-performance bearings. B-0.75, C are extremely resistant to abrasion, but have
Hardfacing Materials poor impact resistance. Because most of the boride-
Hardfacing materials include a wide variety of containing nickel-base alloys contain only small
alloys, ceramics, and combinations of these materials. amounts of solid-solution strengtheners, considerable
Conventional hardfacing materials are steels or low- loss of room-temperature hardness occurs at elevated
alloy ferrous materials, chromium white irons or high- temperatures.
Welding Encyclopedia HARDFACING 235
Table H-1
Composition and Hardness of Selected Cobalt-Base Hard Facing Alloys
Approximate Hardness of
Nominal Macrohardness Microconstituents
-
AWS Hard Particles
Designation or
Tradename Nominal Composition HV HRC Matrix, HV Type HV
Alloy 21 Co-27Cr-5Mo-2.8Ni-0.2C 255 24-27 250 Eutectic 900
RCoCrA Co-28Cr-4W-l.lC 424 39-42 370 Eutectic 900(a)
RCoCrB Co-29Cr-8W-1.35C 47 1 40-48 420 Eutectic 900(a)
RCoCrC Co-30Cr-12W-2.5C 577 52-54 510 M7C3 900(a)
M6C 1540
1700
Alloy 20 Co-32Cr-17W-2.5C 653 53-55 540 M7C3 900
M6C
-
Tribaloy T-800 Co-28Mo-17Cr-3Si 653 54-64 800(b) Laves phase 1100
(a) Matrix and M7C3eutectic.
(b) Matrix and Laves phase eutectic.
Table H-2
Composition and Hardness of Selected Nickel-Base Hard Facing Alloys
Approximate Hardness of
Nominal Macrohardness Microconstituents
Table H-3
Composition and Hardnessof Selected Iron-Base Hard Facing Alloys
Nominal Hardness Unlubricated
Sliding Wear Abrasive Density,
Nominal Composition HV HRC (a), mm3 Wear (b), mm3 IbAn.3
Pearlitic Steels
Fe-ZCr-lMn-0.2C 318 32 0.5 55 0.28
Fe-1.7Cr-1.8Mn-O.IC 372 38 0.6 67 0.27
Austenitic Steels
Fe-14Mn-2Ni-2.5Cr-0.6C 188 RHB 88 RHB 0.4 86 0.28
Fe-15Cr-15Mn-l.5Ni-0.2C 230 18 0.3 113 0.28
Martensitic Steels
Fe-5.4Cr-3Mn-0.4C
52 544 0.4 54 0.27
0.3 Fe-12Cr-ZMn-0.3C54 577 0.27
High-Alloy Irons
Fe-16Cr-4C 0.27 595 13 55 0.3
Fe-30Cr-4.6C 560 53 0.2 15 0.26
Fe-36Cr-5.7C
57 633 0.1 12 0.27
(a) we% measured from tests conducted on Dow-Coming LFW-1 against 4620 steel ring at 80 rpm for 2000 revolutions varying the
applied loads.
(b) we% measured from dry sand rubber wheel abrasion tests. Tested for 2000 revolutions at a load of 30 Ib using a 9-in. diameterrubber
wheel and AFS test sand.
Welding Encyclopedia HARDFACING 237
Carbides. The quantity of carbides used for hardfac- more economical to apply copper-base hardfacing
ing applications is small compared with iron-base alloys as overlays on less expensive base metals such
hardfacing alloys, but carbides are extremely impor- as low-carbon steels.
tant for severe conditions presented by some abrasion The properties of copper-base hardfacing alloys are
and cutting applications. Historically, tungsten-base similar to the properties of corresponding bronzes.
carbides were used exclusively for hardfacing applica- Copper-base hardfacing alloys are used for applica-
tions. Recently, however, carbides of other elements, tions where resistance to corrosion, cavitation erosion
such as titanium, molybdenum, tantalum, vanadium and metal-to-metal wear is required, as in bearing
and chromium have proven to be useful in many hard- materials. Copper-base hardfacing alloys have poor
facing applications. resistance to corrosion by sulfur compounds, abrasive
The widespread use of carbides for hardfacing is wear and elevated-temperature creep. They are not as
primarily based on the general belief that all carbides, hard as all the classes of alloys previously discussed,
due to their high hardness, resist fracture and fragmen- and are not easily welded.
tation as well as abrasion, especially under high-stress HardfacingAlloy Selection
applications. In reality, the resistance of carbide com- Hardfacing alloy selection is guided primarily by
posites is a function of the abrasion resistance of the wear and cost considerations. However, other manu-
matrix. While the various carbides have high hardness facturing and environmental factors must also be con-
values, they unfortunately do not have resistance to sidered, such as base metal, deposition process, and
crushing force, i.e., fracture and fragmentation. Car- impact, corrosion, oxidation and thermal require-
bides should not be selected based solely on hardness ments. Usually, the hardfacing process dictates the
value. For comparison, Table H-4 lists the hardness of hardfacing or filler-metal product form.
various carbides and other selected materials. Hardfacing alloys are usually available as bare rod,
flux-coated rod, spooled solid wires, spooled tube
wires (with and without flux), or powders. Table H-5
Table H-4
Approximate Hardness of Selected Materials lists various welding processes, heat sources, and the
proper forms of consumables for each process. In gen-
Hardness eral, the impact resistance of hardfacing alloys
decreases as the carbide content increases. As a result,
Material HV HK Mohs in situations where a combination of impact and abra-
sion resistance is desired, a compromise between the
Diamond ... 8000 10 two must be made. Where impact resistance is
Sic 3200 2750 9.2
extremely important, austenitic manganese steels are
w2c 3000 2550 +9
used to build up worn parts.
vc 2800 +9
Tic 2800 2750 +9 Hardfacing Process Selection
cr3c2 2700 Hardfacing process selection, like hardfacing alloy
Alumina ... 2100 9 selection, depends on the engineering application or
wc 2400 1980 +9 service performance requirements. Other technical
cr7 c3 2100 ... ...
1650 ... ... factors involved in hardfacing process selection
cr23c6
Mo~C 1570 ... 8 include (but are not limited to) hardfacing property
Zircon ... 1340 ... and quality requirements, physical characteristics of
Fe3C 1300 ... the workpiece, metallurgical properties of the base
Quartz 1000 800 7 metal, form and composition of the hardfacing alloy,
Lime ... 560 ... and welder skill. Cost considerations are often the
Glass ... 5 00- 600 ... determining factor in the final process selection.
Traditionally, hardfacing has been limited, by defi-
nition, to welding processes. However, this definition
Copper-Base Alloys. The copper-base hardfacing has been expanded to include thermal spraying
alloys are similar to bronzes and are used in applica- (THSP) as a hardfacing process. Frequently the first
tions where copper-base bearing materials are nor- consideration in hardfacing process selection is to
mally employed as homogeneous parts. It is often determine if welding processes or THSP processes are
238 HARDNESS Welding Encyclopedia
Table H-5
Hard Facing Processing
Process Heat Source Mode of Application Hardfacing Alloy Form
Oxyfuel gas welding Oxyfuel gas Manual or automatic Bare cast rods or powder
Shielded metal arc welding ]Electricarc Manual Flux coated rods
Open arc welding Electric arc Semiautomatic Flux cored tube wire
Gas tungsten arc welding Inert gas shielded electric arc Manual or automatic Bare rods or wire
Submerged arc welding Flux covered electric arc Semiautomatic Bare solid or tubular wire
Plasma transferred welding Inert gas shielded plasma arc Automatic Powder, hot wire
Plasma arc welding Inert gas shielded plasma arc Manual or automatic Same as GTAW
Spray and fuse Oxyfuel gas Manual Powder
Plasma spray Plasma arc Manual or automatic Powder
Detonation gun Oxyacetylene detonation Automatic Powder
preferred or required. As a rule, welding processes are Rockwell Hardness (HR). The Rockwell hardness
preferred for hardfacing applications requiring dense, test has become the most widely used method for
relatively thick coatings with high bond strengths determining hardness because it provides scales that
between the hardfacing and the workpiece. Thermal can accommodate specimens of a wide variety of met-
spraying processes, on the other hand, are preferred als in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The Rockwell
for hardfacing applications requiring thin, hard coat- hardness test is simple to perform; the hardness num-
ings applied with minimum thermal distortion of the ber is conveniently read directly on the testing
workpiece. machine, and the testing can be automated if required.
Source: ASM International; Metals Handbook, The procedure involves initial application of a
Desk Edition; ASM International. 1985. minor seating load to the indenter to establish a zero
datum position. A diamond-tipped indenter with a
HARDNESS sphero-conical shape is used for hard metals, and a
The resistance of a matelial to plastic flow, most small hardened steel ball of prescribed size is used for
often measured by indentation by a penetrator under softer metals. Both the minor load and the major load
an impressed load. Additionally, hardness may refer to can be selected, depending on specimen requirements.
the resistance to machining, abrasion, or scratching. More than a dozen scales of hardness numbers have
See HARDNESS TESTING. been tabulated; each is designated by a letter of the
alphabet. These basic scales are supplemented by
HARDNESSTESTING additional scales that provide modified conditions to
Hardness tests are used to evaluate welds, either compensate for specimen form ( e g , curvature) and
alone or to complement information from other test approximate level of hardness. Rockwell hardness
results. The Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, and Knoop numbers should always be quoted with a scale symbol,
tests are indentation hardness tests that measure the which indicates the kind of indenter, major load, and
area or depth of indentation under load to determine other testing conditions.
the hardness. The indentations are made with testing Three Rockwell scales are most commonly used for
machines selected on the basis of specimen size, form, measuring the hardness of steels:
and purpose of the hardness measurement. Indentation (1) C Scale, which uses a sphero-conical indenter
hardness testing is a complex measurement because of which applies a 150 kg major load
the different degrees of work hardening that occur in (2) B Scale, which uses a ball indenter (usually
metals and the influence of the indenter used. 1.588 mm [1/16 in.] diameter) and a major load of 100
In the Brinell, Vickers, and h o o p tests, the area of kg (these conditions can be adjusted by an established
the indentation is measured to determine hardness. correction factor)
Rockwell hardness testing relates hardness to the (3) N Scale, which encompasses many established
depth of indentation under load. conditions for superficial hardness testing.
Welding Encyclopedia HARD SPOTS IN CAST IRON 239
ASTM E18, Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell confined to a single grain in the microstructure. Stan-
Superj?cial Hardness of Metallic Materials provides dards for microhardness testing using the Knoop and
standard test methods. the Vickers instruments are covered in ASTM E384,
Brinell Hardness (HB). The Brinell method for test- Microhardness of Materials.
ing hardness, like the Rockwell scale, has a long his- ScleroscopeTesting Equipment
tory of applications and is commonly used in many The Shore Scleroscope is a hardness testing
metal working plants. The Brinell test is used to moni- machine which consists of a vertical glass tube in
tor mechanical properties in metal articles of substan- which a small cylinder, or hammer, with a very hard
tial size, such as bars, beams, or plates. The Brinell point slides freely. This hammer weighs 2.5 grams,
scale is based on the impression made in a flat surface and is allowed to fall on the sample to be tested from
by a hardened steel ball 10 mm (.39 in.) in diameter, a height of 25 cm. The distance which it rebounds,
when driven into the metal at a force of 3000 kg measured on a scale on the glass tube, constitutes the
(6600 lb.). The 30-second test time ensures that plastic hardness.
flow of the metal surrounding the indentation has
The scale is divided into 140 parts, each part repre-
ceased. A standard procedure is used to measure the
senting a degree of hardness. As examples of this
diameter of the indentation and to compute the Brinell
scale, the hardness of glass is 130; the hardest steel is
hardness (HB) number, using an equation that relates
110; mild steel is from 26 to 30, and cast gray iron
load applied, ball diameter, and indentation diameter
is 39.
to the hardness number. (Computation is seldom
needed, since most test results are available in tabular Comparisonof Scales
form). The relationship among the several hardness scales
Standards for testing are set forth in ASTM E10, is presented in Table H-6, showing the appropriate
Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials, and ASTM E equivalent hardness values for steels.
370, Mechanical Testing of Steel Products.
Brinell Tensile Strength
Vickers Hardness Test (HV). The indenter, a square-
The Brinell hardness of steel will give a fairly accu-
based diamond pyramid with a 136"included angle, is rate indication of the tensile strength of the material. It
used with a variety of loads from 1 kg (2.2 lb) to has been found that by correlating the Brinell hardness
120 kg (264 lb). In this microhardness test, impres- numbers and the tensile strength of various steels in lb/
sions can be closely spaced and depth of penetration in.*, the tensile strength of a given steel is approxi-
can be very small. mately 500 times its Brinell hardness number. In deter-
A standard method for this test is provided in mining the tensile strength by the use of this rough
ASTM E92, Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials. check it has been found that as a rule, the tensile
Knoop Hardness Test (HK). A very small indenter, a strength will be slightly low for hardness below
rhombohedral-based diamond with edge angles of 200 HB and above 400 HB. Between the two figures
172"30 and 130", is used with a variety of loads, usu- the indicated tensile strength is slightly above the
ally under 1 kg (2.2 lb). The impression has one long actual strength.
and one short diagonal. Impressions can be very
closely spaced and the depth of penetration can be HARD SElTING
extremely small. A nonstandard term for the application of diamond-
MicrohardnessTesting substitute inserts to wearing surfaces, using the oxy-
Microhardness tests can be performed with a num- acetylene process with a welding rod of a softer
ber of instruments that use a very small indenter and a material. See HARDFACING.
very light, precise load to make an indentation in a
HARD SOLDER
polished surface. The resulting indentation is mea-
sured by microscope. A polished and etched metallo- A nonstandard term for brazing filler metal. See
graphic specimen is frequently used to allow hardness BRAZING.
determinations on individual phases or constituents in
the microstructure. By using an indenter with a test HARD SPOTS IN CAST IRON
load in the range of 1 to 1000 g, the indentation can be See CAST IRON, Hard Spots.
240 HARD SPOTS IN CAST IRON Welding Encyclopedia
b47
joint with a number of resistance heaters. Advanced
electrical resistance systems with automatic control-
lers make it possible to heat treat several weldments
simultaneously.
h- WELD INTERVAL
(Chemical Symbol: He). An inert gas used as a shield-
ing gas in various arc welding processes to protect the
weld from atmospheric contamination. Helium has an
atomic weight of 4.00; boiling point -269C (425"F),
and specific gravity of 0.137 as compared to air. Helium
can be liquefied and solidified.
HELMET
Figure HQ-Resistance Welding Current
Characteristics See WELDING HELMET, EYE PROTECTION and
GOGGLES.
To achieve this objective, the non-conducting mate- The process is particularly suited for continuous pro-
rial to be heated is used to form the dielectric of a con- duction of large volumes of tubular and similar prod-
denser, with the electrodes consisting of conductive ucts. Welds can be made without filler metal, at speeds
surfaces, one on each face of the material. Several to 300 d m i n (1000 ft/min) in ferrous, non-ferrous,
thousand volts and a frequency in the range of 1.5 to exotic and dissimilar metals, in thicknesses of 0.1 to 16
10 MHz are employed. The heat is generated by the mm (0.0045 to 0.625 in.). Users are able to achieve high
agitation of the molecules when subjected to the high- production rates with a variety of metals, and are able to
frequency field, unlike the hysteresis effect occurring weld many of the high-strength alloys that often prove
in induction heating. The energy of agitation is con- troublesome when other welding processes are used.
verted into heat, which is uniformly distributed
throughout the mass of the material. HIGH-FREQUENCY SEAM WELDING (RSEW-HF)
A resistance seam welding process variation in
HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING (HFRW) which the high frequency welding current is supplied
A group of resistance welding process variations through electrodes into the workpieces. See STAN-
that use high frequency welding current to concentrate DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure H-4. See also
the welding heat at the desired location. See HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING and INDUC-
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure H-4. See TION SEAM WELDING.
also HIGH-FREQUENCY SEAM WELDING and UPSET HIGH-FREQUENCY SYSTEMS
WELDING.
Welding machines and welding processes operating
in the 50 kHz to 3 MHz frequency range. High-
frequency power sources are used for arc initiation, arc
T WELD stabilization and gas ionization with the gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW) process.
SQUEEZE ROLL
Arc Initiation. By ionizing a gas path between the
electrode and the workpiece, high-frequency power
helps bridge the physical distance for making non-
touch starts. Non-touch starts are preferable in GTAW,
since they minimize the possibility of electrode con-
tamination, as well as weld metal contamination,
which would result from touching the tungsten elec-
trode to the workpiece. High-frequency voltage is con-
sidered relatively safe for the operator to use in
making non-touch starts. While the voltage is high, the
current is in milliamperes.
Arc Stabilization. Arc stabilization is considered the
most important function of high-frequency power in
welding. When welding with an a-c welding power
source connected to a 60 Hz power system, there is an
arc outage each 1/120 of a second. The time of the arc
Figure H-&Lap Joint Made by High-Frequency outage will depend somewhat on the re-initiation char-
Seam Welding acteristics of the welding machine. When high fre-
quency is a part of the welding circuitry system, it
High-frequency resistance welding is a forge weld- provides the stable re-initiation effect necessary to
ing process in which the faying surface is heated to maintain a steady arc.
plastic welding temperatures by using power in the Gas Ionization. In GTAW, the open circuit voltage of
range of 400 to 450 kHz. Power is introduced to the the welding machine is insufficient to ionize the shield-
weldment through small contacts sliding or rolling ing gases; consequently, a direct arc path is not readily
directly on the metal to be welded. The process is con- established. This can be overcome by imposing high-
tinuous, and produces a strong forge weld when the frequency voltage on the arc voltage, producing a high-
heated parts are passed in line through squeeze rolls. frequency voltage in the range of 20 000 volts at the
244 HIGH-FREQUENCY UPSET WELDING (UW-HF) Welding Encyclopedia
electrode tip. Since the ioniz;xtion potentials of the two pascals (approximately lod to 10 torr). See
commonly used shielding gases, argon and helium, are STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
relatively low, the high-frequency voltage creates an High vacuum electron beam welding is done inside
ionized path for the welding current to follow. a vacuum chamber. The chamber is evacuated to cre-
HIGH-FREQUENCY UPSET WELDING (UW-HF) ate a high purity environment (high vacuum) to
An upset welding process variation in which high- avoid contamination by oxygen or nitrogen. This envi-
frequency welding current is supplied through electrodes ronment results in minimum heat effects and maxi-
into the workpieces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. mum reproducibility, and is required for high precision
See Figure H-5. See also HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE welding applications. Products include nuclear fuel
WELDING and INDUCTION UPSET WELDING. elements, special alloy jet engine components, pres-
sure vessels for rocket propulsion systems, and her-
metically sealed vacuum devices. See ELECTRON
BEAM WELDING.
HOLD TIME
The duration of force application at the point of
welding after the last pulse ceases. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See also Figure H-6.
In brazing or soldering, the amount of time a joint is
held within a specified temperature range.
HOLDING TIME
In brazing or soldering, the amount of time a joint is
held within a specified temperature range.
HOLLOW BEAD
A nonstandard term when used for ELONGATED
~~
POROSITY.
Figure H-5-Butt Joint Made by High-Frequency
Upset Welding HOLOGRAPHIC NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
A holographic process for testing, utilizing the
HIGH-LOW coherent light of the laser, in which the specimen is
A nonstandard term for WELD JOINT MISMATCH. not damaged. Holographic nondestructive testing sys-
HIGH PULSE CURRENT, Pulsed Power Welding tems usually incorporate holography (lens-less, three-
The current during the high pulse time that pro- dimensional laser photography), interferometry, and
duces the high heat level. See STANDARD WELDWG an appropriate means of stressing the test specimen.
TERMS. See also Appendix 19. Mild stressing is sometimes accomplished with a hot
air gun, a quartz heater, or even amplified sound.
HIGH PULSE TIME, Pulsed Power Welding
The duration of the high pulse current. See STAN- Inspection consists of optical comparison of a test
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 19.
specimen in two or more (unstressed and stressed)
states. Performance characteristics of the test object can
HIGH-SPEED STEEL then be evaluated directly by observing the resulting
See STEEL, HIGH SPEED and TOOL WELDING. holographic interferometric fringe pattern. Lines in the
HIGH TENSION
hologram that show abrupt bends indicate defects.
Where a defect exists, the surface under stress will move
A term referring to high electric voltage.
more. Lines with sharp angular bends are one indication
HIGH VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW-HV) of a defect; rings or spread lines are other possible
An electron beam welding process variation in indications. Besides being relatively fast, the process
which welding is accomp1ish:edat a pressure of lo4 to permits scan-testing of fairly sizeable weldments.
Welding Encyclopedia HOSE CONNECTION STANDARDS 245
3 4 1 r * r e
/ I /
/ I /
/ I /
vu
f- SQUEEZE TIME
+ WELDING CYCLE
HOOD HORN
A non-standard term for WELDING HELMET. See An extension of the arm of a resistance welding
also EYE PROTECTION. machine that transmits the electrode force, usually
conducts the welding current, and may support the
HOOKES LAW workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A statement of a natural law that in an elastic mate-
rial, strain is proportional to stress. The value of stress HORN SPACING
at which a material ceases to obey Hookes Law is A nonstandard term for THROAT HEIGHT on a resis-
known as the proportional limit. See ELASTICITY. tance welding machine.
Threads for ordinary size torches and for regulators they should not be repaired with tape. The section with
are 9/16 in. O.D., 18 threads per in., left hand for acet- the leak should be cut out and a union inserted, fas-
ylene and other fuel gases, and right hand for oxygen. tened securely with clamps.
They produce a very hot flame that can be utilized for HYDROMATIC WELDING
various purposes, such as lead burning, brazing, and A nonstandard term for PRESSURE CONTROLLED
for welding aluminum. The principal objection to the WELDING.
oxyhydrogen flame is that it is very difficult to deter-
mine whether the flame is neutral or not, because of HYDROSTATICTEST
the absence of a definite inner cone in the flame. A test in which the soundness of tanks, closed con-
Hydrogen can be manufactured either by steam ref- tainers or pressure vessels is determined by applying
ormation of hydrocarbons, partial oxidation of coal or internal pressure. It may be nondestructive or destruc-
hydrocarbons, or electrolysis of water. The most tive, as required. The pressure is applied hydrostati-
widely used commercial method is steam reformation cally, and in this method of testing there is little
of natural gas or an alternate feedstock such as pro- tendency for the container to disintegrate explosively
pane or refinery gases. In this process the hydrocarbon in case of rupture and sudden release of pressure. The
source is reacted with superheated steam in the pres- equipment required for hydrostatic testing consists of
ence of a nickel catalyst to produce hydrogen plus a pump, pressure gauge, and the pipe necessary to con-
some other gaseous by-products. The gas stream is nect to the device being tested.
then passed through an absorption bed to purify the To conduct a hydrostatic test, the vessel to be tested
product and produce pure hydrogen. is completely filled with water and all air bubbles are
Where steam reformation is uneconomical, hydro- allowed to escape. After all outlets have been closed,
gen is manufactured by partial oxidation of hydrocar- the pump is operated until the desired pressure is
bons. With this method combustion takes place in obtained. Pressures up to 41 MPa (6000 psi) may be
special burners that oxidize the input material in an easily obtained.
oxygen deficient atmosphere in the presence of water In some instances specifications call for a hammer
vapor. Purification is accomplished in a manner simi- test of the pressure vessel while under twice the work-
lar to that used in steam reformation. ing pressure. In this case the weight of the hammer in
Hydrogen is supplied to users in seamless, drawn- pounds is equal to the shell thickness in tenths of an
steel cylinders, charged to a pressure of 13.8 MPa at inch. Blows are struck at 15 cm (6 in.) intervals at both
21C (2000 psi at 70F). The size of the hydrogen cyl- sides of the weld for the full length of the seam. A
inder standardized by the gas industry has a capacity thorough visual inspection follows; then the pressure
of about 5.4 m3 (191 cu. ft). is increased to three times the working pressure and
the seam is again inspected. See TUBE TESTING.
HYDROGEN ARC WELDING
See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING. HYSTERESIS (Magnetic)
The tendency of magnetism to lag behind the cur-
HYDROGEN BRAZING rent that produces it. It is the resistance of magnetic
A nonstandard term for any brazing process that particles of a material to seek polar orientation when
takes place in a hydrogen or hydrogen-containing subjected to a magnetic field. Hysteresis losses occur
atmosphere. in transformer core material when there is a molecular
resistance to the changing of polarity that occurs each
HYDROGEN CUlTlNG half cycle in an alternating current.
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, Underwater Cutting;
and PLASMA ARC CUTTING. HZ
Abbreviation for Hertz.
HYDROGEN EMBRllTLEMENT
References
Hydrogen embrittlement is a condition that causes a
loss of ductility and which exists in weld metal due to Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, ASM
hydrogen absorption. In some metals the loss of duc- Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, ANSUAWS
tility induces cracking. Underbead cracking may also A3.0
be caused by hydrogen embrittlement of the weld. Welding Handbook, Vol. 1
Metals that are subject to hydrogen embrittlement will Welding Handbook, Vol. 2
have reduced impact values and lower mechanical Welding Handbook, Vol. 2
properties. Welding Metallurgy
I-BEAM INCLINED POSITION
A steel beam, the cross section of which resembles A nonstandard term for the 6G welding position.
the capital letter, I. See STRUCTURAL WELDING. See Appendix 4, WELDING TEST POSITIONS.
249
250 INDIRECT WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
I
WELDING CURRENT
I
I
/ I
-
/ n nnn
DOWNSLOPE TIME
WELDING CYCLE 4-
Figure I-1-Multiple-Impulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
INDIRECT WELDING
INCOMPLETE FUSION A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in
7-7 which the welding current flows through the work-
pieces in locations away from, as well as at, the welds
for resistance spot, seam, or projection welding. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-4.
INDUCED CURRENT
Current in an electric circuit that is produced by
E INCOMPLETE FUSION inductance from another circuit.
(A)
INDUCED E.M.F. (Electromotive Force)
/- INCOMPLETE
FUSION Voltage in an electric circuit that is produced by
induction from another circuit.
INDUCED MAGNETISM
Magnetism that is produced by electric current or
by the action of other magnetism.
INCOMPLETE FUSION
ROOT
PENETRATION JOINT PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD SIZE
INCOMPLETE
JOINT PENETRATION
Figure I-%Examples of Joint Penetration, Root Penetration, and Incomplete Joint Penetration
INDUCTANCE
The ability of a conducting coil to generate electro-
motive force by induction within itself.
I
INDUCTION
The process of generating electromotive force in a
closed circuit by varying a magnetic flux through the
circuit.
The heating of non-magnetic material depends Wear resistance of pinion gears, splines and jour-
solely on eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are a nals on shafts can be improved by selective hardening.
function of the frequency of current reversal of the A system for hardening a small pinion gear of AIS1
magnetic field, which in turn is determined by the fre- 4140 steel provides a case extending 0.50 to 0.75 mm
quency of the current reversals in the conductor. (0.020 to 0.030 in.) below the roots of the gear teeth.
Because the resistance of non-ferrous (non-magnetic) As shown in Figure 1-6, the gear is moved from the
metals is usually less than that of ferrous (magnetic) loading position into the induction coil on a pop-up
metals, this loss is comparatively small, so a stronger rotary spindle. After being heated, it is lowered to the
magnetic field must be used to obtain comparable quench position. The unit is serviced by a 60-kW/150
heating results. It is necessary, therefore, to go to high to 400 kHz induction generator.
frequencies in order to increase the heating effect. See
Skin Effect. The higher the frequency of the induc-
INDUCTION HEATING.
tion heater power supply, the more the induced voltage
INDUCTION FURNACE tends to concentrate in the outer layers (skin effect) of
See FURNACE. the workpiece. Thus, the induction heater can produce
a hardened outer surface of the workpiece while leav-
INDUCTION GENERATOR ing the inner surface relatively unchanged.
A rotating device, i.e., a motor, or a solid state elec-
tronic device based on an oscillator which may be INDUCTION HYSTERESIS
used to change the frequency of the a-c field, which See INDUCTION HEATING.
produces electric current for use in induction heating
applications. The device produces a varying magnetic INDUCTION SEAM WELDING (RSEW-I)
field which induces current into the workpiece. A resistance seam welding process variation in
INDUCTION HEATING which high-frequency welding current is induced in
the workpieces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Heating a material from within by causing an elec-
HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING and HIGH-
tric current to flow through the material by electro-
FREQUENCY SEAM WELDING.
magnetic induction. It is essential that the material
being heated is not a part of any closed electric circuit
INDUCTION SOLDERING (IS)
supplied from a source of electric energy, as is the case
with resistance welding. A soldering process in which the heat required is
Fundamentals
obtained from the resistance of the workpieces to
induced electric current. See STANDARD WELDING
Induction heating is a phenomenon caused by an
TERMS.
alternating magnetic field. The field occurs in the area
surrounding a conductor carrying an alternating cur-
INDUCTION UPSET WELDING (UW-I)
rent, and the reversals of the magnetic field follow the
reversals of current in the conductor. Magnetic mate- An upset welding process variation in which high-
rial, if placed within this field, is heated by both hys- frequency welding current is induced in the work-
teresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is pieces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
caused by molecular friction within the material, and 1-7. See also HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING
the magnitude of this loss is directly proportional to and UPSET WELDING.
the frequency of the magnetic field. Eddy current
losses are resistance losses resulting from small circu- INDUCTION WELDING (IW)
lating currents within the material. This loss is propor- A welding process that produces coalescence of
tional to the square of the frequency and the square of metals by the heat obtained from the resistance of the
the current flowing in the field-producing conductor. workpieces to the flow of induced high-frequency
Induction heating will produce a fast, localized heat welding current with or without the application of
that is controllable within close limitations to a prede- pressure. The efSect of the high-frequency welding
termined temperature; these qualities make this heat- current is to concentrate the welding heat at the
ing process adaptable to many mass production desired location. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
manufacturing applications. See Figure 1-7.
Welding Encyclopedia INDUCTION WELDING (IW) 253
Figure I-6-Induction Heating Coil Used to Case Harden a4140 Steel Pinion Gear
Photo courtesy of the Lepel Corporation
E
EL
PINCH ROLL
WELDING CURRENT
INDUCTION WORK COIL WELDING TERMS. See also GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
The inductor used when welding, brazing, or sol- WELDING.
dering with induction heating equipment. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See 1;igure 1-7. INERT GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
A nonstandard term for GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELD-
INDUSTRIAL WELDING MACHllNES ING (GTAW). See GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING. See
Arc welding machines with a 60% or higher duty also STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
cycle generally used for industrial production. They
can be transformer, motor-drive, engine-drive or solid INERTIA FRICTION WELDING
state machines. They may be either ac, dc or a combi- A variation offriction welding in which the energy
nation of both. required to make the weld is supplied primarily by the
stored rotational kinetic energy of the welding
INERT GAS machine. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
A gas that does not nomially combine chemically 1-8.
with materials. See STANDARD WELDING TE;RMS. See
also PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE. INFRARED BRAZING (IRB)
Inert gases such as argon or helium may be used as A brazing process that uses heat from infrared radi-
shielding gases in welding operations because they ation. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
will not react with the materials being welded and they
prevent atmospheric contamination of the puddle and INFRARED RADIATION
the electrode. Electromagnetic energy with wave lengths from 770
Nitrogen is sometimes considered to be an inert gas; to 12000 nanometers. See STANDARD WELDING
however, under certain conditions it will react to pro- TERMS.
duce nitrides, which are undesirable. See ARGON,
HELIUM, GAS METAL ARC WELDING, and GAS TUNG- INFRARED RAYS
STEN ARC WELDING. Part of the light spectrum produced by arc welding,
which can have harmful effects on the eyes. See EYE
INERT GAS CARBON ARC WELDING PROTECTION.
An obsolete, rarely-used arc welding process in
which joining is produced by heating with an electric INFRARED SOLDERING (IRS)
arc between a carbon electrode and the work. Shielding A soldering process in which the heat required is
is obtained from an inert gas, such as helium or argon. furnished by infrared radiation. See STANDARD
Pressure and filler metal may or may not be used. WELDING TERMS.
AXIS OF
ROTATION
COMPLETED WELD
WELDING STARTS
- FRICTION SPEED
FORGE FORCE
e----
I I
II __ -----------
FRICTION WELDING FORCE
I I
! I
FRICTION UPSET DISTANCE COMPLETION OF WELDING
TIME-
INTERPASS TEMPERATURE, Thermal Spraying the material involved. The term ionization potential is
In multipass thermal spraying, the temperature of generally used when referring to shielding gases with
the thermal spray area between thermal spray passes. the GMAW or GTAW welding processes. See ION.
See STANDARD WELDING TEFMS.
12R LOSS
INTERPASSTEMPERATURE, Welding The power loss due to current flowing through a
In a multipass weld, the temperature of the weld conductor which has resistance. This loss is converted
between weld passes. See STANDARD WELDING into heat; its units are watts.
TERMS.
IRON
INTERPULSETIME, Resistance Welding (Chemical symbol: Fe). The most abundant of
The time between successive pulses of current metallic elements, known and used since very early
within the same impulse. See STANDARD WELDING times. Pure iron, which is practically unknown in
TERMS. See Figure H-3. industry, is silver-white, very ductile, malleable, and
magnetic. It is the basis for many important alloyed
INTERRUPTED SPOT WELDING
structural materials. It has a specific gravity of
A nonstandard term for MULTI-IMPULSE WELDING. 7.87; atomic weight, 55.84; melting point, 1536C
INTERNATIONALACETYLENE ASSOCIATION
(2797F); boiling point, 3000C (5432F).
An organization of manufacturers and users of acet- Iron ores occur in large deposits in many parts of
ylene and oxygen, and equipment using these gases, the world in the form of various iron oxides. The ore is
heated in a blast furnace with limestone and coke to
which was formed in 1898 and disbanded in 1963. The
produce molten pig iron, and with further treatment, is
Compressed Gas Association assumed the activities of
this organization. converted into steel.
I
Welding Encyclopedia IZODTEST 257
259
260 JOINT Weldina EncvcloDedia
JOINT FILLER 2
JOINT PREPARATION
See EDGE PREPARATION.
JOINT RECOGNITION Figure J-2-Typical Joint Roots
A function of an adaptive control that determines (The joint root is the shaded area.)
changes in the joint geometry during welding and
directs the welding equipment to take appropriate
action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See JOINT
TRACKING and WELD RECOGNITION.
JOINT ROOT
That portion of a joint to be welded where the mem-
bers approach closest to each othel: In cross section,
the joint root may be either a point, a line, or an area.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 5-2.
JOINT SPACER
A metal part, such as strip, hac or ring, inserted in
the joint root to serve as a backing and to maintain the
root opening during welding. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Figure 5-3.
JOINT TRACKING
A function of an adaptive control that determines
changes in joint location during welding and directs Figure J-3-Illustration of a Joint Spacer
262 JOINT TYPE Welding Encyclopedia
the welding machine to take appropriate action. See end and at 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) intervals for a distance of
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See JOINT RECOGNITION SO mm (2 in.).
and WELD RECOGNITION. The sample consists of a piece 10 cm (4 in.) in
length. It is 25 mm (1 in.) round for a distance of
JOINT TYPE 9.8 cm (3.875 in.), with a flange approximately 2.8 cm
A weld joint classification based on five b'asicjoint (1.125 in.) in diameter and 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) thick on
configurations such as a butt joint, corner joint, edge one end. After the sample has been quenched, the next
joint, lap joint and T-joint. ;Yee STANDARD WELDING step is to grind a flat about 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) deep
TERMS. See Appendix 5. along the entire length of the sample to remove the
carburized surface. It is on this flat area that the Rock-
well C hardness readings are taken. The data are nor-
JOINT WELDING SEQUENCE
mally plotted as hardness (HRC) versus distance from
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See WELDING the quenched end at which a certain hardness (such as
SEQUENCE.
HRC S O ) is observed that may be used as an indication
of hardenability.
JOMINY TEST If the hardness in the coarse-grained region of the
A laboratory test procedure developed by W. Jom- heat-affected zone (HAZ) of a weld in a steel is
iny in 1938 for determining the hardenability of steels matched with the same hardness on a Jominy bar of
and other ferrous alloys. The test, usually called the the same steel, then the cooling rates at these two posi-
End Quench Test (ASTM A255), is the most common tions (one in the HAZ and the other on the Jominy bar)
method of determining hardenability, the relative abil- are the same. The cooling rates at various positions
ity of a steel to form martensite when quenched from a along the Jominy bar are measured and tabulated. Fur-
temperature above the upper critical temperature. ther, the HAZ cooling rates for various welding condi-
In the test procedure, a sample of a particular steel tions (plate thickness, joint design, initial plate
is heated to the correct quenching temperature, assur- temperature, current. voltage and travel speed) are
ing that the surface is protected from oxidation. After measured and tabulated. Thus it is possible to select
heating, the sample is quenched. The quenching water conditions that avoid the formation of brittle marten-
jet impinges on the end of the sample and this area is site during the arc welding of a particular steel.
cooled very rapidly. Since the heat must travel by con- Additionally, in lower-carbon quenched-and-
duction from the sample to the quenched end, the top tempered steels, conditions can be selected so that a
portion of the sample will cool very slowly. Different tougher martensite forms in the heat-affected zone.
rates of cooling, therefore, will occur all along the
sample. JOULE
The hardness of the steel at different rates of cool- A unit of electrical work. It is a current of one
ing is indicated by Rockwell C (HRC) hardness read- ampere flowing through a resistance of one ohm for
ings, starting at 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) from the hardened one second, i.e., one joule is equal to one watt.
K
KERF KlLOWAlT
The width of the cut produced during a cutting pro- (Abbreviation: kW). One thousand watts. A watt is
cess. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure c-11. a unit of measure of electrical power available for
work. This is real power as indicated by a wattmeter.
KEYHOLE WELDING One kilowatt is about equal to 1-1/3 mechanical horse-
A technique in which a concentrated heat source power. kW = kVA x power factor.
penetrates partially or completely through a workpiece,
forming a hole (keyhole) at the leading edge of the weld KILOWATT-HOUR
pool. As the heat source progresses, the molten metal (Abbreviation: kWh). Volume of work equivalent to
fills in behind the hole toform the weld bead. See STAN- the consumption of one kilowatt for one hour. Electric
DARD WELDING TERMS. See PLASMA ARC WELDING. power is measured and sold by the kilowatt hour.
263
Welding Encyclopedia
A typical setupfor an arc spray system includes a power source, spray gun, and wire feed unit
LACK OF FUSION deposition of large amounts of filler metal tend to
A nonstandard term for INCOMPLETE FUSION. degrade the tensile properties of the base metal and
contribute to lamellar tearing. Highly restrained joints
LACK OF JOINT PENETRATION are also susceptible to lamellar tearing and should be
A nonstandard term for INCOMPLETE JOINT PENE- welded with caution.
TRATION. See Figure 1-3. The design of welded joints must take into account
the direction of rolling. Welding to members in the
LAG
through-thickness direction must be avoided, if
A nonstandard term for DRAG, Thermal Cutting. possible.
LAMELLAR TEAR Where this is unavoidable, the joint should be detailed
A subsugace terrace and step-like crack in the base to reduce the possibility of lamellar tearing resulting
metal with a basic orientation parallel to the wrought from welding. Figure L- 1 illustrates susceptible joint
sugace caused by tensile stresses in the through- details.
thickness direction of the base metal weakened by the Recognizing lamellar tearing may be difficult since
presence of small dispersed, planar shaped, nonmetal- the tearing is internal, like underbead cracking. Corner
lic inclusions parallel to the metal sugace. See STAN- joints and T-joints are the most susceptible to lamellar
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9. tearing, but joint details can be modified to minimize
Lamellar tearing is a cracking phenomenon that it. If there is any question that subsurface tearing
occurs in welds joining rolled steel products. Lamellar exists, then nondestructive methods should be used to
cracks or tears occur most often during fabrication examine the base metal.
where weld shrinkage strains exceed the strength of For more detailed information on lamellar tearing
the base metal in the through-thickness direction of the see American Welding Society, Welding Handbook,
steel. Vol. 1, 8th Ed. 137-138. Miami, Florida. American
All steels contain nonmetallic inclusions in varying Welding Society, 1987.
amounts. Hot-rolled steels may contain other internal
imperfections such as porosity, seams, or laminations. LAMINATE
When the steel is rolled to the desired shape for fabri- A laminate is the composite metal product of two or
cation, these inclusions and imperfections are elon- more layers joined, usually by welding, to form a
gated in the direction of rolling. Internal seams and structural product.
tears may or may not be healed (welded together by
the rolling action). These defects are likely to occur in LAMINATION
thick sections where the mechanical deformation of
the internal seams or tears may not be sufficiently A type of discontinuity with separation or weakness
worked to heal the defects. The specified strength of generally aligned parallel to the worked sugace of a
these steels is always measured in the direction of roll- metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ing. The strength of rolled steels in the through-thick- Metal defects with separation weaknesses are gen-
ness direction (perpendicular to the direction of erally aligned parallel to the rolled direction of the fab-
rolling) is considerably less than the strength obtained ricated section. These defects may result from
in the direction of rolling. elongated pipe, seams, or inclusions in the metal that
The contraction or shrinkage of deposited weld are made directional during the mechanical working of
metal during cooling sets up localized strains in the the metal.
base metal. These strains may exceed the strength of
the base metal in the through-thickness direction, LANCE
resulting in lamellar tearing. Welds that require the See OXYGEN LANCE and OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING.
265
266 LAND Welding Encyclopedia
\
LAMINAR TEARS 1
LAMINAR TEARS 1
Figure L-1-Weld Joint Designs in Steel Plate that are Prone to Lamellar Tearing and the Likely Location
of Tears
LAP LASER
A base metal surface defect (not caused by weld- A device that produces a concentrated coherent
light beam by stimulated electronic or molecular tran-
ing), appearing as a seam in the base metal, caused by
folding over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners and then sitions to lower energy levels. Laser is an acronym for
rolling or forging them into the surface. light amplification by stimulated emission of radia-
tion. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
LAP JOINT The laser beam is a focused, high-power, coherent,
monochromatic light beam. The laser was indepen-
A joint between two overlapping members in paral- dently invented in 1960 by two scientists, one at Bell
lel planes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Laboratories and the other at Hughes Aircraft. Most of
Appendix 5 . the early application development was conducted by
Bell Laboratories. The original laser device consisted
LAP SEAM WELD of a ruby rod surrounded by a xenon flash lamp that
See SEAM WELD. excited the chromium atoms in the ruby to higher
Welding Encyclopedia LASER BEAM CUTTING (LBC) 267
energy states. Simultaneously stimulated and returning and vaporized material. See STANDARD WELDING
to the ground state, the atoms emit an intense ampli- TERMS.
fied light beam. See Figure L-2 for a schematic dia-
gram of a ruby laser. LASER BEAM BRAZE WELDING (LBBW)
The rapid flashing of the xenon lamp produced a A braze welding process variation that uses a laser
seemingly steady state of emitted light. Only a beam as the heat source. See STANDARD WELDING
focused, monochromatic light beam was permitted to TERMS.
leave the device. Initial application was limited to the
low power of the ruby laser. LASER BEAM CUTTING (LBC)
The three basic types of laser include solid state, A thermal cutting process that severs metal by
gas discharge, and semi-conductor injection types. locally melting or vaporizing with the heat from a
High power, pulsed outputs in the megawatt range are laser beam. The process is used with or without assist
provided by solid state lasers. Gas discharge lasers use gas to aid the removal of molten and vaporized mate-
helium, neon, krypton, or xenon to provide low power rial. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See LASER
output frequencies that are continuous. Semi-conduc- BEAM AIR CUTTING, LASER BEAM EVAPORATIVE CUT-
tor injection lasers have limited power output, are TING, LASER BEAM INERT GAS CUTTING, and LASER
dependent on liquid nitrogen operating temperatures, BEAM OXYGEN CUTTING.
and do not need a flashlamp for exciting the atoms The source of heat for laser beam cutting is a con-
since they convert electricity directly into light. centrated coherent light beam that impinges on the
Early laser metal working applications were lim- workpiece to be cut. A combination of melting and
ited, but with the advent of higher-powered lasers, evaporation provides the mechanism for removal of
applications include welding, brazing, cutting, micro material from the kerf. High-power lasers have unique
perforation, and metal removal. High-powered lasers advantages for cutting applications, including capabil-
can cut steel up to 25 mm (1 in.) thick. ity to cut any metal and producing a narrow kerf and
heat-affected zone. High cutting speeds are achieved,
LASER BEAM AIR CUTTING (LBC-A) and the equipment is adaptable to computer control.
A laser beam cutting process variation that melts A laser is a heat source with some unique character-
the workpiece and uses an air jet to remove molten istics. Relatively modest amounts of laser energy can
OUTPUT BEAM
OPTICAL CAVITY
be focused to very small spot sizes, resulting in high Laser cutting has the advantages of high speeds, nar-
power densities. In cutting and drilling, these power row kerf widths, high-qualityedges, low-heat input, and
densities are in the range of 104 to lo6 W/mmz (6.5 X minimal workpiece distortion. It is an easily automated
lo6 to 6.5 x IO8 W / h 2 ) . Such high concentrations of process that can cut most materials. The cut geometry
energy cause melting and vaporization of the work- can be changed without the major rework required with
piece material, and material removal is enhanced by a mechanical tools: there is no tool wear involved, and
jet of gas. Depending on the material, a jet of reactive finishing operations are not usually required. Within its
gas such as oxygen can be applied coaxially with the thickness range, it is an alternative to punching or
beam, improving process speed and cut edgequality. blanking, and to oxyfuel gas and plasma arc cutting.
Laser cutting is especially advantageous for prototyping
Among laser material processing applications, cut-
studies and for short production runs. Compared to most
ting is the most common process: its use has quickly conventional processes, noise, vibration, and fume
grown worldwide. The first laser material processing levels involved in laser cutting are quite low.
application was drilling diamonds for wire drawing
Metals which can be cut by the laser beam process
dies. Today, laser cutting and the related processes of include carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, alumi-
drilling, trimming, and scribing account for more than num, copper and copper alloys, nickel base alloys, and
50% of the international industrial laser installations. titanium and its alloys. Nonmetals such as alumina and
A high-power C 0 2 laser can cut up to25 mm (1 in.) quartz can also be cut, along with organic materials,
thick carbon steel. However, good quality cuts on steel such ascloth and the spectrum of plastics. Some types
are typically made on metal thinner than 9.5 mm of composite materials with organic matrices can be
(0.375 in.), because of the limited depth of focus of the cut. Lasers have been successfully used to cut several
laser beam. C 0 2 lasers in the range of 400 to 1500 W types of metal-matrix composites.
dominate the cutting area. Neodymium-doped, yttrium Figure L-3 shows a C 0 2 laser cutting holes in 6 mm
aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers are alsoused. (0.25 in.) thick 4130 steel.
Figure L-3-Photograph of a COP Laser Cutting6 mm (0.25 in.) Thick 4130 Steel
Photo courtesyof Laser Machining, Inc., Somerset, WI
Encyclopedia
Welding (LBC-IG)
CU'ITING
GASINERT
BEAM
LASER 269
Laser Drllllng. Hole diameters produced by laser Reference: American Welding Society, Welding
beam drilling typically range from about 0.0025 to Handbook, V01.2, 8th Edition; Miami Florida: Ameri-
1.5 mm (0.0001 to 0.060 in.). Depths achieved are can Welding Society, 1991.
usually less than 25 mm (1 in.) because of beam focus-
ing limitations. Examples of laser drilling on a jet LASER BEAM CUTTING OPERATOR
engine compressor blade and a rotor component are See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See THERMAL
shown in Figure L-4. CUTTING OPERATOR.
The process produces clean holes with very small
LASER BEAM DIAMETER
recast layers. When large holes are required, a trepan-
ning technique is used where the beam cuts a circle The diameter of a laser beam circular cross section
with the required diameter. at a specified location along the laser beam axis. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Drilling with a laser is a pulsed operation involving
higher power densities and shorter dwell times than LASER BEAM EVAPORATIVE CU'ITING (LBC-EV)
laser cutting. Holes are produced by single or multiple A laser beam cutting process variation that vapor-
pulses. Laser drilling is a cost-effective alternative to izes the workpiece, with or without an assist gas (typi-
mechanical drilling, electro-chemical machining, and cally inert gas),to aid the removal of vaporized
electrical-discharge machining for making holes of material. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
relatively shallow depths.
Laser drilling shares most of the advantages found LASER BEAM EXPANDER
in laser cutting. It is especially advantageous when the A combination of optical elements that will increase
required bole diameters are less than 0.5 mm the diameter of a laser beam. See STANDARD WELDING
(0.020 in.) and when holes are to be made in areas TERMS.
inaccessible to conventional tools. Beam-entry angles
can be very close to zero, a situation where mechanical LASER BEAM INERT GAS CUTTING (LBC-IG)
tools are susceptible to breakage. The industrial laser A laser beam cutting process variation that melts
drilling area is dominated by Nd:YAG lasers. the workpiece and uses an inert assist gas to remove
Holes
Figure L - U e t Engine Turbine Blade Showing Laser Drilled
270 LASER BEAM OXYGEN CUTTING (LBC-0) Welding Encyclopedia
molten and vaporized material. See STANDARD (3) No electrodes are required; welding is per-
WELDING TERMS. formed with freedom from electrode contamination,
indentation, or damage from high resistance welding
LASER BEAM OXYGEN CUlTING (LBC-0) currents. Because LBW is a non-contact process,
A laser beam cutting process variation thtzt uses the distortion is minimized and tool wear is essentially
heat from the chemical reaction between oxygen and eliminated.
the base metal at elevated temperatures. The neces- (4) Laser beams are readily focused, aligned, and
sary reaction temperature is maintained with a laser directed by optical elements. Thus the laser can be
beam. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. located at a convenient distance from the workpiece,
and redirected around tooling and obstacles in the
LASER BEAM SPLITTER workpiece. This permits welding in areas not easily
An optical device that uses controlled refection to accessible with other means of welding.
produce two beams from a single incident beam. See ( 5 ) The workpiece can be located and hermetically
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
welded in an enclosure that is evacuated or that con-
LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW) tains a controlled atmosphere.
A welding process that produces coalescence with (6) The laser beam can be focused on a small area,
the heat from a laser beam impinging on the joint. The permitting the joining of smali, closely spaced compo-
process is used without a shielding gas and without the nents with tiny welds.
application of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING (7) A wide variety of materials can be welded,
TERMS. including various combinations of different type mate-
The focused, high power coherent monochromatic rials.
light beam used in laser beam welding causes the (8) The laser can be readily mechanized for auto-
metal at the point of focus to vaporize, producing a mated, high-speed welding, including numerical and
deep penetrating column of vapor extending into the computer control.
base metal. Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) lasers are (9) Welds in thin material and on small diameter
used for spot and seam welding of thin materials. For wires are less susceptible to burn-back than is the case
welding thicker materials, multi-kilowatt carbon diox- with arc welding.
ide gas laser systems are available. Such systems pro- (10) Laser welds are not influenced by the presence
vide power densities of 10 kW/mm2 (6.5 MW/in.*). of magnetic fields, as are arc and electron beam welds;
Continuous power provides a high power laser with they also tend to follow the weld joint through to the
deep penetration welding capability. root of the workpiece, even when the beam and joint
Laser beam welding is a high-speed process ideally are not perfectly aligned.
suited to automation, although it requires good joint (11) Metals with dissimilar physical properties,
fit-up. The high cost of equipment relegates applica- such as electrical resistance, can be welded.
tions to high-volume production or to critical weld- (12) No vacuum or X-ray shielding is required.
ments requiring unique characteristics. The equipment (13) Aspect ratios (Le., depth-to-width ratios) on the
is very sophisticated but is designed for use by weld- order of 1O:l are attainable when the weld is made by
ing operators who may not be skilled manual welders. forming a cavity in the metal, as in keyhole welding.
Process Advantages (14) The beam can be transmitted to more than one
work station, using beam switching optics, thus allow-
Major advantages of laser beam welding include the
following: ing beam time sharing.
(1) Heat input is close to the minimum required to Process Limitations
fuse the weld metal; thus, metallurgical effects in heat- Laser beam welding has certain limitations when
affected zones are reduced, and heat-induced work- compared to other welding methods, among which are
piece distortion is minimized. the following:
(2) Single pass laser welding procedures have been (1) Joints must be accurately positioned laterally
qualified in materials of up to 32 mm (1-1/4 in.) thick, under the beam and at a controlled position with
thus allowing the time to weld thick sections to be respect to the beam focal point.
reduced and the need for filler wire (and elaborate (2) When weld surfaces must be forced together
joint preparation) to be eliminated. mechanically, the clamping mechanisms must ensure
Welding Encyclopedia LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW) 271
that the final position of the joint is accurately aligned pressure, surface tension, and other phenomenon cre-
with the beam impingement point. ate a deep cavity. This cavity is a high-pressure region
(3) The maximum joint thickness that can be laser surrounded by walls of molten metal. As the work-
beam welded is somewhat limited. Thus weld penetra- piece moves relative to the beam, the cavity is sus-
tions much greater than 19 mm (0.75 in.) are not pres- tained, and the molten metal flows from the front edge
ently considered to be practical production LBW of the cavity around the sides of the cavity in a direc-
applications. tion opposite to the travel direction, and solidifies at
(4) The high reflectivity and high thermal conduc- the trailing edge forming a narrow fusion zone or
tivity of some materials, such as aluminum and copper weld.
alloys, can affect their weldability with lasers. Applications
( 5 ) When performing moderate-to-high power laser Laser beam welding is being used for an extensive
welding, an appropriate plasma control device must be
variety of applications such as in the production of
employed to ensure that weld reproducibility is
automotive transmissions and air conditioner clutch
achieved.
assemblies. In the latter application, laser welding per-
(6) Lasers tend to have a fairly low energy conver-
mits the use of a design that could not otherwise be
sion efficiency, generally less than 10%.
manufactured. The process is also being used in the
(7) As a consequence of the rapid solidification
production of relays and relay containers and for seal-
characteristic of LBW, some weld porosity and brittle- ing electronic devices and heart pacemaker cases.
ness can be expected.
Other applications include the continuous welding of
Weld Processing Modes aluminum tubing for thermal windows and for refrig-
There are two distinctly different modes of energy erator doors.
transfer in laser welding which are commonly referred Successful laser welding applications include weld-
to as conduction mode welding and keyhole mode ing transmission components (such as synchro gears,
welding. It is the power density incident on the mate- drive gears and clutch housings) for the auto industry.
rial surface, as well as the material properties, which These annular and circumferential-type rotary welds
ultimately determine which mode is present for a need from 3 to 6 kW of beam power, depending on the
given weld. weld speed being employed, and require penetrations
Conduction Mode Welding. In conduction mode weld- which typically do not exceed 3.2 mm (0.125 in.).
ing, the laser beam does not produce sufficient vapor- Materials welded are either carbon or alloy steels. In
ization pressure to displace the weld pool, form a some cases, such as the gear teeth, they have been
cavity, and allow the beam to emerge directly at the selectively hardened before welding. There are many
root of the weld. Instead, the incident beam energy on advantages to laser welding such assemblies. The low
the weld pool surface is transferred to the root of the heat input provided by the laser does not affect the pre-
weld solely by conductive and convective heat flow in hardened zones adjacent to the weld. Also, this low
the molten metal. For a given weld diameter, conduc- heat input produces a minimal amount of distortion so
tion limited welding has a maximum penetration value that precision stampings can often be welded to fin-
at which no further penetration can be obtained with- ished dimensions. Since the ease of automation and
out creating a cavity. The maximum aspect ratio (pool high weld-speed capability of the laser process makes
depth divided by pool width) for conduction mode it ideal for automotive-type production, a number of
welding is between 0.5 and 1.0. these systems have been installed in the automotive
Conduction mode welding can be obtained either industry.
with continuous wave lasers or with pulsed power Figure L-5 shows a laser weld in an automotive
lasers and with either low or high power. Selection of transmission component. This operation involved
parameters and focusing optics that result in small welding a threaded annular boss onto a circular ring.
vapor plumes and the absence of spatter are necessary Here a 2.5 kW C02 laser was used to provide a 4.8 mm
to insure conduction mode welding. (0.181 in.) deep weld at 1.5 d m i n (60 in./min),
Keyhole Mode Welding. Keyhole mode welding occurs
employing helium shielding gas.
when the power density of the beam is about lo6 W/ Metals Welded
cm2 (6.45 X lo6 W/in.2) or greater. The material at the Laser beam welding can be used for joining most
interaction point melts and vaporizes. The vapor recoil metals to themselves as well as dissimilar metals that
272 LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW) Welding Encyclopedia
Figure L-+Cross Section of a Laser Beam Weld Joining a Bossto a Ring. A 2.5 kW C02 Laser Produced
a Travel Speedof 1500 mmlmin (60 in./min). Penetration was 4.8 mm (0.181 in.).
are metallurgically compatible. Low-carbon steels are Copper and brass are often welded to themselves
readily weldable, but when the carbon content exceeds and other materials with specialized joint designs used
0.25% martensitic transformation may cause brittle for conduction welding. Aluminum and its weldable
welds and cracking. Pulsed welding helps minimize alloys can be joined for partial penetration assembly
the tendency for cracking. Fully killed or semi-killed welds and are commonly joined by pulsed conduction
steels are preferable, especially for structural applica- welds for hermetically sealed electronic packages.
tions, because welds in rimmed steel may have voids. Joint designs must retain aluminum in tension.
Steels having high amounts of sulfur and phosphorus Refractory metals such as tungsten are often cou-
may be subject to hot cracking during welding. Also, duction welded in electronic assemblies, but require
porosity may OCCUI in free machining steels containing higher power than other materials. Nickel-plated
sulfur, selenium, cadmium, or lead. Kovar is often used in sealing welds for electronic
Most of the 300 series stainless steels, with the components, but special care is required to ensure that
exception of free machining Types 303 and 303Se and the plating does not contain phosphorous, which is
stabilized Types 321 and 347, are readily weldable. usually found in the electroless nickel plating process
Welds made in some of the 400 series stainless steels commonly used for Kovar parts that are to be resis-
can be brittle and may require post weld annealing. tance welded.
Figure L-6 shows the cross section of a 416 stainless Dissimilar metal joints are commonly encountered
steel cap welded onto a 310 stainless steel body, using in conduction welds where the twisting of conductors
a 750 W C02 laser at 114 c d m i n (45 in./min) weld forms a mechanical support that minimizes bending of
speed. Penetration into the body component was potentially brittle joints. Dissimilar metals having dif-
1.27 mm (0.05 in.). Many heat resistant nickel and ferent physical properties (reflectivity, conductivity
iron based alloys are being welded successfully with and melting points) are often joined in the welding of
laser beams. Titanium alloys and other refractory conductors. Special techniques such as adding extra
alloys can be welded in this way, but an inert atmo- turns of one material to the joint as opposed to the
sphere is always required to prevent oxidation. other may be required to balance the melting charac-
Weldina Encvclooedia LEAD 273
LASING GAS
A gaseous lasing medium. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
LASING MEDIUM
A material that emits coherent radiation by virtueof Figure L-7-Cross-Sectional Sequence Showing
stimulated electronic or molecular transitions to lower Layers of Weld Metal
energy. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
LEAD
LAYER (Chemical symbol: Pb). Lead is metallic, bluish-
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more white in color, with a bright luster. It is very soft,
weldbeads. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See highly malleable, ductile and a poor conductor of elec-
Figure L-7. tricity. Commercially pure leadis used for making
pipe and containers for corrosive liquids, and is widely
LAYER LEVEL WOUND used in storage batteries. Lead as an alloying element
A nonstandard term for LEVEL WOUND. is used mainly for manufacturing solders.
Lead has an atomic number 82, an atomic weight
LAYER WOUND 207.20, melting point 327C (621"F), and specific
A nonstandard term for LEVEL WOUND. gravity 11.35 at 20C (68F).
274 LEAD ANGLE Welding Encyclopedia
SQUARE-GROOVE f
3.3mrn (0.13 in.) MAX LAP
LEADS
A nonstandard term for WELDING LEADS.
LEG OF A FILLET WELD
See FILLET WELD LEG. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
LENGTH OF WELD
See EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF WELD.
W LENS
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See FILTER PLATE.
Figure L-9-Cup Joint Design for Welding Lead LEVEL WOUND
Pipe in the Vertical Position Spooled or coiledfiller metal that has been wound
in distinct layers so that adjacent turns touch. See
Horizontal Joints. A lap joint is used for both the STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See RANDOM WOUND.
overhand and underhand techniques for welding hori-
zontal joints. LIGHT-GAUGE WELDING
The welding of sheet metal or strip metal, including
Safe Practices cold-formed members 5 mm (0.18 in.) or less in thick-
Fumes from molten lead and its compounds are ness. When welding is for structural purposes, refer to
toxic. Exposure to these materials can be a serious ANSIIAWS D1.3, Structural Welding Code-Sheet
health hazard if precautions are not taken to keep Steel. When welding sheet metal for non-structural
fumes at a safe level. Exposure to lead fumes can applications, refer to ANSIIAWS D9.1, Sheet Metal
occur in a variety of situations where cleaning and Welding. See SHEET METAL WELDING.
welding are performed on lead and lead products. Spe-
cifically, exposure results when workers must handle LIGHTER
and weld lead sheets or pipes, or when lead surfaces A device used to ignite the gases flowing from a
are cleaned with abrasive. welding torch.
Fume concentrations within the breathing zone of The spark lighter, probably the safest, simplest and
the welding or cutting operator can be controlled by most commonly used lighter, consists of a piece of
either of two ventilation methods. Fumes can be dis- flint and a short steel file mounted at opposite ends of
persed by diluting fume-laden air with uncontami- a U-shaped piece of spring wire. The spring action
nated air, or can be captured by a collector hood causes the flint to scratch over the file, creating a spark
connected to an exhaust system. Dilution ventilation which ignites the gas flowing from the torch.
can be provided either naturally or mechanically. When using a lighter of any type, the torch must be
Local exhaust ventilation is a practical means of con- directed away from the operator, other personnel, and
trolling exposure of welding and cutting operators to flammable material.
fumes produced while working. Under some circum-
stances, approved respirators may be necessary to ade- LIGHTLY COATED ELECTRODE
quately protect operators from unsafe concentrations A filler metal electrode consisting of a metal wire
of lead within the breathing zone. with a light coating applied subsequent to the drawing
Welding Encyclopedia LIQUEFACTION 277
operation, primarily for stabilizing the arc. See STAN- LINEAR POROSITY
DARD WELDING TERMS. See COVERED ELECTRODE A nonstandard term when used for ALIGNED
and FILLER METAL. POROSITY.
LIQUID AIR PROCESS of gases are used. In addition to welding and industrial
A method of separating oxygen, nitrogen, argon and uses, liquid oxygen has an important role as a fuel for
other gases present in air. The liquid air process lique- rocket engines in the United States space program.
fies air by repeated cycles of cooling, compression, High purity oxygen is extensively used for oxygen
and expansion. therapy in hospitals and medical service organizations.
The process makes use of the differences in the See OXYGEN PRODUCTION; LIQUID AIR PROCESS, and
boiling points of the major elements in liquid air to CRYOGENICS.
separate these components. The boiling point for
oxygen is -183C (-297F) and for nitrogen, -196C LIQUIDUS
(-320.4"F). These low temperatures are reached partly The lowest temperature at which a metal or an alloy
by refrigeration and partly by the Joule-Thomson is completely liquid. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
effect, whereby rapidly expanding gas is cooled by In a constitution or equilibrium diagram (phase dia-
expansion. gram), the liquidus is the locus of points representing
See CRYOGENICS and OXYGEN PRODUCTION. the temperatures at which the various chemical com-
positions in the system begin to freeze on cooling or to
LIQUID ARGON finish melting on heating, under equilibrium condi-
Argon below its boiling point, -186C (--302.3"F), tions. See METALLURGY.
is in the liquid state. In the liquid state, 4.0 L (1.06 gal-
lons) of argon is equivalent to 25 m3 (890 ft?) of gas at LITHARGE
21C (70F) and 101.4 kPa (14.7 psia). Argon is more Lead oxide (PbO); a yellow, crystalline substance
convenient to handle and store in its liquid state and is that forms on the surface of molten lead.
used extensively in welding and other industries
because it is inert. LOAD VOLTAGE
The voltage at the output terminals of the power
LIQUID NITROGEN supply when current is flowing.
Nitrogen is liquid at below its boiling point of - 196C
(-320.4"F). In the liquid state, 4.0 L (1.06 gallons) of LOCAL PREHEATING
nitrogen will produce 20 m3(706 ft3) of nitrogen gas at Preheating a specific portion of a structure. See
21C (70F) and 101.4 H a (14.7 psia). Liquid nitro- STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
gen is used extensively for metallurgical purposes. For The preheat temperature of the workpiece must be
example, metal parts such as pins, shafts and similar sufficiently high to prevent cracking on cooling. For
pieces are cooled in liquid nitrogen to effect shrink-fit- groove welding, it is generally accepted that the base
ting of assemblies. See CRYOGENICS. metal of the workpieces must be at the minimum
specified preheat for a distance of not less than 75 mm
LIQUID OXYGEN (3 in.) in all directions from the point of welding. See
Oxygen as a gaseous element forms 21% (by vol- PREHEAT.
ume) of the earth's atmosphere. Oxygen is a liquid
below its boiling point of -183C (-297F). Liquid LOCAL STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT
oxygen is obtained by the liquefaction of air. It is sepa- Stress relief heat treatment of a specific portion of a
rated from the other liquid atmospheric elements by structure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
fractional distillation. The usual purpose of a postweld heat treatment
The development of satisfactory containers for stor- (PWHT) is to stress-relieve the weld and the heat-
age of cryogenic liquids at very low temperatures has affected zone (HAZ). Stress relieving heat treatment is
enabled air liquefaction products to be transported and also used when necessary to maintain dimensional sta-
stored on the premises of the ultimate user. As a liquid, bility during subsequent machining operations. Con-
4.0 L (1.06 gallons) of oxygen will produce 25.2 m3 sideration must be given to possible distortion of the
(890 ft3) of gaseous oxygen at 21C (70F) and structure due to localized stress relief. See STRESS-
101.4 kPa (14.7 psia). RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT and HEAT TREATMENT.
Liquid oxygen is converted to a gas at the job site,
providing a source of high purity oxygen for welding, LOCKED-UP STRESS
cutting, and other operations in which large volumes A nonstandard term for RESIDUAL STRESS.
Welding Encyclopedia LOW-PRESSURE TORCH 279
LOW PULSE CURRENT, Pulsed Power Welding applications requiring prolonged application of heat,
The current during the low pulse time that produces such as weldments in thick sections. Resistance heat-
the low heat level. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ing is usually accomplished with heating blankets that
See Appendix 19. have nichrome wires in a pattern throughout the blan-
ket. The high-resistance nichrome wires are heated by
LOW PULSE TIME, Pulsed Power Welding passing an electric current through them.
The duration of the low current pulse. See STAN- Thermocouples are attached to the base metal and
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19. the weldment to be heated. The thermocouple wires
are connected to control equipment that will automati-
LOW SPOTS
cally control the time-temperature cycle to ensure uni-
Weld defects appearing as excessive concavity or form heating of the weldment and adjacent base metal.
cratering. These defects are caused by moving the
torch or electrode too rapidly or unevenly. Induction Heating. Induction heating is extensively
used at field erection sites for heat treatment of welds,
LOW-TEMPERATURE STRESS RELIEF and is particularly suitable for welds in pipes with
The residual stresses induced in weldments during wall thickness above 50 mm (2 in.), or for structural
welding may be relieved by applying heat at tempera- members on which it is possible to wrap the copper
tures much lower than ordinarily used for stress reliev- conductors around the weldment and base metal to
ing. The most satisfactory method for relieving be heated. Relatively low frequencies, 25, 60, and
stresses in carbon and low alloy steels is to treat the 400Hz, are used with 60 Hz input equipment. On
entire weldment in a furnace at a temperature between thick material, especially heavy-wall pipe, this method
540 to 650C (1000 to 1200F). Where the structure is has the advantage of providing uniform heat through-
too large to make this method practical, stresses due to out the material with a smaller temperature difference
welding have been satisfactorily relieved by applying between the outside and inside surfaces of the base
low-temperature heat to the weldment, the heat- metal and weldment. The electric field is usually
affected zone, and adjacent base metal. obtained by wrapping copper conductors around the
In carbon and low-alloy steels, low-temperature weldment and adjacent base metal to be heated. Spe-
stress relief is accomplished by heating the weldment cial fixtures are available to facilitate the rapid attach-
and adjacent base metal to not more than 315C ment and removal of the induction heating coils.
(600F), although some low-alloy steels should not be Temperature Control
heated above 205C (400F).
Temperature control in heat treating operations is
Heating Methods especially important and frequently influences equip-
Various heating methods used to accomplish low- ment selection.
temperature stress relief of weldments include (1) oxy- For torch heating, temperature-indicating crayons
fuel gas torch heating with acetylene, propane, or are widely used. They should be free of sulfur and
butane, (2) electric resistance heating; and (3) lead. Stress relieving temperatures up to 370C
induction heating. Each method has advantages and (700F) may also be monitored with direct reading,
limitations. magnetically attached surface thermometers.
Torch Heating. For stress relieving, uniform heating In electric resistance heating, surface thermometers
can be accomplished with single burner torches to or electrically operated pyrometers are used to control
bring the temperature to 3 15C (600F). The softer the current flow automatically in the heating units.
flames produced by propane or butane torches are usu- For induction heating, thermocouples are usually
ally preferred over oxyacetylene torches. attached to the surfaces of metals to be heated. The
Resistance Heating. Electric resistance heating is a thermocouple wires are connected to a pyrometer to
widely used method for low-temperature stress reliev- control the temperature of the weldment and adjacent
ing, especially at field erection sites, and also for base metal during heat treating.
M
MFTEMPERATURE plates for access holes. Only casual attention is
The martensite finish temperature. Specifically for required in sizing such members.
steel, the temperature at which the transformation of Design Formulas. The design formulas for strength
austenite into martensite is completed. and rigidity always contain terms representing the
M, TEMPERATURE
load, the stress, and the strain or deformation. If two of
the three terms are known, the others can be calcu-
The martensite start temperature. Specifically for lated. All problems of design thus resolve into one of
steel, the temperature at which the transformation of the following:
austenite into martensite begins. (1) Finding the internal stress or deformation
MACHINE
caused by an external load on a given member.
A nonstandard term when used for MECHANIZED. (2) Finding the external load that may be placed
on a given member for any allowable stress or
MACHINE OXYGEN CUlTING deformation
See OXYGEN CUlTING and MECHANIZED THERMAL (3) Selecting a member to carry a given load with-
CUTTING. out exceeding the specified stress or deformation.
In designing within allowable limits, the designer
MACHINE WELDING should generally select the most efficient material sec-
See MECHANIZED WELDING and AUTOMATIC tion size and section shape. The properties of the mate-
WELDING. rial and those of the section determine the ability of a
member to carry a given load.
MACHINE DESIGN Sizing of Steel Welds. A weld is sized for its capabil-
The advances that have been made in welding and ity to withstand static or cyclic loading. Allowable
thermal cutting processes have provided the means of stresses for welds for various types of loading are nor-
shaping and joining large sections of iron and steel. mally specified by the construction standards applica-
These processes have replaced castings in the produc- ble to the job. They are usually based on a percentage
tion of machine frames, machine bases, and other of tensile or yield strength of the metal to ensure that a
structures. Correctly designed welded frames are soundly welded joint can support the applied load for
stronger and lighter, but rigidity has not been the expected service life. Allowable stresses or stress
sacrificed. ranges are specified for various types of welds under
Designing for Strength and Rigidity. Machine static and cyclic loads. The allowable stress ranges for
designs must have sufficient strength so that members welded joints subjected to cyclic loading specified in
will not fail by breaking or yielding when subjected to current standards are based on testing of representative
normal operating loads or reasonable overloads. full-size welded joints in actual or mockup structures.
Strength designs are common in road machinery, The primary requirement of machine design for a
motor brackets, farm implements, and like structures. machine and some of its members is rigidity. Such
For weldments in machine tools and other machin- members are often thick sections so that the movement
ery, rigidity as well as strength is important, since under load can be controlled within close tolerances.
excessive deflection under load would result in lack of Whereas low-carbon steel has an allowable stress in
precision in the product. A design based on rigidity tension of 138 MPa (20 ksi), a welded machine base or
requires the use of design formulas for sizing mem- frame may have a working stress of only 14 to 28 MPa
bers. Some parts of a weldment serve their design (2 to 4 ksi). In these cases the weld sizes should be
function without being subjected to loading much designed for rigidity rather than load conditions.
greater than their own weight (dead load). Some typi- A practical method is to design the weld size to
cal parts are dust shields, safety guards, and cover carry one-third to one-half of the load capacity of the
28 1
282 MACROETCH Welding Encyclopedia
thinner member being joined. This means if the base one of the most abundant elements; it is eighth in esti-
metal is stressed to one-third to one-half of the normal mated amount in the earth's crust. It is removed com-
allowable stress, the weld would be strong enough to mercially from sea water in the form of magnesium
carry the load. Most rigid designs are stressed below chloride (a mineral similar to table salt). Pure magne-
these values. sium is obtained from molten magnesium chloride by
Welding Conditions. Designers specifying welding the electrolysis process; the magnesium collects on the
procedures for machinery fabrication should specify cathode. Atomic weight 24.32; atomic number, 12;
the following: melting point 65 1C (1204F); boiling point 1110C
(1) Joint type, groove angle, root opening and root (2030F).
face In the pure state, magnesium does not have suffi-
(2) Electrode type and size to be used cient strength or other properties to make it suitable
(3) Current type, polarity and current in amperes for structural purposes. However, it alloys readily with
(4)Arc length (arc voltage) aluminum, zinc, silicon, manganese and tin, to form a
(5) Travel speed variety of structural alloys. The strength of these
(6) Welding position i.e., flat, horizontal, vertical, alloys is comparable to aluminum alloys but they
overhead weigh only 65% as much as aluminum. See MAGNE-
(7) Test procedures for weld metal and joints SIUM ALLOYS.
MACROETCH MAGNESIUMALLOYS
Etching of a metal surface to accentuate the gross Magnesium alloys are used in a wide variety of
structural details and defects for observation by the applications where light weight is important. Struc-
unaided eye, or at a magnification not exceeding ten tural applications include industrial, materials-han-
diameters. dling, commercial, and aerospace equipment. In
industrial machinery, such as textile and printing
MACROGRAPH machines, magnesium alloys are used for parts that
A graphic reproduction of the surface of a prepared operate at high speeds and must be lightweight to min-
specimen at a magnification not to exceed ten diame- imize inertial forces. Materials-handling equipment
ters. When photographed, the reproduction is called a examples are dock boards, grain shovels, and gravity
photomacrograph. conveyors; commercial applications include such
MACROSCOPIC items as luggage and ladders. Good strength and rigid-
Visible at magnifications from one to ten diameters. ity at both room and elevated temperatures, combined
with light weight, make magnesium alloys useful for
MACROSTRUCTURE some aerospace applications.
The structure of metals as revealed by examination Alloy Systems
of the etched surface of a polished specimen at a mag-
Most magnesium alloys are ternary types. They
nification not greater than ten diameters.
may be considered in four groups based on the major
MACROETCH TEST alloying element: aluminum, zinc, thorium, or rare
A test in which a specimen is prepared with a fine earths. There are also binary systems employing man-
finish, etched, and examined under low magnification. ganese and zirconium. Magnesium alloys may also be
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. grouped according to service temperature. The magne-
sium-aluminum and magnesium-zinc alloy groups are
MAG suitable only for room-temperature service. Their ten-
Metal Active Gas; a little-used term for gas metal sile and creep properties decrease rapidly when the
arc welding in which an active gas such as carbon service temperature is above about 150C (300F).
dioxide is used. See GAS METAL ARC WELDING. The magnesium-thorium and magnesium-rare earth
MAGNESIUM alloys are designed for elevated-temperature service.
(Chemical symbol: Mg). A light, white and fairly They have good tensile and creep properties up to
tough metal. It tarnishes slightly in air, and when fabri- 370C (700F).
cated into ribbon, wire or powder, ignites on heating Designation Method. Magnesium alloys are desig-
and bums with a dazzling white flame. Ma,gnesium is nated by a combination letter-number system com-
Welding Encyclopedia MAGNESIUMALLOYS 283
posed of four parts. Part 1 indicates the two principal Table M-2
alloying elements by code letters arranged in order of Temper Designations for Magnesium Alloys
decreasing percentage. The code letters are listed in
Table M- 1. F As fabricated
0 Annealed, recrystallized (wrought products only)
H Strain-hardened
Table M-1 T Thermally treated to produce stable tempers other
Code Letters for Magnesium than F, 0, or H
Alloy Designation System W Solution heat-treated (unstable temDer)
Subdivisions of H
Letter Alloying Element
H1,plus one or more digits Strain-hardenedonly
A Aluminum H2, plus one or more digits Strain-hardenedand then
E Rare earths partially annealed
H Thorium H3, plus one or more digits Strain-hardened and then
K Zirconium stabilized
M Manganese Subdivisions of T
Q Silver
T1 Cooled and naturally aged.
Z Zinc
T2 Annealed (cast products only)
T3 Solution heat-treated and then cold-worked
Part 2 indicates the percentages of the two principal T4 Solution heat-treated
alloying elements in the same order as the code letters. T5 Cooled and artificially aged
The percentages are rounded to the nearest whole T6 Solution heat-treated and artificially aged
number. Part 3 is an assigned letter to distinguish dif- T7 Solution heat-treated and stabilized
T8 Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, and artificially
ferent alloys with the same percentages of the two aged
principal alloying elements. Part 4 indicates the condi- T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold-
tion of temper of the product. It consists of a letter and worked
number similar to those used for aluminum, as shown T10
- Cooled, artificially aged, and cold-worked
in Table M-2. They are separated from Part 3 by a
hyphen.
ity, toughness, malleability, and weldability in all
An example is alloy AZ63A-T6. The prefix AZ wrought product forms. The alloy is strengthened by
indicates that aluminum and zinc are the two principal work hardening. AZ80A and ZK60A alloys can be
alloying elements. The numbers 6 and 3 indicate that artificially aged to develop good strength properties
the alloy contains nominally 6% aluminum and 3% for room temperature applications.
zinc. The following A indicates that this is the first
Weldments made with AZlOA, MIA, and ZK21A
standardized alloy of this composition. The fourth
alloy are not sensitive to stress-corrosion cracking, so
part, T6, states that the product has been solution heat-
postweld stress relieving is not required for weldments
treated and artificially aged.
made of these alloys. They are strengthened by work
Commercial Alloys. Magnesium alloys are produced hardening for room-temperature service. HK3 1A,
in the form of castings and wrought products including HM21A, and HM31A alloys are designed for ele-
forgings, sheet, plate, and extrusions. A majority of the vated-temperature service. They are strengthened by a
alloys produced in these forms can be welded. Com- combination of work hardening followed by artificial
mercial magnesium alloys are designed for either aging.
room-temperature or elevated-temperature service.
Cast Alloys. The most widely used casting alloys for
Some of the more important magnesium alloys for
room-temperature service are AZ9 1C and AZ92A.
room temperature service are listed in Table M-3. These alloys are more crack-sensitive than the
Those for elevated temperature service are listed in wrought Mg-Al-Zn alloys with lower aluminum con-
Table M-4. tent. Consequently, they require preheating prior to
Wrought Alloys. Welded construction for room-tem- fusion welding.
perature service is frequently designed with AZ3 1B EZ33A alloy has good strength stability for ele-
alloy. It offers a good combination of strength, ductil- vated-temperature service and excellent pressure tight-
284 MAGNESIUMALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
Table M-5
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Magnesium Alloys
Tensile Strength Tensile Yield Strength* Compressive Yield Strength* Elongation
ASTM in 51 mm
Designation MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi (2in.) 90
Sheet and Plate
AZ31B-0 255 37 152 22 110 16 21
AZ31B-H24 290 42 221 32 179 26 15
HK31A-H24 228 33 207 30 152 22 9
HM21A-T8 234 34 172 25 131 19 10
M1A-0 234 34 131 19 - - 18
M1A-H24 269 39 200 29 - - 10
Extruded Shapes and Structural Sections
AZlOA-F 24 1 35 152 22 76 11 10
AZ31B-F 262 38 200 29 97 14 15
AZ6 1A-F 310 45 228 33 131 19 16
AZ8OA-F 338 49 248 36 152 22 11
AZ80A-T5 303 44 262 38 186 27 8
HM31A-T5 303 44 262 38 186 27 8
M1A-F 255 37 179 26 83 12 11
ZK21A-F 290 42 228 33 172 25 10
ZK60A-F 338 49 255 27 193 28 14
ZK60A-T5 358 52 303 44 248 36 11
Sand, Permanent Mold, or Investment Castings
AM 100A-T6 276 40 152 22 152 22 1
AZ63A-F 200 29 97 14 - - 6
AZ63A-T4 276 40 90 13 - - 12
AZ63A-T6 276 40 131 19 131 19 5
AZ8 1A-T4 276 40 83 12 83 12 15
AZ9 1C-F 165 24 97 14 - - 2
AZ91C-T4 276 40 83 12 - - 14
AZ91C-T6 276 40 145 21 145 21 5
AZ92A-F 165 24 97 14 - - 2
AZ92A-T4 276 40 97 14 - - 9
AZ92A-T6 276 40 145 21 145 21 2
EK41A-T5 172 25 90 13 - - 3
EZ33A-T5 159 23 103 15 103 15 3
HK31A-T6 22 1 32 103 15 103 15 8
HZ32A-T5 186 27 97 14 97 14 4
K1A-F 172 25 48 7 - - 19
QH21A-T6 276 40 207 30 - - 4
ZE4 1A-T5 207 30 138 20 138 20 4
ZH62A-T5 241 35 172 25 172 25 4
ZK5 1A-T5 206 30 165 24 165 24 4
ZK61A-T6 310 45 193 28 193 28 10
*0.2%offset yield strength.
286 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
Table M-6
Elevated-Temperature Properties of Some Representative Magnesium Alloys
148C (300F) 204C (400F) 316C (600F)
Tensile Tensile Tensile
Tensile Yield Creep Tensile Yield Creep Tensile Yield Creep
Strength Strength Strength* Strength Strength Strength* Strength Strength Strength*
Alloy MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
Sheet and Plate Alloys
AZ31B-H24 152 22 90 13 6.9 - -
1.0 90 13 55 8 41 6 14 2 - -
HK31A-H24 179 26 165 24 - - 165 24 145 21 41.4 6.0 83 12 48 7 - -
HM21A-T8 159 23 145 21 - -- 131 19 124 18 78.6 11.4 103 15 90 13 34.5 5.0
Extrusion Alloys
AZ31B-F 172 25 103 15 20.7 3.0 103 15 62 9 - - 41 6 14 2 - -
&780A-T5 241 35 159 23 24.1 3.5 152 22 103 15 - - 62 9 21 3 - -
HM31A-T5 193 28 172 25 - -- 165 24 145 21 75.2 10.9 124 18 103 14 52.4 7.6
ZK60A-T5 172 25 152 22 6.9 1.0 103 15 83 12 - - - - - - - -
Casting Alloys
AZ92A-T6 193 28 117 17 26.2 3.8 117 17 83 12 - - 55 8 34 5 - - -
AZ63A-T6 165 24 103 15 28.3 4.1 124 18 83 12 - - 55 8 41 6 - -
EZ33A-T5 152 22 97 14 - - 145 21 83 12 55.2 8.0 83 12 55 8 8.3 1.2
HK3 1A-T6 186 27 103 15 - - 165 24 97 14 65.5 9.5 138 20 83 12 20-0 2.9
HZ32A-T5 152 22 83 12 - - 117 17 69 10 53.8 7.8 83 12 55 8 20.7 3.0
29 - -- 207 30 186 27 82.7 12 97 14 90 13 - -
OH21A-T6 228 33 200
*Creep Strength based on 0.2%total extension in 100 h.
heat-affected zones experience only slight degradation Casting repairs should be made with a filler metal
from grain coarsening. of the same composition as the base metal when good
color match, minimum galvanic effects, or good
Arc Welding
response to heat treatment is required. For these
Applicable Processes. The gas tungsten arc and gas unusual service requirements, the material supplier
metal arc welding processes are commonly used for should be consulted for additional information. Refer-
joining magnesium alloy components. Inert gas shield- ences: American Welding Society, Welding Handbook,
ing is required with these processes to avoid oxidation 8th Edition, Vol. 1, 1987; Vol, 2, 1991; and Vol. 3,
and entrapment of oxide in the weld metal. Processes 1996; American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
that use a flux covering do not provide adequate oxi-
dation protection for the molten weld pool and the Safe Practices. The welding fumes from all com-
adjacent base metal. Procedures for arc welding mercial magnesium alloys, except those containing
magnesium are similar to those used for welding thorium, are not harmful when the amount of fumes
aluminum. remains below the welding fume limit of 5 mg/m3.
Welders should avoid inhalation of fumes from the
Filler Metals. The weldability of most magnesium thorium-containing alloys because of the presence of
alloys is good when the correct filler metal is alpha radiation in the airborne particles. However, the
employed. A filler metal with a lower melting point concentration of thorium in the fumes is sufficiently
and a wider freezing range than the base metal will low so that good ventilation or local exhaust systems
provide good weldability and minimize weld cracking. will provide adequate protection. The radiation con-
The recommended filler metals for various magne- cern, however, is primarily responsible for the decline
sium alloys are given in Table M-8. in use of the thorium-containing alloys. No external
Weldina EncvcloDedia MAGNESIUM ALLOYS 287
AZ1OA X X
AZSOA Good Excellent AZ31B X X
HK31A Excellent Excellent AZ61A X X
HM21A Excellent Good AZSOA X X
HM31A Excellent Good ZK21A X X
M1A Excellent Good HK31A x
ZK21A Good Excellent HM21A X
ZK60A Poor Excellent HM31A X
Cast Alloys M1A X
AM1OOA Good Cast Alloys
AZ63A Fair AM1OOA X X X
AZSlA Good AZ63A X X X
AZ91C Good AZ81A X X X
AZ92A Fair AZ91C X X X
EK4 1A Good AZ92A X X X
EZ33A Excellent EK41A X X
HK31A Good EZ33A X X
HZ32A Good HK3 1A X X
K1A Excellent HZ32A X X
QH21A Good K1A X X
ZE4 1A Good QH21A X X
ZH62A Poor ZE41A X X
ZKSIA Poor ZH62A X X
ZK61A Poor ZK51A X X
ZK61A X X
*Refer to ANSUAWS A5.19, Specification for Magnesium Alloy
Welding Electrodes and Rods, for additional information.
radiation hazard is involved in the handling of the tho-
rium-containing alloys.
The possibility of ignition when welding magne-
sium alloys in thicknesses greater than 0.25 mm
(0.01 in.) is extremely remote. Magnesium alloy prod- type dust collector designed for use with magnesium.
uct forms will not ignite in air until they are at fusion Special precautions pertaining to the handling of wet
temperature. Then, sustained burning will occur only magnesium fines must be followed.
if the ignition temperature is maintained. Inert gas The accumulation of magnesium dust in a water
shielding during welding prevents ignition of the mol- bath also can present a hazard. Dust of reactive metals
ten weld pool. Magnesium fires may occur with accu- like magnesium or aluminum can combine with the
mulations of grinding dust or machining chips. oxygen in the water molecule, leaving hydrogen gas
Accumulation of grinding dust on clothing should be trapped in a bubbly froth on top of the water. A heat
avoided. Graphite-based (G- 1) or proprietary salt- source may cause this froth to explode.
based powders recommended for extinguishing mag- Adequate ventilation, protective clothing, and eye
nesium fires should be conveniently located in the protection must be used when working with these
work area. If large amounts of fine particles, or fines, materials to avoid toxic effects, bums, or other injuries
are produced, they should be collected in a waterwash- that they may cause.
288 MAGNESIUMRESISTANCEWELDING Welding Encyclopedia
General safety issues are covered in the Welding are shown in Table M-9. Refer to American Welding
Handbook, Volume 1, 8th Edition, Chapter 16, Society, Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 3, 1996;
published by the American Welding Society; Miami, American Welding Society, Miami, Florida, for addi-
Florida. tional information on resistance spot welding of
magnesium.
MAGNESIUM RESISTANCEWELDING
Spot Welding. Magnesium alloy sheet and extru- MAGNET
sions can be joined by resistance spot welding in A bar of steel, tungsten or cobalt steel in which the
thicknesses ranging from about 0.5 to 3.3 rmn (0.02 to alignment of the atoms and the motion of the atomic
0.13 in.). Alloys recommended for spot welding are electrons within the metal exert attractive forces on iron
MIA, AZ31B, AZ61A, HK31A, HM21A, HM3lA, and steel. The ends of the bar are calledpoles. Every bar
and ZK60A. Spot welding is used for low-stress appli- magnet has at least two poles, usually one near each
cations where vibration is low or nonexistent. Magne- end. Poles always exist in pairs. A magnet exerts the
sium alloys are spot welded using procedures similar greatest attractive force at points near the ends.
to those for aluminum alloys.
MAGNETIC ARC BLOW
Electrodes. Spot welding electrodes for magnesium
A nonstandard term for ARC BLOW.
alloys should be made of RWMA Group A, Class 1 or
Class 2 alloy. The faces of the electrodes must be kept MAGNETIC CONTACTOR
clean and smooth to minimize the contact resistance
A device operated by an electromagnet which opens
between the electrode and the adjacent part. Cleaning
and closes an electrical circuit.
should be done with an electrode dressing tool with
the proper face contour covered with a very fine pol- MAGNETIC FIELD
ishing cloth of 280-grit abrasive course.
The region around a magnet in which magnetic
Copper pickup on the spot weld surfaces increases force exists, and would act on a piece of iron or on
the corrosion susceptibility of magnesium. Therefore, another magnet brought into the region. In a compass,
the copper should be completely removed from the the direction in which the north-seeking pole of the
surfaces by a suitable mechanical cleaning method. compass needle points is called the direction of the
The presence of copper on spot welds can be deter- magnetic field at that place.
mined by applying 10% acetic acid solution. A dark
spot will form if copper is present on the surface. MAGNETIC FLUX
Joint Strength. Typical shear strengths for spot The total amount of magnetism induced across a
welds in several thicknesses of two magnesium alloys surface; the magnetic flux is equal to the number of
Table M-9
Typical Shear Strengths of Single Spot Welds in Wrought Magnesium Alloys
Suot Shear Strength
Thickness Average Spot Diameter AZ31B HK31A HM21A
mm in. mm in. N Ib N Ib N Ib
0.5 0.020 3.5 0.14 980 220 - - - -
0.6 0.025 4.1 0.16 1200 270 - - - -
0.8 0.032 4.6 0.18 1465 330 1335 300 - -
1.o 0.040 5.1 0.20 1825 410 1670 375 1600 360
1.3 0.050 5.8 0.23 2355 530 2445 550 - -
1.6 0.063 6.9 0.27 3335 750 3200 720 2935 660
2.0 0.080 7.9 0.3 1 3960 890 - - - -
2.5 0.100 8.6 0.34 5250 1180 - - - -
3.2 0.125 9.7 0.38 6805 1530 6625 1490 5425 1220
Welding Encyclopedia MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MT) 289
magnetic lines of force in a magnetic circuit. See MAG- may be the flux from either a permanent magnet or an
NETIC LINES OF FORCE. electromagnet.
Ferromagnetism is the magnetic property of great-
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY est interest in the context of welding metallurgy,
The number of lines of magnetic flux per square because this particular magnetic behavior is frequently
centimeter or per square inch. involved in welding operations.
MAGNETIC FORCE Ferromagnetic Materials. Of all the elements in the
The attractive (or repulsive) force exerted by one periodic table only three, iron, cobalt, and nickel, are
magnet on another or by a magnet on a ferromagnetic ferromagnetic at room temperature. However, ferro-
material. The force between two magnets at distances magnetic alloys can be formulated using various
much larger than the lengths of the magnets varies metallic elements which individually are not ferro-
inversely with the distance between the magnets. As magnetic. Alnico is an example of an Al-Ni-Co-Cu-Fe
the distance is increased, there is a rapid decrease in alloy used to make permanent magnets, although indi-
the force. vidually some of the elements of the magnet are not
ferromagnetic. Ferromagnetic materials are divided
MAGNETIC INDUCTION into two classifications: magnetically soft materials,
When iron is placed in a solenoid with current flow- and hard or permanent magnet materials.
ing through the solenoid circuit, the iron becomes Magnetically Soft Materials. Soft ferromagnetic
magnetized, adding the lines of its own magnetic flux materials are easy to magnetize, but retain little or
to the magnetic lines produced by the current. The none of the induced magnetism when the magnetizing
total flux per square centimeter is no longer numeri- force is removed. Magnetically soft materials made in
cally equal to the magnetizing force, but to a larger large quantities include high-purity iron, silicon steels,
quantity called the magnetic induction. iron-nickel alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, and ferrites.
This quantity is represented by the letter B, where B
is the sum of the magnetic lines produced by the cur- Permanent (Hard) Magnet Materials. Hard ferromag-
rent and those produced by the iron. netic materials are difficult to magnetize, but they
retain a significant degree of magnetization when the
MAGNETIC INSPECTION OF WELDS applied magnetic force is removed. Permanent magnet
A nonstandard term for MAGNETIC PARTICLE materials include both plain high-carbon steels and
INSPECTION. See MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION. high-carbon alloy steels, magnet alloys that have use-
ful magnetic properties from the combination of spe-
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE cific elements but which are virtually free of carbon,
The concept of magnetic lines offorce was and metallic oxides that possess unique magnetic
invented by Michael Faraday and is useful in under- properties that make them commercially important.
standing magnetic and electrostatic phenomena. It is Martensitic alloys are the best known and oldest of
defined in the following way: on a sphere with a radius permanent magnet materials. The optimum magnetic
of one centimeter surrounding a unit pole, each square properties result from untempered martensite in plain
centimeter will contain a single line of force. The sur- high-carbon steels (0.8 to 1.0 percent carbon). Perma-
face of a sphere is 4 n: r2, thus the total number of lines nent magnet alloy materials include iron-chromium-
of force due to a unit pole is 4 IT.Again, it should be carbon, and cobalt magnet steel.
understood that these magnetic lines are purely imagi- Alnico types are probably the most popular of per-
nary. But the concept is a useful study tool, and many manent magnet steels. There are a number of Alnico
technicians are in the habit of referring to magnetic alloys, with a typical alloy containing 12A1-28Ni-5Co.
lines as if they actually exist in the space around every Some alloys have copper and titanium contents. All
magnet. these alloys are hard, brittle, and unmachinable, so
they must be cast or finish-ground to shapc.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
All substances, whether in the form of liquid, solid, MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MT)
or gas, will respond in some manner to an applied Magnetic particle inspection (MT) is a nondestruc-
magnetic field, although in varying degrees. The mag- tive method used for locating surface or near surface
netic field can be produced by an electric current or it discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic
290 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MT) Welding Encyclopedia
DISRUPTION OF
MAGNETIC FIELD
AND ACCUMULATION
OF PARTICLES AT
CRACKS AT 90
1
FORCE WlLL SHOW WILL NOT SHOW
ticles are removed, the residual particles trapped in the Magnetizing force, generated by current flowing
leakage field of a discontinuity reveal the location, through a coil of wire, is proportional to the current
shape and size of a detectable discontinuity. These and the number of turns of wire in the coil. Dividing
indications are usually distinguishable by their appear- the magnetizing force by the area in centimeters of the
ance as sharp, well defined lines of medium against iron or steel core through which the force is acting,
the background of weld surface. yields the magnetizing force in lines per square centi-
Advantages of MT Inspection. Magnetic particle
meter. The unit is called the oersted, designated by the
inspection is considerably less expensive than radiog- letter H.
raphy (RT) or ultrasonic inspection (UT). Magnetic MALLEABLE CAST IRON
particle inspection equipment is relatively low in price A cast iron made by the prolonged annealing of a
compared to equipment required by the RT and UT white cast iron in which either carburization or graphi-
methods of nondestructive inspection. Less training tization, or both, takes place. This process eliminates
time is generally required for personnel to become all or almost all cementite from the microstructure. See
competent in performing magnetic particle inspection CAST IRON, Malleable.
and evaluating discontinuities.
Using the MT method, the inspector obtains an MALLEABILITY
instant visual indication that assists in locating a A property of some metals that allows them to be
defect. Compared to penetrant inspection (PT), the MT hammered or rolled into thin sheets without rupture.
method has the advantage of revealing discontinuities Malleability is the property that permits the manufac-
that are not open to the surface (i.e., cracks filled with ture of sheets, bars, and forgings, and permits fabrica-
carbon, slag or other contaminants) and therefore not tion by hammering and bending. Malleability is the
detectable by penetrant inspection. Magnetic particle direct opposite of brittleness. Gold is the most mallea-
inspection is generally faster, requires less surface ble of all metals. Copper is very malleable except
preparation, and is usually more economical than pen- when near its melting point. Zinc is malleable only
etrant inspection. between 140 and 160C (284 and 320"F), while iron
Disadvantagesof MT Inspection. The MT method is and steel become much more malleable at elevated
limited to ferromagnetic material. This method cannot temperatures.
be used to inspect nonferromagnetic materials such as Table M- 10 shows the comparative malleability of
aluminum, magnesium or austenitic stainless steel. various metals at room temperature, in order of
Difficulties may arise when inspecting welds where decreasing malleability (1 is the most malleable and 8
the magnetic characteristics of the weld differ appre- is the least malleable).
ciably from those of the base metal, e.g., austenitic
steel surfacing on a low-carbon steel weld. Welded
Table M-10
joints between metals of dissimilar magnetic charac-
Comparative Malleability of Various Metals
teristics may create magnetic particle indications even
though the welds themselves are sound. Most weld 1. Gold 5 . Tin
surfaces are acceptable for magnetic particle inspec- 2. Silver 6 . Lead
tion after the removal of slag, spatter, and other extra- 3. Aluminum 7. Zinc
neous material that may mechanically hold the 4. Copper 8. Iron
medium. Note: 1 is the most malleable and 8 is the least malleable.
very brittle. It alloys readily with iron, copper, and MANGANESE STEEL
nickel, forming important commercial alloys. Manga- Manganese steel, sometimes called high manganese
nese is an essential alloying element used in steel; it steel, and also Hadfield steel, can be identified by
increases hardness, strength, wear resist.ance, and using a magnet. Carbon steel is magnetic; manganese
other properties. Manganese minerals are widely dis- steel is not. The addition of manganese to steel accom-
tributed with oxides, the most common of which are plishes three purposes:
silicates and carbonates. Atomic weight, 54.93; atomic (1) It combines with oxygen in the molten steel and
number 25; melting point, 1260 "C (2300 "I?); boiling thus assists in its deoxidation.
point, 1900C (3452F). (2) It ties up any sulfur that may be present to avoid
the formation of iron-sulfide inclusions that cause hot
Metallic manganese is obtained by the reduction of cracking.
manganese oxide with sodium, magnesium or alumi- (3) It promotes greater strength by increasing the
num, or by electrolysis. High-grade ores containing hardenability of the steel.
manganese are mined in India, Brazil, Russia, and A bonus effect of manganese is that the fracture tough-
South Africa. Some ores are found in the United States ness is usually improved.
but the greater tonnage is imported. For steel making, One of the most important characteristics of manga-
manganese is imported in the form of ferromanganese. nese steel is its work-hardening quality. It is relatively
Ferromanganese is prepared by melting mixed ores of soft and very tough after being cast and then quenched
iron and manganese in either a blast furnace or electric in cold water, but as it is pounded under repeated
furnace. blows in service, it becomes much harder and tougher.
Ferromanganese is an indispensable alloying ele- Under impact it will flow readily at first, but the flow
ment used in steel making, principally to deoxidize sets and hardens under repeated blows. It is this qual-
and desulfurize the steel. Some manganese is used for ity which accounts for the difficulty in machining it
this purpose in all steels. All steels contain a small with cutting tools. Machining manganese steel cast-
amount of residual manganese. ings is so slow as to be impractical, and in almost all
cases they are ground where necessary.
Manganese is an effective and inexpensive agent
for cleansing molten steel of impurities that would Manganese Steel Alloys
decrease the strength and ductility of the finished Research on Hadfield's composition of carbon and
product. A manganese content up to about 0.80% is manganese has shown that small additions of other
commonly present in finished steel for the sole pur- alloying elements, such as nickel, molybdenum, and
pose of combining with sulfur and phosphorus to off- vanadium, can improve impact toughness.
set embrittlement and hot shortness. Commercial alloys have a nominal composition of
1.0 to 1.4% carbon, and 10 to 14% manganese. How-
Higher content (10 to 15%) of manganese in steel ever, in steel making practice, the carbon content is
increases the toughness and also increases the harden- held to the mid-range and the manganese content to
ing capability of the steel. An exception, however, is between 12 to 13%, since a lower range has somewhat
when manganese is present in steel between 3 to 4%, it inferior tensile properties and the upper range has no
tends to promote embrittlement of the steel. economic advantage.
Manganese is added to magnesium-aluminum Castings
alloys to improve corrosion resistance. Austenitic manganese steel castings are widely used
as components of crushing, earthmoving, and material
MANGANESE BRONZE handling equipment. In the railroad industry they are
Manganese bronzes (numbers C86100 to CS5800) widely used for such items as switch points, crossings,
are actually high-tensile yellow brass that contain 22 and frogs, where impact resistance and resistance to
to 38% zinc with varying amounts of manganese, alu- abrasive wear are primary criteria. Their nonmagnetic
minum, iron, and nickel. Manganese bronze is weld- properties make them useful for parts for electro-
able provided the lead content is low. Gas shielded arc magnets, induction furnaces, and other electrical
(gas tungsten arc or gas metal arc) welding methods equipment.
are recommended. Manganese bronzes can be brazed Electrodes for Welding Manganese Steels. Early
and soldered with special fluxes. electrodes for welding manganese steels were based
Welding Encyclopedia MANIPULATORS 293
on the addition of nickel to alloys from which manga- boom, while in others the boom itself may move hori-
nese steel welding rods and electrodes are made. zontally on the mast assembly. Most manipulators also
These alloys contained from 3 to 5% nickel, carbon have slow-speed vertical and transverse motion con-
varying from 0.80 to 1.15%, silicon ranging from 0.45 trol capabilities. This allows the operator to adjust the
to 2%, and 13 to14% manganese. In addition to position of the welding head to compensate for varia-
coated electrodes, tubular steel electrodes with metal- tions along the weld joint.
lic powders inside, consisting of proportions of the
various elements required, have been used. However,
most of the electrodes are the coated type, and in some
instances a carbon steel wire core electrode is coated
with the additional manganese and nickel required.
Arc Welding. Direct current electrode positive
(DCEP) is recommended for welding manganese steel.
Suitable welding current seems to he the minimum at
which the electrode will properly flow and produce
satisfactory penetration, and the arc should be as short
as possible. Manufacturers specifications and direc-
tions should be followed for each type of electrode.
Welding Procedure. When building up the surface
of a manganese steel casting, the build-up area
should be divided into squares, for example, about
4 cm (1-1/2 in.) square, and the deposit confined to
this square. While this deposit is hot, it should be
peened vigorously to relieve strains from localized
heat. Another section, at a distance from the first, may
then be welded using the intermittent sequence
method to keep the temperature of the casting as low
as possible. It is usually recommended that the bead be
rather wide, and applied with a semi-circular motion.
Safety. The maximum fume exposure guideline
when welding manganese steels is 0.6 mg/m3. Local
exhaust or a respirator or both should be used to pre-
vent inhalation of fume concentration above the Figure M-4-A Submerged Arc Welding Head
threshold limit value (TLV). Shown Mounted on a Manipulator
See Hadfield Steel. Photo courtesy of Pandjiris, Inc.
MANIFOLD
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See CYLINDER
MANIFOLD.
It is essential during the welding operation that the
boom or welding head move smoothly at speeds that
MANIPULATORS are compatible with the welding process being used.
Manipulators are powered by electric motors and The carriage itself must also move smoothly and at
are used to orient the welding head(s) used with auto- constant speeds if the manipulator is designed to move
matic welding machines. Manipulators typically con- along tracks on the shop floor. In selecting and speci-
sist of a vertical mast and horizontal boom that carries fying a welding manipulator, it is important to deter-
the automatic welding head. A large welding head mine the actual weight to be carried at the end of the
manipulator is shown in Figure M-4. Manipulators are boom. The manipulator must be rigid and the deflec-
powered to move the boom up and down the mast, and tion minimized during the welding operation. Manipu-
in most units the mast swivels on the base. In some lators are more versatile than side beams because they
cases, the welding head may move by power along the are capableof linear motion in three axis.
294 MANUAL, adj. Welding Encyclopedia
MANUAL SOLDERING
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MANUAL To achieve optimum properties, the carbon and
WELDING. impurity elements in maraging steels are deliberately
kept very low.
MANUAL THERMAL CUlTING
Properties. Differences in physical properties
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MANUAL
WELDING.
between maraging and mild steels are not significant,
except for thermal conductivity. Heat loss by conduc-
MANUAL THERMAL SPRAYING
tion during welding would be lower in maraging
steels. Maraging steels are noted for toughness and
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MANUAL high strength. The Charpy V-notch and fracture tough-
WELDING.
ness properties are more than twice those of conven-
MANUAL WELDING
tional quenched and tempered high-strength steels. To
a great extent, toughness is dependent on the purity of
Welding with the torch, gun, or electrode holder the steel. The maximum service temperature for
held and manipulated by hand. Accessory equipment, maraging steels is about 400C (750F). Above this
such as part motion devices and manually controlled temperature, long- term strength drops off rapidly due
filler material feeders may be used. Variations of this to overaging.
term are MANUAL BRAZING, MANUAL SOLDERING, MAN-
UAL THERMAL CUTTING, and MANUAL THERMAL Welding. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is the
SPRAYING. See also ADAPTIVE CONTROL WELDING, most widely used process for welding maraging steels,
AUTOMATIC WELDING, MECHANIZED WELDING, but they are readily welded by most arc welding pro-
ROBOTIC WELDING, and SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING. cesses. The GTAW process allows good control of
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. heat input and protection from weld oxidation. Gas
Welding Encyclopedia MASH SEAM WELDING 295
tungsten arc welded joints have better toughness than bility to cracking. These shortcomings can be relieved
those made by gas metal arc welding. by thermal tempering of the martensitic microstruc-
Procedures. Welding procedures and postweld heat ture. Postweld stress relief of steel welds is the most
treatment procedures vary with the alloy being effective procedure to obtain highly satisfactory com-
welded, and the steel manufacturer's recommendation binations of strength, hardness, ductility and tough-
should be followed. Filler metal of the same composi- ness in steel. Welds in steel with a carbon content of
tion as the base metal should be used. In general, the 0.25% or less are not very susceptible to cracking due
following rules apply: to martensitic formation in the weld or heat-affected
(1) No preheat is required. However, if the tempera- zone. Thus, most structural steels can be used in the
ture of the metal falls below 0C (32"F), it is best to as-welded condition without concern for martensitic
preheat the weld joint area to 21C (70F). cracking.
(2) Anneal at approximately 815C (1500F). Tempering of Martensite. Martensite, in the as-
(3) Austenite aging (ausage) should be at approxi- quenched condition, is generally unsuitable for engi-
mately 700C (1300F). neering applications because it can be quite brittle. It
(4) Perform cold working, if necessary or required. requires a tempering heat treatment to effectively
(5) Refrigerate (if possible) at -73C (-100F). increase its ductility and toughness while only moder-
(6) Marage (martensite age) at approximately ately reducing its strength. Tempering consists of
480C (900F). reheating the steel to an appropriate temperature
(7) Cool in still air. (always below the austenitizing temperature, A,) and
holding at that temperature for a short time. The heat
MARTENSITE treatment allows the carbon to precipitate in the form
Named in honor of A. Martens, martensite is the of very small carbide particles. The resulting micro-
hardest microstructure that can be formed in a carbon structure is tempered martensite. The necessary com-
or alloy steel. In a polished and etched steel specimen, promise between hardness and toughness can be
martensite appears as an acicular microconstituent. obtained by adjustments to the correct tempering tem-
The level of hardness in a fully martensitic microstruc- perature and holding time. The higher the temperature,
ture is commensurate with the carbon content of the the softer and tougher the steel.
steel; almost regardless of the amounts of other alloy-
ing elements present. Consequently, a very low-carbon MASH RESISTANCESEAM WELDING
steel, even in the martensitic condition, will not be A nonstandard term for MASH SEAM WELDING.
very hard. It is important to note that with a carbon
content of about 0.60%, the maximum hardness that MASH SEAM WELDING
can be achieved in steel is roughly 68 HRC; and a
higher carbon content will not achieve any real A resistance seam welding process variation that
increase in the maximum obtainable hardness. makes a lap joint primarily by high-temperature plas-
tic working and difSusion as opposed to melting and
A martensitic structure is produced when austenite
solidification. The joint thickness afer welding is less
is continuously cooled at a rate faster than that steel's
than the original assembled thickness. See STANDARD
critical cooling rate. With low hardenability, austen-
WELDING TERMS.
itized steel must usually be cooled by quenching, in oil
or water, to produce a martensitic microstructure. Mash seam welding requires high electrode force,
Some alloy steels with high hardenability will form continuous welding current, and accurate control of
martensite when the austenitized structure is air force, current, welding speed, overlap and joint thick-
cooled. Regions of steel that are austenitized by the ness to obtain consistent welding characteristics.
localized heat of welding have the potential for form- Overlap is maintained to close tolerances by clamping
ing martensite because cooling rates in welds can be or tack-welding the workpieces.
notably fast, but the final microstructure also depends This seam welding process requires considerably
on the hardenability of the steel. less overlap than a conventional lap joint. With proper
The higher hardness in the martensitic microstruc- welding procedures, the overlap is about 1 to 1.5 times
ture is accompanied by lower ductility and toughness the sheet thickness. Wide, flat-faced wheel electrodes
that, under many circumstances, can increase suscepti- that completely cover the overlap are used.
296 MASK, Thermal Spraying Welding Encyclopedia
Mash seam welding produces continuous seams impact testing. The results of these tests are used to
that have good appearance and are free of crevices. indicate how the metals and weldments will perform
Crevice-free joints are necessary in many applications in service and how metallurgical variables are affected
with strict contamination or cleanliness requirements, by the mechanics of these tests. See METALLURGY.
such as joints in food containers or refrigeration liners.
To obtain acceptable welds, the materials to be mash MECHANICALTESTING
seam welded must have wide plastic temperature Application of engineering test methods to deter-
ranges. Low-carbon steel and stainless steel can be mine the physical properties or mechanical properties,
mash seam welded in certain applications. or both, of base metal or weldments.
The tests usually result in the destruction of the test
MASK, Thermal Spraying specimen, but not always, as in the case of hardness
A device for protecting a substrate su$ace from the testing. See TENSION TEST, BEND TEST, FATIGUE TEST-
effects of blasting or adherence of a thermal spray ING, IMPACT TEST, HARDNESS TESTING and TUBE
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. TESTING.
MATRIX MECHANICALWORKING
A matrix is the principal substance (usually more The plastic deformation of a metal by subjecting the
than 50%) in which a constituent is embedded. For metal to pressure exerted by rolling, pressing, or ham-
example, when a plain carbon steel with 0.20% carbon mering, to change its form or to affect the structure
is cooled very slowly from the molten state to room and mechanical properties.
temperature, platelets or lamellae of ferrite and iron
carbide are alternately formed. This microstructure is Mechanical working has two objectives: (1) to pro-
called pearlite, and it forms a constituent in an alpha- duce a desired shape, and ( 2 ) to improve the properties
iron or ferrite base that is called the matrix. The pearl- of the metal. These objectives are accomplished by
ite is said to be embedded in a ferrite matrix. altering the distribution of microconstituents, refining
grain size, and introducing strain hardening. Mechani-
MECHANICAL BOND, Thermal Spraying cal working operations are classified as hot-working
and cold-working operations. Hot working is the initiai
The adherence of a thermal spray deposit to a
step in the mechanical working of most metals and
roughened sur$ace by the mechanism of particle inter-
locking. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. alloys.
MECHANICALLYOPERATED TORCH
MECHANICALLY MIXED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
A type of flux produced by mixing two or more A torch using an electric motor to provide steady
agglomerated, bonded, or fusedfluxes. See STANDARD feed motion at speeds adjustable to the thickness of the
WELDING TERMS. metal being welded or cut.
I
Welding Encyclopedia MELTING POINT 297
that is either bare or covered. See STANDARD WELD- Magnetic Test. Magnetic properties are determined
ING TERMS. using a bar magnet. All structural and carbon steels are
magnetic, as are most tool steels.
METAL, FILLER
Stainless Steels
The metal or alloy in the form of welding elec-
trodes, welding rods or welding wire added in making Some quick tests can be used to separate stainless
a welded, brazed, or soldered joint. steels from other metals and also to identify the grade
of stainless steel.
METAL IDENTIFICATION Copper Sulfate Spot Test. This is one of the simplest
It is essential to identify the base metal to be tests to differentiate between carbon steels and all
welded, brazed, or soldered. If metals have become types of stainless steel. A solution of 5 to 10% copper-
mixed during storage and identifying marks have been sulfate (blue vitriol) in water is used. Before perform-
lost, it is necessary that some means be taken to sort ing the spot test the areas to be tested should be thor-
out the mixed metals and identify each item. Obvi- oughly cleaned and roughened with a mild abrasive. A
ously, the best and most reliable method is to perform drop of the test solution is then released on the cleaned
a spectrographic or quantitative chemical analysis. and prepared area. Carbon steel or iron will become
This is not always possible or practical. There are coated with metallic copper in a few seconds; stainless
some relatively quick and fairly reliable tests to iden- steel will show no deposit or copper color.
tify metals in a shop or construction environment.
Magnet Test. This test is used to distinguish between
Carbon and Structural Steels austenitic stainless steel (300 series) and ferritic stain-
Carbon and structural steels may be satisfactorily less steels (400 series). Annealed austenitic stainless
identified by one or more of the following tests: steel types are nonmagnetic; if heavily cold-worked,
they exhibit a slight attraction to a magnet. Ferritic
Spark Test. The most common test to sort grades of
stainless steels are always strongly attracted to a
structural carbon steel and tool steels is the spark test.
The piece to be identified is touched against a grinding magnet.
wheel; this results in a definite pattern of sparks. These Nitric Acid Spot Test. Stainless steels are noted for
sparks can then be compared to steels of known com- their resistance to nitric acid attack. This property
position either by (1) using a comparison chart show- makes it easy to separate them from other metals and
ing sparks from known steel compositions or (2) by alloys. Only high-carbon stainless steel alloys (420
sparking a steel specimen of known composition and and 440) may show signs of a slight attack by nitric
comparing it with the unknown steel. Many shops that acid. Carbon and structural steels are vigorously
use a variety of steels will keep sample specimens of attacked by dilute nitric acid.
steels of known composition to compare with
unknown specimens. A technician experienced with Spark Test. This test has somewhat limited value for
this technique can make rapid identification of steel separating stainless steels, although an experienced
specimens. technician can classify stainless steels into four groups
but usually cannot identify individual classifications.
Chip Test. In this relatively simple test the metal to The four groups with their characteristic spark appear-
be identified is chipped with a cold chisel. Identifica- ance follow:
tion is made by comparing the size of chips, color of
metal, hardness, and surface condition of chipped Group 1: Types 302, 303, 304, and 316 produce a
metal with a known metal. Additional tests such as short reddish spark with few forks.
magnetic tests, hardness tests, or specific gravity may Group 2: Types 308,309,310, and 446 produce few
be necessary. short red sparks with few forks.
Hardness Test. The hardness can be approximated Group 3: Types 410, 414, 416, 430, and 431 pro-
with a file test. It is done by comparing the resistance duce long white streams with few forks.
of the metal to the cutting action of the file. Again, an Group 4: Types 420,42OF, and 440 A, B, C, and F
experienced welder, machinist, or technician can produce long white to reddish sparks with pronounced
approximate the Rockwell or Brinell hardness number. bursts.
300 METAL POWDER CUTTING (POC) Welding Encyclopedia
METAL POWDER CUTTING (POC) SPRAY TRANSFER, ROTATIONAL SPRAY TRANSFER, and
An oxygen cutting process that uses heat from an SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER.
oxyfuel gas flame, with iron or other metal powder to
aid cutting. See STANDARD WELDWG TERMS. METAL, White
The metal powder cutting process is a technique for A group of white-colored metals with relatively low
supplying an oxyfuel cutting torch with a stream of melting points (antimony, bismuth, tin, lead, cadmium,
iron-rich powered material. Iron powder and mixtures and zinc) and alloys based on these metals. Most of
of metallic powders, such as iron and aluminum, are these metals and their alloys are difficult to weld.
used. The powdered material promotes and accelerates
the oxidation reaction and also the melting and spal- METALLIC BOND
ling action of hard-to-cut materials. The powder is The principal bond that holds metals togethel: It is
directed into the kerf through either the cutting tip or a primary bond arising from the increased spatial
single or multiple jets external to the tip. When the extension of the valence electron wave functions when
first method is used, gas-conveyed powder is intro- an aggregate of metal atoms is brought close togethel:
duced into the kerf by special orifices in the cutting See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BONDING
tip. When the powder is introduced externally, the gas FORCE, COVALENT BOND, IONIC BOND, and MECHANI-
conveying the powder imparts sufficient velocity to CAL BOND.
the powder particles to carry them through the preheat
envelope into the cutting oxygen stream. Their short METALLIZING
time in the preheat envelope is sufficient to produce A nonstandard term when used for THERMAL
the desired reaction in the cutting zone. SPRAYING, or the application of a metal coating.
Some of the powders react chemically with the
refractory oxides produced in the kerf and increase METALLOGRAPHY
their fluidity. The resultant molten slags are washed The term metallography originally covered the
out of the reaction zone by the oxygen jet. Fresh metal microscopic study of metals under substantial magni-
surfaces are continuously exposed to the oxygen jet fication and the recording of microstructural details by
and powder. photography. Initially all the work was done with an
Cutting of oxidation-resistant steels by the powder ordinary visible-light microscope, and photographs
cutting method can be done at approximately the same made of the details observed at various magnifications
speeds as oxygen cutting of carbon steel of equivalent were called photomicrographs. In about 1960, the
thickness. The cutting oxygen flow must be slightly electron microscope was put to use in examination of
higher with the powder process. metallic structures. In recent years, variations of the
Powder is dispensed from a hopper by a controlla- electron microscope have developed, such as the trans-
ble vibratory device, and delivered through a hose to mission electron microscope (TEM), and the scanning
the torch. The other type of dispenser is a pneumatic electron microscope (SEM), scanning transmission
device coordinated with a fluidizing unit. The powder electron microscopy (STEM), and ion microscopy.
is picked up by a gas stream that serves as the trans- Associated with these advances in microscopy were
porting medium to the torch. A special manual powder developments in chemical analysis of microstructural
cutting torch mixes the oxygen and fuel gas and then constituents, using an electron-probe microanalyzer,
discharges this mixture through a cutting tip with mul- ion-probe microanalyzer, and Auger electron spec-
tiple orifices. The powder valve is an integral part of troscopy among other late 20th century analytical
the torch. developments.
The following information is confined to the practi-
METAL SPRAYING cal knowledge of the structure of metals as obtained
See THERMAL SPRAYING. using the optical metallograph. The optical metallo-
graph is a special microscope with an inverted stage
METAL TRANSFER MODE, Arc Welding that allows a flat specimen to be placed face-down on
The manner in which molten metal travels from the it so that portions of interest on the specimen can be
end of a consumable electrode across the welding arc scanned. The metallograph usually has an integral
to the workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See camera (often a Polaroid camera), and can have a
also GLOBULAR TRANSFER, PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER, number of features for changing specimen illu-
Welding Encyclopedia METALLOGRAPHY 301
mination and for measuring details observed on the and heavy reductions produce very elongated grains,
specimen. but grain boundaries persist despite severe grain defor-
Specimen Preparation. Metallographic examination mation. When the temperature is raised, the grains dis-
requires a small metal specimen, usually not over torted by cold-working recrystallize to undistorted
25 mm (1 in.) diameter or square, that is cut to provide equiaxed grains. The temperature at which the dis-
a flat surface. The flat surface is ground and polished torted grains are replaced by equiaxed grains is called
by a specific procedure until it is as scratch-free as the recrystallization temperature. Metal that is heated
possible. A complete procedure for preparing metallo- above the recrystallization temperature and held for
graphic specimens is found in ASTM Standard E3, long periods of time will experience the growth of
Standard Methods for Preparation of Metallographic abnormally large grains. The temperature at which
Specimens. A polished specimen surface, when exam- grain growth becomes significant depends a great deal
ined with the metallograph at a magnification in the on the metal and alloy.
range of 100 to 500X, is uniformly reflective and fea- Where the weld is made in a single pass, the grain
tureless unless there are cracks, porosity, or nonmetal- size and grain growth in the weld zone are largely
lic inclusions in the metal. dependent on the travel speed of the pass. Welds made
It is necessary to etch the polished surface of the at slow travel speed tend to be relatively coarse-
metallographic specimen to reveal the microstructure. grained while welds made at fast travel speeds tend to
Etching can be accomplished in a number of different be relatively fine-grained. Welds of the latter type tend
ways, depending on the metal or alloy, and conditions to have solidified last at the centerline and are suscep-
such as whether the metal is cast, wrought, or weld tible to centerline hot cracking. Welds made at moder-
metal. Many ferrous specimens can be etched by ate travel speed are more typical of commercial
merely dipping or swabbing for a few seconds in a practice and a fine grain structure is developed in the
solution of 1 to 5% nitric acid in alcohol (commonly weld zone.
called 2% nital). Metals and alloys that are resistant to In the case of multiple pass welds, the first pass is
acid attack, such as nickel or stainless steel, can be reheated during the making of the second weld pass so
electrolytically etched. Details for etching various that the first weld pass is tempered and the grain struc-
metals and alloys can be found in ASTM E407, Stun- ture is refined. Each successive pass tempers and
dard Methods for Microetching Metals and Alloys. refines grain of the previous passes. This produces a
Specimens containing a weld often present a chal- weld microstructure that is desirable since a substan-
lenge to the metallographer because of the marked dif- tial portion of the weld has been grain-refined and
ference in etching rates between the base metal, heat- tempered by subsequent weld passes. These multipass
affected zone, and weld metal, especially when work- welds usually have excellent mechanical properties
ing with welded joints of dissimilar metals. and are usually much tougher than a single pass weld.
For a specific type of steel and strength level, fine-
Grain Size. The first feature noted by the metallog-
grained steels have superior mechanical properties
rapher during the examination of the microstructure of
a polished and etched metal is its grain size. The size compared to the coarse-grained steels, especially
strength, ductility, and notch toughness. For elevated
of the grains exerts a profound effect on the properties
temperature service, coarse-grain steels have superior
of a metal, especially its mechanical properties. In
performance since fine-grain steels will exhibit lower
most metals and alloys, both grain growth or grain size
strength. Obviously, grain size is a feature of the
reduction can be accomplished by either mechanical
microstructure that deserves close scrutiny in the
working or heat treatment or both.
examination of metal structures.
Standardized methods of measuring grain size to
permit evaluation of metal properties, specifications, Austenitic Grain Structure. The austenitic grain size
and control have evolved, and are described in ASTM of a steel depends on the austenitizing temperature.
El 12, Standard Methods for Determining Average Grain refinement occurs when a steel that will trans-
Grain Size. form is heated to a temperature slightly above its A3
Because weldments may benefit or may suffer from temperature and is then cooled to room temperature. A
grain growth in cold-worked metal, the mechanics of fine grain size is desirable for improved toughness and
recrystallization must be considered. During cold- ductility. Steel forgings and castings frequently are
working the grains in a metal are severely deformed normalized specifically to produce grain refinement.
302 METALLURGICAL BOND Welding Encyclopedia
At higher austenitizing temperatures (over 1000C molds are used to retard the solidification of castings.
[ 1800"F]), steels usually develop a coarse austenitic The striking difference between welding and other
grain structure. Coarse-grained steels usually are infe- metal-producing operations is the contrast in the mass
rior to fine-grained steels in strength, ductility, and of metal involved and the effect of mass on physical
toughness. and metallurgical changes. Welding involves compara-
Microstructure of Metals. Much of the practical tively small masses that are heated very rapidly by
knowledge of the structure of metals has been intense heat sources and that cool rapidly because of
obtained using the optical metallograph. This knowl- intimate contact with a larger surrounding mass of
edge was obtained by examination of polished and colder base metal. Consequently, it can be expected
etched metallurgical specimens at magnifications from that weld zones are prone to display unusual structures
50 to 1500X. Steel and other iron alloys have been and properties.
more extensively studied than other metals and alloys Welding involves many metallurgical phenomena,
because of their wide commercial usage. This knowl- such as melting, freezing, solid state transformations,
edge has been applied to the weldments of iron and thermal strains and shrinkage stresses that can cause
steel to insure that the metallurgical structures in the many practical problems. These problems can be
weldments are suitable for the service conditions avoided or solved by applying appropriate metallurgi-
expected of the structure. Microstructures in steel weld cal principles to the welding process.
metal are markedly different from those of either cast An understanding of welding metallurgy requires a
or wrought base metals. The microstructure of weld broad knowledge of general metallurgy. For this rea-
metal is controlled principally by composition and son, general metallurgy is addressed first, followed by
cooling rate. specific aspects of welding metallurgy. The brief
description of general metallurgy is only an outline of
METALLURGICAL BOND topics necessary to provide a basis for welding metal-
A nonstandard term for METALLIC BOND. lurgy. For a more complete treatment of metallurgy the
reader should refer to the specific references at the end
METALLURGY of this article.
Metallurgy is defined as the science and technology
General Metallurgy
of metals, and consists of two broad divisions:
(1) Process metallurgy, which involves the reduc- Structure of Metals. Solid metals have a crystalline
tion of ores, refining of metals, alloying, casting, and structure in which the atoms of each crystal are
the working and shaping of metal into semifinished arranged in a specific geometric pattern. This orderly
and finished products arrangement of the atoms, called a lattice, is responsi-
(2) Physical metallurgy, which includes heat treat- ble for many of the properties of metals. The most
ment, mechanical testing, metallography and other common lattice structures found in metals are listed in
subjects dealing with the application, design, testing, Table M- 13. Their atomic arrangements are illustrated
and inspection of metal products. in Figure M-5.
Both process metallurgy and physical metallurgy Each grain in a pure metal at any particular temper-
are involved in welding. Welding can be compared to ature has the same crystalline structure and the same
a series of metallurgical operations involved in metal atomic spacing as all of the other grains. However,
production, like steel making, but welding is per- each grain grows independently of every other grain,
formed on a small scale with the pertinent steps car- and the orientation of the grain lattice differs from one
ried out in rapid succession. During most welding grain to another. The periodic and orderly arrangement
processes, a volume of molten metal (weld pool) is of the atoms is disrupted where the grains meet, and
formed (cast) within the confines of solid base metal the grain boundaries form a continuous network
(mold). Weld metal initiates solidification in a unique throughout the metal. Because of this grain boundary
manner, unlike molten metal cast in a conventional disorder, differences in the behavior of the metal often
mold. Weld metal is susceptible to blowholes and occur at those locations.
internal porosity caused by the evolution of gases, as Up to this point, only pure metals have been consid-
experienced in ingot making and castings. ered. However, most common engineering metals con-
The base metal of a weld can be preheated to retard tain residual or intentionally added metallic and
the cooling rate and solidification, just as preheated nonmetallic elements dissolved in the matrix. These
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 303
Table M-13
ingredients, called alloying elements, affect the prop-
Crystal Structures of Common Metals erties of the base metal. The atomic arrangement
(crystal structure), the chemical composition, and the
A. Face-Centered Cubic [Figure M-5(A)] thermal and mechanical history have an influence on
Aluminum Ironb the properties of an alloy.
Cobalta Lead Alloying elements, called solutes, are located in the
Copper Nickel parent metal matrix in one of two ways. The solute
Gold Silver
atoms may occupy lattice sites replacing some of the
B. Body-Centered Cubic [Figure M-5(B)] parent metal atoms, called solvent. Alternatively, if the
Chromium TitaniumC solute atoms are small enough, they may fit into the
Ironb Tungsten spaces between the solvent atoms.
Molybdenum Vanadium
Co1u mbi u m ZirconiumC Substitutional Alloying. If the solute atoms are sir&
C. Hexagonal Close-Packed [Figure M-5(C)] lar in size and chemical behavior to the solvent atoms,
Cobalta TitaniumC they may occupy sites at the lattice locations as shown
Magnesium Zinc in Figure M-6 (A). This type solid solution is called
Tin ZirconiumC substitutional. Examples of substitutional solid solu-
Cobalt is face-centered cubic at high temperature and trans- tions are gold dissolved in silver, or copper dissolved
forms to hexagonal close packed at lower temperatures. in nickel.
Iron is body-centered cubic near the melting temperature and Interstitial Alloying. When the alloying atoms are
again at low temperatures, but at intermediate temperatures
iron is face-centered cubic. very small in relation to the parent atoms, they can
Titanium and Zirconium are body-centered cubic at high tem- locate (or dissolve) in the spaces between the parent
peratures and hexagonal close packed at low temperatures. metal atoms without occupying lattice sites. This type
of solid solution is called interstitial, and is illustrated
in Figure M-6 (B). Small amounts of carbon, nitrogen,
or hydrogen for example, alloy interstitially in iron
and other metals.
Multiphase Alloys. Frequently, the alloying atoms
cannot dissolve completely, either interstitially or sub-
stitutionally. The result, in such cases, is the formation
of mixed atomic groupings (different crystalline struc-
tures) within a single alloy. Each different crystalline
structure is referred to as a phase, and the alloy is
called a multiphase alloy. The individual phases may
(A) FACE-CENTERED (B) BODY-CENTERED
CUBIC CUBIC be distinguished from one another, under a microscope
at magnifications of 50X to 2000X, when the alloy is
appropriately polished and etched.
All commercial metals consist of the primary or
basic element and smaller amounts of one or more
alloying elements. The alloying elements may be
intentionally added or may be residual (tramp) ele-
ments. Commercial metals can be single or multiphase
alloys. Each phase will have its own characteristic
crystalline structure.
The overall arrangement of the grains, grain bound-
aries, and phases present in a metal alloy is called the
(C) HEXAGONAL
microstructure of the alloy. The microstructure is
CLOSE-PACKED largely responsible for the physical and mechanical
properties of the metal. It is affected by both the chem-
Figure M-5-The Three Most Common Crystal ical composition and the thermal and mechanical his-
Structures in Metals tory of the metal. Consequently, microstructure is also
304 METALLURGY Welding Encyclopedia
,
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 305
relatively low level of residual stress remains, but the When a weld is deposited, the first grains to solidify
microstructure has not changed. The strength of the are nucleated by the unmelted base metal, and these
metal remains relatively unchanged compared to that grains maintain the same crystal orientation. Depend-
of the original cold-worked material, and the ductility, ing on composition and solidification rates, the weld
while improved, is still rather low. This reduction in solidifies in a cellular or a dendritic growth mode.
stress level and the improvement in ductility are attrib- Both modes cause segregation of alloying elements.
uted to the metallurgical phenomenon called recovery, Consequently, the weld metal may be less homoge-
a term indicating a reduction in crystalline stresses neous than the base metal.
without accompanying microstructural changes. The weld heat-affected zone is adjacent to the weld
When the cold-worked metal is heated to a tempera- metal. The heat-affected zone is that portion of the
ture above 230C (450"F), mechanical property base metal that has not been melted, but whose
changes become apparent, as do changes in micro- mechanical properties or microstructure have been
structure. In place of the deformed grains, a new group altered by the heat of welding. The width of the heat-
of grains form and grow. These grains replace the old affected zone is a function of the heat input. The
grains, and eventually all signs of the deformed grains heat-affected zone may in theory include all regions
disappear. The new microstructure resembles the orig- heated to any temperature above the ambient. From a
inal microstructure (before cold-working), and the practical viewpoint, however, it includes those regions
metal is softened and made more ductile than it was in which are actually influenced by the heat of the weld-
the cold-worked condition. This process is called ing process.
recrystallization, a necessary part of annealing proce- For a plain carbon as-rolled steel, the heat of weld-
dures. (Annealing refers to a heating and cooling pro- ing has little influence on those regions heated to less
cess usually applied to induce softening). When heated than about 700C (1350F). For a heat-treated steel
to higher temperatures, the grains begin to grow and that was quenched to martensite and tempered at
the hardness and strength of the metal are significantly 3 15C (600"F), heating above this temperature would
reduced. Metals are often annealed prior to further change the mechanical properties of the metal. For a
cold working or machining. heat-treated aluminum alloy age hardened at 120C
Metallurgy of Welding (250"F), any portion of a welded joint heated above
this temperature is the heat-affected zone.
A welded joint consists of weld metal (which has
been melted), heat-affected zones, and unaffected base Heat-affected zones are often defined by the
metals. The metallurgy of each weld area is related to response of the welded joint to hardness variation or
the base and weld metal compositions, the welding microstructural changes. Thus, changes in microstruc-
process, and the procedures used. Most typical weld ture produced by the welding heat which are seen in
metals have rapidly solidified, and usually have a fine etching or in hardness profiles may be used to estab-
grain dendritic microstructure. The weld metal is an lish the heat-affected zone. In many cases, these are
admixture of melted base metal and deposited (filler) arbitrary measures of the heat-affected zone, although
metal, if used. Some welds (autogenous) are com- they may be of practical value in testing and evaluat-
posed of only remelted base metal. Examples of autog- ing welded joints.
enous welds are gas tungsten arc and electron beam Adjacent to the heat-affected zone is the unaffected
welds made without filler metal, and resistance welds. base metal. The base metal is selected by the designer
In most arc welding processes, a filler metal is used. for the specific application based on a specific prop-
To achieve mechanical and physical properties that erty or combination of properties, such as yield or ten-
nearly match those of the base metal, a filler metal is sile strength, notch toughness, corrosion resistance, or
often selected which is similar in chemical composi- density. It is the job of the welding engineer to select
tion to the base metal. This is not a universal rule; the welding consumables and process to develop
sometimes the weld metal composition is deliberately welding procedures that allow the design properties to
made significantly different from that of the base be fully utilized in service. The characteristic of a
metal. The intent is to produce a weld metal with prop- metal that allows it to be welded without losing its
erties compatible with the base metal. Therefore, vari- desirable properties is called weldubility.
ations from the base metal composition are not Weld Metal. The microstructure of the weld metal is
uncommon in filler metals. considerably different from that of the base metal. The
306 METALLURGY Welding Encyclopedia
difference in microstructure is not related to chemical ship. The grain size may be influenced by nucleating
compositions, but to different thermal and mechanical agents, vibration, or other process variables, but the
histories of the base metal and the weld metal. The dendrite arm spacing is exclusively a function of solid-
structure of the base metal is a result of a hot rolling ification rate which is controlled by heat input.
operation and multiple recrystallization of the
Gas Metal Reactions
hot-worked metal. In contrast, the weld metal has not
been mechanically deformed and therefore, has an Gas-metal reactions depend on the presence of oxy-
as-solidified dendritic structure. This structure and its gen, hydrogen, or nitrogen used alone or combined, in
attendant mechanical properties are a direct result of the shielding atmosphere. There are many sources for
the sequence of events that occur as the weld metal these elements. Oxygen is intentionally added to argon
solidifies. These events include reactions of the weld in gas metal arc welding of steel to stabilize the arc. It
metal with gases in the vicinity of the weld and with can also be drawn in from the atmosphere or result
nonmetallic liquid phases (slag or flux) during weld- from the dissociation of water vapor, carbon dioxide,
ing, and also reactions that took place in the weld after or a metal oxide. Air is the most common source of
solidification. nitrogen, but there are many sources of hydrogen,
principally from atmospheric moisture, moisture in
Solidification. The unmelted portions of grains in the
electrode coatings, slag, and shielding gases. Hydro-
heat-affected zone at the solid-liquid interface serve as
gen may be present in solid solution in nonferrous
nucleation sites for weld metal solidification. Metals
metals or in surface oxides and lubricating compounds
grow more rapidly in certain crystallographic direc-
from the wire drawing operation.
tions. Therefore, favorably oriented grains grow for
substantial distances, while the growth of others that Welding Ferrous Metals. Gas-metal reactions in
are less favorably oriented is blocked by other grains. welding steels occur in several steps. First, the gas
As a result, weld metal often exhibits a microstruc- molecules are broken down in the high temperature of
ture, described as columnar, in which the grains are the welding atmosphere and then the gas atoms dis-
relatively long and parallel to the direction of heat solve in the liquid metal. Oxygen and nitrogen will
flow. This structure is a natural result of the influence generally react with intentionally added deoxidizers
of favorable crystal orientation on the competitive such as manganese, silicon, and aluminum. These
nature of solidification grain growth. oxides will form a slag and float to the surface of the
Dendrites. Weld metal solidification of most com- weld or precipitate as discreet oxides. Oxides and
mercial metals involves micro-segregation of alloying nitrides are present as small discreet particles.
and residual elements. This action is associated with, Although they reduce the ductility and notch tough-
and, in large measure, responsible for the formation of ness of steel weld metal, the resulting mechanical
dendrites. A dendrite is a structural feature which properties are satisfactory for most commercial
reflects the complex shape taken by the liquid-solid applications.
interface during solidification. In consumable electrode welding, the oxide content
As the primary dendrites solidify, solutes that are of steel weld metal is significantly greater than the
more soluble in the liquid are rejected by the solid nitrogen content because oxygen is intentionally
material and diffuse into the remaining liquid, lower- present in arc atmospheres, whereas nitrogen is not. If
ing the freezing point. As the solute alloys concentrate the weld metal does not contain sufficient deoxidizers,
near the solid-liquid interface, crystal growth is the soluble oxygen will react with soluble carbon to
arrested in that direction. The grains then grow later- produce CO or C02 during solidification. The gas
ally, producing the dendrite arms characteristic of molecules will be rejected during solidification and
as-solidified metals. Many dendrites may grow simul- produce porosity in the weld metal.
taneously into the liquid from a single grain during Hydrogen is always present in the arc atmosphere,
solidification. Therefore, each of these dendrites has if only in small quantities. Hydrogen atoms are soluble
the same crystal orientation, and they will all be part of in liquid steel and less soluble in solid steel. Excess
the same grain. However, a solute-rich network will hydrogen that is rejected during solidification will
exist among the dendrites in the final structure. cause porosity. A more significant problem is created
The general tendency is for weld-metal grain size to by the hydrogen that remains dissolved in the solid
increase with heat input, but there is no fixed relation- steel.
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 307
Welding Nonferrous Metals. The primary gas-metal The slags produced in the shielded metal arc weld-
reactions of concern are the solution, reaction, and ing (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), and
evolution of hydrogen or water vapor. These gases, electroslag welding (ESW) processes are designed to
therefore, should be excluded from the molten weld absorb deoxidation products and other contaminants
pool. With aluminum and magnesium, hydrogen is produced in the arc and molten weld metal. The quan-
often introduced into the weld pool from hydrated tity and type of nonmetallic deoxidation products gen-
oxides on the surfaces of the filler wire or workpieces, erated when arc welding steel are primarily silicates of
or both. It is rejected from the metal during solidifica- aluminum, manganese, and iron, that float to the sur-
tion to produce porosity. For this reason, cleaned alu- face of the molten weld pool and become incorporated
minum and magnesium filler metals should be stored in the slag. Some products can be trapped in the weld
in sealed, desiccated containers. Mechanical cleaning metal as inclusions.
or vacuum heating at 150C (300F) is recommended Hot Cracking. Another important effect that results
for workpieces or filler metals which have been from the interaction of the liquid and solid state is the
exposed to moist air. The hydrogen solubility differ- weld defect referred to as hot cracking. Shrinkage
ence between the liquid and solid states for magne- stresses produced during solidification become con-
sium is less than that for aluminum. Consequently, the centrated in a small liquid region and produce micro-
tendency for hydrogen-produced porosity is lower in cracks between the dendrites. These cracks are called
magnesium. hot cracks because they occur at temperatures close to
In the case of copper and copper alloys, hydrogen the solidification temperature.
will react with any oxygen in the molten weld pool to The most common cause of hot cracking is the pres-
produce water vapor, and thus porosity, during solidi- ence of low-melting alloy sulfides that wet the den-
fication. The filler metals for copper alloys contain drite surfaces. In some ferrous alloys, such as stainless
deoxidizers to prevent this reaction. Porosity caused steels, silicates have also been found to produce crack-
by water vapor will not form in alloys of zinc, alumi- ing. Avoidance of cracking in these alloys is usually
num, or beryllium because these elements form stable accomplished by controlling both the amount and type
oxides. Porosity from water vapor can form in of sulfides that form and the minor alloy constituents
nickel-copper and nickel alloy weld metal, and that may promote cracking.
filler metals for these alloys should contain strong
deoxidizers. Solid State Reactions. In terms of the behavior of
weld metals, there are a number of solid state reactions
Titanium alloys are embrittled by reaction with a that are important as strengthening mechanisms in the
number of gases including nitrogen, hydrogen, and weld metal itself. There are some important phenom-
oxygen. Consequently, these elements should be ena involving solid state transformations and subse-
excluded from the arc atmosphere. Welding should be quent reactions with dissolved gases in the metal. The
done using carefully designed inert gas shielding or in most significant of these phenomena is the formation
a vacuum. Titanium heat-affected zones are also sig- of cold cracks in steel weld metal or heat-affected
nificantly embrittled by reaction with oxygen and zones, often referred to as delayed cracking. The steels
nitrogen. Titanium weldments should be shielded so most susceptible to this type of cracking are those that
that any surface heated to over 260C (500F) is com- can transform to martensite on cooling from the weld
pletely protected by an inert gas. Hydrogen is the thermal cycle. The cracking occurs after the weld has
major cause of porosity in titanium welds. The hydro- cooled to ambient temperature, sometimes hours or
gen source, as in other nonferrous and ferrous metals, even days after welding. It is always associated with
can be the filler metal surface. In addition, soluble dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal which remains
hydrogen in the filler metal and the base metal can there during solidification and subsequent transforma-
contribute significantly to the total hydrogen in the tion to martensite.
molten weld pool. Because delayed cracking is always associated with
Liquid Metal Reactions. During the welding process, dissolved hydrogen, two precautions are universally
nonmetallic liquid phases that interact with the molten used to minimize the risk of delayed cracking. They
weld metal are frequently produced. These liquid are :
phases are usually slag formed by the melting of an (1) Preheating the base metal to slow the cooling rate.
intentionally added flux. (2) Using low-hydrogen welding processes.
308 METALLURGY Welding Encyclopedia
The use of preheat prevents the formation of a crack- Transformation Hardening. Hardening will result in
susceptible microstructure and also promotes the ferrous weld metal even if the austenite decomposition
escape of hydrogen from the steel by diffusion. product is not martensite. The rapid cooling rates,
Hydrogen is relatively soluble in austenite, and vir- achieved during the cooling portion of weld thermal
tually insoluble in ferrite. On rapid cooling, the auste- cycles, decrease the austenite transformation tempera-
nite transforms either to an aggregate of ferrite and ture. The ferrite-carbide aggregate formed at low
carbide or to martensite, and hydrogen is trapped in transformation temperatures is finer and stronger than
solution. In a plain carbon steel, this transformation that formed at higher transformation temperatures.
takes place at a relatively high temperature, even if The effect of transformation temperature on the ulti-
cooling is rapid, and the hydrogen atoms have suffi- mate tensile strength of steel weld metal is shown in
cient mobility to diffuse out of the metal. A rapidly Figure M-7.
cooled hardenable steel transforms at a much lower
temperature where the hydrogen atoms have lower
mobility, the microstructure is martensitic, and crack TEMPERATURE, "C
sensitive, and this combination will likely cause crack- 200
ing. The association of hydrogen with delayed crack-
ing led to the development of low-hydrogen covered 1200
electrodes. Low-hydrogen electrode coverings must be
kept essentially moisture free since moisture is a pri-
mary source of hydrogen. 3 140 1000 8
Another solid state reaction that affects weld joint I
mechanical properties in ferrous and nonferrous alloys
e
I-
i-
is the precipitation of second phases during cooling. - 800
W
Precipitation of a second phase in grain boundaries is LT
I-
particularly deleterious because the grain boundaries - 600
cn
w
are continuous throughout the metal. A concentration d
cn
of a second phase at grain boundaries may signifi- z
W
cantly reduce ductility and toughness. MARTENSITE - 400
Strengthening Mechanisms in Weld Metal AND - G
z
The practical methods for strengthening weld met-
als are fewer than for base metals. For example, weld
- 200 2
I I
metal is not usually cold worked. There are four mech-
anisms for strengthening weld metal, and where appli- 0
cable they are additive: (1) solidification grain 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
structure, (2) solid solution strengthening, (3) transfor- TEMPERATURE OF MAXIMUM
mation hardening, and (4) precipitation hardening. RATE OF TRANSFORMATION. OF
The first mechanism is common to all welds, the sec-
ond is applicable to any alloy type, but the third and Figure M-7-Effect of Transformation Temperature
fourth apply only to specific types of alloys. on Strength
Solidification Grain Structure. Weld metal freezes
rapidly, creating a segregation pattern within each Precipitation Hardening. Weld metal of precipitation
grain. The resulting microstructure consists of fine hardening alloy systems can be strengthened by an
dendrite arms in a solute-rich network. This type of aging process. In most commercial applications, the
microstructure impedes plastic flow during tensile precipitation hardened weldments are aged after weld-
testing. As a result, weld metals typically have a ing without the benefit of a solution heat treatment. In
higher yield-to-tensile strength ratio than base metals. multipass welds, some of the zones of weld metal will
Solid Solution Strengthening. Weld metal is be aged or overaged from the welding heat. The heat-
strengthened by alloying elements present. Both sub- affected zone will also contain overaged metal. An
stitutional and interstitial alloying elements will aging heat treatment will strengthen the weld metal
strengthen ferrous and nonferrous weld metal. and the heat-affected zone. The weld metal and the
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 309
heat-affected zone may not strengthen to the same alpha phase. The second fine-grained zone results
level as the base metal due to the presence of overaged from the allotropic transformation to the high tempera-
metal. Some aluminum precipitation hardening weld ture phase.
metals will age naturally at room temperature. Precipitation-Hardened Alloys. Alloys that are
The Heat-AffectedZone strengthened by precipitation hardening respond to the
The strengthened toughness of the heat-affected heat of welding in the same manner as work hardened
zone in a welded joint is dependent on the base metal, alloys; that is, the heat-affected zone undergoes an
the welding process, and the welding procedure. annealing cycle. The response of the heat-affected
Because the weld thermal cycle is generally a rapid zone is more complex because the welding thermal
one, the base metals most influenced by welding will cycle produces different effects in different regions.
be those strengthened or annealed by heat treatments. The heat treating sequence for precipitation hardening
The temperatures in the weld heat-affected zone vary is: solution treat, quench, and age. The welding heat
from ambient to near the liquidus temperature. Metal- will re-solution treat the heat-affected zone regions
lurgical processes that proceed slowly at lower tem- closest to the weld, and produce a relatively soft single
peratures can proceed rapidly to completion at phase solid solution with some coarse grains. This
temperatures close to the liquidus. region can be hardened by a post weld aging
To understand the various effects of welding heat treatment.
on the heat-affected zone, these effects can basically Those regions of the heat-affected zone that are
be considered in terms of four different types of alloys heated to temperatures below the solution treatment
that can be welded. Some alloys can be strengthened temperature will be overaged by the welding heat. A
by more than one of these processes, but for simplicity postweld aging treatment will not reharden this region.
the processes are considered separately. If the welding heat does not raise the heat-affected
Solid-Solution Strengthened Alloys. Solid-solution zone temperature above the original aging tempera-
alloys normally exhibit the fewest weld heat-affected ture, the mechanical properties are not significantly
zone problems. If they do not undergo a solid state affected.
transformation, the effect of the thermal cycle is small, It is difficult to weld high-strength precipitation
and the properties of the heat-affected zone will be hardenable alloys without some loss of strength, but
largely unaffected by welding. Grain growth will three techniques may be used to minimize the loss.
occur next to the fusion line as a result of the high The most effective of these techniques is to re-solution
peak temperature. This will not significantly affect treat, quench, and age the weldment. This technique is
mechanical properties if the grain-coarsened zone is expensive, and in many cases may not be practicable.
only a few grains wide. A second approach would be to weld precipitation-
Commonly used alloys strengthened by solid solu- hardened base metal and then re-age the weldment.
tion are annealed aluminum alloys, annealed copper This raises the strength of the solution-treated region
alloys, and hot rolled and annealed low-carbon steels. of the heat-affected zone, but does not improve the
Annealed ferritic and austenitic stainless steels come strength of the overaged zone. Another alternative is to
under essentially the same category. weld the base metal in the solution treated condition
and age the completed weldment. The overaged zone
Strain Hardened Base Metals. Strain hardened base
is still the weakest link, but the overall effect may be
metals will recrystallize when heated above the recrys-
an improvement over the previous approaches.
tallization temperature. The heat of welding will
recrystallize the heat-affected zones in cold worked Since it is the weld thermal cycle that lowers the
metals and soften the metal considerably. The recrys- strength of the heat-treated base metal, high heat input
tallized heat-affected zone is softer and weaker than welding processes are not recommended for precipita-
the cold worked base metal, and the strength cannot be tion-hardened alloys. Low heat input will minimize
recovered by heat treatment. the width of the heat-affected zone and the amount of
If the cold worked materials undergo an allotropic softened base metal.
transformation when heated, the effects of welding are Transformation Hardening Alloys. The transforma-
even more complex. Steel and titanium alloys may tion hardening alloys of interest are the steels with suf-
have two recrystallized zones. The first fine-grained ficient carbon and alloy content to transform to
zone results from recrystallization of the cold worked martensite upon cooling from welding. These may be
310 METALLURGY Welding Encyclopedia
steels which are already heat treated to tempered mar- Region 3, some grains transform to austenite and some
tensite prior to welding, or steels that have adequate do not. The austenite grains are very fine. No austen-
hardenability to transform to martensite during a weld itic transformation takes place in Region 4 next to the
thermal cycle, even though they may not have been unaffected base metal, but the ferrite grains may be
heat treated. In either case, the heat-affected zone is tempered by the heat of welding.
affected by the weld thermal cycle in approximately The width of the heat-affected zone and the widths
the same manner. The heat-affected zones, together of each region in the heat-affected zone are controlled
with the steel portion of the iron-carbon phase dia- by the welding heat input. High heat inputs result in
gram, are illustrated in Figure M-8. slow cooling rates, and therefore, the heat input may
In Figure M-8, the grain coarsened region is near determine the final transformation products.
the weld interface (Region 1). Rapid austenitic grain High-carbon martensite is hard and strong, and it
growth takes place in this region when exposed to the can create problems in the heat-affected zone. The
near melting point temperatures. The large grain size hardness of the weld heat-affected zone is a function
increases hardenability, and this region can readily of the base metal carbon content. The hardness and
transform to martensite on cooling. Region 2 is austen- crack-susceptibility increase and the toughness
itized, but the temperature is too low to promote grain decreases with increasing carbon content. Martensite
growth. The hardenability of Region 2 will not be sig- alone will not cause cracking; dissolved hydrogen and
nificantly increased by grain growth, but may still residual stresses are also present.
transform to martensite if the cooling rate is fast The same precautions used to prevent delayed
enough or if the alloy content is great enough. In cracking in weld metal will also prevent cracking in
T, O F I T, "C
1700
1500
1300
1100
900
700
500
Figure M-&-Approximate Relationships Among Peak Temperature, Distance from Weld Interface, and the
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
I
Welding Encyclopedia METRIC SYSTEM 311
the heat-affected zone. The hardness of a weld heat- achieve the desired function within the design criteria
affected zone is usually a good indication of the for the whole assembly.
amount of martensite present and the potential for References:
cracking. Cracking rarely occurs when the weld hard- ( 1) American Welding Society, Welding Handbook
ness is 250 HB or less, but is common when the hard- Vol.1, 8th Ed., Miami, Florida: American Welding
ness approaches 450 HB and no precautions are Society, 1987.
taken. (2) Linnert, G. E. Welding Metallurgy, Vol. 1 (Fun-
Special precautions may be necessary when weld- damentals), 4th Ed., Miami, Florida: American Weld-
ing hardenable steels that have been intentionally heat ing Society, 1994.
treated to produce a tempered martensitic microstruc-
ture. It is usually desirable to use a low welding heat METALWORKING MACHINES
input to control the size of the heat-affected zone, and Any of a variety of portable or stationary machines
a high preheat temperature to control the cooling rate that cut, bend, punch or otherwise prepare metal for
of the weld. The welding recommendations of the fabrication.
steel manufacturer should be followed in preparing
welding procedures for low-alloy, high-strength METRIC SYSTEM
steels. A system of measurement which has been in exist-
ence for approximately two hundred years. It is widely
Base Metal used in Europe; however variations in terms and units
The third component in a welded joint is the base existed between countries, and in 1960 this variety of
metal. Many of the common engineering materials metric units was replaced by the International System
available today are readily weldable. However, some of Units (SZ).For more complete information on the SI
materials are more difficult to weld and require special system, including units, symbols and conversion prac-
precautions. tices, refer to ANSVAWS Al.1, Metric Practice Guide
for the Welding Industry.
Weldability. Weldability is the capacity of a material SI is a modernized metric system of measurement
to be welded into a specifically designed structure that has been officially recognized by all industrial
under the imposed fabrication conditions, and to per- nations. It has features that make it superior to the U.S.
form satisfactorily in the intended service. Some sys- Customary and to other metric systems. These features
tems may have poor weldability under certain are the following:
conditions and have satisfactory weldability under (1) An Absolute Base. A base that is not defined by
other conditions. For example, all grades of ASTM the action of gravity.
A514 (a heat treated 690 MPa [lo0 ksi] yield strength (2) Coherence. Coherence is the characteristic
constructional alloy steel) have satisfactory weldabil- which relates any derived unit to any other, or to base
ity, provided the base metal is sufficiently preheated, a units from which it is formed, without conversion
low-hydrogen welding process is followed, and the factors.
heat input limitations are not exceeded. (3) Unique Units. The use of only one unit for each
The primary factor affecting the weldability of a physical quantity; for example, SI units for force,
base metal is its chemical composition or the grade of energy, and power are the same regardless of whether
the material. Each grade of material has welding pro- the process is mechanical, electrical, or thermal.
cedural limits within which sound weldments with sat- (4) Decimal System. SI is a decimal system; it is
isfactory properties can be fabricated. If these limits easier to use because it is easier to work in multiples of
are wide, the grade is said to have good weldability. If ten and in decimal notations than in fractions and deci-
the limits are narrow, the material is said to have poor malized fraction equivalents common to the U.S. Cus-
weldability. If extraordinary precautions are necessary, tomary system.
then the material is often said to be unweldable. Yet, This combination of features makes SI a reliable
in some cases and in some industries, unweldable system suitable for all kinds of measurements.
materials are routinely welded under tight controls Although areas remain that can and no doubt will be
with vigorous inspection procedures and acceptance improved, the SI system is practical for universal
criteria. These methods are followed because welding application and is rapidly becoming the commonly
may be the only (or at least the best) method to used world measurement system.
312 MHO Welding Encyclopedia
SI Units Pertaining to Welding. The recommended SI (3) The electron microscope, capable of magnifying
units used in welding nomenclature are shown in at least 200000X with remarkably good depth of
Appendix 14. The selection of these terms was based focus and resolution. Images of metal microstructure
on the use of (1) SI base units where practicable; (2) are obtained either by electron beams transmitted
numbers of reasonable size, and (3) accepted units cur- through a specimen or by beams that are reflected and
rently in use or anticipated to be used. emitted.
Special Conversions for Welding. Terms that are MIG SPOT WELDING
commonly used in the welding industry and conver- A nonstandard term for a spot weld made using
sions between U.S. Customary and SI units are shown either gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or flux cored
in Appendix 14. arc welding (FCAW). MZG is an abbreviation for
metal inert gas. See GAS METAL ARC SPOT WELDING.
MHO
The practical unit of conductance defined as the MIG WELDING
conductance of a body through which one ampere of A nonstandard term for gas metal arc welding and
current flows when the potential difference is one volt. flux cored arc welding. See GAS METAL ARC WELDING
The conductance of a body in mho is the reciprocal of and FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
the value of its resistance in ohms.
MILD STEEL
MICROETCHTEST A generic term for a low-carbon structural steel
A test in which the specimen is prepared with a pol- with a carbon content of less than 0.25%.
ished finish, etched, and examined under high magni-
fication. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. MISMATCH
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See WELD JOINT
MICROGRAPH MISMATCH.
A graphic reproduction of a metallic surface (a sec-
tion of metal which has been ground, polished and MIXED ZONE
etched) at a magnification of 10 diameters or greater. The portion of the weld metal consisting of a mix-
When reproduced by photography it is called a photo- ture of base metal and filler metal. See STANDARD
micrograph. See METALLOGRAPHY. WELDING TERMS. See also UNMIXED ZONE.
MIXING CHAMBER
MICROSTRUCTURE
The part of a welding or cutting torch in which a
The term microstructure is used to describe the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed. See STANDARD WELD-
structure of metals. A basic visual examination of ING TERMS.
etched metal surfaces and fractures will reveal some
configurations in etched patterns that relate to struc- MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
ture, but magnification of minute details will yield A measure of the rigidity of a material is called the
considerably more information. modulus of elasticity. Specifically, the slope of the ini-
Three widely used tools for the examination of tial linear portion of the stress-strain curve is the mod-
structures in metals and their applications are: ulus of elasticity; when obtained in compression or
(1) The low-power magnifying glass, when applied tension it is Youngs modulus. Since the modulus of
to etched metal surfaces reveals gross details in elasticity is needed for computing deflection of beams
microstructure. and other members in a structure, it is an important
(2) The metallograph, an optical microscope, usu- design value.
ally fitted with an inverted stage for convenience in The modulus of elasticity is determined by the bind-
scanning the flat face of prepared specimens. Metallo- ing forces between the atoms in the material. These
graphic examination usually requires magnification forces cannot be changed without changing the basic
in the range of 50 to 1500X (X = diameters). Because nature of the material, and it follows that modulus of
of the wave length of visible light, there is an upper elasticity is one of the most structure-insensitive of all
limit of about 2000X for magnification of an optical the mechanical properties. The modulus of elasticity is
microscope. only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat treat-
I
Weldina EncvcloDedia MOLYBDENUM WELDING 313
have good ductility and strength in the direction of furic acid and strong caustic solutions. It should not be
working, but not transverse to it. used in sulfurizing atmospheres above 370C (700F)
Alloys. Some alloying is necessary to improve the or with strong oxidizing acids such as nitric acid.
high-temperature and room-temperature properties. Welding. Commercial nickel alloys, including
Molybdenum is alloyed with small amounts of tita- Monel@,that contain 30 to 45% copper, are tough and
nium, zirconium, and carbon to improve high-temper- ductile. Except for free-machining (high-sulfur)
ature and room-temperature strength properties. An alloys, these alloys are readily joined by welding,
alloy designated a TZM (Mo-0.5Ti-0.087Zr-O.015C) brazing, and soldering, with proper precautions. See
is produced commercially. Also, an addition of about NICKEL ALLOY WELDING.
20 atomic percent of rhenium to molybdenum greatly
improves ductility near room temperature. MOTOR GENERATOR
Surface Preparation. Prior to welding, the surfaces A power source which converts mechanical energy
must be clean and free of dirt, grease, oil, oxides and into electrical power suitable for arc welding. The
other foreign matter. The molybdenum components source of mechanical power is usually an induction
should be first degreased in a suitable, safe solvent; motor-driven welding generator available for 200,
followed by a cleaning method recommended by the 240, 480, and 600 V, three-phase, 60 Hz input. The
molybdenum supplier, rinsing in clean water, and air motors of welding generators usually have a good
drying. power factor (80 to 90%) when under load. This type
of power source can be used with shielded metal arc
Welding. Fusion welding must be done in a pure welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW),
inert gas atmosphere or in a high vacuum to prevent gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and submerged arc
contamination by oxygen and nitrogen. Any fixtures welding (SAW).
used should provide minimum restraint on the weld-
ment, especially when welding a complex structure. MOVABLE-COIL CONTROL
The components should be preheated above the transi- A movable-coil transformer consists essentially of
tion temperature of the metal. Weldments should be an elongated core on which are located primary and
stress-relieved promptly at a temperature below the secondary coils. Either the primary coil or secondary
recrystallization temperature of the base metal. coil may be movable, while the other one is in a fixed
For arc welding, molybdenum can be joined by the position. Most a-c transformers of this design have a
gas tungsten arc welding process using direct current fixed-position secondary coil. The primary coil is nor-
electrode negative. Argon or helium may be used for mally attached to a lead screw and, as the screw is
shielding. Welds should be made using procedures that turned, the coil moves closer to, or further from, the
give a narrow heat-affected zone with minimum input secondary coil.
of heat. Figure M-9 shows one form of a movable-coil
The electron beam welding process is well suited for transformer with coils spread apart for minimum out-
joining molybdenum because of its high energy density. put and a steep slope volt-ampere curve. Figure M-10
Narrow, deep welds can be produced by this process shows the coils close together. The volt-ampere curve
using less energy than with arc welding. Since electron is indicated at maximum output with less slope than
beam welding is done in a high vacuum, contamination the curve in Figure M-9.
of the weld metal with oxygen or nitrogen is prevented.
See a h CARBON STEEL and STAINLESS STEEL. MOVABLE-SHUNT CONTROL
The movable-shunt control is often used with a-c
MONEL@' transformer-type welding power supplies. It may also
The term MoneZ@is the registered trade mark of the be used with ac-dc power sources. The shunt acts to
International Nickel Company, Inc. for a series of divert the magnetic flux around the coils. (In this
nickel-copper alloys. The nominal composition of usage, the term flux refers to the magnetic lines of
Monel@is 67% nickel, 30% copper, 1.7% iron, 1.1% force). In this design, the primary coils and the sec-
manganese, with small residuals (eo.1%) of carbon and ondary coils are in fixed position. Control is obtained
silicon. Monel@is used where high strength and resis- with a laminated iron core shunt that is moved
tance to corrosion are required. It is useful against between the primary and secondary coils. It is made of
many common corrosives, such as sea water, dilute sul- the same material as used in the transformer core.
Welding Encyclopedia MOVABLE-SHUNT CONTROL 315
IRON CORE
I e&\
80
MINIMUM
V OUTPUT
0. I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
50 100 150 200 250
A
Figure M-9-Movable-Coil AC Power Source with Coils Set for Minimum Output
IRON CORE
I a\
80
MAX IMUM
0 I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250
A
BASE
Figure M-10-Movable-Coil AC Power Source with Coils Set for Maximum Output
316 MOVING SHOE Welding Encyclopedia
As the shunt is moved into position between the pri- MULTIPLE-IMPULSE WELDING
mary and secondaq coils, it diverts more or less of the A resistance welding process variation in which
available flux field. The more magnetic lines of force welds are made by more than one impulse. See STAN-
diverted, the less the output current. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure I- 1.
MOVING SHOE
MULTIPORT NOZZLE
A backing shoe that slides along the joint during
A constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch that
welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
contains two or more orifices located in a confgura-
MULTIPASS FILLET WELD tion to achieve some control over the arc shape. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS,
MULTIPASS WELD MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
A fusion weld produced by more than one progres- An orientation for a nonrotated circumferential joint
sion of the arc, flame or energy source along the joint. requiring weldingin more than one welding position. See
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See 5F, 5G, 6F, 6G, and 6GR.
3 17
318 NAVAL BRASS Welding Encyclopedia
Figure N-2-Typical Wire Feeding Techniques for Narrow Gap Gas Metal Arc Welding
NEUTRAL FLAME
An oxyfuel gas jlame that has characteristics
neither oxidizing nor reducing. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. See Figure A-1. See also CARBURIZING
FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, and REDUCING FLAME.
A neutral flame is obtained by burning a mixture of
approximately 50% acetylene and 50% oxygen; it is a
well balanced flame indicating complete combustion.
The cone next to the tip is white hot and beyond it is a
long blue streamer. The molten metal produced in
welding with a neutral flame is quiet and clean, and
flows well. Few sparks are produced. See OXIDIZING
FLAME, CARBURIZING FLAME, and ACETYLENE,
Metalworking with Acetylene.
NICK-BREAK TEST
An impact test that can be made to provide prelimi- Figure N-3-Nick-Break Test
nary visual inspection of the weld. Visual inspection of
the broken section may reveal porosity, fracture mode, netic, a fair conductor of electricity, and belongs to the
incomplete fusion, or any other defects which may be iron-cobalt group of elements. Atomic weight, 58.69;
present. specific gravity, 8.90; melting point, 1453C (2647F).
A welder can use the nick-break test to check on a Nickel adds ductility when alloyed with steel, low-
weld by making a test bar out of material similar to the ers the critical point for heat treatment, aids fatigue
metal being welded. If necessary, the test specimen strength, and increases notch toughness.
may be cut directly out of the weld with a torch, and a Nickel is used as an alloying agent in steel to
new piece welded back in its place. As indicated in increase strength and toughness at low temperatures.
Figure N-3, the bar is nicked in the weld metal, 1/8 of Most nickel additions are from 1 to 4%, although in
its width on each side. It is preferable to make this nick some applications, the nickel content runs as high as
or cut with a hacksaw, but if a hacksaw is not avail- 36% or more. In all cases, the addition of nickel will
able, it can be made with a cutting torch. increase the strength without decreasing the toughness
A sharp blow with a hammer to the specimen held of the steel. Steels with a nickel content of 24% have
in a vise will break the weld metal from nick to nick. reduced magnetism. When the nickel content is
The hammer must be heavy and the blow sufficient to increased to 36%, the steel has a very small coefficient
make a clean break. A visual inspection for defects can of expansion due to heat (up to 482C [900"F]).
then be made.
The is used in welder performance testing to API NICKEL ALLOYS
1104. Nickel alloys offer unique physical and mechanical
properties and are useful in a variety of industrial
NICKEL applications, notably because of their resistance to
(Chemical symbol: Ni). A silvery white, hard, mal- attack in various corrosive media at temperatures from
leable, ductile metallic element, resistant to corrosion, 200C (400F) to over 1090C (2000"F), and their
used mainly in alloys and also as a catalyst. It is mag- good low- and high-temperature mechanical strength.
320 NICKEL ALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
In demanding industrial environments, nickel alloy alloy 400 (UNS N04400) immersed in hydrofluoric
welds must duplicate the attributes of the base metal to acid is not sensitive to stress-corrosion cracking, but it
a very high degree. Welding, heat treating, and fabri- is when exposed to the aerated acid or the acid vapors.
cation procedures should be established with this in The choice of welding process will be based on the
mind. The chemical compositions of various nickel following:
alloys are listed in Table N- 1. (1) Alloy to be welded
High-quality weldments are readily produced in (2) Thickness of the base metal
nickel alloys by commonly used welding processes. (3) Design conditions of the structure (such as tem-
Not all processes are applicable to every alloy; metal- perature, pressure, or type of stresses)
lurgical characteristics or the unavailability of match- (4) Welding position
ing or suitable welding filler metals and fluxes may ( 5 ) Need for jigs and fixtures
limit the choice of welding processes. (6) Service conditions and environments
Welding procedures for nickel alloys are similar to Metal Characteristics
those used for stainless steel, except the molten weld
metal is more sluggish, requiring more accurate weld Nickel has a face-centered-cubic (FCC) structure up
metal placement in the joint. Thermal expansion char- to its melting point. Nickel can be alloyed with a num-
acteristics of nickel alloys approximate those of car- ber of elements without forming detrimental phases.
bon steel and are more favorable than those of Nickel in some aspects bears a marked similarity to
stainless steel. Thus, warping and distortion are not iron, its close neighbor in the periodic table. Nickel is
severe during welding. only slightly denser than iron, and it has similar mag-
The mechanical properties of nickel alloy base met- netic and mechanical properties. The crystalline struc-
als will vary depending on the amount of hot or cold ture of pure nickel at room temperature, however, is
work remaining in the finished form (sheet, plate, or quite different from that of iron. Therefore, the metal-
tube). Some modification in the procedures may be lurgy of nickel and nickel alloys differs from that of
needed if the base metal is not in the fully annealed iron alloys.
condition. Alloy Groups
In general, the properties of welded joints in fully Nickel alloys can be classified into four groups:
annealed nickel alloys are comparable to those of the (1) Solid-solution-strengthened alloys
base metals. Postweld treatment is generally not (2) Precipitation-hardened alloys
needed to maintain or restore corrosion resistance in (3) Dispersion-strengthened alloys
most nickel alloys. In most media, the corrosion resis- (4) Cast alloys
tance of the weld metal is similar to that of the base Solid-Solution-Strengthened Alloys
metal. Welds made on Ni-Mo alloy NlOOOl and Ni-Si
cast alloys commonly are solution annealed after All nickel alloys are strengthened by solid solution.
welding to restore corrosion resistance to the heat- Additions of aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper,
affected zone (HAZ). iron, molybdenum, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium
Over-alloyed filler metals are often used (some- contribute to solid-solution strengthening. Aluminum,
times in lieu of postweld heat treatment) to fabricate chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten contribute
components for very aggressive corrosive environ- strongly to solid-solution strengthening while others
ments. The over-matching composition offsets the have a lesser effect. Molybdenum and tungsten
effects of weld metal segregation when using a match- improve strength at elevated temperatures.
ing composition. Examples are the use of filler metal Pure Nickel. Nickel 200 and the low-carbon version,
NiCrMo-3 products to weld the super stainless nickel 201, are most widely used where welding is
alloys, containing 4 to 28% molybdenum, and the use involved. Of these, the low-carbon nickel (201) is pre-
of filler metal NiCrMo-10 to fabricate components of ferred for applications involving service exposure to
the base metal Ni-Cr-Mo alloy C-276 (UNS N10276). temperatures above 315C (600F) because of its
Postweld heat treatment may be required for precip- increased resistance to graphitization at elevated tem-
itation hardening in specific alloys. Postweld stress peratures. This graphitization is the result of excess
relief may be necessary to avoid stress-corrosion carbon being precipitated intergranularly in the tem-
cracking i n applications involving hydrofluoric acid perature range of 315 to 760C (600 to 1400F) when
vapor or certain caustic solutions. For example, Ni-Cu nickel 200 is held there for extended time.
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOYS 321
Table N-1
Nominal Chemical Composition of Typical Nickel Alloys
Composition, wt. %
UNS
Alloya Number Nib C Cr Mo Fe Co Cu A1 Ti Nbc Mn Si W B Other
Commercially Pure Nickels
200 NO2200 99.5 0.08 - - 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.2 0.2 - - -
201 NO2201 99.5 0.01 - - 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.2 0.2 - - -
205 NO2205 99.5 0.08 - - 0.1 - 0.08 - 0.03 - 0.2 0.08 - - 0.05Mg
Solid-Solution Alloys
400 NO4400 66.5 0.2 - - 1.2 - 31.5 - - 1 0.2
404 NO4404 54.5 0.08 - - 0.2 - 44 0.03 0.05 0.05
R-405 NO4405 66.5 0.2 - - 1.2 - 31.5 - 0.1 0.02
X NO6002 47 0.10 22 9 18 1.5 - - 1 1
NICR 80 NO6003 76 0.1 20 - I - - - 2 1
NICR 60 NO6004 57 0.1 16 - bal. - - - 1 1
G NO6007 44 0.1 22 6.5 20 2.5 2 - 1.5 1 -
IN 102 NO6102 68 0.06 15 3 7 - - 0.4 - - O.O3Zr, 0.02Mg
RA 333 NO6333 45 0.05 25 3 18 3 - - 1.5 1.2
600 NO6600 76 0.08 15.5 - 8 - 0.2 - 0.5 0.2
60 1 NO6601 60 5 0.05 23 - 14 - - 1.4 0.5 0.2
617 NO66 17 52 0.07 22 9 1.5 12.5 - 1.2 0.5 0.5
622 NO6622 59 0.005 20.5 14.2 2.3 - - - - -
625 NO6625 61 0.05 21.5 9 2.5 - - 0.2 0.2 0.2
686 NO6686 58 0.005 20.5 16.3 1.5 - - - - -
690 NO6690 60 0.02 30 - 9 - - - OSd 0.9
725 NO7725 73 0.02 15.5 - 2.5 - - 0.7 - -
825 NO8825 42 0.03 21.5 3 30 - 2.25 0.1 0.5 0.25
B NlOOOl 61 0.05 1 28 5 2.5 - - 1 1
N N10003 70 0.06 7 16.5 5 - - - 0.8 0.5 -
W N 10004 60 0.12 5 24.5 5.5 2.5 - - 1 1 -
C-276 N10276 57 0.0Id 15.5 16 5 2.5d - - Id 0.08d 0.35Vd
c-22 NO6022 56 O.OIOd 22 13 3 2Sd - - OSd 0.08d 0.35Vd
B-2 N 10665 69 0.0Id Id 28 2d Id - - Id 0. I d -
c-4 NO6455 65 0.0Id 16 15.5 3d 2d - - Id 0.08d -
G-3 NO6985 44 0.015d 22 7 19.5 5d 2.5 - Id Id
G30 NO6030 43 0.03d 30 5.5 15 5d 2 - I S d Id -
S NO6635 67 0.02d 16 15 3d 2d - 0.25 0.5 0.4 0.02La
230 NO6230 57 0.10 22 2 3d 5d - 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.02La
214 NO7214 75 0.10 16 - 3 - - 4.5 - O S d 0.2d - 0.01d O.OlY, 0.1zId
Precipitation-HardenableAlloys
301 NO3301 96.5 0.15 - - 0.3 0.13 4.4 0.6 - 0.25 0.5 - - -
K-500 NO5500 66.5 0.10 - - 1 29.5 2.7 0.6 - 0.08 0.2 - - -
Waspaloy NO7001 58 0.08 19.5 4 - 13.5 - 1.3 3 - - - - 0.006 0.06Zr
R-41 NO704 1 55 0.10 19 10 1 10 - 1.5 3 - 0.05 0.1 - 0.005 -
80A NO7080 76 0.06 19.5 - - - - 1.6 2.4 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.006 0.06Zr
90 NO7090 59 0.07 19.5 - - 16.5 - 1.5 2.5 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.003 0.06Zr
M 252 NO7252 55 0.15 20 10 - 10 - 1 2.6 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.005 -
U-500 NO7500 54 0.08 18 4 - 18.5 - 2.9 2.9 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.006 0.05Zr
713Ce NO77 13 74 0.12 12.5 4 - - - 6 0 . 8 2 - - - 0.012 0.1OZr
718 NO77 18 52.5 0.04 19 3 18.5 - - 0.5 0.9 5.1 0.2 0.2 - - -
X750 NO7750 73 0.04 15.5 - 7 - - 0.7 2.5 1 0.5 0.2 - - -
706 NO9706 41.5 0.03 16 - 40 - - 0.2 1.8 2.9 0.2 0.2 - - -
90 1 NO9901 42.5 0.05 12.5 - 36 6 - 0.2 2.8 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.015 -
C 902 NO9902 42.2 0.03 5.3 - 48.5 - - 0.6 2.6 - 0.4 0.5 - - -
INIOOe N13100 60 0.18 10 3 - 15 - 5.5 4.7 - - - - 0.014 O.O6Zr, 1.OV
Dispersion-Strengthened Alloys
TDNickel NO3260 98 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 Th 0 2
TDNICR NO0754 78 - 20 - - - - - - - - - - - 2 Th 0 2
a. Several of these designations use parts of or are registered trade names. These and similar alloys may be known by other designations and trade names.
b. Includes small amount of cobalt, if cobalt content is not specified.
c. Includes tantalum (Nb+Ta).
d. Maximum value.
e. Casting alloys.
322 NICKEL ALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
Major applications for the two alloys are food pro- moderated by titanium and niobium. Niobium has the
cessing equipment, caustic handling equipment, labo- greatest effect on decreasing the aging rate and
ratory crucibles, chemical shipping drums, and improves weldability.
electrical and electronic parts. Nickel-Copper Alloys. The principal alloy in this
Nickel-Copper Alloys. Nickel and copper form a group is K-500. Strict attention to heat-treating proce-
continuous series of solid solutions with a face-cen- dures must be followed to avoid strain-age cracking.
tered-cubic crystal structure. The principal alloys in Its corrosion resistance is similar to the solid-solution
this group are alloy 400 and the free-machining ver- alloy 400. The alloy has been in commercial existence
sion of it, R-405. These alloys have high strength and for well over 50 years and is routinely welded, using
toughness, and they are important in industry prima- proper care, with the gas tungsten arc welding process.
rily because of their corrosion resistance. The alloys Weld metal properties using filler metals of matching
have excellent resistance to sea or brackish water, composition seldom develop 100% joint efficiencies,
chlorinated solvents, glass etching agents, sulfuric thus a common consideration by the designer is to
acids, and many other acids and alkalis. locate the weld in an area of low stress. ERNiFeCr-2
Nickel-copper alloys are readily joined by welding, filler metal has been used to join this alloy, but an
brazing, and soldering with proper precautions. To evaluation of service environment and the differing
improve strength and to eliminate porosity in the weld aging temperatures between the two alloys must be
metal, filler metals that differ somewhat in chemical made. The base metal supplier should be consulted for
composition from the base metal may be used. Weld- recommendations for filler materials.
ing without the addition of filler metal is not recom- Dispersion-StrengthenedAlloy
mended for manual gas tungsten arc welding. Most Nickel and nickel-chromium alloys can be strength-
automatic or mechanized welding procedures require ened to very high strength levels by the uniform dis-
the addition of filler metal, but a few do not. persion of very fine refractory oxide (Tho2) particles
Welding filler metals applicable to this alloy group throughout the alloy matrix. This is done using powder
are also widely used to weld copper alloys. metallurgy techniques during manufacture of the alloy.
Nickel-Chromium Alloys. Nickel alloys 600, 601, When these metals are fusion welded, the oxide parti-
690,214, 230, G-30, and RA-330 are commonly used. cles agglomerate during solidification. This destroys
Alloy 600, which is the most widely used, has good the original strengthening afforded by dispersion
corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures along within the matrix. The weld metal will be significantly
with good high-temperature strength. Because of its weaker than the base metal. The high strength of these
resistance to chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking, it base metals can be retained with processes that do not
finds wide use at all temperatures and has excellent involve melting the base metal. Contact the base metal
room-temperature and cryogenic properties. supplier for recommendations for specific conditions.
Precipitation-HardenableAlloys Cast Alloys
These alloys are strengthened by controlled heating, Casting alloys, like wrought alloys, can be strength-
which precipitates a second phase known as gamma ened by solid-solution or precipitation hardening.
prime, from a supersaturated solution. Precipitation Precipitation-hardening alloys high in aluminum con-
occurs upon reheating a solution-treated and quenched tent, such as alloy 7 13C, will harden during slow cool-
alloy to an appropriate temperature for a specified ing in the mold and are considered unweldable by
time. Each alloy will have an optimum thermal cycle fusion processes. However, surface defects and service
to achieve maximum strength in the finished aged con- damage are frequently repaired by welding. It should
dition. Some cast alloys will age directly as the solidi- be understood that a compromise is being made
fied casting cools in the mold. between the convenience of welding and the cast
The most important phase from a strengthening strength and ductility. Most nickel cast alloys will con-
standpoint is the ordered face-centered-cubic gamma tain significant amounts of silicon to improve fluidity
prime that is based upon the compound Ni3A1. This and castability. Most of these cast alloys are weldable
phase has a high solubility for titanium and niobium; by conventional means, but as the silicon content
consequently, its composition will vary with the base- increases, so does weld-cracking sensitivity. This
metal composition and temperature of formation. Alu- cracking sensitivity can be avoided using welding
minum has the greatest hardening potential, but this is techniques that minimize base metal dilution.
1
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOYS, Weld Cladding 323
Nickel castings that are considered unweldable by When weaving is used, a trailing shield may be neces-
arc welding methods may be welded using the oxy- sary for adequate shielding. In any case, the nozzle
acetylene process and a very high preheat temperature. should be large enough to deliver an adequate quantity
Cast nickel alloys containing 30% copper are consid- of gas under low velocity to the welding area. Repre-
ered unweldable when the silicon exceeds 2% because sentative chemical compositions of automatic gas
of their sensitivity to cracking. However, when weld- metal arc cladding are shown in Table N-2. The clad-
able grade castings are specified, weldability is quite ding in this table was produced with the following
good, and such welds will pass routine weld-metal welding conditions:
inspections using methods such as radiography, liquid- (1) Torch gas, 24 L/min (50 ft3 /h) argon
penetrant testing, and pressure tests. (2) Trailing shield gas, 24 Wmin (50 ft3 /h) argon
(3) Electrode extension, 19 mm (3/4 in.)
NICKEL ALLOYS, Weld Cladding (4) Power source, DCEP
Nickel alloy weld metal is readily applied as clad- (5) Oscillation frequency, 70 cycles/min
ding on carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and other base (6) Bead overlap, 6 to 10 rnm (1/4 to 3/8 in.)
metals to increase the service life of the workpiece or (7) Travel speed, 110 m d m i n (4-1/2 in./min)
to provide a corrosion-resistant surface. One of the When nickel-copper or copper-nickel cladding is to
benefits of this procedure, for example, is the cost sav- be applied to steel, a barrier layer of nickel filler metal
ing realized by cladding a steel vessel with a thin cor- ER61 must be applied first. Nickel weld metal will tol-
rosion-resistant layer of nickel alloy rather than erate greater iron dilution without fissuring. When
making the whole vessel of nickel alloy. cladding is applied manually, the iron content of the
Nickel-alloy cladding can be applied to cast iron, first bead will be considerably higher than that of sub-
but a trial cladding should be made to determine sequent beads. The first bead should be applied at a
whether standard procedures can be used. The casting reduced travel speed to dissipate much of the penetrat-
skin, or cast surface, must be removed by a mechani- ing force of the arc in a large weld pool and reduce the
cal means such as grinding. Cladding on cast irons iron content of the bead. The iron content of subse-
with high sulfur or phosphorus content may crack quent beads, as well as the surface contour of the clad-
because of embrittlement by those elements. Cracking ding, can be controlled by elimination of weaving and
can often be eliminated by applying a barrier layer of maintaining the arc at the edge of the preceding bead.
AWS ENiFe-CI welding electrode or AWS ENiFeT3- Such a procedure will result in a 50% overlap of
CI cored wire. These filler metals were especially beads, and the weld metal will wet the steel without
developed for welding cast iron, and the weld metal is excessive arc impingement. The welding gun should
more resistant to cracking caused by phosphorus, sul- be inclined up to 5" toward the preceding bead so that
fur, and carbon dilution. When cladding is applied the major force of the arc does not impinge on the
directly to cast iron without a barrier layer, amperage steel.
should be the minimum that provides proper arc char- Submerged Arc Cladding
acteristics in order to hold dilution at the lowest level. The submerged arc welding (SAW) process pro-
Gas Metal Arc Cladding duces high-quality nickel-alloy cladding on carbon
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with spray transfer steel and low-alloy steel. The process offers several
is successfully used to apply nickel-alloy cladding to advantages over gas metal arc cladding:
steel. The cladding is usually produced with mecha- (1) High deposition rates, 35 to 50% increase with
nized equipment and with weaving of the electrode. 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameter surfacing metal, and the
Argon is often used as the shielding gas. The addition ability to use larger electrodes.
of 15 to 25% helium, however, is beneficial for clad- (2) Fewer layers are required for a given cladding
ding with nickel and nickel-chromium-iron. Wider and thickness. For example, with 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) sur-
flatter beads and reduced depth of fusion result as the facing metal, two layers applied by the submerged arc
helium content is increased to about 25%. Gas-flow process have been found to be equivalent to three lay-
rates are influenced by welding technique and will ers applied by the gas metal arc welding process.
vary from 15 to 45 Wmin (35 to 100 ft3 AI). As weld- (3) The welding arc is much less affected by minor
ing current is increased, the weld pool will become process variations such as welding wire condition and
larger and require larger gas nozzles for shielding. electrical welding fluctuations.
324 NICKEL ALLOYS, Weld Cladding Welding Encyclopedia
Table N-2
Chemical Composi'tionof Gas Metal Arc Cladding on Steela
ERNi-1 280-290 27-28 1 71.6 25.5 - - 0.12 0.28 0.005 0.32 - 2.08 0.06 -
2 84.7 12.1 - - 0.09 0.17- 0.006 0.35 - 2.46 0.07 -
3 94.9 1.7 - - 0.06 0.09 0.003 0.37 - 2.76 0.08 -
E R N ~ C U280-300
-~~ 27-29 2 66.3 7.8 - 19.9 0.06 2.81 0.003 0.84 0.008 2.19 0.05 -
3 65.5 2.9 - 24.8 0.04 3.51 0.004 0.94 0.006 2.26 0.04 -
ERCuNib 280-290 27-28 2 41.1 11.5 - 45.8 0.04 0.53 0.007 0.14 - 0.84 - -
3 35.6 3.1 - 60.1 0.01 0.61 0.006 0.08 - 0.43 - -
ERNiCr-3 280-300 29-30 1 51.3 28.5 15.8 0.07 0.17 2.35 0.012 0.20 0.017 0.23 0.06 1.74
2 68.0 8.8 18.9 0.06 0.040 2.67 0.008 0.12 0.015 0.30 0.06 2.27
3 72.3 2.5 19.7 0.06 0.029 2.78 0.007 0.11 0.020 0.31 0.06 2.38
a. Automatic cladding with 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameter filler metal on SA 212 Grade B steel.
b. First layer applied with ERNi-1 filler metal.
(4) Welded surfaces of submerged arc cladding electrode. The major force of the arc should be
are smooth enough to be liquid-penetrant inspected directed at the edge of the previous bead so that the
with no special surface preparation other than wire weld metal will spread onto the steel with only mini-
brushing. mum weaving of the electrode. If beads with feather
( 5 ) Increased control provided by the submerged edges are applied, more layers will be required, and
arc process yields fewer defects and requires fewer the potential for excessive dilution will be greater. The
repairs. weld interface contour of the cladding should be as
Chemical compositions of specific submerged arc smooth as possible. A scalloped weld interface con-
weld claddings are shown in Table N-3. tour can result in excessive iron dilution, with subse-
The power supply for all weld cladding applied quent cracking as the weld specimen is subjected to a
using weaving techniques is direct current electrode 180-degree longitudinal bend test.
negative (DCEN) with constant voltage. DCEN pro-
duces an arc with less depth of fusion, which reduces Hot-wire Plasma Arc Cladding
dilution. Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) High-quality cladding can be produced at high dep-
results in improved arc stability and is used when osition rates with the hot-wire plasma arc process. The
stringer-bead cladding is needed to minimize the pos- process offers precise control of dilution, and dilution
sibility of slag inclusions. rates as low as 2% have been obtained. For optimum
Shielded Metal Arc Cladding uniformity, however, a dilution rate in the 5 to 10%
Shielded metal arc cladding on cast and wrought range is recommended. High deposition rates result
steels is widely used for such applications as facings from the use of two filler metal wires, which are resis-
on vessel outlets and trim on valves. The procedures tance heated by a separate ac power source. The filler
outlined for shielded metal arc joining should be fol- metal is in a nearly molten state before it enters the
lowed, except that special care must be taken to con- weld pool. Deposition rates for nickel-alloy weld
trol dilution of the cladding. Excessive dilution can metal are 16 to 18 k g h (35 to 40 Ibh), approximately
result in weld metal that is crack sensitive or has double those obtained with submerged arc weld clad-
reduced corrosion resistance. The amperage should be ding. Welding conditions for hot-wire plasma arc clad-
in the lower half of the recommended range for the ding are given in Table N-4.
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOYS, Weld Cladding 325
Table N-3
Chemical Composition of Submerged Arc Cladding on Steel, wt. %*
Flux and
Filler Metal Layer Ni Fe Cr Cu C Mn S Si Ti Nb+Ta Mo
Flux 4 and 1 63.6 12.5 17.00 - 0.07 2.95 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.4 -
ERNiCr-3 2 70.0 5.3 17.50 - 0.07 3.00 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.5 -
3 71.5 2.6 18.75 - 0.07 3.05 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.5 -
Flux 5 and 1 60.6 12.0 - 21.0 0.06 5.00 0.014 0.90 0.45 - -
ERNiCu-7 2 64.6 4.55 - 24.0 0.04 5.50 0.015 0.90 0.45 - -
Flux 6 and
ERNi-1 2 88.8 8.4 - - 0.07 0.40 0.004 0.64 1.70 - -
ERN9Cr-3 2 68.6 7.2 18.50 - 0.04 3.00 0.007 0.37 - 2.2 -
Flux 7 and
ERNiCrMo-3 1 60.2 3.6 21.59 - 0.02 0.74 0.001 0.29 0.13 3.29 8.6
*Cladding on ASTM SA 212 Grade B steel applied by oscillating technique with 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameter filler metal.
Table N-4
Typical Conditions for Hot-wire Plasma Arc Cladding
Characteristic ERNiCu-7 Filler Metal ERNiCr-3 Filler Metal
I
the cladding during the first welding pass.
Dilution of the steel weld with the nickel-alloy clad-
ding can cause cracking of the weld metal. The clad
side of the joint should be prepared by grinding or
chipping and welded with the filler metal recom-
STEEL \li 5-8.0 mm (3/16-5/16 in.)
Table N-5
Arc Welding Processes Applicable to Some Nickel Alloys
Processb
200 NO2200 X X X X
201 NO2201 X X X X
400 NO4400 X X X
404 NO4404 X X X
R-405 NO4405 X X X
X NO6002 X X X
NICR 80 NO6003 X X -
NICR 60 NO6004 X X -
G NO6007 X X X
RA 333 NO6333 - X -
600 NO6600 X X X
601 NO6601 X X X
625 NO6625 X X X
20Cb3 NO8020 X X X
800 NO8800 X X X
825 NO8825 X X X
B NlOOOl X X X
C N10002 X X X
N N10003 X X
Precipitation-Hardenable Nickel Alloys
K-500 NO5500 X
Waspaloy NO7001 X
R-41 NO7041 X
80A NO7080 X
90 NO7090 X
M 252 NO7252 X
U-500 NO7500 X
718 NO77 18 X
X-750 NO7750 X
706 NO9706 X
901 NO9901 X
Several of these designations use parts of or are registered trade names. These and similar alloys may be known by other designations and
trade names.
SMAW -Shielded metal arc welding
GTAW -Gas tungsten arc welding
PAW -Plasma arc welding
GMAW-Gas metal arc welding
SAW -Submerged arc welding
Fine grain is ASTM Number 5 or finer.
330 NICKEL ALLOY WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
The GTAW and plasma arc welding processes frequently made to bring the base metal and weld
are also the best joining processes for welding the metal properties into closer agreement.
precipitation-hardenable alloys. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Shielding Gases. The recommended shielding gas is Nickel alloys can be readily joined with the plasma
helium, argon, or a mixture of the two. Smdl quanti- arc welding process. The constricted arc permits
ties of hydrogen (about 5%) may be added to argon for greater depth of fusion than that obtainable with the
single-pass welds. The hydrogen addition produces a gas tungsten arc, but the welding procedures with both
hotter arc because of its higher voltage gradient. How- processes are similar. Square-groove welds can be
ever, hydrogen may cause porosity in multiple-pass made in base metal up to about 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick
welds with some alloys. The choice of shielding gas with a single pass when keyhole welding is used. Thin
for arc characteristics and depth of fusion shape base metal can be welded with melt-in welding, as
should be based on trial welding for the particular pro- with gas tungsten arc welding. Base metal over 8 mm
duction weld. (0.3411.) thick can be welded using one of the other
Electrodes. Either pure tungsten or those alloyed groove weld joint designs. The first pass can be made
with thorium, cerium or lanthanum may be used. A with keyhole welding and the succeeding passes with
2% alloyed electrode will give good results for most melt-in welding. The root face should be about 5 mm
GTAW welding. The alloyed electrodes yield longer (0.18 in.) wide, compared to 2 mm (0.06 in.) for gas
life, resulting from low vaporization of the electrode tungsten arc welding. Special techniques are required
and cooler operation. It is important to avoid overheat- for keyhole welding of thicknesses of 3 mm (0.13 in.)
ing the electrode through the use of excessive current. and greater. Upslope of the orifice gas flow and the
Arc stability is best when the tungsten electrode is welding current is required to initiate the keyhole;
ground to a flattened point. Cone angles of 30 to 60 downslope of these conditions is needed to fill the
degrees with a small flat apex are generally used. The keyhole cavity at the end of the weld bead. Argon or
point geometry, however, should be designed for argon-hydrogen mixtures are normally recommended
the particular application and can vary from sharp to for the orifice and shielding gases. Hydrogen addition
flat. With higher amperages, the use of a larger diame- to argon increases the arc energy for keyhole welding
ter flat area is often desirable. The shape of the elec- and high-speed autogenous welding. Additions up to
trode has an effect on the depth of fusion and bead 15% may be used, but these should be used with care
width, with all other welding conditions being equal. because hydrogen can cause porosity in the weld
Thus, the welding procedure should spell out its metal. Therefore, the gas mixture for a specific appli-
configuration. cation should be determined by appropriate tests.
Welding Current. The polarity recommended for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
both manual and mechanized welding is direct current
This process is used primarily for welding nickel
electrode negative (DCEN). Frequently incorporated
in the welding machine is a high-frequency circuit to
and solid-solution-strengthenedalloys. These alloys
are readily welded in all positions, with the same facil-
enhance arc initiation and a current-decay unit to grad-
ually decrease the size of the weld crater when break- ity as steel. Welding techniques similar to those used
ing the arc. in making high-quality welds in stainless steel should
be used. Shallower depth of fusion and relatively slug-
Alternating current can be used for mechanized gish molten weld metal require minor variations in
welding if the arc length is closely controlled. Super- technique. Shielded metal arc welding is seldom used
imposed high-frequency power is required for arc sta- to weld the precipitation-hardenablealloys. The alloy-
bilization. High-frequency power is also useful with ing elements that contribute to precipitation hardening
dc power to initiate the arc. are difficult to transfer across the welding arc. Struc-
Filler Metals. Filler metals for the GTAW process are tures that are fabricated from these age-hardenable
generally similar to the base metals with which they alloys are welded with better results by one of the gas-
are used. However, a weld is a casting with an inherent shielded processes. If this process is used to weld age-
dendritic structure, as opposed to the relative uniform hardenable alloys, interpass bead cleaning to remove
grain size of the wrought base metal. Based on this oxides is critical to making a sound weld. Also, joint
knowledge, adjustments in chemical composition are efficiencies will be significantly lower than those
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOY WELDING 331
made using the gas tungsten arc welding or plasma arc Shielding Gases. The protective atmosphere for
process. GMAW is normally argon or argon mixed with
Joint design will vary according to the material helium. The optimum shielding gas will vary with the
thickness and the joining process used. Because type of metal transfer used.
nickel-alloy weld metal does not spread readily, joints Using spray and globular transfer, good results are
must be more open than those used for mild or low- obtained with pure argon. The addition of helium,
alloy steels to permit manipulation of the filler metal however, has been found to be beneficial. Increasing
and placement of the weld bead. helium content leads to progressively wider and flatter
Preheat is generally not required. However, if the beads and less depth of fusion. Used alone, helium
base metal temperature is cold, it is advisable to warm tends to produce excessive spatter.
a 250 to 300 mm (10 to 12 in.) area surrounding the A shielding gas of oxygen or carbon dioxide added
weld location to approximately 15 to 20C (60 to to the argon, a mixture commonly used to weld some
70F) to prevent condensation. base metals, should be avoided when welding nickel
Welding current should be kept as low as possible, and cobalt alloys, because even small amounts will
consistent with smooth arc action. The best procedure result in heavily oxidized and irregular bead faces.
is to follow the manufacturers recommendations for Such additions also cause severe porosity in nickel and
the particular electrode and materials being welded. nickel-copper alloys.
Postweld heat treatment is not needed to restore Filler Metals. Filler metals for the GMAW process
corrosion resistance of high-nickel alloys for most are identical, almost without exception, to those used
applications. with the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Weld slag removal is accomplished by scratching Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
with the corner of a cold chisel and brushing with a The submerged arc welding process leaves as-
stainless steel wire brush. Slag should be removed welded surfaces ready for dye-penetrant inspection
from each crater before making a re-strike, and com- without machining, grinding, or other special prepara-
pletely removed before each pass in multi-pass tion. Additional advantages of submerged-arc welding
welding. are that gas shielding problems and operator discom-
Electrode diameters should be chosen for weld fort are virtually eliminated.
quality rather than for production speed. The size of Filler metals and fluxes are available for submerged
the electrode should not be so large that it interferes arc welding of several solid-solution nickel alloys. The
with proper manipulation or results in excessive heat process is not recommended for joining thick nickel-
buildup. molybdenum alloys, because the high heat input and
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) slow cooling rate of the weld results in low weld duc-
The gas metal arc welding process can be used to tility and loss in corrosion resistance due to changes in
weld all the solid-solution nickel alloys except high- chemical composition from flux reactions.
silicon castings, but it is an inferior choice of process Because of its high deposition rate, the submerged
for welding many of the age-hardenable alloys. arc process is an efficient method for joining thick
The dominant mode of metal transfer is spray trans- base metal. Compared to other arc welding processes,
fer, but short circuiting and pulsed spray welding are bead surfaces are smoother, a proper flux will be self-
widely employed. Spray transfer of filler metal is more peeling, and welding operator discomfort is less. The
economical because it uses higher welding currents double-U-groove is the preferred design for all joints
and larger diameter welding wires, but the pulsed that permit its use. It can be completed in less time
spray welding method using smaller welding wire and with less filler metal and flux, and yields lower resid-
lower currents is more amenable to welding positions ual welding stresses. Deposition rates for submerged
other than flat. Both methods are widely used in the arc welding for two filler metal and flux combinations
production of low-dilution weld cladding on less cor- are shown in Table N-6.
rosion-resistant base metal (such as carbon and low Fluxes. Submerged arc fluxes are available for sev-
alloy steels). eral nickel alloys, and they are designed for use with a
Globular transfer is seldom used, because the specific welding wire. Fluxes used to weld carbon
erratic depth of fusion and uneven bead contour it pro- steels and stainless steel are invariably unsuitable for
duces are conducive to defect formation. welding nickel alloys. In addition to protecting the
332 NICKEL ALLOY WELDING Weldina EncvcloDedia
Table N-6
may be used. DCEP is preferred for groove joints,
Deposition Rates for Submerged Arc Welding yielding flatter beads and greater depth of fusion at
for SDecific Filler Metal and Flux Combinations low voltage (30 to 33V). DCEN is frequently used for
weld surfacing, yielding higher deposition rates and
Wire reduced depth of penetration, thus reducing the
Diameter Deposition Rate amount of dilution from the base metal. However,
Filler Metal DCEN requires a deeper flux cover and causes an
andFlux mm in. Polarity kg/h lb/h increase in flux consumption. DCEN also increases
ERNiCr-3 1.6 1/16 DCEN 7.3-8.2 16-18 the possibility of slag inclusions, especially in butt
with Flux 4" 1.6 1/16 DCEP 6.4-7.7 14-17 joints where the molten weld metal is thicker and
2.4 3/32 DCEN 9.1-9.5 20-21 solidification occurs from the sidewalls as well as the
2.4 3/32 DCEP 7.3-7.7 16-17 root of the weld.
ERNiCu-7 1.6 1/16 DCEN 7.3-7.7 16-17 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
withFlux5* 1.6 1/16 DCEP 6.4-7.3 14-16 Some advantages of electron beam welding are:
2.4 3/32 DCEN 9.1-9.5 20-21 (1) Single pass welds with nearly parallel sides can
2.4 3/32 DCEP 7.3-7.7 16-17 be made because of the high depth-to-width ratio and
full penetration of EBW.
*Proprietary flux from Inco Alloys International, Inc. Weight of
flux consumed is approximately equal to weight of filler metal. (2) The process is extremely efficient because it
converts electrical energy directly to beam output
energy.
molten metal from atmospheric contamination, the (3) The heat input per unit length for a given depth
fluxes provide arc stability and contribute important of penetration is less than with arc welding. This
additions to the weld metal. results in a narrower heat-affected zone with its atten-
dant lower distortion and adverse thermal effects.
The flux cover should be only sufficient to prevent
the arc from breaking through. An excessive flux (4) Rapid travel speeds are possible because of the
cover can cause deformed weld beads. Slag is easily high melting rates associated with the concentrated
removed and should be discarded, but unfused flux heat source. This increases productivity and efficiency
can be reclaimed. However, in order to maintain con- by reducing welding time.
sistency in the flux particle size, reclaimed flux should Joints that can be welded include: butt, corner, lap,
be mixed with an equal amount of unused flux. edge, and T-joints. Normally, fillet welds are not
attempted because they are difficult to make. Square
Submerged arc fluxes are chemical mixtures and
butt welds require fixturing to maintain alignment and
can absorb moisture. Storage in a dry area and reseal-
fit-up. Without the addition of filler metal, the fit-up is
ing opened containers are standard practice. Flux that
more critical than for arc welding. Poor fit-up will
has absorbed moisture can be reclaimed by heating.
result in lack of fill in the joint. High quality welding
The flux manufacturer should be consulted for the rec-
requires cleanliness of the parts, Weld contamination
ommended procedure.
can cause porosity and crachng along with a decrease
Filler Metals. Submerged arc welding employs the in mechanical properties.
same filler metals used with the gas tungsten arc weld- Usually, any metal or alloy that can be fusion
ing and gas metal arc welding processes. Weld metal welded by other welding processes can be joined by
chemical composition will be somewhat difierent as EBW. The weldability of a particular alloy or combi-
additions are made through the flux to allow the use of nation of alloys will depend on the metallurgical char-
higher currents and larger welding wires. Welding acteristics of that alloy or combination, the part
wire diameters are usually smaller than those used to configuration, joint design, process parameters and
weld carbon steels. For example, the maximum size special welding procedure.
used to weld thick base metal is 2.4 mm (3/32 in.), Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
where 1.1 mm (0.045 in.) has been used to weld thin
Many of the nickel and nickel-based alloys have
base metal.
been successfully welded with laser beam welding.
Welding Current. Direct current electrode negative Welded joint cross sections are similar to those pro-
(DCEN) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) duced by an electron beam. Laser welding has the
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOY WELDING 333
advantage of being done in the open, compared to the Generally, however, because OFW is slow, and
vacuum chamber required for electron beam. Some because it requires fluxing and more heat input, it has
process limitations include the following: been displaced by the GMAW and GTAW processes.
(1) Positioning of the weld joint must be very Welding Dissimilar Metals
closely controlled. Selecting the appropriate welding process and the
(2) Parts must be accurately clamped to assure filler metal requires careful consideration when join-
alignment with the beam. ing dissimilar metals. The choice of both should be
(3) Maximum joint thickness is commonly limited based on metallurgical factors such as differences in
to 19 mm (0.75 in.). thermal expansion coefficients between the weld metal
(4)Because of rapid solidification, some porosity and base metal, the effects of dilution on the weld
may be experienced. Workpiece cleanliness is of great metal, and the possibility of changes in the structure
importance because of possible weld contamination. of the materials after extended service at elevated
Joint design is important because the laser beam must temperatures.
have access to the weld area. The shielded metal arc welding process has the
ResistanceWelding (RW) advantage in making dissimilar metal welds in that the
This category includes spot, seam, and projection amount of filler metal added is less influenced by
welding. The weld is made by the generation of heat at welder technique than the GTAW or GMAW pro-
the faying surfaces of adjoining parts. Current is cesses. In GTAW, the welder can vary filler metal
passed through the parts to be welded and the heat is addition to a very large degree.
generated by the resistance to the passage of current. The gas tungsten arc welding process permits more
The size and shape of the weld depends on a number control over dilution than most other processes. The
of factors, some of which are: (1) the type of equip- gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process is sometimes
ment being used, (2) the amount of current passing used for joining dissimilar metals, but the procedure
through the parts, (3) the length of time used to make must be carefully controlled to prevent excessive dilu-
the weld, (4)the cleanliness of the parts, and ( 5 ) the tion. The submerged arc welding (SAW) process can
metallurgical characteristics of the materials being also be used, but again, procedures must be controlled
welded. to avoid excessive dilution from the joint sidewall.
Generally, nickel-base alloys are readily weldable Filler Metals. A variety of materials can be welded
using resistance welding processes. Some cast precipi- using nickel alloy filler metals. Stainless and carbon
tation-hardenable, low-ductility alloys can be difficult steels, low-alloy steels, and high-nickel alloys are
to weld without cracking. Because nickel-base alloys
among the possibilities.
have high strength at elevated temperatures, high elec-
Either covered electrodes or bare filler metals are
trode forces are needed. Surface contaminants contain-
ing lead and sulfur must be removed prior to welding available and can be specified to suit equipment and
skills. Some of the most commonly used electrodes are
because these materials can cause embrittled welds.
Occasionally, mechanical sticking of electrodes is listed in ANSUAWS A5.14, Specification for Nickel
encountered when welding pure nickel because of its and Nickel Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes;
high electrical conductivity. The values of welding and A5.11, Specification for Nickel and Nickel Alloy
currents used to join various nickel-based alloys are Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding.
dependent on their resistivity and strength. As the Welding 9% Nickel Steel
resistivity (compared to low-carbon steel) increases, Nine percent nickel steel is generally specified
less current is required to make a satisfactory weld. for commercial applications in the production, han-
Oxyfuel Welding (OFW) dling, storage, and transportation of liquid gases, as
Oxyfuel welding is seldom used for welding nickel well as related cryogenic applications. The following
and nickel alloys. The selection of the method is deter- properties are required:
mined not by the metal but by the physical characteris- (1) High strength and toughness
tics of the piece to be welded: gauge of the metal, (2) Resistance to embrittlement at temperatures as
design of the workpiece and design of the individual low as -196C (-320F)
joint. Good welding is accomplished with OFW in (3) High stress allowances of pressure vessel
flat, vertical or overhead positions. designs
334 NICKEL SILVER Welding Encyclopedia
Table N-7
Nondestructive Testing Methods
Equipment Needs Applications Advantages Limitations
Visual
Magnifiers, color Welds which have Economical, expedient, Limited to external or surface
enhancement, projectors, discontinuities on the requires relatively little conditions only. Limited to the
other measurement equipment surface. training and relatively little visual acuity of the observer/
(i.e., rulers, micrometers, equipment for many inspector.
optical comparators, light applications.
source).
Radiography (Gamma)
~~~~~
Gamma ray sources, gamma Most weld discontinuities Permanent record4nables Radiation is a safety hazard-
ray camera projectors, fiim including incomplete review by parties at a later requires special facilities or areas
holders, films, lead screens, fusion, incomplete date. Gamma sources may where radiation will be used and
film processing equipment, penetration, slag, as well be positioned inside of requires special monitoring of
film viewers, exposure as corrosion and fit-up accessible objects, Le., exposure levels and dosages to
facilities, radiation monitoring defects, wall thickness pipes, etc., for unusual personnel. Sources (gamma)
equipment. dimensional evaluations. technique radiographs. decay over their half-lives and
Energy efficient source must be periodically replaced.
requires no electrical energy Gamma sources have a constant
for production of gamma energy of output (wavelength) and
rays. cannot be adjusted. Gamma
source and related licensing
requirements are expensive.
Radiography requires highly
skilled operating and interpretive
personnel.
Radiography (X-Rays)
X-ray sources (machines) Same application as Adjustable energy levels, High initial cost of x-ray
electrical power source, same above. generally produces higher equipment. Not generally
general equipment as used quality radiographs than considered portable, radiation
with gamma sources (above). gamma sources. Offers hazard as with gamma sources,
permanent record as with skilled operational and
gamma radiography interpretive personnel
(above). required.
Ultrasonic
Pulse-echo instrument capable Most weld discontinuities Most sensitive to planar type Surface conditions must be
of exciting a piezoelectric including cracks, slag, discontinuities. Test results suitable for coupling to
material and generating inadequate penetration, known immediately. transducer. Couplant (liquid)
ultrasonic energy within a test incomplete fusion; lack Portable. Most ultrasonic required. Small welds and thin
piece, and a suitable cathode of bond in brazing; flaw detectors do not require materials may be difficult to
ray tube scope capable of thickness measurements. an electrical outlet. High inspect. Reference standards are
displaying the magnitudes of penetration capability. required. Requires a relatively
the reflected sound energy. Reference standards are skilled operator/inspector. The
Calibration standards, liquid required. results of the inspection are
couplant. usually reported by the operator
on a preprinted form.
Welding Encyclopedia NORWAY IRON 337
~ ~~~
Magnetic Particle
Prods, yokes, coils suitable for Most weld discontinuities Relatively economical and Must be applied to ferro-magnetic
inducing magnetism into the open to the surface- expedient. Inspection materials. Parts must be clean
test piece. Power source some large voids slightly equipment is considered before and after inspection. Thick
(electrical). Magnetic powders, sub-surface. Most portable. Unlike dye coatings may mask rejectable
some applications require suitable for cracks. penetrants, magnetic particle indications. Some applications
special facilities and ultraviolet can detect some near surface require parts to be demagnetized
lights. discontinuities. Indications after inspection. Magnetic particle
may be preserved on inspection requires use of
transparent tape. electrical energy for most
applications.
Liquid Penetrant
Fluorescent or visible (dye Weld discontinuities open May be used on all non- Surface films such as coatings,
penetrant, developers, to surface (i.e., cracks, porous materials. Portable, scale, smeared metal mask or hide
cleaners, solvents, emulsifiers, porosity, seams). relatively inexpensive rejectable defects. Bleed out from
etc.). Suitable cleaning gear. equipment. Expedient porous surfaces can also mask
Ultraviolet light source if inspection results. Results are indications. Parts must be cleaned
fluorescent dye is used. easily interpreted. Requires before and after inspection.
no electrical energy except
for light source. Indications
may be further examined
visually.
Eddy Current
An instrument capable of Weld discontinuities open Relatively expedient, low Limited to conductive materials.
inducing electromagnetic to the surface (Le., cracks, cost. Automation possible for Shallow depth of penetration.
fields within a test piece and porosity, incomplete symmetrical parts. No Some indications may be
sensing the resulting electrical fusion) as well as some couplant required. Probe masked by part geometry due to
currents (eddy) so induced subsurface inclusions. need not be in intimate sensitivity variations. Reference
with a suitable probe or Alloy content, heat contact with test piece. standard required.
detector. Calibrations treatment variations, wall
standards. thickness.
Acoustic Emission
Emission sensors, amplifying Internal cracking in weld Real time and continuous Requires the use of transducers
electronics, signal processing during cooling, crack surveillance inspection. May coupled on the test part surface.
electronics including initiation and growth be inspected remotely. Part must be in use or stressed.
frequency gates, filters. A rates. Portability of inspection More ductile materials yield low
suitable output system for apparatus. amplitude emissions. Noise must
evaluating the acoustic signal be filtered out of the inspection
(audio monitor, visual monitor, system.
counters, tape recorders, X-Y
recorder).
338 NOZZLE Welding Encyclopedia
industry it was used almost exclusively for this pw- NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
pose. The iron was imported from Norway in ingot Since all of the major components of a nuclear
form and drawn into wire in theUnited States. power plant are joined by welding in accordance with
Section 111 of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, weld-
NOZZLE ing plays an important role in the delivery of nuclear
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See CONSTRICT- power. Nuclear plant piping systems account for most
ING NOZZLE and GAS NOZZLE. of the welding, but it is alsoa major application in the
reactors, steam generators, pressure vessels, and con-
NOZZLE, Arc Spraying tainment vessels, as well as the powerhouse structures;
A device at the exit end of the gun that directs the all are welded to specifications in Section 111.
atomizing air or other gas. See STANDARD WELDING More engineering analysis, more care, and more
TERMS. safeguards are in place in the design and construction
of nuclear plants than in any other method of power
NOZZLE, Flame Spraying generation. The United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission is involved directly in the design, con-
A device at the exit end of the gun that directs and
struction, licensing and operation of plants.
forms the flow shape of atomized spray particles and
the accompanying air or other gases. See STANDARD NUGGET
WELDING TERMS. The weld metaljoining the workpieces in spot, seam,
orprojection welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
NOZZLE ACCUMULATION
Filler metal or surfacing material deposited on the NUGGET SIZE
inner surface and on the exit end of the nozzle. See A nonstandard term when used for resistance spot
STANDARD WELDING TERMS, weld size.
339
340 ONE SIDED ARC WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
made in the flat welding position. See STANDARD The process may be used to produce autogenous
WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 4, Figure 1. welds (without the addition of filler materials), or filler
may be added that becomes part of the finished weld-
ONE SIDED ARC WELDING ment. The welding is done in an inert gas atmosphere
A term generally applied to welding applications in to protect the metal from oxidation as it is heated to
which all of the filler metal is deposited from one side. melting temperature. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
The resulting welds are usually free of imperfections may also be used for orbital welding.
on the backside so that it should not be necessary to do Power Supplies. Orbital tube welding power sup-
any welding on the backside. Submerged arc welding plies control weld parameters that typically include
(SAW) has been considered a one-sided method. For welding currents, background and pulse amperes
the most part, welding can be completed from one (which determine the amount of heat input into the
side, but sometimes there may be imperfections that weld), travel speed (RPM), timers that control the
necessitate back-chipping or gouging and welding on amount of time at a particular setting, delay of rotation
the underside. at the start of the weld, and a current downslope at the
OPEN BUlT JOINT end of the weld.
A nonstandard term for a butt joint with an open A timed prepurge and postpurge are usually used to
root. time the flow of inert gas into the weld head before arc
initiation and to continue the purge for a timed period
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE after the arc has been extinguished. This allows the
The voltage between the output terminals of the weld to cool sufficiently to prevent oxidation before
power source when no current isflowing to the torch the weld head is opened to remove the welded tube.
or gun. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Orbital tube welding is generally done autoge-
nously, so additional controls used for wire feed are
OPEN GROOVE not required. Power supplies used for orbital tube
A nonstandard term for OPEN ROOT JOINT. welding generally supply 100 to 150 amperes of weld-
ing current, direct current, electrode negative.
OPEN HEARTH STEEL Modern orbital tube welding power supplies are
Steel which has been manufactured by the open microprocessor-based. This permits the storage of
hearth process. In this process steel is smelted in a gas weld programs or schedules for a large number of tube
fired, regenerative furnace consisting of a shallow sizes. The programs can be written, entered into the
trough or hearth. power supply, and modified by the operator based on
welding results, and programs can be changed without
OPEN JOINT loss of other programs. The power supply may be able
A nonstandard term for OPEN ROOT JOINT. to print out the weld schedule or to interface with a
computer for documentation of operational weld
OPEN ROOT JOINT parameters.
An unwelded joint without backing or consumable
insert. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Weld Heads. Weld heads for orbital tube welding
typically span a range of sizes. For example, a weld
OPTICAL PYROMETER head for tubing up to 38.1 mm (1-1/2 in.) outside
See PYROMETER. diameter (OD) may also be able to weld tube mea-
suring 6.4 mm (1/4 in.), 9.5 mm (3/8 in.), 12.7 mm
ORBITAL WELDING (1/2 in.), 19.1 mm (3/4 in.), and 25.4 mm (1 in.).
Orbital welding is a mechanized version of the gas Autogenous (fusion) tube welds are practical in
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process. In manual diameters from 3.2 rnm (0.125 in.) up to about
GTAW, the welder moves the welding torch and con- 152 mm (6 in.) with wall thicknesses up to 4 rnm
trols the welding current. In orbital GTAW, the tung- (0.154 in.).
sten is installed in a weld head that clamps on the tube Standard orbital weld heads have tube clamp inserts
or pipe. The tube remains in place while the weld head on both sides of the weld to hold the tubes during
rotor revolves or orbits around the weld joint circum- welding, and the tungsten electrode is located in the
, ference to complete the weld. rotor in the centerline of the head. To weld two tubes
Welding Encyclopedia OVERHANG 341
or fittings in a particular size weld head, the length of eral government. It became effective April 28, 1971.
tubing or the straight section of the fitting must reach Most states also have an OSHA regulatory board that
from the outside of the head to the electrode location enforces safety and health regulations.
in the weld head center. Reference: Tube and Pipe The Occupational Safety and Health Act provides
Quarterly, The Croydon Group, Ltd., Rockford, Ill. the federal government with an instrument to support,
Januarymebruary, 1996. encourage and carry forward into new areas the safety
and health activities that American industry pioneered
ORIFICE on a voluntary basis. Initially, the Act offered no new
See CONSTRICTING ORIFICE. See also STANDARD standards but has relied on accepted industry-devel-
WELDING TERMS. oped standards. The responsibility is to build on what
ORIFICE GAS
management, labor and government (state and
national) have accomplished in job safety since the
The gas that is directed into the plasma arc torch or
early years of this century.
thermal spraying gun to surround the electrode. It
becomes ionized in the arc to form the arc plasma, and The provisions of OSHA have had a great impact
issuesfrom the constricting orifice of the nozzle as a on employers and industry in observing specific safety
plasma jet. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also and health standards. The following is required of
Appendix 10, Figure 1. employers:
(a) The employer must furnish to each employee,
ORIFICE THROAT LENGTH employment and a place of employment which is free
The length of the constricting orifice in the plasma from recognized hazards that are causing or likely to
arc torch or thermal spraying gun. See STANDARD cause death or serious harm to these employees.
WELDlNG TERMS. See also Appendix 10, Figure 1. (b) Comply with the Occupational Safety and
OSCILLATOR, ELECTRICAL
Health standards promulgated by this Act.
Any of various electronic devices that produce While the Act covers all industries and most
alternating electrical current, commonly employing employees, there are many areas that are of specific
tuned circuits and amplifying components. interest to welding. Much of the healthy and safety
information available to the fabricator and consumer
OSCILLATOR, MECHANICAL has originated with manufacturers of welding equip-
A mechanical device used to impart oscillatory ment and consumables, metals and materials, as well
motion to electrode holders, within limitations of as the professional associations that support these
stroke and amplitude in arc welding. It is used to meet groups. See Appendix ??.
a wide range of welding conditions, particularly in gas
metal arc welding (GMAW). OSMIUM
Commercial units are available to linearly oscillate (Chemical Symbol: Os) A bluish-white, hard, crys-
loads at frequencies of 30 to 240 cycles per minute, talline metallic element belonging to the platinum
with infinite adjustments within this range and with family of elements. Discovered in 1803 by Tennant, it
running amplitude adjustment of from 0 to 18 mm is used as a hardening alloy in platinum. Osmium is
(0 to 3/4 in.). Other oscillators are available in which used for fine machine bearings, for pen points and
the motion is that of a pendulum, with strokes up to instrument pivots. With iridium, it forms an alloy,
62 mm (2-1/2 in.) wide. osmiridium, which is used for making filaments in
The types of motions imparted by oscillators are incandescent lamps. Atomic number: 76; atomic
harmonic or uniform, or a combination, with dwell as weight: 190.; melting point: 3000C (5432F); specific
required. The motions are produced by linkages or gravity: 22.48 at 20C (68F).
cams. The units are driven by electric motors and are
controlled mechanically or by an electronic governor. OVEN SOLDERING
OSHA A nonstandard term for FURNACE SOLDERING.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970,
known as Public Law 91-596, is the most far-reaching OVERHANG
safety and health regulation ever enacted by the fed- A nonstandard term when used for EXTENSION.
342 OVERHEAD POSITION Welding Encyclopedia
Table 0-1
weight than any of the other hydrocarbon fuel gases.
Oxvacetvlene Flame TemDeratures Colorless and lighter than air, it has a distinctive odor
resembling garlic. To stabilize acetylene in cylinders,
Ratio of Temperature it is dissolved in acetone; therefore it has a slightly dif-
Oxygen to ferent odor than pure acetylene.
Acetylene Q p e of Flame "C "F At temperatures above 780C (1435"F), or at pres-
0.8 to 1.0 Carburizing 3065 5550
sures above 207 kPa (30 psig), gaseous acetylene is
0.9 to 1.0 Carburizing 3150 5700 unstable, and even in the absence of oxygen, decom-
1.0 to 1.0 Neutral 3100 5600 position may result. This characteristic has been taken
1.5 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3427 6200 into consideration in the preparation of a code of safe
1.8 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3482 6300 practices for the generation, distribution, and use of
2.0 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3370 6100 acetylene gas. The accepted safe practice is never to
2.5 to 1.0 0xidizing 3315 6000 use acetylene at pressures exceeding 103 kPa (15 psi)
in generators, pipelines or hoses.
Theoretically, the complete combustion of acety-
torches were made by Fouche and Picard in 1900. See
lene is represented by the chemical equation:
OXYACETYLENE WELDING.
C2H2+ 2.5 O2 3 2C02 + H 2 0 (Equation 0-1)
OXYACETYLENE PRESSURE WELDING
See PRESSURE GAS WELDING (PGW). This equation indicates that one volume of acety-
lene (C2H2)and 2.5 volumes of oxygen (02)react to
OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW) produce two volumes of carbon dioxide (C02) and one
An oxyfuel gas welding process that uses acetylene volume of water vapor (H20).The volumetric ratio of
as the fuel gas. The process is used without the appli- oxygen to acetylene is 2.5 to one.
cation of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Note that the reaction of this equation does not pro-
Historical Background
ceed directly to the end products shown. Combustion
takes place in two stages. The primary reaction takes
By 1895, when Willson had established facilities to place in the inner zone of the flame (called the inner
produce calcium carbide, acetylene became recog- cone) and is represented by the chemical equation:
nized as an important illuminating and heating gas. In
about 1900, a Frenchman, Edmund Fouche, invented C2H2 + 0 2 + 2CO + H2 (Equation 0-2)
the oxyacetylene torch. It was a high-pressure torch
which used a mixture of oxygen and acetylene, both Here, one volume of acetylene and one volume of oxy-
available compressed in cylinders, the acetylene stabi- gen react to form two volumes of carbon monoxide
lized with acetone. Later, when Fouche changed jobs and one volume of hydrogen. The heat content and
and went to work for a company which produced acet- high temperature of this reaction result from the
ylene from low-pressure generators, Fouche designed decomposition of the acetylene and the partial oxida-
a torch that would work on low fuel gas pressures. tion of the carbon resulting from that decomposition.
This torch received oxygen under high pressure, which See Table 0-2.
entered the mixing chamber of the torch and drew The OxyacetyleneFlame
acetylene from the acetylene orifice by the injector When the gases issuing from the torch tip are in the
principle. These early torches incorporated the princi- one-to-one ratio indicated in Equation 0-2, the reac-
ples that are still used in modem low- and medium- tion produces the typical brilliant blue inner cone in
pressure welding torches. the flame. This relatively small flame creates the com-
When Eugene Bournonville brought the first weld- bustion intensity needed for welding steel. The flame
ing torch to the United States in 1906, welders began is termed neutral because there is no excess carbon or
to find commercial applications for welding, and a oxygen to carburize or oxidize the metal. The end
major industry was started. products are actually in a reducing status, a benefit
Acetylene is the fuel gas preferred for many oxyfuel when welding steel.
welding applications because of its high-combustion In the outer envelope of the flame, the carbon mon-
intensity. Acetylene is a hydrocarbon compound, oxide and hydrogen produced by the primary reaction
C2H2, which contains a larger percentage of carbon by bum with oxygen from the surrounding air. This forms
344 OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW) Welding Encyclopedia
Table 0-2
Properties of Common Fuel Gases
Methyl-
acetylene-
Acetylene Propane Propylene propadiene (MPS) Natural Gas
carbon dioxide and water vapor, as shown in the fol- Welding Torches. A typical welding torch consists
lowing secondary reaction: of a torch handle, mixer and tip assembly. It provides a
means of independently controlling the flow of each
2CO + H2 + 1.5 0 2 + 2C02 + H 2 0 (Equation 0-3) gas, a method of attaching a variety of welding tips or
Although the heat of combustion of this outer flame is other apparatus, and a convenient handle for control-
greater than that of the inner, its combustion intensity ling the movement and direction of the flame. Figure
and temperature are lower because of its large cross- 0-3 is a simplified schematic drawing of the basic ele-
sectional area. The final end products are produced in ments of a welding torch.
the outer flame because they cannot exist in the high The gases pass through the control valves, through
temperature of the inner cone. separate passages in the torch handle, and to the torch
The oxyacetylene flame is easily controlled by head. They then pass into a mixer assembly where the
valves on the welding torch. By a slight change in the oxygen and fuel gas are mixed, and finally pass out
proportions of oxygen and acetylene flowing through through an orifice at the end of the tip. The tip is
the torch, the chemical characteristics in the inner zone shown as a simple tube, narrowed at the front end to
of the flame and the resulting action of the inner cone produce a suitable welding cone. Sealing rings or sur-
on the molten metal can be varied over a wide range. faces are provided in the torch head or on the mixer
Thus, by adjusting the torch valves, it is possible to seats to facilitate leak-tight assembly.
produce a neutral, oxidizing, or carburizing flame. Torch Handles. Welding torch handles are manufac-
Equipment tured in a variety of styles and sizes, from the small
The minimum basic equipment needed to perform size for extremely light (low gas flow) work to the
oxyfuel gas welding is shown schematically in extra heavy (high gas flow) handles generally used for
Figure 0-2. This equipment setup is completely self- localized heating operations.
sufficient and relatively inexpensive. It consists of fuel A typical small welding torch used for sheet metal
gas and oxygen cylinders, each with a gas regulator for welding will pass acetylene at volumetric rates rang-
reducing cylinder pressure, hoses for conveying the ing from about 0.007 to 1.0 m3/h (0.25 to 35 ft3/h).
gases to the torch, and a torch and tip combination for Medium sized torches are designed to provide acety-
adjusting the gas mixtures and producing the desired lene flows from about 0.028 to 2.8 m3/h (1 to 100 ft3/h).
flame. Heavy-duty heating torches may permit acetylene
PRESSURE REGULATORS
GAS CONTROL
WELDING
4-
TnRCH
OXYGEN
CYLINDER
FUEL GAS
\ CON1-ROL VALVES
MIXER
OXYGEN \
TORCH HANDLE
flows as high as 11 m3/h (400 ft3/h). Fuel gases other This is sometimes called cracking the valve, which
than acetylene may be used with even larger torches blows away any dust that might be in the cylinder
that have fuel-gas flow rates as high as 17 m3/h valve nipple. The regulator is then connected to the
(600 ft3/h). cylinder, with the regulator adjustment screw turned
Mixers. The chief function of the mixer is to thor-
fully counterclockwise. The valve should then be
oughly mix the fuel gas and oxygen to assure smooth slowly opened. If the valve were opened suddenly,
combustion. Another function of the mixer is to serve 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) of pressure would enter the regu-
as a heat sink to help prevent the flame from flashing lator with a violent rush. If the regulator adjustment
back into the mixer or torch. screw should happen to be screwed in, thus forcing the
valve seat to the open position, it would be quickly and
Two general types of oxygen fuel-gas mixers are
violently snapped back into the closed position, which
the positive pressure (also called equal or medium-
might damage the seat or the nozzle, through which
pressure) and the injector or low-pressure. The posi-
the oxygen passes. It is also possible under certain cir-
tive pressure mixer requires the gases to be delivered
cumstances with certain types of regulators, to raise
to the torch at pressures above 14 kPa (2 psig). In the
the temperature at the seat enough to ignite the hard
case of acetylene, the pressure should be between 14
and 103 kPa (2 and 15 psig). Oxygen is generally sup- rubber seat and thus create too much pressure in the
plied at approximately the same pressure. There is, regulator, damaging the gauges and the mechanism
however, no restrictive limit on the oxygen pressure. It itself.
can range up to 172 kPa (25 psig) with the larger sized While the pressure in the acetylene cylinder is much
tips. lower than in the oxygen cylinder, and there is not the
The purpose of the injector-type mixer is to increase same likelihood of damage to the regulator, pressure
the effective use of fuel gases supplied at pressures of should always be turned on slowly and carefully.
14 kPa (2 psig) or lower. In this torch, oxygen is sup- Hose Connections. Hoses should be connected to
plied at pressures ranging from 70 to 275 kPa (10 to the outlet fittings of both regulators. The oxygen hose
40 psig), the pressure increasing to match the tip size. has right-hand threads on each end and the acetylene
The relatively high velocity of the oxygen flow is used hose has left-hand fittings.
to aspirate, or draw in, more fuel gas than would nor-
mally flow at the low supply pressures. Torch Valves. Before connecting either hose line to
Setting Up Equipment the torch, it is important to check to see that both torch
valves are closed. When the hose connections have
It is essential that the operator follow the correct been tightened and it has been determined that none of
sequence in setting up equipment. the joints leak, the correct size tip for the work should
Connectingthe Regulator. The first step is to slightly be screwed into the torch. The adjustment screw of the
open the oxygen cylinder, then immediately close it. acetylene regulator should be turned to the right until
Welding Encyclopedia OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW) 347
the correct pressure of acetylene for the tip in use both oxygen and acetylene. Both gases are delivered
shows on the low-pressure gauge of the regulator. This from the regulators at equal pressures.
is done with only the acetylene torch valve open; the Another type of torch with an acetylene opening
oxygen torch valve remains closed. The acetylene slightly smaller than the oxygen opening delivers the
torch valve is then closed. acetylene to the mixing chamber at a pressure slightly
The oxygen torch valve is opened and the adjust- greater than the oxygen pressure.
ment screw of the oxygen regulator turned to the right All torches are designed to deliver one part oxygen
until the correct pressure of oxygen for the tip in use is through the torch for each part of acetylene entering
shown on the low-pressure gauge of the oxygen regu- through the acetylene passage. While it is true that 2-1/2
lator. The oxygen torch valve is then closed. There is volumes of oxygen are required to completely con-
now pressure of both gases in the two hose lines, and sume one volume of acetylene, only one of these vol-
in the torch up to the torch valves. To light the torch, umes is delivered through the torch, and burns at the
the acetylene valve is opened and the acetylene lighted tip of the torch to produce the luminous cone of flame,
with a flint scratch lighter as it issues from the torch and the secondary reaction, the flame envelope. The
tip. The oxygen valve is then opened, permitting the remaining 1-1/2 parts of oxygen are obtained from the
oxygen pressure to enter the torch and burn with the surrounding air.
acetylene at the tip, where it forms a luminous cone of Tip Size. Torch tips are interchangeable and are
flame. Further adjustment may now be made to assure made in various sizes to produce large or smaller
that the flame is exactly neutral, and that the regulator flames as may be required for the thickness of the
pressures, when the torch valves are open and the workpiece. A very light sheet of steel, for example,
flame is burning, are correct. requires a very small flame, hence a small tip, while a
It is important to have regulators with two gauges, piece of 25 mm (1 in.) steel plate requires a much
one showing the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, larger tip. The various sizes of tips deliver varying
and the other showing the pressure of the gas in the pressures of both oxygen and acetylene.
hose line to the torch. These gauges should always be Some welders tend to increase the regulator pres-
in good condition, and the regulator should never be sure and adjust the torch valves to cut down the vol-
used if the gauges are broken. Dangerous pressures ume of gases which pass through the torch. This is not
can very easily develop in the hose lines if broken or a good practice because it may lead to a careless
inaccurate gauges are used. adjustment of the flame. Accurate maintenance of a
neutral, oxidizing, or carburizing torch flame, as
Types of Torches. A number of different types of required for the metal being welded, is important.
torches are available, designated by the relative pres- Auxiliary equipment includes protective clothing,
sures of the two gases. For example, the low-pressure helmet, goggles with protective lenses, and gloves.
or injector torch supplies acetylene to the torch at a Before welding, it is imperative that the welding oper-
pressure of less than 14 kPa (2 psi). This pressure is ator read and understand safety precautions related to
constant for most tip sizes. The oxygen pressure is oxyacetylene welding. See Appendix 11.
considerably higher, ranging from 70 to 206 kPa (10 to The Welding Process. Oxygen and acetylene are
30 psi) or more, depending on the tip size. The tip is delivered through the hose lines to the torch, and are
designed with an injector nozzle through which the adjusted for either neutral, oxidizing, or carburizing
oxygen passes, drawing the acetylene through the flames, depending on the metal to be welded. The
torch and to the mixing chamber in the tip. This neces- adjustment of the flame is probably the most critical
sitates a very small opening for the oxygen through the condition of oxyacetylene welding. The welds are
injector nozzle, and a much larger opening for acety- made by a torch (or blow pipe) flame to heat the work-
lene adjacent to the mixing chamber because of the piece to the melting point. Usually some new metal is
difference in the pressures of the two gases. Low- added from a welding rod which is melted at the time
pressure torches are designed with unequal area inlets and flowed together with the fused metal of the two
to the mixing chamber so that the oxygen pressure is edges of the joint. The temperature of the flame pro-
often twice the acetylene pressure. duced by the oxygen and acetylene delivered through
Equal pressure torches are those designed with the torch is in the range of 3200 to 3480C (5800 to
equal area inlets to the mixing chamber of the tip for 6300F).
348 OXYACETYLENE WELDING TORCH Welding Encyclopedia
-
The diameter of the welding rod to be use:d depends The OFC torch is a versatile tool that can be readily
on the thickness of the workpiece. The rod maybe taken to the work site. It is used to cut plates up to 2 m
straight or bent to an angle as necessary. If the edges (7 ft) thick. Because the cutting oxygen jet has a 360
are to be beveled, the workpieces should be prepared cutting edge, it provides a rapid means of cutting
with either a single or double V, forming a deep U both straight edges and curved shapes to required
shape, or in the case of sheet metal, flanging the edges dimensions without expensive handling equipment.
upward. See BEVELING. The cutting direction can be continuously changed
Welding proceeds either forward (away from the during operation.
operator), or backward (toward the operator), depend- Principles of Operation
ing on the required procedure. The motion of the torch The oxyfuel gas cutting process employs a torch
depends on the operator; sometimes the flame is with a tip (nozzle). The functions of the torch are to
moved in a semi-circle and the rod straight back and produce preheat flames by mixing the gas and the oxy-
forth immediately ahead of the flame in alternating gen in the correct proportions, and to supply a concen-
motions. trated stream of high-purity oxygen to the reaction
Welding Rods. It is essential that the correct welding zone. The oxygen oxidizes hot metal and also blows
rod be used to insure weld integrity. The American the molten reaction products from the joint. The cut-
Welding Society (AWS) filler metal specifications ting torch mixes the fuel and oxygen for the preheating
should be consulted for the recommended materials. flames and aims the oxygen jet into the cut. The torch
Additionally, the manufacturer of the material to be cutting tip contains a number of preheat flame ports
welded, as well as the manufacturer of appropriate and a center passage for the cutting oxygen.
filler metals, are excellent sources of information con- The preheat flames are used to heat the metal to a
cerning proper welding procedures and appropriate temperature where the metal will react with the cutting
filler metals. oxygen. The oxygen jet rapidly oxidizes most of the
metal in a narrow section to make the cut. Metal
OXYACETYLENEWELDING TORCH oxides and molten metal are expelled from the cut by
See OXYACETYLENE WELDING, Equipment. the kinetic energy of the oxygen stream. Moving the
torch across the workpiece at a specified rate produces
OXYACETYLENEWELDING, Pressure a continuous cutting action. The torch may be moved
See PRESSURE GAS WELDING (PGW). manually or by a mechanized carriage.
The accuracy of a manual operation depends largely
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING (OFC) on the skill of the operator. Mechanized operation gen-
A group of oxygen cutting processes that uses heat erally improves the accuracy and speed of the cut and
from an oxyfiel gas flame. See STANDARD WELDING the finish of the cut surfaces.
TERMS. See also OXYACETYLENE CUTTING, OXYHY- Kerf. When a piece is cut by an OFC process, a nar-
DROGEN CUTTING, OXYNATURAL GAS CUTTING, and row width of metal is progressively removed. The
OXYPROPANE CUTTING. width of the cut is called a kel3F, as shown in Figure
Oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) processes sever or 0-4. Control of the kerf is important in cutting opera-
remove metal by the chemical reaction of oxygen with tions where dimensional accuracy of the part and
the metal at elevated temperatures. The necessary tem- squareness of the cut edges are significant factors in
perature is maintained by a flame of fuel gas burning quality control. With the OFC process, kerf width is a
in oxygen. In the case of oxidation resistant metals, the function of the size of tip used, speed of cutting, and
reaction is aided by adding chemical fluxes or metal flow rates of cutting oxygen and preheating gases. As
powders to the cutting oxygen stream. material thickness increases, oxygen flow rates must
The process is known by various other names, such usually be increased. Cutting tips with larger cutting
as burning, flame cutting, and flame machining. The oxygen ports are required to handle the higher flow
actual cutting operation is performed by the oxygen rates. Consequently, the width of the kerf increases as
stream. The oxygen-fuel gas flame is the mechanism the material thickness being cut increases.
used to raise the base metal to an acceptable preheat Kerf width is especially important in shape cutting.
temperature range and to maintain the cutting Compensation must be made for kerf width in the lay-
operation. out of the work, or the design of the template. Gener-
Welding Encyclopedia OXYFUEL GAS CUlTING (OFC) 349
to sustain the reaction. In actual practice, the top sur- intensity preheating to the starting operation. Then the
face of the material is frequently covered by mill scale preheat flames are reduced to lower intensity during
or rust. That layer must be melted away by the preheat the cutting operation, to save fuel and oxygen and to
flames to expose a clean metal surface to the oxygen provide a better cut surface.
stream. Preheat flames help to sustain the cutting reac- A number of commercially available fuel gases are
tion by providing heat to the surface. They also shield used with oxygen to provide the preheating flames.
the oxygen stream from turbulent interaction with air. Some have proprietary compositions. Fuel gases are
The alloying elements normally found in carbon generally selected because of availability and cost.
steels are oxidized or dissolved in the slag without Properties of some commonly used fuel gases are
markedly interfering with the cutting process. When listed in Table 0-2. To understand the significance of
alloying elements are present in steel in appreciable the information in this table, it is necessary to under-
amounts, their effect on the cutting process must be stand some of the terms and concepts involved in the
considered. Steels containing minor additions of oxi- burning of fuel gas. See OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
dation resistant elements, such as nickel and chro- Fuel Selection
mium, can still be oxygen-cut. However, when Combustion intensity or specific flame output for
oxidation resistant elements are present in large quan- various fuel gases are important considerations in fuel
tities, modifications to the cutting technique are gas selection. Some of the more common fuel gases
required to sustain the cutting action. This is true for used are: acetylene, natural gas, propane, hydrogen,
stainless steels. propylene and methyl-acetylene propadiene.
Oxygen. Oxygen used for cutting operations should Some of the factors to be considered when selecting
have a purity of 99.5% or higher. Lower purity reduces a particular fuel gas are:
the efficiency of the cutting operation. A 1% decrease (1) The time required for preheating when starting
in oxygen purity to 98.5% will result in a decrease in cuts on square edges and rounded corners and also
cutting speed of approximately 15%, and an increase when piercing holes for cut starts.
of about 25% in consumption of cutting oxygen. The (2) The effect on cutting speeds
quality of the cut will be impaired, and the amount and ( 3 ) The effect on productivity
tenacity of the adhering slag will increase. With oxy- (4) The cost and availability of the fuel gases
gen purity below 95%, the familiar cutting action dis- ( 5 ) Volume of oxygen required per volume of fuel
appears, and it becomes a melt-and-wash action that is gas to obtain a neutral flame
usually unacceptable. (6) Safety in transporting and handling of gases
Preheating Fuels. Functions of the preheat flames in For best performance and safety, the torches and tips
the cutting operation are the following: should be designed for the particular fuel selected.
(1) Raise the temperature of the steel to the ignition Acetylene. Acetylene is widely used as a fuel gas for
point oxygen cutting and also for welding. Its chief advan-
(2) Add heat energy to the work to maintain the cut- tages are availability, high flame temperature, and
ting reaction widespread familiarity with its flame characteristics
( 3 ) Provide a protective shield between the cutting among users.
oxygen stream and the atmosphere Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a
(4)Dislodge from the upper surface of the steel any hot, short flame with a bright inner cone at each pre-
rust, scale, paint, or other foreign substance that would heat port. The hottest point is at the end of this inner
stop or retard the normal forward progress of the cut- cone. Combustion is completed in the long outer
ting action flame. The sharp distinction between the two flames
A preheat intensity that rapidly raises the steel to helps to adjust the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio for the
the ignition temperature will usually be adequate to desired flame characteristics.
maintain cutting action at high travel speeds. How- Depending on this ratio, the flame may be adjusted
ever, the quality of the cut will not be the best. High- to reducing (carburizing), neutral, or oxidizing, as
quality cutting can be carried out at considerably shown in Figure A-1. The neutral flame, obtained with
lower preheat intensities than those normally required a ratio of approximately one part oxygen to one part
for rapid heating. On most larger cutting machines, acetylene, is used for manual cutting. As the oxygen
dual range gas controls are provided that limit high- flow is decreased, a light streamer begins to appear.
Welding Encyclopedia OXYFUEL GAS CUlTING (OFC) 351
This indicates a reducing flame, which is sometimes Natural Gas. The composition of natural gas varies
used to rough-cut cast iron. depending on its source. Its main component is meth-
When excess oxygen is supplied, the inner flame ane (CH,). The ratio of torch-supplied oxygen to natu-
cone shortens and becomes more intense. The flame ral gas is 1.5 to 1 for a neutral flame. The flame
temperature increases to a maximum at an oxygen-to- temperature with natural gas is lower than with acety-
acetylene ratio of about 1.5 to 1. An oxidizing flame is lene. It is also more diffused and less intense. The
used for short preheating times and for cutting very characteristics of the flame for carburizing, neutral, or
thick sections. oxidizing conditions are not as distinct as with the
oxyacetylene flame.
The high flame temperature and heat transfer char-
Because of the lower flame temperature and the
acteristics of the oxyacetylene flame are particularly
resulting lower heating efficiency, significantly greater
important for bevel cutting. These characteristics are
quantities of natural gas and oxygen are required to
also an advantage for operations in which the preheat
produce heating rates equivalent to those of oxygen
time is an appreciable fraction of the total time for cut-
and acetylene. To compete with acetylene, the cost and
ting, such as short cuts.
availability of natural gas and oxygen, the higher gas
MPS Gas. MPS is a liquefied, stabilized, acetylene- consumptions, and the longer preheat times must be
like fuel that can be stored and handled similarly to considered. The use of tips designed to provide a
liquid propane. MPS is a mixture of several hydrocar- heavy preheat flame, or cutting machines that allow a
bons, including propadiene (allene), propane, butane, high-low preheat setting, may compensate for defi-
butadiene, and methylacetylene. Methylacetylene, like ciencies in the lower heat output of natural gas.
acetylene, is an unstable, high-energy, triple-bond The torch and tip designs for natural gas are differ-
compound. The other compounds in MPS dilute the ent from those for acetylene. The delivery pressure for
methylacetylene sufficiently to make the mixture safe natural gas is generally low and the combustion ratios
for handling. The mixture burns hotter than either pro- are different. See Table 0-2, Properties of Common
pane or natural gas. It also affords a high release of Fuel Gases.
energy in the primary flame cone, another characteris- Propane. Propane is routinely used for oxygen
tic similar to acetylene. The outer flame gives rela- cutting in a number of plants because of its availabil-
tively high heat release, like propane and propylene. ity and because it has a much higher total heat value
The overall heat distribution in the flame is the most (MJ/m3) than natural gas (see Table 0-2). For proper
even of any of the gases. combustion during cutting, propane requires 4 to 4- 1/2
A neutral flame is achieved at a ratio of 2.5 parts of times its volume of preheat oxygen. This requirement
torch-supplied oxygen to 1 part MPS. Its maximum is offset somewhat by its higher heat value. Propane is
flame temperature is reached at a ratio of 3.5 parts of stored in liquid form and is easily transported to the
oxygen to 1 part of MPS. These ratios are used for the work site.
same cutting applications as the acetylene flame. Propylene. Propylene, under many different brand
Although MPS gas is similar in many characteris- names, is used as fuel gas for oxygen cutting. One vol-
tics to acetylene, it requires about twice the volume of ume of propylene requires 2.6 volumes of torch-sup-
oxygen per volume of fuel for a neutral preheat flame. plied oxygen for a neutral flame, and 3.6 volumes for
Thus, oxygen cost will be higher when MPS gas is maximum flame temperature. Cutting tips are similar
used in place of acetylene for a specific job. To be to those used for MPS.
competitive, the cost of MPS gas must be lower than Advantages and Disadvantages
acetylene for the job. Advantages. Oxyfuel gas cutting has a number of
MPS gas does have an advantage over acetylene for advantages and disadvantages compared to other metal
underwater cutting in deep water. Because acetylene cutting operations, such as sawing, milling, and arc
outlet pressure is limited to 207 kPa (30 psi) absolute, cutting.
it usually is not applicable at depths below 6 m (20 ft) (1) Steels can generally be cut faster by OFC than
of water. MPS can be used there and at greater depths, by mechanical chip removal processes.
as can hydrogen. For a particular underwater applica- (2) Section shapes and thicknesses that are difficult
tion, MPS, acetylene, and hydrogen should be evalu- to produce by mechanical means can be severed eco-
ated for preheat fuel. nomically by OFC.
352 OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING (OFC) Welding Encyclopedia
(3) Basic manual OFC equipment costs are low (2) Required torch cutting tips to cut a range of
compared to machine tools. material thicknesses
(4)Manual OFC equipment is very portable and (3) Oxygen and fuel gas hoses
can be used in the field. (4) Oxygen and fuel gas pressure regulators
( 5 ) Cutting direction can be changed rapidly on a
small radius during operation. (5) Sources of oxygen and fuel gases to be used
(6) Large plates can be cut rapidly in place by mov- (6)Flame strikers, eye protection, flame and heat
ing the OFC torch rather than the plate. resistant gloves and clothing, and safety devices
(7) OFC is an economical method of plate edge (7) Equipment operating instructions from the
preparation for bevel and groove weld joint designs. manufacturer
Disadvantages. Following are several important dis- Torches. See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING TORCH.
advantages of oxyfuel gas cutting of metals:
(1) Dimensional tolerances are significantly poorer Manual Cutting Tips. Cutting tips are precision-
than machine tool capabilities. machined copper-alloy parts of various designs and
(2) The process is essentially limited commercially sizes. They are held in the cutting torch by a tip nut.
to cutting steels and cast iron, although other readily All oxygen cutting tips have preheat flame ports, usu-
oxidized metals, such as titanium, can be cut. ally arranged in a circle around a central cutting oxy-
(3) The preheat flames and expelled red-hot slag gen orifice. The preheat flame ports and the cutting
present fire and burn hazards to plant and personnel. oxygen orifice are sized for the thickness range of
(4)Fuel combustion and oxidation of the metal metal that the tip is designed to cut. Cutting tips are
require proper fume control and adequate ventilation. designated as standard or high speed. Standard tips
( 5 ) Hardenable steels may require preheat, postheat, have a straight bore oxygen port, and they are usually
or both, adjacent to the cut edges to control their met- used with oxygen pressures from 205 to 415 kPa (30
allurgical structures and mechanical properties. to 60 psi). High-speed tips differ from standard tips in
(6) Special process modifications are needed for that the exit end of the oxygen orifice flares out or
OFC of high-alloy steels and cast irons. diverges. The divergence allows the use of higher oxy-
gen pressures, typically 415 to 690 Wa (60 to 100 psi),
Equipment
while maintaining a uniform oxygen jet at supersonic
There are two basic types of OFC equipment: man- velocities. High-speed tips are ordinarily used for
ual and machine. The manual equipment is used pri- machine cutting only. They usually permit cutting at
marily for maintenance, for scrap cutting, cutting speeds approximately 20% greater than speeds avail-
risers off castings and other operations that do not able with standard tips. Both types of tips are shown in
require a high degree of accuracy or a high quality cut Figure 0-5.
surface. Machine cutting equipment is used for accu-
rate, high quality work, and for large volume cutting, Gas Pressure Regulators. The ability to make suc-
such as in steel fabricating shops. Both types of equip- cessful cuts also requires a means of precisely regulat-
ment operate on the same principle. ing the specified gas pressures and volumes.
No one should attempt to operate any oxyfuel appa- Regulators are pressure control devices used to reduce
ratus until trained in its proper use or under competent high source pressures to required working pressures
supervision. It is important to closely follow the manu- by manually adjusted pressure valves. They vary in
facturers recommendations and operating instructions design, performance, and convenience features. They
for safe use. See Appendix ??. For more information are designed for use with specific types of gases and
on safe practices, refer to American Welding Society, for definite pressure ranges.
Miami, Florida: Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 8th Edi- Gas pressure regulators used for OFC are generally
tion. American Welding Society, 1987. similar in design to those used for oxyfuel gas welding
Manual Equipment. A setup for manual OFC (OFW). Regulators for most other fuel gases are simi-
requires the following: lar in design to acetylene regulators. For OFC, regula-
(1) One or more cutting torches suitable for the pre- tors with higher capacities and delivery pressure
heat fuel gas to be used and the range of material ranges than those used for OFW may be required for
thicknesses to be cut multi-torch operations and heavy cutting.
I
Welding Encyclopedia OXYFUEL GAS CUlTlNG (OFC) 353
CUTTING
PREHEAT
GEAR RACK
FOR HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT
Shape Cutting and using the equipment should always be closely fol-
A number of torches can be mounted on a shape lowed. This will prevent damage to the equipment and
cutting machine, depending on the size of the also insure its proper and safe use.
machine. The machine can cut shapes of nearly any Procedures
complexity and size. In multiple torch operations, sev- Starting a Cut. Several methods can be used to start
eral identical shapes can he cut simultaneously. The a cut on an edge. The most common method is toplace
number depends on the part size, plate size and the the preheat flames halfway over the edge, holding the
number of available torches. end of the flame cones 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.)
It is possible to feed information tothe electric above the surface of the material to be cut. The tipaxis
drive motors of the carriage and cross arm from any should be aligned with the plate edge. When the top
suitable control. One method uses a photoelectric cell comer reaches a reddish yellow color, the cutting oxy-
tracer that can follow line drawings or silhouettes. gen valveis opened and the cutting process starts.
Numerical control machines use profile programs Torch movement is started after the cutting action
placed on punched or magnetic tapes or computer reaches the far side of the edge.
disks. Thesestorage devices, in tum, control the shape Another method is to put the tip entirely over the
cutting by appropriate signals to the cutting machine material to be cut. The preheat flame is held there until
drive motors. the metal reaches its kindling temperature. The tip is
Operating Procedures then moved to the edge of the plate so the oxygen
In the operation of OFC equipment, the recommen- stream will just clear the metal. With the cutting oxy-
dations of the equipment manufacturer in assembling gen on, the cut isinitiated. This method has the advan-
356 OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING (OFC) Welding Encyclopedia
tage of producing sharper comers at the beginning of desired preheat flame. If sufficient flow rates are not
the cut. obtained, pressure settings at the regulator can be
For plate thicknesses of 13 mm (1/2 in.) or more, increased to compensate. Cleanliness of the nozzle,
the cutting tip should be held perpendicular to the type of base metal, purity of cutting oxygen, and other
plate. For thin plate, the tip can be tilted in the direc- factors have a direct effect on performance.
tion of the cut. Tilting increases the cutting speed and Manufacturers differ in their recommended travel
helps prevents slag from freezing across the keif. speeds. Some give a range of speeds for specific thick-
When cutting material in vertical position, start on the nesses, while others list a single speed. In either case,
lower edge of the material and cut upward. the settings are intended only as a guide. In determin-
Piercing. It is often necessary to start a cut at some ing the proper speed for an application, begin the cut at
point other than on the edge of a piece of metal. This a slower speed than that recommended. Gradually
technique is known as piercing. Piercing usually increase the speed until cut quality falls below the
requires a somewhat larger preheat flame than the one required level. Then reduce the speed until the cut
used for an edge start. In addition, the flame should be quality is restored, and continue to operate at that
adjusted to slightly oxidizing to increase the heat speed.
energy. The area where the pierce cut is to begin Typical data for cutting low-carbon steel, using
should be located in a scrap area. Hold the torch tip in commonly available fuel gases, are shown in Table
one spot until the steel surface turns a yellowish red 0-3. The gas flow rates and cutting speeds are to be
and a few sparks appear from the surface of the metal. considered only as guides for determining more pre-
The tip should be angled and lifted up as the cutting cise setting for a particular job. When new material is
oxygen valve is opened. The torch is held stationary being cut, a few trial cuts should be made to ascertain
until the cutting jet pierces through the plate. the most efficient operating conditions.
Torch motion is then initiated along the cut line. If
Plate Beveling. The beveling of plate edges before
the cutting oxygen is turned on too quickly and the
torch is not lifted, slag may be blown into the tip and welding is necessary in many applications to insure
proper dimensions and fit, and also to accommodate
may plug the gas ports.
standard welding techniques. Beveling may be done
Machine Cutting. Operating conditions for mecha- by using a single torch or multiple torches operating
nized oxygen cutting will vary depending on the fuel simultaneously. Although single beveling can be done
gas and the style of cutting torch being used. Tip size manually, beveling is best done by machine for accu-
designations, tip design, and operating data can be rate control of the cutting variables. When cutting bev-
obtained from the torch manufacturer. els with two or three torches, plate riding devices
Proper tip size and cutting oxygen pressure are should be used to insure constant tip position above
important in making a quality machine cut. If the the plate, as shown in Figure 0-9.
proper tip size is not used, maximum cutting speed and
Cutting Oxidation-ResistantSteels
the best quality of cut will not be achieved. The cutting
oxygen pressure setting is an essential condition; devi- The absence of alloying materials in pure iron per-
ations from the recommended setting will greatly mits the oxidation reaction to proceed rapidly. As the
affect cut quality. For this reason, some manufacturers quantity and number of alloying elements in iron
specify setting the pressure at the regulator and operat- increase, the oxidation rate decreases from that of pure
ing with a given length of hose. When longer or iron. Cutting becomes more difficult.
shorter hoses are used, an adjustment in pressure The iron oxides produced have melting points near
should be made. An alternative is to measure oxygen the melting point of iron. However, the oxides of many
pressure at the torch inlet. Pressure settings for cutting of the alloying elements in steels, such as aluminum
oxygen are then adjusted to obtain the recommended and chromium, have melting points higher than those
pressure at the torch inlet, rather than at the regulator of iron oxides. These high-melting oxides, which are
outlet. refractory in nature, may shield the material in the kerf
Other adjustments, such as the preheat fuel and so that fresh iron is not continuously exposed to the
oxygen pressure settings and the travel speed, are also cutting oxygen stream. Thus, the speed of cutting
important. Once the regulators have been adjusted, the decreases as the amount of refractory oxide-forming
torch valves are used to throttle gas flows to give the elements in the iron increases.
I
Welding Encyclopedia OXYFUEL GAS CUlTlNG (OFC) 357
Table 0-3
Data For Cutting of Low Carbon Steel
SI Units
Figure 0-9-Plate Riding Device Used When Cutting Bevels with Two or Three Torches
For ferrous metals with high-alloy content, such as When the above methods are used to cut oxidation
stainless steel, the use of plasma arc cutting (PAC) and resistant metals, the quality of the cut surface is some-
in some cases air carbon arc cutting (CAC-A) should what impaired. Scale and slag may adhere to the cut
be considered. If these options are not available or faces. Pickup of carbon or iron, or both, usually
practical, then variations of OFC techniques must be appears on the cut surfaces of stainless steels and
used. nickel alloy steels. This may affect the corrosion resis-
There are several variations for oxygen cutting of tance and magnetic properties of the metal. If the cor-
oxidation resistant steels, which ace also applicable to rosion resistance or magnetic properties of the
cast irons. The important ones are the following: material are important, approximately 3 mm (1/8 in.)
(1) Torch oscillation of metal should be machined from the cut edges. See
(2) Waster plate FLUX CUlTING and METAL POWDER CUl-I'ING.
(3) Wire feed Torch Oscillation. Low-alloy content stainless steels
(4) Powder cutting up to 100 mm (4 in.) thick can sometimes be severed
(5) Flux cutting with a standard cutting torch and oscillation. The
Welding Encyclopedia OXYFUEL GAS WELDING (OFW) 359
entire thickness of the starting edge must be preheated (1) Tinted goggles or face shields with filter lenses;
to a bright red color before the cut is started. This tech- the recommended filter lenses for various cutting
nique should be combined with some of the other cut- operations are:
ting methods listed. (a) Light cutting, up to 25 mm (1 in.) shade 3
or 4
Waster Plate. One method of cutting oxidation resis-
(b) Medium cutting, 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in.)
tant steels is to clamp a low-carbon steel waster
shade 4 or 5
plate on the upper surface of the material to be cut.
(c) Heavy cutting, over 150 mm (6 in.) shade 5
The cut is started in the low-carbon steel material. The
or 6
heat liberated by the oxidation of the low-carbon steel
provides additional heat at the cutting face to sustain (2) Flame-resistant gloves
the oxidation reaction. The iron oxide from the low- ( 3 ) Safety glasses
carbon steel helps to wash away the refractory oxides (4) Flame-resistant jackets, coats, hoods, aprons,
from stainless steel. The thickness of the waster plate etc.
must be in proportion to the thickness of the material (a) Woolen clothing, preferably, not cotton or
being cut. Several undesirable features of this method synthetic materials
are the cost of the waster plate material, the additional (b) Sleeves, collars, and pockets kept buttoned
setup time, the slow cutting speeds, and the rough (c) Cuffs eliminated
quality of the cut. ( 5 ) Hard hats
(6)Leggings and spats
Wire Feed. With the appropriate equipment, a small (7) Safety shoes
diameter low-carbon steel wire is fed continuously (8) Flame extinguishing protective equipment
into the torch preheat flames, ahead of the cut. The end
(9) Supplemental breathing equipment
of the wire should melt rapidly into the surface of the
alloy steel plate. The effect of the wire addition on the (10) Other safety equipment
cutting action is the same as that of the waster plate. A Reference: American Welding Society, Welding
motor-driven wire feeder and wire guide, mounted on Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 2. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
the cutting torch, are needed as accessory equipment. can Welding Society, 1991.
This is a seldom-used method. OXYFUEL GAS CUlTING TORCH
Safe Practices A device used for directing the preheating flame
Safe practices for the installation and operation of produced by the controlled combustion of fuel gases
oxyfuel gas systems for welding and cutting are given and to direct and control the cutting oxygen. See STAN-
in American National Standard 249.1, latest edition, DARD WELDING TERMS. See also OXYFUEL GAS CUT-
published by the American Welding Society, Miami, TING TORCH, Equipment.
Florida. These practices and those recommended by
OXYFUEL GAS SPRAYING
the equipment manufacturer should always be fol-
lowed by the person operating the equipment. A nonstandard term for FLAME SPRAYING.
Fumes are a potential health hazard. When the pro- OXYFUEL GAS WELDING (OFW)
cess is used in an enclosed or semi-enclosed area, A group of welding processes that produces coales-
exhaust ventilation should be provided and the opera- cence of workpieces by heating them with an oqfuel
tor should be equipped with a respirator. Noise from gas flame. The processes are used with or without the
the operation may exceed safe levels in some circum- application of pressure and with or without filler
stances. When necessary, ear protection should be pro- metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
vided for the operator. Fire is a potential hazard and Oxyfuel gas welding is an inclusive term used to
combustible materials should be cleared away from describe any welding process that uses a fuel gas com-
the cutting area for a distance of at least 11 m (35 ft). bined with oxygen to produce a flame having suffi-
Appropriate protective clothing and equipment for cient energy to melt the base metal. The fuel gas and
any cutting operation will vary with the nature and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a cham-
location of the work to be performed. Some or all of ber which is generally a part of the welding torch
the following may be required: assembly. The torch is designed to give the welder
360 OXYFUEL GAS WELDING TORCH Welding Encyclopedia
complete control of the welding flame to melt the base See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also OXYACETY-
metal and the filler metal in the joint. LENE WELDING, Equipment.
Oxyfuel gas welding is normally done with acety-
lene as the fuel gas. Other fuel gases, such as methy- OXYGAS CUTTING
lacetylene propadiene and hydrogen, are sometimes A nonstandard term for OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING.
used for oxyfuel gas welding of low-melting metals.
The welding flame must provide high localized energy OXYGEN
to produce and sustain a molten weld pool. With
(Chemical symbol: 0).An odorless, tasteless gas-
proper adjustment, the flames can also supply a pro-
eous element; colorless except in its liquid state, when
tective reducing atmosphere over the molten weld
it is a faint blue color. Atomic number, 8; atomic
pool. Hydrocarbon fuel gases such as propane, butane,
weight, 16; melting point, -218.4"C (-361.1"F); boil-
natural gas, and various mixtures of these gases are not
ing point; -183.0"C (-297.4"F); density, 1.429 grams/
suitable for welding ferrous materials because the heat
liter. The critical temperature is -1 18C (-180.4"F),
output of the flame is too low or the flame atmosphere
is oxidizing. and its critical pressure 49.3 atmospheres (5 MPa
[725 psi]).
In combination with pressure, oxyfuel gas flames
can be used to make upset welds in butt joints without Oxygen is a non-metallic element that can be found
filler metals. This process is called pressure gas weld- nearly everywhere in nature, either in free state or in
ing (PGW). In PGW, abutting surfaces are heated with combination with other elements. Oxygen combines
oxyfuel gas flames and forced together to obtain the with all elements except inert gases. It is one of the
forging action needed to produce a sound weld. The chief constituents of the atmosphere, and without oxy-
process is ideally adapted to a mechanized operation, gen, life as we know it would be impossible. Water is a
and practically all commercial applications are either compound of oxygen and hydrogen, in which approxi-
partly or fully mechanized. mately 89% by weight is oxygen.
Since the OFW processes are primarily manual, it is Oxygen constitutes about 1/5 (20.99% by volume)
essential that the welder be adequately trained and of the earth's atmosphere, and it has been roughly esti-
highly skilled for specific critical welding jobs such as mated to constitute nearly half of the weight of the
pipe welding. The skill required by the welding opera- various rocks of which the earth's crust is composed.
tor for a fully mechanized PGW machine would be The discovery of oxygen as an element was made in
lower that than required by the manual welder, since 1774 by two chemists, Priestly and Scheele, working
the machine control, when set, performs the complete independently and without knowledge of one
operation. another's endeavors. Various methods have since been
Oxyfuel gas welding can be used for joining thick perfected for the commercial production of oxygen. Of
plate, but welding is slow and high heat input is practical value today are the chemical, electrolytic,
required. Welding speed is adequate to produce eco- and the liquefaction methods.
nomical welds in sheet metal and thin-wall and small In the welding industry the principal value of oxy-
diameter piping. Thus, OFW is best applied on mate- gen is that it will support combustion: it will combine
rial up to about 6 mm (1/4 in.). Pressure gas welding is with other substances in the production of flame and
used to join sections up to 25 mm (1 in.) thick. the evolution of heat. This property of oxygen has
Oxyfuel gas welding equipment is versatile and can been utilized in the development of oxyfuel gas weld-
be used with most construction materials. The equip- ing and cutting torches. Regardless of the nature of the
ment involved is easily portable. For these reasons, the combustible gas used in these torches, oxygen is a req-
cost effectiveness is good. However, when parts are to uisite of operation.
be made in quantity, other welding processes are usu- Used with acetylene, and to a lesser extent with
ally more suitable. See OXYACETYLENE WELDING. other fuel gases, oxygen produces a sufficiently hot
flame to cut and weld metals. It is also used, in mix-
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING TORCH tures with selected carbonaceous matter, as an explo-
A device used in oqfuel gas welding, torch brazing, sive for quarrying in strip coal mining, and in other
and torch soldering for directing the heating flame mining operations to break up ores in copper and cer-
produced by the controlled combustion of fidel gases. tain other minerals.
1
Welding Encyclopedia OXYGEN ARC CUTTING (AOC) 361
effect. Metals that do not require a postheat treatment The gouging process usually requires a special
after welding may be severed by this process without gouging tip with extra-heavy preheat capacity and a
detrimental effect. Grades of austenitic stainless steels central oxygen orifice that causes a high level of tur-
that are sensitive to corrosion attack when subjected to bulence in the oxygen stream. This turbulence causes a
shielded metal arc welding will be sensitized along the wide flow of oxygen that can be controlled by the
cut when severed by the AOC process. operator to achieve the desired width and depth of
Oxygen arc cuts in cast iron and medium carbon, gouge. Other factors used to determine the shape of
low-alloy steels are apt to develop cracks 011 the face the gouge are speed, tip angle, oxygen pressure,
of the cut. The extent and frequency of cracking amount of preheat, and tip size. One of the significant
depend on the composition and hardenability of the advantages of oxygen gouging is that no additional
steel. equipment other than that already used in the oxyfuel
cutting process is required. See OXYFUEL GAS
OXYGEN CUlTER CUTTING.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
MAL CUTTER.
OXYGEN GROOVING
A nonstandard term for OXYGEN GOUGING.
OXYGEN CUTTING (OC)
OXYGEN HOSE
A group of thermal cutting processes that severs or
A hose through which oxygen flows from the regu-
removes metal by means of the chemical reaction
lator to the torch. Hoses used in gas welding are manu-
between oxygen and the base metal at elevated tem-
factured specifically to meet the utility and safety
perature. The necessary temperature is main,tained by
requirements for this service. Oxygen hoses are col-
the heat from an arc, an oxyfiel gas flame, or other
source. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ored green; the connections each have a plain nut with
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING,
right-hand threads matching the oxygen regulator out-
and THERMAL CUTTING.
let and the oxygen inlet fitting on the torch. To avoid
error, fuel gas hose connections will not fit the oxygen
OXYGEN CUlTlNG OPERATOR
regulator outlet and the torch inlet fitting for oxygen.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER- OXYGEN LANCE
MAL CUTTING OPERATOR. A length of pipe used to convey oxygen to the point
of cutting in oxygen lance cutting. See STANDARD
OXYGEN CYLINDER WELDING TERMS.
Oxygen cylinders are constructed of seamless
drawn steel t o contain compressed oxygen. They are OXYGEN LANCE CUlTING
annealed, tested, and threaded to accommodate an out- Oxygen lance cutting (LOC) is an oxygen cutting
let valve and cylinder cap. Oxygen cylinders are made process that uses oxygen supplied through a consum-
in several sizes, but the most frequently used cylinder able steel pipe or lance. The preheat required to start
in welding and cutting contains approximately 7 m3 the cutting is obtained by other means. See STANDARD
(250 ft3) at a pressure of 15 MPa (2200 psig) at 21C WELDING TERMS.
(70F). The earliest version of LOC used a plain black iron
pipe as a lance, with oxygen flowing through it. An
OXYGEN GOUGING improved version of the lance involves a number of
Thermal gouging that uses an oxygen cutting pro- low-carbon steel wires packed into the steel tube. This
cess variation to form a bevel or groove. See STAN- increases the cutting life and capability of the lance.
DARD WELDING TERMS. Commercially available tubes are typically 3.2 m
Oxygen gouging of steel plate is usually limited to (10-1/2 ft) long and 16 mm (0.625 in.) in diameter.
steel plate thicknesses up to 25 mm (1 in.). The OFC An oxyfuel gas cutting or welding torch is used to
process is frequently used on the underside of a heat the cutting end of the lance to a cherry red, and
welded joint to remove defects that are in the original then the oxygen flow is started. The iron pipe bums in
root pass, or to remove defective weld joints or cracks a self-sustaining, exothermic reaction, and the heating
when repairing previously fabricated metal. torch is removed. When the burning end of the lance is
I
Welding MACHINING OXYGEN 363
CONSUMABLE
STEEL WORKPIECE
OWOFF VALVE7 7
OXYGEN Q#+& CLAMP f U
(1) A container to hold the alkaline or acid solution is damaged, it must not be used prior to being properly
or water, called the electrolyte; an anode, which is sub- cleaned or serviced by a qualified repair technician.
merged in the solution and to which the current from See OXYACETYLENE WELDING and REGULATOR.
an outside source is led
(2) A cathode, submerged in the solution to receive OXYHYDROGEN CUTTING (OFC-H)
the current and lead it back to its source An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
(3) A dividing wall to separate the gases and a hydrogen as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
means for collecting them separately, and conducting TERMS. See also OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING.
them to some desired point
OXYHYDROGEN FLAME
DC Current. The necessary current must be a direct The flame produced by combustion of a mixture of
current so that the evolution of gas will always be at one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen.
the same point. It is not practical to use alternating If the flame is to be used for welding, the proportion
current. should be one volume of oxygen to four volumes of
The introduction, development and use of hydrogen hydrogen to prevent oxidation of the metal. The tem-
and oxygen for cutting steel and welding aluminum, perature of the flame is about 2660C (4820F). The
and the large demand for hydrogen for other industrial relatively low heat content of the oxyhydrogen flame
purposes contributed further to the development of the restricts its use to certain torch brazing operations and
electrolysis method of producing oxygen and hydro- to welding of aluminum, magnesium and lead.
gen. The distinctive feature of this method is the
simultaneous production of two volumes of hydrogen OXYHYDROGENWELDING (OHW)
for every one volume of oxygen. An oxyfuel gas welding process that uses hydrogen
Modem production of hydrogen involves the steam as the fuel gas. This process is used without the appli-
re-forming of natural gas over a nickel catalyst. See cation of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
HYDROGEN. See also OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
OXYGENREGULATOR OXYNATURAL GAS CUTTING (OFC-N)
A device designed to reduce and control pressure of An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
oxygen cylinders to a level compatible with the oper- natural gas as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
ating system or process. The regulator must handle TERMS.
incoming gas pressure and provide a range of delivery
pressures. OXYPROPANE CUTTING (OFC-P)
Oxygen regulators must be clean and in good work- An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
ing condition. If there is oil, grease, or foreign material propane as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
on a regulator or other equipment, or if the equipment TERMS.
366 Weldina EncvcloDedia
Robotic arc weldingcell designed to maximize accuracy and minimize cycle time
Photo courtesy of Fanuc Robots North America
PACK ANNEALING electrical paths to simultaneously form multiple resis-
Annealing a stack of several sheets of metal instead tance spot, seam or projection welds. See STANDARD
of a single sheet. Pack annealing minimizes oxidation WELDING TERMS. See also Figure P- 1.
and scale formation on the surfaces of the sheets.
PADDING
This term is no longer in general use; the term
buildup is generally used when surfacing material
deposited has essentially the same chemistry as the
base metal. See BUILDUP.
PARALLEL BEADS
See BEADING WELD and STRINGER BEAD WELDING.
367
368 PASTE BRAZING FILLER METAL Welding Encyclopedia
PASTE BRAZING FILLER METAL are used to clamp lugs on both surfaces of the patch.
A mixture of finely divided brazing filler metal with See also CORRUGATED PATCH.
a flux or neutral carriel: See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. PATENTING
An archaic term for annealing. In wire production,
PASTE SOLDER it refers to an annealing treatment applied to medium-
or high-carbon steel before drawing the wire, or
A mixture offinely divided solder with afZux or neu- between drafts. The process consists of heating to a
tral carriel: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. temperature above the transformation range, then
cooling to a temperature below the transformation
PATCHING SHEET range in air, molten lead or salt. See ANNEALING.
A sheet of material used to place a patch in a flat,
round or warped plate where cracking has occurred or PEARLITE
is expected to occur during or after welding, or while A microstructural aggregate or a mechanical mix-
in service. See Figure P-2. The cross section of the dia- ture of ferrite and cementite (iron carbide) platelets
gram shows that the patch is slightly dished to allow which normally occurs in steel and cast iron. This
for contraction in the weld. The preferred circular lamellar structure can be observed only through a met-
patch shape equalizes stresses around the weld. How- allographic microscope because the platelets are very
ever, if a circular patch is not practical, a patch shape thin, on the order of 0.001 mm (0.00004 in.).
as nearly circular as possible, such as oval or elliptical, Pearlite was given its name by H. M. Howe because
should be used. If the opening is rectangular, corners its lamellar appearance resembles mother-of-pearl.
of the patch and opening should be rounded. See METALLOGRAPHY.
PEEL TEST
A destructive method of testing that mechanically
separates a lap joint by peeling. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS.
PEENING
The mechanical working of metals using impact
blows. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Peening is accomplished by repeated hammer
blows to the surface of the metal. The blows may be
administered manually, as with a hammer, or with
pneumatic tools. Peening tends to stretch the surface
of the cold metal, thus reducing contraction stresses.
PENETRAMETER
A penetrameter, or image quality indicator (IQI), is
a device used to measure the quality of radiographic
images. Penetrameters consist of a piece of metal of
simple geometric shape, with similar absorption char-
acteristics as the weld to be tested. The thickness is
Figure P-2-Patching Sheet generally 2% of the weld thickness. A penetrameter
usually has three holes, the diameters of which are 1,
2, and 4 times the thickness of the penetrameter. The
Where equipment for forming a dished patch is not penetrameters are placed on a test piece during setup
available, the patch can be dished by hammering, and are radiographed at the same time as the test piece.
which should be done when the plate is hot. The dia- Sharpness of the penetrameter features in the devel-
gram shows a simple method for holding the patch in oped image is a measure of image quality. See RADIO-
place. Holes are drilled through at the joint, and bolts GRAPHIC EXAMINATION.
Welding Encyclopedia PENETRANT INSPECTION 369
welding may be found in the American National Stan- ates from three-phase electrical power, and utilizes a
dard 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting (latest edi- rectifier circuit to obtain d-c output for welding.
tion), available from the American Welding Society.
Reference: American Welding Society, Welding PHOS-COPPER
Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition Miami, Florida: 1991. A brazing alloy filler metal made up of copper and
5 to 10% phosphorus. Phos-copper begins to melt at
PERCUSSIVE WELDING 714C (1317F) and is completely molten at about
A nonstandard term for PERCUSSION WELDING. 832C (1530F). Phos-copper is considered to be a
self-fluxing brazing alloy in which the phosphorous
PERIODIC DUTY prevents oxide formation on the copper surfaces.
A requirement of electrical service that demands However, if gas-tight or liquid-tight joints are
operation for alternate periods of loads and rest in required, or brass, bronze or other alloys are being
which the load conditions are well defined, with recur- joined, a paste flux is recommended. The paste is
rent magnitude, duration and character. mixed with water and applied with a brush.
Phos-copper may be used to join copper and copper
PERMANENT MAGNET alloys, and has limited use for brazing silver, tungsten
A ferromagnetic material which can be magnetized and molybdenum. These alloys should not be used for
permanently by applying a magnetic field to the mate- ferrous and nickel base alloys or on copper base alloys
rial. A permanent magnet retains its magnetization and with more than 10% nickel to avoid formation of brit-
magnetic poles for a long period of time after the mag- tle, intermetallic phosphide compounds. Brazed phos-
netizing field is removed. copper joints can be used for continuous service up to
150C (300F). Lap joints are recommended, but butt
PERMANENT MOLD joints can be used where strength properties are less
A form consisting of two or more parts which is stringent. Recommended joint clearances are 0.03 to
used repeatedly to make castings of the same shape. 0.13 mm (0.001 to 0.005 in.).
Castings are made by pouring liquid metal into the
mold cavity. After the cast metal solidifies, the mold is Brazing. The procedure for brazing with phos-
taken apart and can be reassembled and used again. copper depends on the material to be brazed and
the brazing process, but the following are general
PERMANENT SET procedures:
The shape retained after plastic deformation of (1) Clean all joint surfaces thoroughly.
materials following drawing, bending and forming (2) If flux is needed, apply a paste flux mixed with
operations, after the stress that produced the deforma- water to all joint surfaces.
tion has been removed. (3) Heat the joint to between 800 and 830C (1475
and 1525"F), using a neutral flame if heating with an
PERMEABILITY acetylene or other gas torch.
(1) Sand Molds: The characteristic of the molding (4) Apply phos-copper rod or wire to the heated
material which permits gases to pass through it. joint, ensuring that it flows into the joint gap.
(2) Powder Metallurgy: The property which indi- If phos-copper ribbon is to be used instead of wire
cates the rate at which a liquid or gas will pass through or rod, it should be inserted into the joint before heat-
a sintered powdered metal compact. ing, then heated to 830C (1525"F), or until the braze
(3) Magnetism: a term used to express the relation- has melted and flowed throughout the joint. Excess
ship between magnetic induction and magnetizing amounts of the phos-copper braze alloy in fillet joints,
force. Stated another way, it is the affinity of a sub- for example, should be avoided.
stance to conduct or carry magnetic lines of force.
PHOSPHOR BRONZE
PHASE A bronze with a high degree of hardness, elasticity,
In a-c power, a phase is the cyclically recurring and toughness, that contains a small amount of phos-
wave form of a current or voltage wave form. Phase phorus. This group of copper, tin and phosphorus
also refers to the branches of an electrical circuit. alloys contains from 1.3 to 10% tin and 0.03 to 0.35%
An a-c welding machine operates from single-phase phosphorus. These alloys may be brazed, soft sol-
electrical power. A d-c welding machine usaally oper- dered, and flash welded. They may also be welded
Welding Encyclopedia PIERCING, OXYGEN 373
with resistance spot welding and gas metal arc weld- PHYSICAL TESTING
ing processes. Oxyfuel gas welding and shielded metal Testing methods by which physical properties of
arc welding of the phosphor-bronze alloys produce materials are determined. This term may also be used
only fair results. for a test procedure in which mechanical properties are
A free-machining variety of phosphor bronze con- determined. See TESTING.
tains 3.5 to 4.5% lead, 3.5 to 4.5% tin, 1.5 to 4.5% zinc
and 0.01 to 0.50% phosphorus. The free-machining PICKLING
alloys can be soldered, brazed, or flash welded, but The chemical cleaning of steel surfaces by dissolv-
other welding processes are not recommended. ing or loosening scale with acid. Sulfuric, hydro-
Coated or uncoated welding rods are available for chloric, nitric and hydrofluoric acids in various
several of these alloys. Melting range for these alloys combinations with water are used. Sulfuric-
is 1035 to 1075C (1900 to 1970F) for the lower tin hydrochloric acid mixtures are used for plain carbon
alloys, and 845 to 1000C (1550 to 1830F) for the steels and low-alloy steels. Most pickling solutions
higher tin alloys. include organic inhibitors, which minimize pitting and
hydrogen pickup. Time in the pickling solution must
PHOSPHORUS be limited to minimize hydrogen pickup.
Stainless steels, nickel base alloys, titanium alloys,
(Chemical symbol: P) A highly reactive, toxic, non-
and copper alloys require more aggressive pickling
metallic element used in steel, glass, and pyrotechnics.
solutions, which include nitric and hydrofluoric acids.
In the free state phosphorus has three allotropic forms;
yellow, red and black. However, it is almost always The appropriate pickling specifications for a given
alloy may be obtained from the producer of the alloy,
found in combination with other elements such as or the ASM Metals Handbook, published by ASM
minerals or metal ores. Atomic number, 15; atomic
weight, 3 1.02; specific gravity, 12.16; and melting International, Materials Park, Ohio.
point, 44.2C (111.6F). PICKUP
Phosphorus is usually found in steel and cast iron as This term usually refers to dilution of weld metal
an impurity. It is therefore the practice of steel makers with metal melted from the base metal. To make a
to reduce the phosphorus level to 0.05%, or lower if good weld, the joint edges of the base metal must be
possible. Higher amounts cause embrittlement and melted and intentionally mixed with the weld metal.
loss of toughness; however, small amounts of phos- This melted weld metal picks up metal from the
phorus in low-carbon steel produce a slight increase in base metal.
strength and corrosion resistance. This term also applies to resistance welding, in
which the electrode tips partially melt and weld to the
PHOTOMICROGRAPH base metal, and pick up metal from the other. This type
A photographic reproduction of an object magnified of pickup results in degraded welds and can be
more than ten times. In metallurgy, it usually refers to avoided by correct control of the welding parameters,
a polished and etched metal surface photographed and by reshaping worn electrode tips to their original
through a microscope to show the grain structure and dimensions.
other microstructural constituents. As an example,
photomicrographs are made of sections cut from a PIERCING
weld or a piece of metal to show the metallurgical Producing a hole in metal by forcing a pointed bar
structure. See METALLOGRAPHY. through it. As an example, seamless steel tubing is
usually made from a steel billet which has been
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES pierced longitudinally and on center with a pointed
Characteristics of a material that can be measured probe.
without application of force. Examples of physical The term piercing also applies to starting an oxyfuel
properties of metal that may require consideration in gas or plasma arc cut at some point other than the edge
designing or fabricating a weldment are thermal and of a piece of metal.
electrical conductivity, melting temperature, thermal
expansion and contraction, and density. See METAL- PIERCING, OXYGEN
LURGY. See also PHYSICAL TESTING. See OXYGEN LANCE.
374 PIG IRON Welding Encyclopedia
Details of specific instances of pipe thawing may Titusville, Pennsylvania. Soon after, wrought iron pipe
be obtained from manufacturers of arc welding came into the picture, with its various lengths joined
equipment. by screwed couplings.
A search followed to find a way to make a tighter
PIPELINEWELDING and stronger joint than the screw-type coupling pro-
The American Petroleum Institute (API) sets speci- vided. Attempts were made to weld pipelines with the
fications for welding procedures and qualifications for oxyacetylene process; the first of these was an 18-km
personnel employed on pipeline welding in its Stan- ( 11-mile) line laid in 1911 near Philadelphia. In 1914,
dard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities a 55-km (34-mile) pipeline was constructed near Enid,
(API Standard 1104). This document is available from Oklahoma, followed by a longer line in the bay area of
the American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, San Francisco, which supplied gas for the 1915 Pan
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005-8029. American Exposition.
API Code 1104 However, the real breakthrough in welding came in
Before production welding is started, a procedure 1922, when the Prairie Pipeline Company welded a
specification must be established and qualified to 20-cm (8-in.) diameter, 225-km (140-mile) line carry-
demonstrate that welds having acceptable mechanical ing crude oil from Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas, using
properties and soundness will result from the proce- oxyacetylene welding. The advantages of welding
dure. The quality and properties of the weld are deter- over screwed couplings were clearly demonstrated
mined by destructive testing. When tensile tests are when the final cost of the project was 35% less than it
performed, the tensile strength of the weld, including would have been if couplings had been used. The cost
the fusion zone, should be equal to or greater than of the weld, labor and material was only $2.00 for
the minimum specified tensile strength of the pipe each joint.
material. Pipeline Builders. After the surveyors crew had
The API Standard 1104 does not include welding identified the right-of-way, the brush crew came on
procedures for joining steel pipelines; however, the the scene to clear away brush and trees. Then the
API 1104 Committee has collected and cataloged trenching crew dug the trench for the pipeline. Sec-
successfully used procedures, and the Committee tions of pipe were then dropped alongside the trench.
Secretary provides them on request as guides for The line-up and tacking crew came ahead of the con-
those wishing to use them as a starting point for struction gang. Aided by a tractor and hoist, they
qualification. placed the pipe lengths on ball-bearing dollies to per-
These API Procedure Specifications are identified mit rolling. At four points in the circumference of the
by the position of the pipe (horizontal or vertical), pipe, the tack welder made a tack weld, joining as
whether rolled during welding or maintained in a fixed many lengths of pipe as the contour of the land
position, and the range of diameter and wall thickness required. This long tack-welded section, lined up on
for which the procedure is considered suitable. These the dollies, was left by the line-up and tacking crew for
are basically suggestions which the skilled welder the firing line crew, the welders.
can use, with proper material and equipment, to gain Several welders comprised the crew which com-
qualification. pleted the welding of the long tack-welded sections.
When API 1104 is applied to any pipeline project, it Helpers turned the pipe with chain pipe wrenches,
is mandatory that the method used in making, testing enabling the welders to weld at the top of the pipe, in
and inspecting welded joints is in complete conform- the flat downward position.
ance with the requirements of the Standard. The fabri- PIPE RINGS (Backing Rings)
cator is expected to provide details of the procedure See PIPE WELDING, Backing Rings.
which are to be used on each particular pipe size.
Historical Background PIPE TEMPLATES
See PIPE WELDING, Accessories.
First Pipelines. Pipelines were used to transport nat-
ural gas long before Edwin Drake drilled his first oil PIPE WELDING
well. Hollow logs were used for this purposed in Welding is the most important and most common
Fredonia, New York, in 1821. By 1862, cast iron pipe method of joining all kinds of pipe, from cross-country
was used on a 6.4-km (4-mile), 50 mm (2411.) line at line pipe to piping used in power plants, refineries and
376 PIPE WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
produce a clean, uniform cut and bevel on pipe should both pipe ends to be joined, providing alignment and
be used when available. filler material for the root weld pass, which is made by
Some city ordinances require pipes to be joined by the GTAW process. Inert gas shielding of the root area
threading. Where welding is allowed in local codes, of the joint is necessary for best results.
cast iron and galvanized pipes may be brazed. Black
wrought iron and steel pipe can be arc welded. Galva-
nized pipe is brazed in basically the same manner as
other galvanized steels. See GALVANIZED IRON.
Nuclear Power Plants
Piping systems in nuclear power plants operate at
approximately 3 15C (600F) under high pressure.
These parameters, along with the need to prevent any
leakage of radioactive fluids, require high weld integ-
rity. Welders must be nuclear-qualified. To assure
complete root penetration and fusion, the root pass is
usually made by the manual gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process, and the remainder of the groove is
filled by the manual shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) process. Submerged arc welding is used for
shop welding of pipe where pipe sections can be
rotated under the welding head.
Type 304 stainless steel is used extensively in pri-
mary piping for nuclear power systems to minimize
corrosion and corrosion residue, which may become
radioactive in the reactor coolant stream. High ferrite
308 filler rods are used to avoid hot cracking in the
weld deposit. Extreme care must be used in the han-
CONSUMABLE INSERTS
dling of carbon steel and stainless steel electrodes to
prevent moisture pickup in the coating. Oven storage
facilities should be provided at the job site.
Backing Rings
A backing ring is a device placed against the back
side of a pipe joint to support the weld metal or bridge
an excessive gap between pipe ends. The material may
be partially fused or remain unfused during welding BACKING RING
and may be either metal or nonmetal.
Consumable Inserts Figure P-5-Cross Sectional Views of Typical
A consumable insert is a piece of metal formed into Consumable Inserts and a Backing Ring
a ring which is fitted into the inside surface of the pipe
or tube prior to welding. It should be essentially the
same composition as the pipe or tube. The ring serves Flat rings may have nubs formed or tack-welded to
two purposes: (1) to help align the two pipes to be the outer surface to serve as spacers to establish the
joined, and (2) to assure complete root penetration and joint gap. The other shapes automatically establish the
fusion. joint gap, align the pipes, and provide filler metal.
Several insert cross sections are available, as shown
in Figure P-5.One type of flat ring is designed to fit Stress Relieving
inside both rings at the joint, another fits in the joint Stress relieving of pipe weld joints is recommended
between the pipe ends, and others fit inside the pipes for lines operating at less than 200C (400F).All high-
and in the joint. These rings are split and are cut to fit pressure steel pipe welds should be stress relieved at a
the inside diameter of the pipe. All are tack-welded to temperature of about 620C (1150F) for one hour for
378 PIPE WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
L,
however, many root passes are made by the GTAW
process, followed by one or more shielded metal arc
passes to fill the joint. This ism e for welding stainless
steel and especially nuclear piping, where stainless
steel and high-nickel alloys are used. Gas tungsten arc
welding is used more frequently for filler passes in
these materials, especially for critical highly stressed
applications.
Pipes made of the so-called exotic metals, such as
titanium, zirconium and tantalum must be arc welded
by an inert gas process, GTAW or GMAW, with inert
gas shielding of the weld root. The plasma arc welding
(PAW) process uses an inert gas shield, and in many
cases can be used in place of the GTAW process.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is used frequently
for pipe welding in fabricating shops, where it is con-
sidered to be the most efficient pipe welding process
available. It is applied mainly to large-diarneter pipes Figure P-6-A Typical Bar ClampUsed to Hold
where it is possible to clamp sections of pipe together Pipe Ends Together for Tack Welding
and rotate them so that all welding is done in the flat Photo courtesy of Walhonde Tools, Inc.
position. Its greatest use is in the double lengthening
of line pipe, where two or more sections of pipe are
shop-welded into longer sections. Miter Joints. The design of miter joints produces a
When welding steel piping with the GMAW pro- sharp bend in right angle connections unless the joint
cess, C 0 2 or argon-C02 gas mixtures are used. Argon is made with more than one weld. Miter joints are not
is the primary shielding gas used when welding stain- recommended and should be avoided, not only
less steel, nickel base alloys and aluminum. because they are difficult and expensive to lay out and
Welding Encyclopedia PLASMAARC 379
PLANISHING
See ROLL PLANISHING.
PLASMA
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARC
PLASMA.
gives up its energy to supply heat to the workpiece as Limitations. There are notable limitations to PAC.
it returns to the normal gaseous state. When compared to most mechanical cutting means,
PAC in,troduces hazards such as fire, electric shock,
PLASMA ARC CUlTING (PAC) intense light, fumes and gases, and noise levels that
An arc cutting process that uses a constricted arc may not be present with mechanical processes. It is
and removes the molten metal with a high vtdocity jet also difficult to control PAC as precisely as some
of ionized gas issuing from the constricting oiijice. See mechanical processes for close tolerance work. When
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. compared to OFC, the PAC equipment tends to be
Plasma arc cutting produces fast, high-quality cuts more expensive, requires a fairly large amount of
that often require no further finishing. It accomplishes electric power, and introduces electrical shock
this by passing an electric current through a column of hazards.
gas, causing it to ionize and become a plasma. The Principles of Operation
resulting plasma produces temperatures up to
The arc is constricted by passing it through an ori-
16000C (30000F). This causes the gas to expand
fice downstream of the electrode. The basic terminol-
and results in high-velocity flow through the torch ori-
fice. When this high-temperature plasma arc stream ogy and the arrangement of the parts of a plasma
strikes a workpiece, it melts the metal rapidly, and the cutting torch are shown in Figure P-8. As plasma gas
high-velocity jet blows it away. The process makes passes through the arc, it is heated rapidly to a high
clean cuts and forms little or no dross or slag on most temperature, expands, and is accelerated as it passes
metals, requires no preheat, and produces a minimum through the constricting orifice toward the workpiece.
heat-affected zone, with little or no distortion. The intensity and velocity of the plasma is deter-
mined by several variables including the type of gas,
While oxyfuel gas cutting is limited to metals which
its pressure, the flow pattern, the electric current, the
combine with oxygen at elevated temperatures, plasma size and shape of the orifice, and the distance to the
arc cutting is not limited to this chemical reaction: it workpiece. Plasma arc cutting circuitry is shown in
is only limited to materials which are electrical
Figure P-9. The process operates on direct current,
conductors.
straight polarity. The orifice directs the super-heated
Historical Background plasma stream from the electrode toward the work-
PAC was invented in the mid 1950s and became piece. When the arc melts the workpiece, the high-
commercially successful shortly after its introduction velocity jet blows away the molten metal to form the
to industry. The ability of the process to sever any kerf, or cut. The cutting arc attaches to or transfers
electrically conductive material made it especially to the workpiece, and is referred to as a transferred
attractive for cutting nonferrous metals that could not arc.
be cut by the oxyfuel cutting (OFC) process. It was
initially used for cutting stainless steel and aluminum.
As the cutting process was developed, it was found
that it had advantages over other cutting processes for ,,- ORIFICE GAS
cutting carbon steel as well as nonferrous metals.
Advantages and Limitations CONSTRICTING
Advantages. When compared to mechanical cutting
processes, the amount of force required to hold the
workpiece in place and move the torch (or vice versa)
is much lower with the non-contact plasma arc cut-
TlNG
ting process. Compared to OFC, the plasma cutting
process operates at a much higher energy level, result-
ing in faster cutting speed. In addition to its higher
speed, PAC has the advantage of instant start-up with-
out requiring preheat. Instantaneous starting is particu-
larly advantageous for applications involving ~~~
interrupted cutting, such as severing mesh. Figure P-&Plasma Arc Torch Terminology
Welding Encyclopedia PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC) 381
cutting, procedure for removing the slag, and ability to dross adherence, and squareness of the top edge.
maintain the water level in contact with the work. These factors are affected by the type of material being
When the table is used for underwater cultting, it is cut, the equipment being used, and the cutting
necessary to provide a means of rapidly raising and conditions.
lowering the water level. This can be accomplished by Plasma cuts in plates up to approximately 75 mm
pumping the water in and out of a holding tank, or by (3 in.) thick may have a surface smoothness very simi-
displacing it with air in an enclosure under the surface lar to that produced by oxyfuel gas cutting.
of the water. Kerf widths of plasma arc cuts are 1-1/2 to 2 times
A cutting table for mechanized or hand plasma cut- the width of oxyfuel gas cuts in plates up to 50 mm
ting is usually equipped with a down-draft exhaust (2 in.) thick. For example, a typical kerf width in
system. This is vented to the outdoors.in some cases, 25 mm (1 in.) stainless steel is approximately 5 mm
although fume removal or filtering devices may be (3/16 in.). Kerf width increases with plate thickness. A
required to meet air pollution regulations. plasma cut in 180 mm (7 in.) stainless steel made at
Applications approximately 3 mm/s (4 in./min) has a kerf width of
The first commercial application of plasma arc cut- 28 mm (1-1/8 in.).
ting was the mechanized cutting of manway holes on The plasma jet tends to remove more metal from the
aluminum railroad tank cars at the Graver Tank plant upper part of the kerf than from the lower part. This
in Edgemoor, Delaware. In five minutes the plasma results in beveled cuts wider at the top than at the bot-
arc torch produced a beveled, ready-to-weld joint, in a tom. A typical included angle of a cut in 25 mm (1 in.)
16 mm (518 in.) thick shell that previously took five steel is four to six degrees. This bevel occurs on one
hours to prepare. The process has since been used on a side of the cut when orifice gas swirl is used. The
wide variety of aluminum applications. Table P-1 bevel angle on both sides of the cut tends to increase
shows typical conditions for mechanized cutting of with cutting speed.
aluminum plate. Dross is the material that melts during cutting and
Typical conditions for mechanized cutting of stain- adheres to the bottom edge of the cut face. With mech-
less steel plate are shown in Table P-2. anized equipment, dross-free cuts can be produced on
Manual plasma arc cutting is widely used in auto- aluminum and stainless steel up to approximately
mobile body repair for cutting high-strength low-alloy 75 mm (3 in.) thickness and on carbon steel up to
(HSLA) steel. Instant starting and high travel speeds approximately 40 mm (1-1/2 in.) thickness. With car-
reduce heat input to the high-strength, low-alloy steel bon steel, selection of speed and current are more crit-
and help maintain its strength. ical. Dross is usually present on cuts in thick materials.
The chief application of mechanized plasma arc Top edge rounding will result when excessive
cutting of carbon steel is for thicknesses up to 13 mm power is used to cut a given plate thickness or when
(1/2 in.). The higher cost of plasma arc equipment the torch standoff distance is too large. It may also
compared to oxyfuel cutting (OFC) equipment can be occur in high-speed cutting of materials less than
justified by the formers higher cutting speeds. Condi- 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick. Examples of high-definition
tions for mechanized plasma arc cutting of carbon (square edge, dross-free) plasma arc cuts in carbon and
steel plate are shown in Table P-3. stainless steel are shown in Figure P-10.
The plasma process has been used for stack cutting Metallurgical Effects
of carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. The During PAC, the material at the cut surface is
plates to be stack-cut should preferably be clamped heated to its melting temperature and ejected by the
together, but PAC can tolerate wider gaps between force of the plasma jet. This produces a heat-affected
plates than OFC. zone along the cut surface, as with fusion welding
Plate and pipe edge beveling is done by using tech- operations. The heat not only alters the structure of the
niques similar to those for OFC. One to three PAC metal in this zone, but also introduces internal tensile
torches are used, depending on the joint preparation stresses from the rapid expansion, upsetting, and con-
required. traction of the metal at the cut surface.
Cut Quality The depth to which the arc heat will penetrate the
Factors to consider in evaluating the quality of a cut workpiece is inversely proportional to cutting speed.
include surface smoothness, kerf width, kerf angle, The heat-affected zone on the cut face of a 25 mm
1
Welding Encyclopedia PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC) 383
Table P-1
Typical Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Aluminum Plate
Thickness Speed Orifice Diam*
Current
mm in. mds inJmin mm in. (dcsp), A Power kW
Table P-2
Typical Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Stainless Steel
Thickness Speed Orifice Diam*
Current
mm in. rnds in./min mm in. (dcsp), A Power kW
Table P-3
Typical Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Carbon Steel
Thickness Speed Orifice Diam*
Current
mm in. mds in./min mm in. (dcsp), A Power kW
(2) All electrical connections should be kept locally and are specified by OSHA for most industrial
mechanically tight. Poor electrical connections can environments.
generate heat and start fires. The water-shroud technique is commonly used to
(3) Cable insulated for high voltage should be used. reduce noise in mechanized cutting applications. The
Make sure cables and wires are kept in good repair. water effectively acts as a sound-absorbing enclosure
Consult the manufacturers instructions for proper around the torch nozzle. The water directly below the
cable and wire sizes. plate keeps noise from coming through the kerf
(4)Do not touch live circuits. Keep equipment opening.
access doors closed.
Radiation. The plasma arc emits intense visible and
( 5 ) The risk of electrical shock is probably the invisible (ultraviolet and infrared) radiation. In addi-
greatest when replacing used torch parts. Operators tion to potential harm to the eyes and skin, this radia-
must make sure that the primary power to the power tion may produce ozone, oxides of nitrogen, or other
supplies and the power to the control circuitry is dis- toxic fumes in the surrounding atmosphere.
connected when replacing torch parts.
It is necessary to wear eye and skin protection when
(6) Operators and maintenance personnel should be exposure to radiation is unavoidable. The recom-
aware that plasma arc cutting equipment, due to the
mended eye protection is shown in Appendix 18. The
higher voltages, presents a greater hazard than conven- likelihood of radiation exposure may be reduced by
tional welding equipment.
the use of mechanical barriers such as walls and weld-
Fumes and Gases. Plasma arc cutting produces ing curtains. The water shroud will also act as a
fumes and gases which can harm the operators health. light-absorbing shield, especially when dye is added to
The composition and rate of generation of fumes and the water in the table. When the use of dye is contem-
gases depend on many factors including arc current, plated, contact the equipment manufacturer for infor-
cutting speed, material being cut, and gases used. The mation on the type and concentration to use. It is
fume and gas by-products will usually consist of the advisable to provide operator eye protection, even
oxides of the metal being cut, ozone, and oxides of when using these dyes, because of the possibility of
nitrogen. unexpected interruption of water flow through the
These fumes must be removed from the work area water shroud. See PLASMA ARC and PLASMA ARC
or eliminated at the source by using an exhaust system. WELDING.
Codes may require that the exhaust be filtered before
being vented to the atmosphere. PLASMA ARC CUlTlNG TORCH
There is a possibility of hydrogen detonation A device used to transfer current to afixed cutting
beneath the workpiece when cutting aluminum or electrode, position the electrode, and direct the flow of
magnesium plate on a water table. This can be caused shielding gas and orifce gas. See STANDARD WELD-
by hydrogen released by the interaction of molten alu- ING TERMS.
minum or magnesium and water. The hydrogen can
accumulate in pockets under the workpiece and ignite PLASMA ARC GOUGING
when the cutting arc is near the pocket. Before cutting Plasma arc gouging is an adaptation of the plasma
aluminum or magnesium on a water table, the equip- cutting process. For gouging, arc constriction is
ment manufacturer should be contacted for recom- reduced, resulting in a lower arc stream velocity. The
mended practices. temperature of the arc and the velocity of the gas
Noise. The amount of noise generated by a PAC stream are used to melt and expel metal in a similar
torch operated in the open depends primarily on the manner to other gouging processes. A major differ-
cutting current. A torch operating at 400 A typically ence compared to other gouging processes is that the
generates approximately 100 dBA measured at about gouge is bright and clean, particularly on nonferrous
six feet. At 750 A the noise level is about 110 dBA. material such as aluminum and stainless steel. Virtu-
Much of the noise is in the frequency range of 5000 to ally no post-cleaning is required when the plasma
20000 Hz. Such noise levels can damage hearing. gouged surface is to be welded. A plasma arc gouging
Hearing protection should be worn when the noise operation on stainless steel plate is shown in Figure
level exceeds specified limits. These values may vary P-11.
386 PLASMAARCWELDING(PAW) Welding Encyclopedia
ever, the electrode was recessed in the torch, and the consists of a central tungsten electrode, a constricting
arc was constricted by passing it through an orifice in nozzle with a small orifice and an outer gas nozzle
the torch nozzle. The usual circuitry for gas tungsten which supplies shielding gas to the material being
arc welding was supplemented in the plasma arc cut- welded.
ting torch with a pilot arc circuit for arc initiation. As the orifice gas passes through the plenum cham-
ber of the plasma torch, it is heated by the arc, expands
Principles of Operation
and exits through the constricting orifice at high veloc-
The plasma arc process can be considered as an ity. Since too powerful a gas jet can cause turbulence
extension of the gas tungsten arc welding process. in the weld puddle, orifice gas flow rates are generally
However, the plasma arc processes have a much held to within 0.25 to 5 L/min (0.5 to 10 cu ft/hr). The
higher arc energy density and higher gas velocity as orifice gas alone is not normally adequate to shield the
aresult of the arc plasma being forced through a weld pool from atmospheric contamination, therefore
constricting nozzle. See Figure P-12 for a compari- auxiliary shielding gas is provided through an outer
son of the gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding gas nozzle. Typical shielding gas flow rates are in the
torch configurations. A plasma arc welding torch range of 10 to 30 L/min (20 to 60 cu ft /hr).
SHIELDING
GA
SHIELDING
GAS
SHIELDING
GAS NOZZLE
SHIELDING
/ GAS NOZZLE
ARC PLASMA
\ /-
The degree of arc collimation, arc force, energy to make use of the surface oxide removal feature
density on the workpiece and other characteristics are (sputtering) of this polarity. Arc current is usually lim-
primarily functions of the following: ited to a maximum of 100 amperes to prevent rapid
(1) Plasma current deterioration of the electrode.
(2) Orifice diameter and shape Sine wave alternating current with continuous high-
(3) Type of orifice gas frequency stabilization can also be used for welding
(4) Flow rate of orifice gas aluminum and magnesium, but the maximum is still
The fundamental differences among the plasma arc limited to about 100 amperes. Surface oxide removal
metalworking processes, arise from the relationship of occurs during the positive half cycles of alternating
these four factors. They can be adjusted to provide current.
very high or very low thermal energies. The very high Square-wave alternating current with unbalanced
flow rates may result in turbulence and perhaps positive and negative current half cycles, also called
remove the melted metal from a groove. Therefore, the variable polarity plasma arc (VPPA), is highly effi-
high energy densities, small orifice diameters and high cient for welding aluminum and magnesium alloys
jet velocities are used for cutting. For welding, a low and permits use of higher average weld current than
plasma jet velocity is necessary to prevent expulsion sine wave ac. This is possible because the duration of
of the molten metal from the groove. This is accom- the negative portion is considerably longer than the
plished by using larger orifice diameters, lower plasma positive portion, thus developing most of the heat at
gas flow rates, and lower currents than normally used the work, where it is needed. The short positive pulse
for cutting. is sufficient for removing surface oxides and does not
Polarity cause excessive heating of the electrode. Good results
Plasma arc welding is normally done with direct were obtained with 15 to 20 milliseconds DCEN and
current electrode negative (DCEN), pure tungsten or 2 to 5 milliseconds DCEP. Shorter DCEP times were
tungsten alloy electrodes, argon plasma gas and a not effective; longer times caused electrode deterio-
transferred arc. Current range for plasma arc welding ration. A typical VPPA waveform is shown in Figure
is from 0.1 to 500 amperes, depending on the torch P-13.
size and material thickness. Steel, stainless steel, Keyhole Welding Technique
nickel base alloys and titanium alloys can be welded Plasma arc welding can be performed in either the
with DCEN. melt-in or keyhole mode. The melt-in mode is similar
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is used to to the gas tungsten arc process but the arc has greater
a limited extent for welding aluminum and magnesium stiffness and heat concentration; permitting narrower
DCEN TIME
-
L
15-20 MILLISECONDS
DCEN AMPLITUDE
140 AMPS
U
4
Ul DCEP AMPLITUDE
190 AMPS
DCEPTIME
2-5 MILLISECONDS
beads and less distortion than GTAW. In the keyhole (6) Where the addition of filler metal is desirable,
mode, a stiffer, higher current density arc is used, this operation is much easier since torch standoff dis-
which produces a small hole completely through the tance is generous and the electrode cannot touch the
joint being welded. Figure P-14 is a pictorial represen- filler or puddle. This also results in less downtime for
tation of the keyhole in plasma arc welding. The key- tungsten repointing and eliminates tungsten contami-
hole technique is generally performed in the nation of the weld.
downhand position on material thicknesses ranging (7) Reasonable variations in torch standoff distance
from 1.6 to 9.5 mm (1/16 to 3/8 in.). However, using have little effect on bead width or heat concentration at
appropriate welding conditions on certain metal thick- the work; this makes out-of-position welding much
nesses, keyhole welding can be done in any position. easier.
The principal advantage of keyhole welding is making
Limitations. Some of the limitations associated with
welds in a single pass. As the plasma arc moves along
low-current and high-current (melt-in) plasma arc
the joint, the melted metal flows back into the hole to
welding include:
make the weld. If the arc moves too rapidly, the result
will be cutting instead of welding. (1) Due to the narrow constricted arc, the process
has little tolerance for joint misalignment.
(2) Manual plasma welding torches are generally
more difficult to manipulate than a comparable GTAW
torch.
Equipment
The basic equipment for plasma arc welding is
shown in Figure P-15. Plasma arc welding is done
with both manual and mechanized equipment.
TORCH TRAVEL
A complete system for manual plasma arc welding
u -
\I
consists of a torch, control console, power source, ori-
fice and shielding gas supplies, source of torch cool-
ant, and accessories such as gas flow timers and
remote current control. Equipment is available for
Figure P-14-Pictorial Representation of the operation in the current range of 0.1 to 225 A, DCEN.
Keyhole in Plasma Arc Welding Mechanized equipment must be used to achieve the
high welding speeds and deep penetration advantages
Advantages and Limitations associated with high-current plasma arc welding. A
Advantages. The low-current and high-current typical mechanized installation consists of a power
(melt-in) modes have the following advantages over source, control unit, machine welding torch, torch
gas tungsten arc welding: stand or travel carriage, coolant source, high-fre-
quency power generator, and supplies of shielding
(1) Energy concentration is greater, with the result gases. Accessory units such as an arc voltage control
that: and filler wire feed system may be used as required.
(a) Welding speeds are higher in some Machine welding torches are available for welding
applications. with currents up to 500 A, DCEN.
(b) Lower current is needed to produce a given
Accessory Equipment
weld and results in less shrinkage. Distortion may be
reduced by as much as 50%. Wire Feeders. As with the GTAW process, conven-
tional filler wire feed systems can be used with the
(c) Penetration can be controlled by adjusting
PAW process. The filler metal is added to the leading
welding variables.
edge of the weld pool or the keyhole at a predeter-
(2) Arc stability is improved. mined feed rate. A wire feed system may alleviate
(3) Arc column has greater directional stability. occurrences of undercut or underfill when welding
(4) Narrower beads (higher depth-to-width ratio) thicker materials.
for a given penetration, resulting in less distortion. Hot wire feed systems may also be used and should
( 5 ) Need for fixturing is less for some applications. be fed into the trailing edge of the weld pool. Initiation
390 PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW1 Weldina EncvcloDedia
WELDING
STARTKTOP
SWITCH
COOLANT IN
-
TORCH COOLANT
OUT
CIRCULATOR
DC
POWER
SOURCE
CURRENT
REMOTE
CONTROL
B UU
Figure P-I 5-Typical Equipment for Plasma Arc Welding
and termination of wire feed may be controlled and mizing the duration of the positive electrode cycle.
programmed with automatic welding equipment. One pass keyhole welds can be made in aluminum
Positioning Equipment. Positioning equipment for
alloys up to 12.7 mm (1/2 in.) thick. Metallurgical
PAW is similar to that used for GTAW. Depending on effects of the heat from the plasma and gas tungsten
the application, either the workpiece may be manipu- arc welding processes are similar, except the smaller
lated or the torch motion can be controlled. Workpiece diameter plasma arc will usually melt less base metal,
manipulation generally involves a rotary positioner resulting in narrower and deeper penetration. Preheat,
with the capability of tilt control. Moving the torch postheat, and gas shielding procedures are similar for
while the workpiece remains stationary requires a both processes. Each base material has its require-
ments that maximize weld quality.
carriage on tracks or a side beam carriage for follow-
ing linear joints. Combining the movement of the Consumables
torch and workpiece as a system would require the use Filler Metals. Filler metals used to weld the work
of computer programming for coordinating the base materials are the same as those used with the
operations. GTAW and GMAW processes. They are added in rod
Materials form for manual welding or wire form for mechanized
welding. Table P-4 lists the AWS specifications for
Base Metals. The plasma arc welding process can be
appropriate filler metals.
used to join all metals weldable by the GTAW process.
Most material thicknesses from 0.3 to 6.4 mm (0.01 to Electrodes. The electrode is the same as used for
0.25 in.) can be welded in one pass with a transferred gas tungsten arc welding. Pure tungsten rods and tung-
arc. All metals except aluminum and magnesium and sten with small additions of thoria, zirconia, lantha-
their alloys are welded with DCEN. Square-wave ac num, or ceria may be used for DCEN welding.
is used to effectively remove refractory oxides when Electrodes are made to ANSUAWS A5.12, Specifi-
welding aluminum and magnesium. Alternating cation for Tungsten Arc Welding Electrodes. Pure
current welding reduces the current capacity of the tungsten electrodes are generally selected for a-c
electrode unless the power source is capable of mini- welding.
Welding Encyclopedia PLASTIC MATERIALS, WELDING 391
Table P-4
shielding gas and orifice gas. See STANDARD WELD-
AWS Specifications for Filler Metals ING TERMS. See also PLASMA ARC WELDING.
Used for Plasma Arc Welding
PLASMA SPRAYER
AWS See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
Specification Filler Metals MAL SPRAYER.
A5.7 Copper and copper alloy welding rods
PLASMA SPRAYING (PSP)
A5.9 Corrosion resistant chromium and chromium A thermal spraying process in which a nontrans-
nickel steel bare electrodes ferred arc is used to create an arc plasma for melting
A5.10 Aluminum and aluminum alloy welding rods and propelling the sugacing material to the substrate.
and bare electrodes See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL
SPRAYING.
A5.14 Nickel and nickel alloy bare welding rods
and electrodes PLASMA SPRAYING OPERATOR
A5.16 Titanium and titanium alloy bare welding See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
rods and electrodes MAL SPRAYING OPERATOR.
A5.18 Mild steel electrodes for gas metal arc welding PLASTIC DEFORMATION
A5.19 Magnesium alloy welding rods and bare Permanent changes in the shape, structure and prop-
electrodes erties of a metal or material caused by the action of an
A5.24 Zirconium and zirconium alloy bare welding applied stress greater than the elastic limit of the mate-
rods and electrodes rial. Plastic deformation is an inherent consequence of
cold working.
PLASTIC FLOW
Gases. The choice of gases to be used for plasma
arc welding depends on the metal to be welded. For See CREEP.
many PAW applications, the shielding gas is often the PLASTIC MATERIALS, WELDING
same as the orifice gas. Typical gases used to weld Among weldable thermoplastics, polyvinyl chloride
various metals are shown in Table P-5, Gas Selection and polyethylene are the most frequently joined. Ther-
Guide for High Current Plasma Arc Welding. The moplastics or plastics that soften when heated can be
shielding gases are generally inert. Active shielding welded using a filler rod of the same composition as
gas can be used if it does not adversely affect the weld the base material. Applications of welded plastics have
properties. been used in the chemical and food industries, in laun-
Safety Recommendations dries, breweries, in home and industrial plumbing, and
For detailed safety information, refer to the manu- other industries.
facturers instructions and the latest edition of ANSI The process requires a torch using either electricity
249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting. For mandatory or an oxyfuel gas flame to heat air or an inert gas,
federal safety regulations established by the U.S. which will then be used to heat the filler rod and the
Labor Departments Occupational Safety and Health base material. Temperature of the compressed gas
Administration, refer to the latest edition of OSHA stream may be regulated by gas flow rate and by vary-
Standards, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Part ing the torch-to-work spacing. Although the filler rod
1910, available from the Superintendent of Docu- should preferably be of the same chemistry as the base
ments, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. material, a rod which is slightly more plasticized than
Reference: American Welding Society. Welding the base material will give greater control over weld
Handbook, V01.2, 8th Edition, Miami, Florida: Ameri- contour. However, welds made with plasticized filler
can Welding Society. rod show a slight reduction in resistance to chemicals.
Welds in plastic resemble types produced by elec-
PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH tric arc welding. For a fillet weld, no joint preparation
A device used to transfer current to afixed welding is necessary. For a butt weld, the two pieces are bev-
electrode, position the electrode, and direct the flow of eled by sawing, filing, or grinding.
392 PLASTICITY Welding Encyclopedia
Table P-5
Gas Selection Guide for High Current Plasma Arc Weldinga
Thickness Welding Technique
The prepared surfaces should be clean and rough- are somewhat lower than this. A weld will attain full
ened with a scraper to improve the weld bond. A seal- strength in two to six hours, depending on the size of
ing pass on the reverse side of the butt weld will the weldment and the type of weld. To determine the
ensure higher tensile strength. soundness of a weld and the thoroughness of surface
One essential difference between metal welding and bonding, the operator may attempt to pull the end of
plastic welding lies in the joining of filler rod and par- the welding rod from the welded piece after the weld
ent material. Complete fusion of the two is characteris- has completely cooled. In a good weld, the filler rod
tic of arc welding. With plastics, however, a simple will tear off at the end of the weld; a poorly made weld
bonding process takes place, since only the actual will allow the rod to be pulled out of the joint.
meeting surfaces melt. The other parts remain rela-
tively unaffected and rigid. The slight pressure PLASTICITY
required to force the filler rod into the joint combines A state of ductility or malleability; a capability of
melted surfaces into one homogeneous mass. In this continuous or permanent deformation or change in
manner, a bonded, integral weld is produced. shape without rupture.
The torch should be used to pre-heat surfaces or
edges to be welded, as well as the filler rod, to produce PLATE
uniform coalescence. The filler rod cannot adhere A term usually applied to metal in sheet form that is
properly if surfaces have not been sufficiently pre- over 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thick. This is not a hard and fast
heated and melted. Torch-to-work spacing must be designation; however, metal up to and including
controlled to avoid overheating, which causes darken- 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thick is referred to as sheet metal and
ing of the material, and too much sub-surface melting. anything thicker is referred to as plate.
The process can be used in the downhand, vertical
and overhead positions. The tensile strength of butt PLATE EDGE PREPARATION
welds in plastic should approach 90% of the tensile The cutting or beveling of plate edges preparatory
strength of the base material. Figures for fillet welds to welding. See EDGE PREPARATION.
Welding Encyclopedia POLARITY 393
PLATEN SPACING
The distance between adjacent sur$aces of the plat-
ens in a resistance welding machine. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See also THROAT HEIGHT. Figure P-I 6-Typical Plug Welds
PLATINUM
PLUG WELD SIZE
(Chemical symbol, Pt). A grayish-white precious
The diameter of the weld metal in the plane of the
metallic element which is not easily oxidized. It is faying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ductile, malleable, and non-corrosive, and is difficult
to fuse. It is used extensively for electrical contacts, POINT WELDING
thermocouples, laboratory equipment and jewelry. It
can be alloyed with palladium, iridium and other met- A term sometimes used to refer to projection weld-
als such as copper and nickel. Atomic weight, 195; ing and the projections or points embossed in sheet
atomic number, 78; melting point, 1755C (3191F); for concentrating the weld current. See PROJECTION
WELDING and RESISTANCE WELDING.
specific gravity, 2 1.4.
Normally, about two thirds of the arc heat is devel- Some of the common materials used as fibers are
oped at the positive terminal and one third at the nega- steel, tungsten, E-glass, S-glass, silicon carbide whis-
tive terminal. The heavily coated electrodes used in kers (small monocrystalline materials), boron, graph-
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) require that the ite, Kevlar, and aluminum oxide. The most common
most heat be developed at the positive wire electrode, types of resins are epoxy resins, polyamide resins,
where it is needed to melt the wire. For gas tungsten polyester resins, and thermoplastic resins.
arc welding (GTAW), the most heat is developed at the Polymeric composites can be classified according
positive workpiece, where it is needed to melt the to reinforcement forms, such as particulate-reinforced,
metal in the joint. The negative tungsten electrode fiber-reinforced, or laminate composites.
does not melt, even though it is ground to a fine point. Welding Composites
When welding aluminum using DCEP, which is Welding is accomplished through diffusion and
required to clean the aluminum oxide from the surface, entanglement of the matrix molecules. There are
a much larger diameter electrode with a hemispherical
two general groups of polymeric matrices: thermoset-
tip is used to help dissipate the extra heat and prevent
ting-matrix and thermoplastic-matrix. Thermosetting-
the electrode from melting.
matrix composites cannot be welded because of the
When alternating current is used, there is little dif- cross-linking of the polymer chains; they can be joined
ference in the heat developed at either pole because only by mechanical fastening or adhesive bonding, or
the polarity changes every half cycle. Alternating cur- both. However, in thermoplastic matrix composites,
rent is advantageous for welding aluminum because it the polymer chains are held together by secondary
provides a cleaning action with less heat developed at chemical bonds that weaken and break when heated,
the electrode. freeing the chains to move and diffuse. Therefore,
POLE thermoplastic composites can be welded or fusion
One of two opposing terminals of an electric gener- bonded.
ator or direct current welding power supply. They are Most welding processes that are suitable for joining
termed positive and negative terminals. The ends of a thermoplastics can also be used to fusion bond com-
magnet are also called poles. posites. The processes for welding plastics and com-
posites can be classified in two groups. The first group
POLYMER uses an external heat source, such as hot plate welding,
A chemical compound or mixture of compounds hot gas welding, resistively or inductively heated
consisting essentially of repeatedly linked structural implants, and infrared or laser welding. Processes in
units, each a light, relatively simple molecule. Poly- the second group use internal heat generation and
merization is a chemical reaction in which two or include dielectric and microwave heating, friction
more molecules combine to form larger molecules. heating (spin welding), vibration welding, and ultra-
Synthetic organic polymers are used in adhesive sonic welding.
bonding to join metal assemblies. See POLYMERIC Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc
COMPOSITE. welding (GTAW), laser beam welding (LBW), elec-
POLYMERIC COMPOSITE
tron beam welding (EBW), resistance welding (RW),
friction welding (FW), and diffusion welding and
Polymeric composites consist of reinforcing fibers
brazing can be used to weld composite matrices.
bound together by the cohesive and adhesive charac-
Following are five steps involved in welding
teristics of a resin composite matrix. The purpose of
the matrix is to transfer the load to and between fibers. composites:
The matrix keeps the reinforcing fibers in the proper (1) Surface preparation to remove contaminants
orientation and position so that they can cany the (2) Heating and melting of the thermoplastic matrix
intended loads and also helps distribute the loads more on the weld surfaces
uniformly throughout the material. (3) Pressing to promote flow and wetting
Polymeric composite materials were developed (4)Intermolecular diffusion and entanglement of
because no single, homogeneous material could be the polymer chains
found that had all of the desired properties for a given ( 5 ) Cooling and resolidification of the thermoplastic
application. They were developed initially for aero- The as-welded properties of GTAW in fiber-rein-
space applications. forced Ti/W are shown in Table P-6.
I
Welding Encyclopedia POPPING 395
Table P-6
As-Welded GTAW Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Titaniumnungsten Composites
Yield Strength
Specific Modulus (0.2% Offset) Tensile Strength
lhngsten Elongation,
Fiber, % Specimen Type Msi GPa ksi MPa ksi MPa %
Common Matrix Alloys. Because of their origins in provides that aluminum-matrix MMCs be identified
the aerospace industry, most metal-matrix composites with designations in the following format:
(MMCs) emphasize high performance with light
matrix/reinforcement/volume%form
weight. As a result, most development time and
resources have been put into low-density alloys. Mag- where
nesium has the lowest density among the commonly matrix = metal or alloy designation of matrix
used light metals, however, it creeps at low tempera- reinforcement = chemical formula for reinforcement
tures, has relatively low strength, and is prone to cor-
rosion. Titanium is more than twice as strong as volume% = volume percentage (without the % sign)
aerospace grade aluminum alloys. Its exceptional tem- form = f, fiber or filament
perature and corrosion resistance make titanium a c, chopped fiber
favored choice for demanding environments, where its w, whiskers
high cost is justifiable. p, particulate
Aluminum is the most widely used matrix material
because it is easy to process, inexpensive, light in Safety. Regardless of the material being welded,
weight, and can be alloyed to fairly high strengths. It standard welding safety practices should be followed
retains useful strength at moderate temperatures and at all times. Welding should take place in a well-venti-
has excellent corrosion resistance. lated area and operators should use appropriate eye
protection and safety equipment. For general welding
Common Reinforcements. The choice of reinforce-
safety procedures, refer to ANSUASC 249.1, Safety in
ment material generally depends on the desired prop- Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes.
erties of the composite, its compatibility with the
matrix material, and the MMC processing route. For additional information and a list of supplemen-
Among the reinforcement materials used for metal- tary references on polymeric composites, see Amen-
matrix composites are silicon carbide, aluminum can Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol. 3,
oxide, titanium carbide, and boron carbide, graphite, American Welding Society, Miami, Florida, 1996.
and titanium diboride.
POOL
Because more aluminum metal-matrix composites
are produced than all the other alloys combined, the See WELD POOL.
Aluminum Association developed a standard designa-
tion system for MMCs that has been adopted by the POPPING
American National Standards Institute. ANSI 35.5-1993 See BACKFIRE and FLASHBACK.
396 POROSITY Welding Encyclopedia
POROSITY
Table P-7
Cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrap- Common Causes of and Remedies for Porositv
ment during solidification or in a thermal spray
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Cause Remedies
Porosity reduces the strength of a weld. In fusion
welds, it is caused by dissolved gases that are usually Excessive hydrogen, Use low-hydrogen welding
present in the molten weld metal. If the dissolved nitrogen, or oxygen in process; filler metals high in
gases are present in amounts greater than their solubil- welding atmosphere deoxidizers; increase shielding
gas flow
ity limits, the excess is forced out of solution in the
form of bubble or gas pockets as the weld metal solid- High solidification rate Use preheat or increase heat
ifies. The gases which may be present in the molten input
weld pool include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen sul- Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent
phide, and rarely, argon, and helium. Hydrogen is the surfaces
major cause of porosity in weld metal.
Dirty filler wire Use specially cleaned and
The welding process, procedure and base metal packaged filler wire, and store it
type directly affect the quantities and types of gases in clean area
that are present in the molten weld pool. The welding
process and welding procedure control the solidifica- Improper arc length, Change welding conditions and
tion rate, which in turn affects the amount of weld welding current, or techniques
metal porosity. Proper welding procedures for a given electrode manipulation
combination of welding process and base metal should
Volatization of zinc Use copper-siliconfiller metal;
produce welds that are essentially free of porosity. from brass reduce heat input
The common causes of porosity in fusion welds and
suggested methods of preventing it are summarized in Galvanized steel Use E60 10 electrodes and
Table P-7. manipulate the arc heat to
volatilize the zinc ahead of the
POROSITY TEST molten weld pool
A test which can determine the presence of porosity
in any particular weld or welded assembly. Radiogra- Excessive moisture in Use recommended procedures
electrode covering or for balung and storing electrodes
phy is the most effective and reliable non-destructive on joint surfaces
test method, but it cannot detect porosity smaller than Preheat the base metal
a minimum size. Radiographs taken from two different
angles can establish the depth of the porosity from a High sulfur base metal Use electrodes with basic
surface. See RADIOGRAPH. slagging reactions
Fine porosity and other fine voids which extend to a
free surface can be detected by a dye penetrant or fluo-
rescent penetrant which is applied to a surface, soaks POSITIONAL USABILITY
into voids and finally bleeds out of the voids after the A measure of the relative ease of application of a
excess is removed. welding filler metal to make a sound weld in a given
Another type of porosity test is used to test the abil- position and progression. See STANDARD WELDING
ity of a welder to produce welds which are satisfactory TERMS.
for oil, water, or gas containers. A test weld joint can
be clamped over a pressure box against a rubber gas- POSlTlONER
ket and the box pressurized with air. Liquid soap is A mechanical device that supports and moves a
applied to the weld joint, and porosity or voids are weldment to the desired position for welding and other
indicated by the appearance of bubbles on the surface. operations. In some cases, a positioner may move a
weldment as welding progresses along a joint. A weld-
POSITION ing fixture may be mounted on a positioner to place
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING the fixture and the weldment in the most advantageous
POSITION. positions for loading, welding, and unloading.
Welding Encyclopedia POTASSIUM 397
Positioning can be done with one, two, or three Positioners are widely used for positioning weld-
different motions. One motion is rotation about one ments inthe flat or downhand position to improve
axis.Thisis normally accomplished with turning weld quality, increase production, reduce costs and
rolls, headstock and tailstock arrangements, or turn- promote safety in the shop for both production and
tables, all of which rotate the assembly about a single repair welding operations. Quality is improved
axis. because the operator has greater control over the weld
Two-motion positioning is a combination of rota- pool. Costs are reduced because filler metal can be
tion and tilting. It is normally accomplished with a deposited faster in the flat position, and because less
positioner that has a tilting table as well as rotation. A skill is required of welding operators.
typical two-motion positioner is shown in Figure P-17. POSITION OF WELDING
Three-motion position is accomplished by adding See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING
vertical movement with an elevating device in
POSlTION.
the machine base, thus providing rotation, tilt, and
elevation. POSITIVE ELECTRODE
An electric conductor through which a direct cur-
rent enters or leaves a positive welding circuit; it is
ermed DCEP (direct current electrode positive). See
.'OLARITY.
POSTFLOW TIME
The time interval from current shut off to either
shielding gas orcooling water shut 08See STANDARD
WELDINGTERMS. See also Appendix 19.
POSTHEATING
The application of heat to an assembly after weld-
ing, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, or thermal
cutting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT
Any heat treatment after welding.
POSTWELD INTERVAL, Resistance Welding
The total elapsed time from the end of the weld
interval to the end of hold time. See STANDARD WELD-
Figure P-17-Positioner with a Rotating and Tilting
ING TERMS. See also Figure 1-1.
Turntable
Photo courtesyof Pandjiris, Inc POT ANNEALING
The annealing of steel by heating, usually at a sub-
critical temperature, in a closed metal box or pot to
The positioner tables contain slots and holes which protect it from oxidation. Slow heating and cooling
can be used for anchoring parts to the table. On the rates are involved. The process is sometimes called
smaller positioners, adjustment of the table angle is box annealing.
accomplished by hand-wheels and gears; rotation may
be by a hand wheel and gear but is usually by an elec- POT METAL
tric gear drive. Angle and rotation adjustments on See WHITE METAL WELDING.
large positioners are accomplished by electric motor
gear drive. POTASSIUM
Parts to be welded and entire jigs and fixtures can (Chemical symbol: K). A silvery-white, lustrous,
be attached to the plane tables, tipped to any angle, highly reactive metallic element used in the produc-
and rotated as required. tion of certain types of photoelectric cells; also used
398 POTASSIUM SILICATE Weldinq Encyclopedia
POWDER COMPOSITE
Two or more different materials combined to form a
single particle, formed by either chemical coating or
mechanical agglomeration. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
POWDER CUlTlNG
A nonstandard term for FLUX CUTTING and METAL
POWDER CUTTING.
POWDER FEEDER
A device for supplying powdered sugacing material
to a thermal spraying gun or cutting torch. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. Figure P-18-Two Powder Forged Connecting
Rods
POWDER FEED GAS
Photo courtesy of the Metal Powder Industries Federation
A nonstandard term for CARRTER GAS.
POWDER FEED RATE POWER
The quantity of powder fed to a thermal spraying Electrical energy; in direct current circuits it is
gun or a cutting torch per unit of time. See STANDARD equal to E x I (volts x amperes). The electric unit of
WELDING TERMS. power is the watt.
POWDER FLAME SPRAYING POWER CIRCUIT
A flame spraying process variation in which the Wires or other conductors which carry current to
sugacing material is in powder form. See STANDARD electric welding machines and other devices using
WELDING TERMS. See also FLAME SPRAYING. electric current.
Welding Encyclopedia PREHEAT 399
heating reduces the temperature differential so that ately before brazing or soldering is started. See STAN-
heat flow from the weld area is reduced and the cool- DARD WELDING TERMS.
ing rate is slower.
Preheating may be applied locally by oxyfuel torch, PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Thermal Cutting
by electrical resistance techniques or by induction The temperature of the base metal in the volume
heating. Entire components may be heated in a furnace surrounding the point of thermal cutting immediately
or oven that is large enough to hold the part. before thermal cutting is started. See STANDARD
Preheat temperature depends upon the material, the WELDING TERMS.
workpiece size and shape, and the welding process to
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Thermal Spraying
be used. Cast iron requires a red heat and brass and
bronze a dull red heat. Steels require a preheat of The temperature of the substrate in the volume sur-
between 90 and 300C (200 and 600"F), depending on rounding the point of thermal spraying immediately
carbon and alloy content and material thickness. before thermal spraying is started. In a multipass ther-
Excessive preheats will remove any benefits of prior mal spraying, it is also the temperature immediately
heat treatment. Aluminum should be preheated care- before the second and subsequent passes are started.
fully, because too high a temperature will remove any See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
prior aging or cold work benefits, or even cause partial PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Welding
melting. Temperature-indicating crayons are usually
The temperature of the base metal in the volume
used to determine the temperature of the workpiece.
surrounding the point of welding immediately before
PREHEATING BY INDUCTION welding is started. In a multipass weld, it is also the
Preheating by induction will take place when a volt- temperature immediately before the second and subse-
age or electromotive force is induced in a workpiece quent passes are started. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
by exposing it to an alternating current magnetic field.
The induced voltage will cause current to flow in the PREHEAT TIME, Resistance Welding
workpiece, heating it by its resistance to the flow of The duration of preheat current flow during the
current. Usually, a water-cooled copper coil is placed preweld interval. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
close to the workpiece or area to be heated or wrapped also Figure I- 1.
around the part. If 60 Hz ac is to be used, the coil can
be connected to a step-down transformer of adequate PRE-IGNITION
kVA rating. If higher frequency is to be used, then a Overheating at some point within a welding torch
high-frequency generator of adequate kVA rating will which causes the unwanted burning of mixed gases
be needed. (oxygen and a fuel gas). See FLASHBACK, BACKFIRE,
One major advantage of preheating by induction is and FLAME PROPAGATION RATE.
that it can be applied to very large items or systems
such as pressure piping, boilers and valves for power PREQUALIFIEDWELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
plants. These items are made from high-carbon, high- A welding procedure specification that complies
alloy steels designed for high-temperature service. with the stipulated conditions of a particular welding
They require preheat for welding and could not be code or specification and is therefore acceptable for
welded satisfactorily without preheat. Induction heat- use under that code or specification without a require-
ing rapidly develops the heat within the workpiece as ment for qualification testing. See STANDARD WELD-
well as at the surface. ING TERMS.
I
Welding Encyclopedia PRESSURE GAUGE 401
PRESSURE, ELECTRICAL
The voltage which forces a current through an elec-
tric circuit. It is also called potential digerence.
straighten slightly, moving the needle upscale. The position of the lower link screw in the slotted sector
actuating mechanisms are usually mounted in a brass arm.
or steel cup or housing, which also supports the dial Tube. The tube material, cross section dimensions,
and cover glass. These gauges are namead for the and wall thickness depend on the diameter of the
inventor, Bourdon. gauge case and fluid pressure range to be measured.
Figure P-20 shows a pressure gauge with the front Generally, the wall thickness increases as the pressure
cover glass and dial removed. This particular one is increases. The dimensions of the tube must be such
known as an independent movement type, in which the that the material is never stressed beyond its elastic
entire mechanism is mounted independently of the limit at the maximum operating pressure. If this hap-
case on the socket (S), which is held securely in place pened, the hand of the dial would not return to the zero
on the case by two holding screws (9). This arrange- position when the pressure is released. General prac-
ment protects the mechanism from damage while han- tice is to design and calibrate a gauge for double its
dling and connecting to a system. maximum average working pressure. For example, a
gauge intended for a maximum working pressure of
690 kPa (100 psi) would be designed and calibrated
PRESSURE PIPING CODE (ASME-B31) Code Sections current with new developments in
The American Society for Mechanical Engineers materials, construction and industrial practice.
(ASME) Code for Pressure Piping (B-31) sets forth Addenda are issued periodically. New editions are
engineering requirements deemed necessary for safe published at intervals of three to five years.
design and construction of piping systems. While The ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping consists
safety is the basic consideration, this factor alone will of seven sections. Each section prescribes the mini-
not necessarily govern the final specifications for any mum requirements for the design, materials, fabrica-
piping system. The designer is cautioned that the Code tion, erection, testing and inspection of a particular
is not a design handbook; it does not do away with the type of piping system.
need for the engineer and competent engineering
831.1, Power Piping. This section covers power and
judgment. auxiliary service systems for electric generation sta-
To the greatest possible extent, Code requirements tions; industrial and institutional plants; central and
for design are stated in terms of basic design principles district heating plants; and district heating systems.
and formulas. These are supplemented as necessary This section excludes boiler external piping, which is
with specific requirements to assure uniform applica- defined by Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
tion of principles and to guide selection and applica-
Vessel Code. Boiler piping requires a quality control
tion of piping elements. The Code prohibits designs system and third party inspection similar to those
and practices known to be unsafe and contains warn- required for boiler fabrication. Otherwise the materi-
ings where caution, but not prohibition, is warranted. als, design, fabrication, installation and testing for
The specific design requirements of the Code usually boiler external piping must meet the requirements of
revolve around a simplified engineering approach to a B3 1.1. A fabricator is not required to provide a quality
subject. It is intended that a designer capable of apply-
control system and third party inspection for the other
ing more complete and rigorous analysis to special or piping systems covered by B3 1.
unusual problems should have latitude in the develop-
ment of such designs and the evaluation of complex or B31.2, Fuel Gas Piping. This section covers piping
combined stresses. In such cases the designer is systems for fuel gases including natural gas, manufac-
responsible for demonstrating the validity of approach tured gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and air mix-
which is taken. tures above the upper combustible limits, LPG in the
The Code for Pressure Piping includes the gaseous phase, or mixtures of these gases. These pip-
following: ing systems, both in and between buildings, extend
(1) Material specifications and component stan- from the outlet of the consumers meter set assembly
dards including dimensional requirements and pres- (or point of delivery) to and including the first pres-
sure ratings which have been accepted for Code usage sure-containing valve upstream of the gas utilization
(2) Requirements for design of components and device.
assemblies, including pipe supports 831.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping.
(3) Requirements and data for evaluation and limi- This section covers all piping within the property lim-
tation of stresses, reactions, and movements associated its of facilities engaged in processing or handling of
with pressure, temperature changes and other forces chemicals, petroleum or related products. Examples
(4)Guidance and limitations on the selection and are chemical plants, petroleum refineries, loading ter-
application of materials, components and joining minals, natural gas processing plants (including lique-
methods fied natural gas facilities), bulk plants, compounding
( 5 ) Requirements for the fabrication, assembly and plants and tank farms. This section applies to piping
erection of piping systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized sol-
(6) Requirements for examination, inspection and ids and to all types of service including raw, intermedi-
testing of piping ate and finished chemicals; oil and other petroleum
The Code for Pressure Piping is organized and products; gas, steam, air, water, and refrigerants,
operated under the direction of ASME Committee except as specifically excluded.
B31, under procedures of the American Society of Piping for air and other gases, which is not within
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), which has been the scope of existing sections of this Code, may be
accredited by the American National Standards Insti- designed, fabricated, inspected and tested in accor-
tute. The Committee is a continuing one, and keeps all dance with the requirements of this section of the
404 PRESSURE PIPING CODE (ASME-831) Welding Encyclopedia
Code. The piping must be in plants, buildings: and sim- All sections of the Code for Pressure Piping require
ilar facilities that are not otherwise within the scope of qualification of the welding procedures and perfor-
this section. mance of welders and welding operators to be used in
construction. Some sections require these qualifica-
831.4, Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Sys- tions to be performed in accordance with Section IX of
tem. This section covers piping for transporting liquid the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, while in
petroleum products between producers lease facili- others it is optional. The use of API Std 1104, Stan-
ties, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refiner- dard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities or
ies, stations, terminals and other delivery and AWS D10.9, Specification for Qualification of
receiving points. Examples of such products are crude Welding Procedures and Welders for Piping and Tub-
oil, condensate, gasoline, natural gas liquids and lique- ing is permitted in some sections as an alternative to
fied petroleum gas. Section IX. Each section of the Code should be con-
831.5, Refrigeration Piping. This section applies to sulted for the applicable qualification documents and
refrigerant and brine piping for use at temperatures as detailed requirements for joint designs, welding proce-
low as -196C (-320F) whether erected on the pre- dures, heat treatment, quality control and operator
mises or factory assembled. It does not include (1) qualification.
self-contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to Weld Filler Metals
the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or any All filler metal, including consumable insert mate-
other nationally recognized testing laboratory, (2) rial, should comply with the requirements of Section
water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. A filler
internal pressure not exceeding 103 kPa (15 psig), metal not incorporated in Section IX may be used if
regardless of size. Other sections of the Code may pro- a procedure qualification test is first successfully
vide requirements for refrigeration piping in their made in accordance with Section IX. Filler metals
respective scopes. with less than 0.05% carbon content should not be
831.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Sys-
used for high temperature applications (above 450C
tems. This section addresses gas compressor stations, [S50F]) in low-alloy steels due to reduced creep rup-
gas metering and regulating stations, gas mains and ture properties.
service lines up to the outlet of the customers meter set Backing Rings
assembly. Gas storage lines and gas storage equipment The design and dimensions of backing rings vary
of the closed pipe type that are either fabricated or according to the application; therefore if backing rings
forged from pipe or fabricated from pipe and fittings are to be used, the applicable subsection of the Code
are also included. should be consulted to determine the required design
831.9, Building Services Piping. This section applies and dimensions.
to piping systems for services in industrial, commer- Ferrous metal backing rings which become a per-
cial, public, institutional and multi-unit residential manent part of the weld should be made from a mate-
buildings. It includes only those piping systems within rial of weldable quality and should be compatible with
the buildings or property limit. the base material. The sulphur content should not
exceed 0.05%. If two butting surfaces are to be welded
When no section of the ASME Code for Pressure to a third member used as a backing ring, and one or
Piping specifically covers a piping system, at the dis- two of the three members are ferritic and the other one
cretion of the user, the user may select any section of or two members are austenitic, the satisfactory use of
the Code determined to be generally applicable. How- such materials should be determined by a welding pro-
ever, it is cautioned that supplementary requirements cedure specification. Backing rings of nonferrous
of the section chosen may be necessary to provide for materials may be used for backing provided they are
a safe piping system for the intended application. included in a welding procedure specification.
Technical limitations of the various sections, legal
requirements and possible applicability of other codes Consumable Inserts
or standards are some of the factors to be considered Consumable inserts may be used provided they are
by the user in determining the applicability of any sec- made from material compatible with the chemical and
tion of this code. physical properties of the base material. The welding
Welding Encyclopedia PROCEDURE CONTROL (Welding Procedure Specification) 405
procedure for using consumable inserts must be proce- WELDING, PRESSURE GAS WELDING, and COLD
dure-specified. WELDING.
Girth Butt Welds In this group of welding processes, the parts are
joined by applying mechanical pressure while the
Girth butt welds should be complete penetration
metal is in a highly plastic or molten state.
welds and should be made with a single V, double V,
or other suitable type of groove, with or without back- PRET1NNlNG
ing rings or consumable inserts. The depth of the weld A nonstandard term for PRECOATING.
measured between the inside surface of the weld prep-
aration and the outside surface of the pipe should not PREWELD INTERVAL, Resistance Welding
be less than the minimum thickness required by the The elapsed time between the initiation of the
Code. squeeze time and the beginning of the weld time or
The rules for welding pressure piping systems are weld interval time. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
covered in detail in the ASME B3 1 Code for Pressure See also Figure I- 1.
Piping. Any designer or fabricator planning to weld
pressure piping should be familiar with the require- PRICK PUNCHING
ments of the Code, particularly with the Section which Producing a series of closely spaced indentations
applies to the application involved. with a hard pointed instrument, such as a center punch,
to lay out a line on a metal surface to mark the location
PRESSUREREDUCER of a planned weld or cut.
A device designed to reduce and regulate the pres-
sure of gases used in cutting and welding. PRIMARY CIRCUIT
The coil or circuit to which alternating current
PRESSURE REGULATOR power is applied and which transfers it to a secondary
A device designed to maintain a nearly constant circuit by induction.
welding gas pressure from a cylinder, generator or
pipe line. Pressure regulators are sometimes called PRIMARY LEADS
reducer valves. They may be used to lower the The wires or cables connecting the primary winding
pressure of gas from the source of supply to the neces- of a transformer to the main power source used in all
sary working pressure. See PRESSURE GAUGE and types of transformers, including arc and resistance
REGULATOR. welding transformers.
PRIMARY WINDINGS
PRESSURE TESTING
The windings which are connected to and receive
See HYDROSTATIC TEST and TUBE TESTING. power from an electrical circuit.
PRESSURE THERMITE WELDING PROCEDURE
A pressure welding process in which the heat is The detailed elements of a process or method used
obtained from the liquid product of a thermite to produce a specific result. See STANDARD WELDING
reaction. TERMS.
( 5 ) Establishing the welding technique arid organiz- the welding current. The resulting welds are localized
ing the procedures at predetermined points by projections, embossments,
(6) Inspecting welding operations and testing weld- or intersections. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
ments also RESISTANCE WELDING.
A systematic method of obtaining and retaining As with spot and seam welding, projection welding
complete control over all factors involved in a welding can be used to produce lap joints. The purpose of a
job is an important requirement in production welding, projection is to localize the heat and pressure at a spe-
and is equally valuable in repair work of a repetitive cific point on the joint. The number and shape of the
nature. It can also be useful for investigating welding projections depend upon the requirements for joint
operations to assure full efficiency. strength.
Circular or annular ring projections can be used to
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION weld parts requiring either gas-tight or water-tight
The demonstration that welds made by a specific seals, or to obtain a larger area weld than button-type
procedure can meet prescribed standards. See STAN- projections can provide.
DARD WELDING TERMS.
Projection Designs
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR) The projection design determines the current den-
A document containing all of the actual values of sity. Various types of projection designs are shown in
the welding variables used to fabricate a welding pro- Figure P-2 1.
cedure qualification test weldment and the actual val- The method of producing projections depends on
ues of the results of tests pe$ormed on the test the material in which they are to be produced. Projec-
weldment. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also tions in sheet metal parts are generally made by
BRAZING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD and embossing, as opposed to projections formed in solid
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD. metal .pieces which are made by either machining or
forging. In the case of stamped parts, projections are
PROCESS generally located on the edge of the stamping.
A grouping of basic operational elements used in
Applications
welding, thermal cutting, or thermal spraying. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 3, Projection welding is primarily used to join a
Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes. stamped, forged, or machined part to another part. One
or more projections are produced on the parts during
PROCESS ANNEALING the forming operations. Fasteners or mounting
See ANNEALING. devices, such as bolts, nuts, pins, brackets, and han-
dles, can be projection-welded to a sheet metal part.
PROD Projection welding is especially useful for producing
A contact used in magnetic inspection. See MAG- several weld nuggets simultaneously between two
NETIC INSPECTION OF WELDS. parts. Marking of one part can be minimized by plac-
ing the projections on the other part.
PROGRESSIVE BLOCK SEQUENCE The process is generally used for section thick-
A block sequence in which successive blocks are nesses ranging from 0.5 to 3.2 mm (0.02 to 0.125 in.)
completed progressively along the weld, either from thick. Thinner sections require special welding
one end to the other or from an intermediate location machines capable of following the rapid collapse of
of the weld toward either end. See STANDARD WELD- the projections. Various carbon and alloy steels and
ING TERMS. some nickel alloys can be projection welded.
PROGRAM WELDING Advantages and Limitations
A term sometimes applied to sequence resistance In general, projection welding can be used instead
welding. of spot welding to join small parts to each other and to
larger parts. Selection of one method over another
PROJECTION WELDING (PW) depends on the economics, advantages, and limitations
A resistance welding process that produces a weld of the two processes. The chief advantages of projec-
by the heat obtained from the resistance to the $ow of tion welding include the following:
Welding Encyclopedia PROJECTION WELDING (PW) 407
(F) (GI
(1) A number of welds can be made simultaneously (4) Projection welds can be located with greater
in one welding cycle of the machine. The limitation accuracy and consistency than spot welds, and the
on the number of welds is the ability to apply welds are generally more consistent because of the
uniformelectrode force and welding current to each uniformity of the projections. As a result, projection
projection. welds can be smaller in size than spot welds.
(2) Less overlap and closer weld spacings are possi- (5) Projection welding generally results in better
ble, because the current is concentrated by the projec- appearance, on the side without the projection, than
tion, and shunting through adjacent welds is not a spot welding can produce. The most deformation and
problem. greatest temperature rise occur in the part with the pro-
(3) Thickness ratios of at least 6 to 1 are possible, jection, leaving the other part relatively cool and free
because of the flexibility in projection size and loca- of distortion, particularly on the exposed surface.
tion. The projections are normally placed on the (6) Large, flat-faced electrodes are used; conse-
thicker section. quently, electrode wear is much less than that with
408 PROJECTIONWELD SIZE Welding Encyclopedia
spot welding and this reduces maintenance costs. In tank oxygen to one volume of propane. This requires
some cases, the fixturing or part locators are, combined about three times as much oxygen to produce the same
with the welding dies or electrodes when joilning small amount of heat as with acetylene.
parts together. Advantages of OxyLP Gas Cutting
(7) Oil, rust, scale, and coatings are less of a prob-
In flame cutting, the function of the preheating
lein than with spot welding because the tip of the pro-
flames of the cutting tips is to raise the temperature of
jection tends to break through the foreign material
the steel to the kindling temperature: cherry red or
early in the welding cycle; however, weld quality will
approximately 900C (1650F). At that temperature
be better with clean surfaces.
the steel will burn in a stream of air or oxygen. The
The most important limitations of projection weld- oxyLP mixture will produce a very satisfactory cut,
ing are the following:
despite the fact that its flame temperature is lower than
(1) The forming of projections may require an addi- that of the oxyacetylene flame. This means that the
tional operation unless the parts are press-formed to time required to start a cut will be a few seconds
design shape. longer than with acetylene.
(2) With multiple welds, accurate control of projec-
Once a cut is started, there are a number of advan-
tion height and precise alignment of the welding dies
tages of oxyLP gas. Because of its lower temperature
are necessary to equalize the electrode force and weld-
flame, the edges of the cut are not overheated, and a
ing current.
narrower kerf is burned away. The smaller volume of
(3) With sheet metal, the process is limited to thick- metal removed requires less oxygen to oxidize the
nesses in which projections with acceptable character- metal. This minimizes the slag adherence to the under-
istics can be formed, and for which suitable welding side of the kerf. If slag is present, it is easily removed.
equipment is available. The lower preheat temperature does not melt down the
(4)Multiple welds must be made simultaneously, top edges of the cut.
which requires higher capacity equipment than does
spot welding. This also limits the practical size of the A special tip is required when LP gas is used with
a standard flame cutting outfit. The torch, regulators,
component that contains the projections.
and hoses are the same as for oxyacetylene cutting.
PROJECTION WELD SIZE Backfiring, pre-ignition, and flashback are very
The diameter of the weld metal in the plane of the rare with LP gas because of its slower burning
fuying sufaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See characteristic.
also Appendix 11.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
PROPANE The properties of metals can be divided into five
(Chemical symbol: C3Hs). A colorless, liquefied general groups: (1) mechanical, (2) physical, (3) cor-
petroleum fuel gas which is shipped in tank cars, rosion, (4) optical, and ( 5 ) nuclear. The specific prop-
stored in large tanks under pressure, and is available in erties in each of these groups are divided into
small tanks under pressure for shop use and as a cook- structure-insensitive properties and structure-sensitive
ing gas. Small self-contained propane torch sets are properties. This distinction in properties is commonly
available for home workshop use and incidental heat- made in most textbooks on metals to emphasize the
ing operations. considerations that should be given to reported prop-
Propane is used for many purposes, among them to erty values. See Table P-8.
fuel heat treating furnaces, core baking ovens, soft Structure-insensitive properties are well defined
metal melting, unit heaters for industrial buildings, gas properties of a metal. They do not vary from one piece
fired refrigerators, automatic steam boilers and braz- of metal to another of the same kind. This is true for
ing torches. most engineering purposes, and is verified by the data
obtained from standard engineering tests. These prop-
PROPANE CUTTING erties can often be calculated or rationalized by con-
Propane and other liquefied petroleum (LP) gases sideration of the chemical composition and the
are used in flame cutting. The maximum temperature crystallographic structure of the metal. They are com-
of an oxypropane flame is approximately 2030C monly listed in handbooks as constants for the particu-
(5300"F), and is achieved by using five volumes of lar metals.
Welding Encyclopedia PROTECTION FOR WELDERS 409
PULSED POWER WELDING designed so that the pulsing rate can be varied over a
An arc welding process variation in which the wide range, and the width of the pulse can be varied
power source is programmed to cycle between low and independently of the pulsing rate. The magnitude of
high power levels. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. the background and pulse current levels can be
See also PULSED SPRAY WELDING. adjusted independently of one another.
Pulsed arc welding can also be useful for gas tung-
PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER sten arc welding (GTAW) applications, particularly for
A variation of spray transfer in which the welding autogenous welding of tubing in a fixed position,
power is cycled from a low level to a high level, at where satisfactory penetration and weld face contours
which point spray transfer is attained, resulting in a can be maintained. The high current pulse produces
lower average voltage and current. See STANDARD full penetration quickly, but does not remain at this
WELDING TERMS. high level long enough to cause excessive melting.
The lower background current maintains the arc
PULSED SPRAY WELDING
between pulses.Compared with the steady arc, the
An arc welding process variation in which the cur- pulsing arc increases the penetration, with less heat
rent is pulsed to utilize the advantages of the spray input into the joint; however, welding speeds are
mode of metal transfer at average currents equal to or reduced by 20 to 40%.
less than the globular to spray transition current. See
Generally the pulsation rate can be adjusted from 1
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
to over 100 pulses per second, and with some equip-
Also known as pulsed arc welding, pulsed spray ment, to over 1000 pulses per second. When a pro-
welding is a direct-current welding system in which a grammed weld is made involving current upslope and
pulsing current is superimposed on a constant voltage downslope, pulsation starts at the beginning of upslope
d-c background current. It can be used for either gas where both the peak and background current increase
metal arc welding (GMAW) or gas tungsten arc weld- to the beginning of main weld current and continue to
ing (GTAW), but is generally associated with GMAW. pulse at those values for the remainder of weld time.
Pulsed arc welding is a modified form of gas metal At this time, both peak and background current start to
arc spray transfer welding, which produces a con- diminish to a final current at the end of the downslope
trolled and periodic melting off of droplets which are time. This type of weld program is often used for girth
projected across the arc. This process allows spray welding pipe or tubing by the automatic GTAW
transfer welding at average currents which are consid- process.
erably lower than the steady-state current necessary
for spray transfer welding. The pulsed current process PULSE START DELAY TIME
allows welding of thin sheet which would be melted
through by the standard GMAW process. In the pulsed The time interval from current initiation to the
arc process the filler wire is heated by the background beginning of current pulsation. See STANDARD WELD-
current and the end may start to melt into a drop. ING TERMS. See also Appendix 19.
When the high current pulse occurs, the drop melts
completely and is propelled, by the arc pinch effect, PULSE TIME, ResistanceWelding
directly from the wire to the weld pool. One or more The duration of a pulse. See STANDARD WELDING
drops may be propelled across the arc during each TERMS. See also Figure H-3.
pulse. The pulsed arc mode of gas metal arc welding
produces deeper penetration and better root fusion PURGING
than the dip transfer, or short circuiting mode, of The removal of any unwanted gas or vapor from a
GMAW. For this reason, pulse arc welding is particu- container, chamber, hose, torch, or furnace. It includes
larly suited to welding the thinner materials. the removal of remaining gases or vapors from a con-
Initially, pulsed arc power supplies consisted of a tainer that may have held flammable material, such as
standard three phase d-c power rectifier and a 60 cycle grease, oil or gasoline, by washing with detergents or
half-wave rectifier. The 60 cycle half-cycle pulse was with live steam, and subsequently filling with carbon
superimposed on the direct current to provide the pul- dioxide, nitrogen or inert gas to minimize explosion
sating dc. With the introduction of solid state devices hazard during hot work. Purging includes removing air
and computers, pulse current power supplies are from an acetylene generator that may have entered
412 PURGING, PIPE Welding Encyclopedia
while the generator was being charged with water and reduce the time needed to purge a system; however,
carbide. slow flow rates reduce gas consumption. If a system
can be closed off and evacuated, then backfilled with
PURGING, PIPE inert gas, the air can be reduced to less than 0.1% with
Purging of pipe is the process of replacing the atmo- only one volume of gas. Once a system has been
sphere within a pipe or tube with an inert gas atmo- purged to a suitable level, the purging gas flow rate
sphere to prevent the contamination of the root bead can be reduced substantially to a value which will
during welding. maintain a positive pressure and flow.
Satisfactory welds can be made in carbon steel pipe Determining Oxygen Content. One method of deter-
using consumable root insert rings without inert gas mining the quality of the chamber or pipe atmosphere
backup. However, the weld root will usually be rough is to exhaust a sample of the gas through an oxygen
and irregular, and the fused metal does not readily wet analyzer. This provides a quick and accurate indication
the base metal. When inert gas is used for a backup of the oxygen content, which will indicate whether the
shield, the weld root will have a uniform, smooth, con- atmosphere is satisfactory for welding. If a gas ana-
tour free of oxides. The fused metal will readily wet lyzer is not available, flow rate charts can be used
the base metal. which indicate flow rates and times required to purge a
Total System Purging given size chamber to 1% or less oxygen.
If the use of purging dams is prohibited by code, or Purging Dams
cannot be used for some other reason, it may be neces- Purging dams are plugs made of a variety of materi-
sary to purge the entire system. In systemic purging, als which are placed inside tubing or piping at both
the ends of a pipe string are sealed off with plugs of sides of a joint to be welded. These dams isolate the
rubber or other suitable material, and the pipe string is weld joint so that only the root of the weld zone needs
purged of air with inert gas, usually argon because it is to be shielded with inert gas rather than the whole pipe
heavier than air. The inert gas is introduced at one end string. Some of the more commonly used systems are
of the string and vented at the other end through a
described in the following sections.
small opening. The inlet opening should always be as
low as possible and the vent as high as possible to take Soluble Dams. Soluble dams are constructed of a
advantage of the different densities of air and argon. material which can be dissolved in a liquid, and are
Volume of Purging Gas Required. Purging an entire
available commercially in the form of discs cut to fit
the IDS of standard pipe sizes. The discs have the tex-
system is usually the most expensive method of purg-
ture of heavy paper and sufficient strength to resist the
ing because of the time and the volume of inert gas
slight pressures used for purging. The discs are placed
required. Usually a minimum of six volume changes is
in the two pieces of pipe to be joined, as close to the
required to reduce the oxygen content of the purged joint as the estimated maximum temperature will per-
volume to approximately 1%. The number of volume
mit, and cemented in place with water soluble cement.
changes of gas required to achieve a suitable degree of
A typical distance from disc to joint is 15.2 to 30.4 cm
inertness (usually less than 1% oxygen) depends on
(6 to 12 inches).
several factors. In a gas-tight system, as few as two or
three volume changes will provide an atmosphere suit- The inert gas is usually introduced to the weld
able for welding stainless steel and high-nickel alloys, purge zone through small diameter tubing inserted into
but only if the inert gas is introduced slowly through a the center of the joint preparation or through one of the
diffusing device. Theoretically, if argon is introduced discs. Large pipe may require more than one purge
slowly into the bottom of a closed chamber which is tube for adequate purging. After welding, the dam can
vented at the top, only one volume change should be be removed by flushing with water, which dissolves all
necessary to remove all the air. However, this is not dam material. See Figure P-22 (A).
possible because gas molecules are in constant motion, Inflatable Bladder Dam. Inflatable bladders are made
and some of the heavier argon will rise and mix with of rubberized fabric, or a flexible plastic which will
the lighter air. not soften or melt at slightly elevated temperatures.
Analysis of a number of typical purges indicates They have been used for many years in the repair and
that a minimum of ten volume changes is required to modification of low-pressure natural gas piping. An
reduce the percentage of air to 0.1%. High flow rates advantage of bladders is that they can be collapsed to
Welding Encyclopedia PUSH-PULL WELDING 413
PUSH-PULL GMAW
A welding system in which a motor and set of drive
rolls in the wire feeder pushes, or drives, the welding
wire toward the welding gun, where another motor and
set of drive rolls pulls the wire. This arrangement per-
m i t s welding to take place 15 to 18 m (50 to 60 feet)
away from the wire feeder, or three times the usual
operating range for GMAW equipment. The system is
Figure P-22-Three Types of Purge Dams: (A) The especially useful when welding with relatively soft
Soluble Dam; (B) The Inflatable Bladder Dam; and wires like aluminum.
(C) The Collapsible Disc Dam in Both Closed and
Open Position PUSH-PULL WELDING
A spot welding process using series-opposed split
transformers. It consists of a dual point moving elec-
permit insertion into the pipe through a relatively trode welding unit and a dual point backup unit with
small opening. The collapsed bladders are positioned flat electrodes. Advantages of this type of equipment
in the pipe at the desired location and inflated, gener- are that spot welds are produced with flat surfaces,
ally with the same gas used for purging. The gas used without indentations, on the side of the joint against
to inflate the bladders and for purging is introduced the flat backup electrodes. This is particularly desir-
through a set of hoses passing through the open end of
able for spot welding sheet metal cabinets, furniture
the pipe string. These are removed through the open
and boxes.
end after welding. It is important to note that the blad-
Mounting flexibility is achieved when the backup
der type dam can only be removed through an open
unit is mounted in a fixed position with large flat elec-
414 PUSH WELD Welding Encyclopedia
trodes, so that the moving unit may be moved to any radiation from the object to be measured on a thermo-
position where the electrodes would make contact pile, which produces a small voltage proportional to
with the backup electrodes. the body temperature. The voltage is converted to tem-
perature and is indicated on a calibrated meter.
PUSH WELD Another type of optical pyrometer measures the
A spot or projection weld made by push welding. temperature of a heated object to be measured by com-
paring the color, or redness, of the heated object with a
PUSH WELDING wire heated in the instrument by an electric current.
A resistance welding process variation in which This current converted to temperature is indicated on a
spot or projection welds are made by manually apply- calibrated meter.
ing force to one electrode and using the workpiece or a Photoelectric Pyrometer. This type measures the
support as the other electrode. See STANDARD WELD- voltage from a photronic or photoelectric cell, which
ING TERMS. receives radiation from the heated object. The voltage
In push welding, sometimes called poke welding, is converted to temperature and is indicated on a cali-
pressure is applied manually to one electrode only. It brated meter.
differs from spot welding in that only one electrode is
used in direct contact with the spot to be welded. The Electrical Resistance Pyrometer. This type uses a
other electrode is clamped to any part of the metal in Wheatstone bridge to measure the resistance (which
much the same manner that the workpiece is con- varies with temperature) of a fixed length of platinum
nected to the power supply in arc welding. This ele- wire which is exposed to the temperature to be mea-
ment makes it possible to weld in places that would be sured. It is useful to 2400C (4350F).
inaccessible for machine-made spot welds. In poke Thermocouple Pyrometer. Thermocouple pyrome-
welding, the moveable electrode is operated by hand ters make use of the small voltage produced when two
and placed at the point to be welded. When sufficient different metals which are in contact are heated. Wires
pressure is exerted on the workpiece, a pressure switch of the two different metals are welded to form a hot
initiates the weld current at a preset value. IJsually the junction and a voltage is measured by a sensitive volt-
welding machine controls the time of current flow to a age measuring instrument at the other ends of the
set value. wires at room temperature. Several standard metal
combinations are available, and temperature-voltage
PYROMETER values have been determined and published for each.
An instrument capable of indicating temperatures The more common thermocouple metal combinations
higher than a mercurial thermometer will indicate. are: chromel-alumel; platinum-platinum 10% rhod-
There are several types of pyrometers, including the ium; platinum-platinum 13% rhodium; iron-Constan-
following: tan; and copper-Constantan.
Optical Pyrometer. There are several variations of Mechanical Pyrometer. A mechanical pyrometer uti-
optical pyrometers which use a lens system to focus lizes the differential expansion of two different metals
the radiation from the heated object to be measured on when heated to actuate a pointer by means of gears or
the sensor of the instrument. One type focuses the levers. These are not accurate over 538C (1000F).
QUALIFICATION A code is generally considered to be the most rigid
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELDER of these requirements, since it carries the implication
PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION, PROCEDURE QUALIFI- of law, and in some cases, actually is a law enacted by
CATION and QUALIFICATION AND TESTING. a government body. Standards are commonly included
or referenced in the code in a municipal, state or fed-
QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION eral government project to establish limits and con-
The words qualification and certification are proba- trols over some features of the code. Some examples
bly the two most misunderstood words in the vocabu- are a municipal building code, a state boiler and pres-
lary of a welder. These two terms are erroneously used sure vessel code, or a federal highway bridge code.
interchangeably. Often the person who speaks these A properly worded code does not include explana-
words has in mind a meaning that is entirely different tory matter. Since the features outlined in the code
from what the person who hears them perceives. Gen- must be enforceable as a law, the code is written in
erally, certified refers to the welder who has a certif- mandatory language, using the imperatives shall and
icate signed by somebody and certificates can be must, or equivalent words. Explanatory matter is
issued by almost anyone. A welder can get a certificate relegated to other documents or to appendices.
of welding proficiency on graduating from a voca-
tional training course, high school course, community The most frequently cited codes involving the weld-
college or industrial training school. However, none of ing industry are the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
these will qualify the welder for doing code welding. Code and the AWS D1.l Structural Welding Code-
Where welding codes are concerned, specific qualifi- Steel. Other codes and standards, such as API 1104
cation tests are spelled out by the various codes. Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities,
Often the statement, Im a certified pipe welder and ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping, include
leaves unanswered questions such as: specified qualification tests.
(1) Qualified to what pipe welding code? There are There may be other instances when a welder may be
several, including those drawn up by the American qualified to a code, even though the work being done
Petroleum Institute, the American Society for is not involved with such a code. This frequently hap-
Mechanical Engineers, American Welding Society, pens when shop welding personnel are qualified to the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the American D l . l , D1.2, D1.3, and D1.4 series of the AWS Struc-
Water Works Association. tural Welding Codes.
(2) Qualified for what procedure? For what posi- Requalification. Some codes require requalification
tion; what type of electrode and base material; what for every job. For example, even though a person may
thickness of base material? have qualified as an EXX18 welder (most qualifica-
Another question is that of duration of the qualifica- tions are by type of electrode) on a certain building,
tion. Some qualifications, such as AWS, are consid- that qualification may not be accepted at another
ered to remain in effect indefinitely unless the welder building site, although it can be accepted at the option
is not engaged in a given process of welding for a of the local building commission and the owners or
period of three months or more, or unless there is some architects. In most areas, even though a welder may
specific reason to question the ability of the welder. still be working for the same contractor, the owners or
Code Welding architects of a new project will usually call for requali-
Every welding operation is intended to be carried fication of all welders involved. The same is true in
out to assure operator performance at a stipulated level most types of pressure vessel and pressure piping
of quality for a given design, with certain built-in work. A welder will also be required to requalify when
safety factors. These performance features may be certain changes in the welding procedure are made.
required by shop standards, customer specifications, These changes are listed in the codes as Limitations of
or rules and regulations of a specific code. Welder Qualification.
415
416 QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION Welding Encyclopedia
A welder is qualified after passing a particular qual- welding procedure is a written specification covering
ification test. For example, a welder might b,e qualified the necessary steps to be taken to produce a satisfac-
under the requirements of Section IX of Ihe ASME tory weld.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. In general, an Test Administration. Most codes are not specific on
employer is responsible for assuring that welders are the point of who is to do the testing, but usually leave
given the correct qualification tests before work it to the option of the fabricator (or owner). In order to
begins, since the employer is responsible for the work become certified under an AWS code, the welder must
of the welders. take the qualification test at an AWS accredited test
The welder who wants to be certified (not just qual- facility. While the architect or owner may demand
ified), should learn and practice the procedures control over testing, in most cases they do not, leaving
described in AWS B2.1 latest edition, Standard for it up to the contractor. The latter, however, is respon-
Welding Procedure and Perjiomzance QualiJication sible for every weld made during construction, so the
Procedure, issued by the American Welding Society, contractor must document the qualification of each
as well as any particular requirements of the specific procedure used and of every welder working on the
codes governing the type of work the welder wants job.
to do. The qualification test record, or certification of pro-
Qualification. There are two distinct steps toward cedure or welder, generally calls for the signature of
qualification. The first is qualification of the welding the person conducting the test, as well as that of an
procedure; the second is qualification of the welder. individual who witnessed it. Whether they are
The procedure qualification is a common require- employed by the weld fabricating company or by an
ment of all codes and specifications governing weld- independent testing laboratory, they are responsible
ing. Its purpose is to test the capability of the for documenting the qualification.
procedure to produce a satisfactory welded joint, Preparation of the test specimen is a key factor in
although this does not guarantee that all welds made the success of the mechanical tests; improper prepara-
under the procedure will be satisfactory. It merely tion of a specimen may cause it to fail.
serves to prove that satisfactory welds can be made by There are five different types of codes which
following the various steps of the procedure. Quality require weld qualification: (1) industrial (AWS,
in welding depends on a great many interrelated fac- ASME, API, AWWA, and others); (2) military (NAV-
tors, in which the procedure is the dominating control. SHIPS, MILSPEC; (3) governmental (local, state and
The second qualification is a test of the welders federal); (4)consumer or customer specifications, and
ability to perform the work; this is a mandatory ( 5 ) manufacturers specifications on products for which
requirement in many codes. Again, passing this test is weld quality is mandatory, but for which there are no
not a guarantee; it merely proves that the welder has existing specifications.
the ability to make satisfactory welds under given In many product areas, the influence of the insur-
circumstances. ance companies affects the codes. The insurers, while
Procedure Qualification. Before taking the welding
not code-writing bodies in themselves, have been
influential in having codes written since the beginning
procedure qualification test, the welder will have to
select a welding process, equipment, and materials, of welded fabrication. The insurance companies got
involved in metal fabrication in the early days of this
then design appropriate weld joints, and conduct trial
century with the introduction of pressure vessels of
welds. Each of these must be considered according to
riveted construction. This culminated in 1915 in the
the metallurgical and mechanical properties of the
publication, by the American Society for Mechanical
materials involved, the degree of weld soundness or
Engineers, of the first Boiler and Pressure Vessel
quality required, and cost. The step-by-step method
which evolves is the welding procedure, and all codes Code, which is updated as required and is considered
require that it be in written form. The procedure may the bible of the industry.
be expressed in broad, general terms, or it may be Nuclear Systems Code
explicit in detail, depending on the class of work or ASMEs responsiveness to the needs of nuclear sys-
type of product being welded, the ease or difficulty of tems development and for public safety led to the first
reproducing satisfactory welds, and the knowledge, Nuclear Systems Code. This was accomplished
skill and integrity of the person doing the work. The through a close relationship with the Atomic Energy
Welding Encyclopedia QUALIFICATION AND TESTING 417
Commission, which requested that one organization pressure heating, air conditioning, sanitary, water, and
accept responsibility for codifying the pressure bound- some gas or chemical systems.
ary of the entire nuclear system. As a result, Section MIL-STD-248, Welding and Brazing Procedure
111 of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, initially and Performance Qualification, and MIL-STD- 1595,
published in May. 1971, includes rules for design, fab- Qualification of Aircrafi, Missile, and Aerospace
rication and inspection of various classes of nuclear Fusion Welders may be used when federal government
components such as piping, vessels, pumps, valves or military requirements are involved.
and metal containment vessels. Previous issues had AWS B2.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and
included provisions for nuclear vessels. Pe$ormance Qualification, provides requirements
for qualification of welding procedures, welders and
QUALIFICATION FOR CODE WORK welding operators. It may be referenced in a product
The primary purpose of all the codes is to secure code, specification, or contract documents. Appli-
safe boilers, pressure vessels, and piping through min- cable base metals are carbon and alloy steels,
imum construction standards. Welding codes also pro- cast irons, aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium
vide means that will disclose inherent defects in alloys.
methods of welding and lack of competency on the AWS B2.2, Standard for Brazing Procedure and
part of welding operators, since defective welds are Pe$ormance Qualification, covers requirements for
almost invariably due to lack of control of the welding qualification of brazing procedures, brazers, and braz-
procedure. ing operators for furnace, machine, and automatic
No two codes are exactly alike with respect to the brazing. It is to be used when required by other docu-
provisions for qualifying welding operators. It is there- ments, such as codes, specifications, or contracts.
fore necessary, when seeking detailed information as Those documents must specify certain requirements
to the types of tests required, and the method of test applicable to the production brazement. Applicable
supervision, to consult the specific code or specifica- base metals are carbon and alloy steels, cast iron, alu-
tion governing the particular type of work to be done. minum, copper, nickel, titanium, zirconium, magne-
sium, and cobalt alloys.
QUALIFICATION AND TESTING ANSYAWS C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating
Procedure and performance qualification and test- the Strength of Brazed Joints in Sheal; describes a test
ing standards for welding procedures, thermal spray- method used to determine shear strengths of brazed
ing, brazing, testing and inspection are published by joints. For comparison purposes, specimen prepara-
the American Welding Society. tion, brazing practices and testing, procedure must be
AWS C2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray Operator consistent. Production brazed joint strength may not
and Equipment Qualification provides for qualifica- be the same as test joint strength if the brazing prac-
tion of operators and equipment for applying thermal tices are different. With furnace brazing, for example,
sprayed coatings. It recommends procedural guide- the actual part temperature or time at temperature, or
lines for qualification testing. The criteria used to both, during production may vary from those used to
judge acceptability are determined by the certifying determine joint strength.
agent alone or together with the purchaser. ANSIIAWS B4.0, Standard Methods for Mechani-
AWS D10.9, Specification for Qualification of cal Testing of Welds, describes the basic mechanical
Welding Procedures and Welders for Piping and Tub- tests used for evaluation of welded joints, weldability,
ing, covers circumferential groove and fillet welds but and hot cracking. The tests applicable to welded butt
excludes welded longitudinal seams involved in pipe joints are tension, Charpy impact, drop-weight,
and tube manufacture. An organization may make this dynamic-tear, and bend types. Tests of fillet welds are
specification the governing document for qualifying limited to break and shear tests.
welding procedures and welders by referencing it in For welding materials and procedure qualifications,
the contract and by specifying one of the two levels of the most commonly used tests are round-tension;
acceptance requirements. One level applies to systems reduced-section tension; face-, root-, and side-bend;
that require a high degree of weld quality. Examples and Charpy V-notch impact. Fillet weld tests are
are lines in nuclear, chemical, cryogenic, gas, or steam employed to determine proper welding techniques and
systems. The other level applies to systems requiring conditions, and the shear strength of welded joints for
an average degree of weld quality, such as low- design purposes.
418 QUALIFICATION AND TESTING Welding Encyclopedia
AWS B 1.10, Guide for the Nondestructive Inspec- side only and breaking by a sharp blow on the side of
tion of Welds, describes the common nondestructive the plate opposite the weld and (3) making a lap fillet
methods for examining welds. The methods included weld on one side only, then hrealung through the weld
are visual, penetrant, magnetic particle, radiography, by supporting the outside edges of the plates and ham-
ultrasonic and eddy current inspection. mering or pressing on the center of the weld; (4)mak-
Qualification tests help determine the proficiency of ing a butt weld and cutting nicks in both ends of the
welders to ensure that failures will not be caused by weld so that a sharp blow with a sledge hammer will
lack of skill. Also, the application of the welding pro- result in a break directly through the weld metal.
cesses in some fields is subject to regulation and Other methods of designing an observation test can,
inspection which, in some cases, is very rigid. Most of course, be used. It is always desirable to use a
welding codes require that individual operators pass a design which approximates the working conditions.
qualification test. The important thing is to complete a fracture through
The nature and the comprehensiveness of qualifica- the weld so that the entire cross section of the inside of
tion tests varies with the work to be done. In general, the weld can be examined for fusion, penetration,
the qualifying welds made by an operator will be made porosity, slag inclusions and grain structure.
under conditions which duplicate, as nearly as practi- This test can be made with ordinary shop tools and
cable, the working conditions of the prospective job. involves a minimum of expense. It is obviously unnec-
For example, there would be a great deal of difference essary to proceed to a more expensive laboratory test
between the test required of a welder working on an in the case of operators who do not show satisfactory
aerospace application and those required for a welder proficiency at this point.
who works wholly with structural steel.
There is some difference of opinion as to the neces- QuantitativeTest
sity of examining a welder on the theoretical knowl- The quantitative test is for the purpose of determin-
edge of a process. Whether or not it is worthwhile to ing how strong a weld the operator can make. If the
insist that an operator know something about the sci- welder is to be tested on butt welds only, the specimen
entific background of the process would seem to plates are welded together and coupons are cut from
depend on individual circumstances. There are many these. The coupons are then tested for tensile strength
supervisors who think that if the foreman or head and ductility in a laboratory. If the welder is to be
welder is well informed, satisfactory results can be tested on fillet welds, a double-strap lap joint is recom-
obtained from welders who have demonstrated only mended. As a rule, it is difficult to make these test
their ability to manipulate the torch or the arc. It is cer- specimens with the welds in longitudinal shear.
tain, however, that knowledge of the process is no
handicap. HartfordTest
Before requiring welders to take qualification tests The Hartford Test refers to qualifying an
for any kind of work, it is advisable to prepare forms employer's organization for an insurance company.
on which a record can be made of all the operating The qualifying tests of the procedures and the welding
conditions, the observations made by the inspector, which operators have completed are part of the
and a complete record of test results. These indi- requirements for qualifying the employer's organi-
vidual records should be carefully preserved for zation. The welding operators can weld on code
reference. work only for the employer with whom the tests were
A good deal of unnecessary expense can be circum- performed.
vented if the qualification test is divided into two An insurance company engaged in shop inspection
parts: first, observation of a preliminary break test, and does not issue certificates of qualification to welding
second, a quantitative test. operators, since the certificates would be of no value
Preliminary Break Test to another shop.
A preliminary break test should be a made with a See TESTING for further reference to various qualifi-
simple weld that can easily be broken through the cation tests and testing methods. See also QUALIFICA-
weld itself. There are several methods of doing this: TION FOR CODE WORK, ASME BOLER CONSTRUCTION
(1) using a plain butt weld and breaking it in a vise, (2) CODE; BOILER WELDING; BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
welding one plate to another in the form of a T on one CODES; HARTFORD TEST; and TRAINING.
Welding Encyclopedia QUENCHING, INTERRUPTED 419
rupted quenching, if immersion time is sufficiently or timed quenching. Air provides the mildest type of
short, there will be enough heat in the interior of the quench.
axle to raise the temperature of the exterior layer,
effecting a tempering treatment. Subsequent temper- QUENCH TIME,Resistance Welding
ing is unnecessary, and the highly stressed condition The time from the end of the weld, weld interval, or
caused by full quenching is avoided. downslope time to the beginning of the temper time,
during which no currentflows through the workpieces
QUENCHING MEDIA and the weld is rapidly cooled by the electrodes. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-1.
There are various quenching media such as water,
oil, brine, molten salts, molten metal, still air or QUICKLIME
blasted air.Water and brine are the most drastic (Chemical symbol: CaO). Quicklime, or calcium
quenching mediums. To satisfactorily harden steel, oxide, is unslaked lime. When quicklime is added to
water should be kept below 25C (80F) and continu- coke and heated in an electric furnace, the resulting
ally agitated during the quenching operation. Agitation products are calcium carbide and carbon monoxide.
of the cooling medium insures a more uniform and Calcium carbide is used in the process of generating
faster cooling action. Brine is faster, is more uniform, acetylene.
and is less affected by increases in temperature. Oil is
used as a quenching medium in hardening operations. QUICKSILVER
Molten salts or molten metals are high-temperature Common name for mercury; used in instruments,
quench baths and are frequently used with interrupted vapor lamps and batteries.
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
The use of radiant energy in the form of X-rays, Of the metals shown in Figure R-2, lead has the
gamma rays, or high-energy neutrons for the nonde- highest density: 11.34 g/cm3 (0.409 Ib/im3), followed
structive examination of visually opaque objects in order by copper: 8.96 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/ in3); steel:
which yield a record of their soundness on a sensitized 7.87 g/cm3 (0.284 l b / i ~ ~ .and
~ ) ,aluminum: 2.70 g/cm3
film or screen. (0.097flb in3). With the highest density (weight per
Radiography is a nondestructive test method based unit volume), lead absorbs the most radiation, trans-
on the principle of preferential radiation transmission, mits the least radiation, and thus produces the lightest
or absorption. Areas of reduced thickness or lower film.
density transmit more, and therefore absorb less radia- Lower energy, non-particulate radiation is inthe
tion. The radiation which passes through a test object form of either gamma radiation or X-rays. Gamma
will form a contrasting image on a film receiving the rays are the result of the decay of radioactive materi-
radiation. als; common radioactive sources include Iridium 192,
Areas of high radiation transmission, or low absorp- Cesium 137, and Cobalt 60. These sources are con-
tion, appear as dark areas on the developed film. Areas stantly emitting radiation and must be kept in a
of low radiation transmission, or high absorption, shielded storage container, referred to as a gamma
4: !1
422 RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION Welding Encyclopedia
Lack of Fusion. Lack of fusion is usually easy to rec- The major advantage of this test method is that it
ognize, since it has the appearance of a thin line of can detect subsurface discontinuities in all common
slag, or a crack, close to the joint wall. engineering materials. A further advantage is that the
developed film serves as an excellent permanent
Equipment
record of the test if properly stored away from exces-
The equipment required to perform radiographic sive heat and light.
testing begins with a source of radiation; this source Along with these advantages are several disadvan-
can be either an X-ray machine, which requires electri- tages. One of those is the hazard posed to humans by
cal input, or a radioactive isotope which produces excessive radiation exposure. Many hours of training
gamma radiation. The isotopes usually offer increased in radiation safety are required to assure the safety of
portability. Either radiation type requires film and a both the radiographic test personnel and other person-
light-tight film holder, and an alphabet of lead letters nel in the testing vicinity. For that reason, the testing
which are used to identify the test object. Because of may be performed only after the test area has been
the high density of lead and the local increased thick- evacuated, which may present scheduling problems.
ness, these letters form light areas on the developed Radiographic testing equipment can also be very
film. Image Quality Indicators (IQI), or penetrameters expensive, and the training periods required to pro-
(pennys), are used to verify the resolution sensitivity duce competent operators and interpreters are some-
of the test. These IQIs are usually one of two types: what lengthy. Interpretation of film should always be
shim or wire. They are both specified as to material done by those currently certified to a minimum Level
type. The shim type will have a specified thickness I1 per the AWS NDE Certification or ASNTs SNT
and included hole sizes, and the wire type will have TC-1A. Another limitation of this test method is the
specified diameters. Sensitivity is verified by the abil- need for access to both sides of the test object (one
ity to detect a given difference in density due to the side for the source and the opposite for the film).
penetrameter thickness and hole diameter, or wire Another disadvantage of radiographic testing is that
diameter. it may not detect those flaws which are considered to
Shim penetrameters vary in thickness and hole be more critical (e.g., cracks and incomplete fusion)
diameters, depending on the metal thickness being unless the radiation source is preferentially oriented
radiographed. Figure R-3 shows the essential features with respect to the flaw direction. Further, certain test
of various penetrameter designs. When the penetrame- object configurations (e.g., branch or fillet welds) can
ter thickness is 0.025 in., it will have the designation make both the performance of the testing and interpre-
of #25, for the shim thickness in mils (a #10 is 0.010 tation of results more difficult. However, experienced
in. thick; a #50 is 0.050 in. thick). The hole diameters test personnel can obtain radiographs of these more
and positions are specified, and are noted in terms of difficult geometries and interpret them with a high
multipliers of the individual shim thickness. The larg- degree of accuracy. See also X-RAY TESTING OF
est hole in a #25 penny is 0.100 in., and is called the WELDS.
4T hole, indicating that it is equal to four times the
shim thickness. A 2T hole (0.050 in.) is equal to two RADIO INTERFERENCE
times the shim thickness. The smallest hole between The high-frequency radiation used to stabilize a-c
the 4T and 2T hole is referred to as the IT hole and gas tungsten arc welding may cause telephone, radio
is exactly equal to the shim thickness, 0.025 in. These and television interference. This problem can be alle-
holes are used to verify resolution sensitivity, which is viated by using an earth ground to ground the work-
usually specified to be 2% of the weld thickness. How- piece and the welding power supply case. It is also
ever, a l % sensitivity can also be specified, but is helpful to keep cables as short as possible and to shield
more difficult to attain. the primary wiring.
Film processing equipment is required to develop
the exposed film and a special film viewer with RADIUM (Ra)
intense lighting is best for interpretation of the film. A rare, brilliant white, radioactive metallic element
Because of the potential dangers of radiation exposure used in luminous materials. Atomic number 88;
to humans, radiation monitoring equipment is always atomic weight, 226.05. Melting point, 700C
required. (1292F).
424 RADON Welding EncvcloDedia
RADON In the past, rails were heat treated to raise the elastic
(Chemical symbol: Rn). A heavy, gaseous element limit of the steel in the tread portion of the rail suf-
which is given off as the initial product during radium ficiently to overcome the cold flow effect. The oxy-
disintegration. Radon is a gas which has a half-life acetylene process was used. Heat treating was
period of 3.85 days. Either radium salts or radon may accomplished by heating the end portions of the tread
be used in industrial radiography, however, when surface of the rails until they were well above the
radon is used, complicated corrections in exposure transformation point, then quenching the rail ends. If
time estimates are necessary because of its short half- necessary, a second heat treatment was applied to
life. See RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION. obtain the required degree of hardness, about 400 on
the Brinell hardness scale.
RAIL-END HARDENING
The advent of rail joint welding almost completely
In railroad tracks, the wearing down, or battering, did away with the need for rail-end hardening.
of rail ends is caused mainly by the cold flow of metal.
When trains pass over a rail, the concentrated load
RAIL JOINT WELDING
applied under the wheels produces at times a stress
greater than the elastic limit of the steel in the rail. Rails are joined in the field by either flash butt
This stress is further increased by the hammer-like welding (a resistance welding process) or by thermite
blows resulting from any unevenness in the height of welding. In the shop, flash butt welding is used to
the abutting rails, or poor joint or surface maintenance. weld the standard (11.9 m [39 ft]) lengths of rail into
In addition, the metal at the ends of the rail can flow in 300-ft sections. For additional information, refer to
two directions, laterally and longitudinally. This ANSUAWS D 15.2, Recommended Practices for the
causes a much more rapid lowering of the surface of Welding of Rails and Related Rail Components for Use
the rail at the very ends. by Rail Vehicles.
Welding Encyclopedia RANDOM INTERMllTENT WELDS 425
Rail joints are welded for the following reasons: Continuous welded rail was introduced in 1930 by
smoother riding qualities, reduced track maintenance, the Central Georgia Railroad for the track through two
and to eliminate the need for shimming and building tunnels. Its first use in open track occurred in 1932.
up worn rail ends. Welded joints increase the life of Today there are open track installations ranging from 1
ties and reduce the effects of vibration on cars and to 68 km (1/2 to 42 miles) in length on railroads in all
locomotives. Most American railroad systems are sections of the country.
operating on trackage that has continuous welded rail. In tunnels, continuous welded rails have eliminated
See FLASH WELDING and THERMITE WELDING. the use of joint bars, bolts and other connections that
Expansion and Contraction Problems. Since rail- often served as a focal point for corrosion. The continu-
roads frequently operate in temperatures which range ous rail technique was quickly adapted to subway
from -34 to 48C (-30 to 120"F), an 82C (150F) tracks. On bridges, continuous welded rail systems
range, continuous rails would expand as much as eliminated noise and vibration and reduced impact. At
152 cm (60 in.) in a length of 1.6 km (1 mile) if they road crossings, welded rail reduced the usual excessive
were free to move. To prevent this movement, welded maintenance and helped greatly to prevent the frequent
rail is spiked down to the ties using cleats. The spikes breakdown of the pavement. Similar advantages were
keep the rails from rising and the cleats restrain the rail realized in station platforms and tracks running through
from moving longitudinally. city streets, privately owned railroads on industrial
It is important to install the welded rail at a temper- sites, and rails for cranes and other equipment. See
THERMITE WELDING, RESISTANCE WELDING, FLASH
ature above the median operating temperature so that
the rail will be in tension more than in compression. If WELDING, and OXYACETYLENE PRESSURE WELDING.
the compression forces (from heating) exceed the
RAILROAD CAR REPAIR
restricting effect of the cleats, the track may bulge
sideways and cause a derailment. If the tension forces Information on the repair of railroad cars is con-
(from cooling) exceed the tensile strength of the rail, it tained in ANSUAWS D15.1, latest edition, Railroad
will break. This will automatically signal the train Welding Specifcation-Cars and Locomotives. This
engineer and the right-of-way technicians that there is publication contains material on processes, consum-
a problem so that traffic on the defective rail will be ables, base metals, operator and procedure qualifica-
shut down. tion, and design of welded joints. Reference:
Records are maintained on each rail showing when American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road,
it was initially installed, the ambient temperature when
Miami, Florida 33126.
it was installed, and other pertinent data. Monitoring RAILWAY EQUIPMENT, Welding
systems keep technicians in constant touch with rail
conditions. The primary source of welding information relating
to the construction of new railway equipment is the
Historical Background Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices
The first significant stretches of welded rail joints prepared by the Mechanical Division, Association of
were completed in 1938, but it was not until 1950 American Railroads (AAR). This manual includes
that welded joints became a standard of railroad specifications, standards, and recommended practices
construction. adopted by the Mechanical Division. Several sections
Early production rail joint welding was done with of the manual relate to welding, and the requirements
gas pressure welding. In this process, the rail ends are similar to those of ANSVAWS D1.l, Structural
were squared up by power sawing. After cleaning, Welding Code-Steel. This code is frequently refer-
they were clamped together in a welding machine enced for weld procedure and performance qualifica-
under a pressure of 17 to 18 MPa (2500 to 2700 psi). tion. In 1986, the American Welding Society
Multiflame torch tips were used to heat the ends of the published AWS D15.1, Railroad Welding Specifica-
rails to 1260C (2300F). After about five minutes of tion, which has been endorsed by AAR.
heating under this extreme pressure, the rails were
welded. Excess weld metal was trimmed from the rail RANDOM INTERMllTENT WELDS
by air-powered shears, and the rails were ground to Intermittent welds on one or both sides of a joint in
contour. Gas pressure welding was eventually phased which the weld increments are made without regard to
out in favor of flash butt welding. spacing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
426 RANDOM SEQUENCE Welding Encyclopedia
RANDOM SEQUENCE slows the rate of change of the current, and stores elec-
A longitudinal sequence in which the weld bead tromagnetic energy. The first feature enables the oper-
increments are made at random. See STANDARD ator to strike the metal electrode arc more easily,
WELDING TERMS. because the tendency of the electrode to freeze to the
work is minimized. The second feature gives the arc
RANDOM WOUND additional stability, counteracting any influences, such
Spooled or coiled filler metal that has not been as air drafts or gas formation caused by impurities in
wound in distinct layers. See STANDARD WELDING metal being welded, which tend to extinguish the
TERMS. See also LEVEL WOUND. shielded metal electrode arc.
RATE OF DEPOSITION REACTOR CONTROL
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also DEPOSI- As used in a-c welding machines, reactor controls
TION RATE. provide for remote adjustment of welding currents.
The reactor control consists of a motor-driven gear
RATE OF FLAME PROPAGATION
device that may be applied to crank-adjusting units, or
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also FLAME a rheostat at the work station for reactors that are
PROPAGATION RATE. adjusted electrically. Foot-operated remote control
units are available which permit a gradual buildup or
REACTANCE
reduction of the welding current. This type of control
The property of a device to impede the flow of an
device is useful in preventing weld craters.
alternating current while allowing direct current to
flow without opposition. RECALESCENCE
REACTANCE COIL The liberation of heat when steel is cooled from a
A choke coil. It is used to oppose the flow of high- white heat to a dull red heat, at which point it suddenly
frequency currents in a circuit. See REACTOR. brightens, then continues to cool to ambient tempera-
ture. See METALLURGY.
REACTION FLUX, Soldering
RECOVERY
A fzux composition in which one or more of the
ingredients reacts with a base metal upon heating to The amount of alloying elements in a weld depos-
deposit one or more metals. See STANDARD WELDING ited from the filler metal. For example, the deposit
TERMS. from a bare rod containing 0.50% carbon generally
will not contain over 0.05% carbon. In this case, the
REACTION SOLDERING recovery is 10%. If the electrode is coated, the carbon
A soldering process variation in which a reaction recovery may rise to 50 or loo%, depending on the
fzux is used. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. coating. Low recovery of an alloying element may be
due to the low boiling point of the element, its ten-
REACTION STRESS dency to join with the slag because of its affinity for
A stress that cannot exist in a member ifthe member oxygen, nitrogen or other gases, or may be due to
is isolated as a free body without connection to other incorrect welding procedure, such as overheating the
parts Of the structure. See STANDARD WELDING base metal.
TERMS.
RECTIFIER
REACTOR A device for changing alternating current into
A device used in arc welding circuits to minimize direct, or continuous, current.
irregularities in thefZow of the welding current. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. RECTIFIER WELDING MACHINE
Reactors are choke coils used in an electrical circuit A rectifier welding machine is used for welding
for protection or for changing the power factor. processes or electrodes that require direct current
On an arc welding machine, a reactor is an induc- rather than alternating current. It is a machine in which
tive coil of copper wire or strap, surrounded by a lami- a-c input power is changed to d-c welding power.
nated iron circuit provided with an air gap. The reactor Alternating current is supplied to the rectifier from the
Welding Encyclopedia REFLOW SOLDERING 427
power line through a transformer. The welding current are convenience of operation and adaptability to auto-
control may be incorporated in the transformer, or may matic welding process control.
be a separate reactor between the transformer and the
rectifier. RED SHORT
Rectifier welding machines may have either single- See HOT SHORT.
phase or three-phase input. While some machines may
supply either a-c or d-c output, the most efficient are REDUCED SECTION TENSION TEST
those designed for d-c welding only. The three-phase A test in which a transverse section of the weld is
welding machine will show the lowest ripple percent- located in the center of the reduced section of the spec-
age; that is, it will exhibit very smooth arc characteris- imen. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
tics. Rectifier welding machines may be divided
broadly into two general types, according to volt- REDUCING AGENT
amperage curves and application. A deoxidizer.
Constant-CurrentWelding Machines. A constant-cur-
REDUCING ATMOSPHERE
rent welding machine has characteristically drooping
volt amperage curves, producing relatively constant A chemically active protective atmosphere that will
current within a limited change in load voltage. This reduce metal oxides to their metallic state at elevated
type of welder is conventionally used with shielded temperature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma
REDUCING FLAME
arc welding or air carbon arc cutting. Constant current
welding units, when adjusted for full-rated output, An oxyfuel gas flame with an excess offuel gas. See
should maintain the current within 5 % of its rated STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
value, with a variation of 1% above or below normal A reducing flame may be used to prevent oxida-
arc voltage. tion of an active metal, so that wetting is not hin-
A constant current welding machine is best suited dered or unacceptable dross is not produced. The
for most manual operations where variations in the arc reducing flame may also preclude loss of a key oxi-
length are most apt to occur because of the individual dizable alloying element, such as carbon. Specific to
technique of the operator. It may also be used, how- plain and alloyed steels, a reducing flame imparts
ever, in automatic and semi-automatic operations with carbon into the surface of the weld metal. In such
a variable electrode feed mechanism, and in operations situations, a reducing flame is often referred to as a
in which an effort is made to maintain a constant arc carburizing flame. See also CARBURIZING FLAME,
length by automatic changes in the wire feed speed. NEUTRAL FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, and REDUCING
ATMOSPHERE.
Constant Potential. Constant-potential power sup-
plies are designed specifically to power the various REDUCING VALVE
automatic welding processes which use a continuous See REGULATOR.
wire electrode that is fed at a constant speed. In this
type of welding machine, the arc voltage curve REFINED ZONE
approaches a horizontal line and maintains its voltage The portion or area of the base metal bordering
within 5% of the rated full-load setting, over the range on the fusion zone, in which grain refinement has
from open circuit to full load. taken place as a result of the heat of welding. See
The methods of current control on rectifier type METALLURGY.
welders vary between different equipment manufac-
turers. Among commercial designs, the means of cur- REFLOWING
rent control are movable coil transformers, movable A nonstandard term when used for FLOW
core reactors, saturable reactors, magnetic linkage BRIGHTENING.
controls, and various solid-state devices.
The advantages of mechanical current controls are REFLOW SOLDERING
stability and the capacity of duplicating current set- A nonstandard term for soldering with preplaced
tings. The principal advantages of electrical controls filler metal.
428 REFRACTORY METALS Welding Encyclopedia
REFRACTORY METALS
Refractory metals are those with high melting / :4&UJNG
points. Popular usage has established 2000C
(3632F) as the minimum melting point. See Table
R-1.
DIAPHRAGM
Table R-1
Melting Points of Various Refractory Metals
Melting Point
REFRIGERATED WELDING
See RESISTANCE WELDING, Refrigerated. in balance between the pressure of the spring and the
pressure of the gas in the chamber; this maintains a
REGULATOR constant flow of gas through the regulator at a given
Regulators are reducing valves which are attached pressure. This pressure may be increased or
to the cylinder valves of oxygen, acetylene, and other decreased by changing the position of the adjusting
gas cylinders to reduce the pressure in the cylinder to a screw.
suitable working pressure at the torch. The compo- A single-stage oxygen regulator is usually used to
nents of a regulator are: a diaphragm, a seat, a nozzle, step the pressure down from a cylinder pressure of
springs, and a suitable case, usually made of a brass 13.8 MPa (2000 psi), when the cylinder is full, to torch
forging. A cross sectional view of a typical single- pressures of from 7 to 240 kPa (1 to 35 psi), depending
stage regulator is shown in Figure R-4. on the size of the tip in use and the type of torch. A
Regulator Types 21 MPa (3000 psi) gauge is attached to the high-
There are two general types of regulators: the sin- pressure side of the regulator and a gauge which will
gle-stage regulator and a more complex two-stage reg- reduce pressure to 1 MPa (150 psi) or less is attached
ulator. A two-stage regulator has two seats, two to the low-pressure side.
nozzles and two diaphragms, with one adjusting screw. The initial reduction in a two-stage oxygen regula-
Regulator Action tor is from a maximum of 13 MPa (2000 psi) to an
When the adjusting screw is turned to the right, intermediate pressure of 1.7 MPa (250 psi), the second
pressure is applied to the spring, causing the dia- reduction is to the required torch pressure, which is
phragm and the seat carriage to force the seat away controlled by the adjusting screw.
from the nozzle, permitting gas to enter the chamber. Acetylene regulators reduce cylinder pressures
The high-pressure gas entering the chamber increases from a maximum of about 1.7 MPa (250 psi) to torch
the pressure on the diaphragm until it overcomes the pressures not ordinarily exceeding 75 or 82 kPa (11
pressure of the large spring, permitting the seat to be or 12 psi). These are usually equipped with 2.7 MPa
closed by the small spring, or springs. The position of (400 psi) gauges on the high-pressure side and
the seat over the nozzle is controlled by the difference 340 kPa (50 psi) gauges on the low pressure side.
Welding Encyclopedia RESISTANCESEAM WELD SIZE 429
3
DEPTH OF
FUSION ~ I
FUSION FACE
I \
WELD INTERFACE
I
tance in the workpiece to generate the heat required to
reach its plastic stage. For several years, little was
done with this development, since it seemed to have
little commercial value. Nevertheless, resistance weld-
ing was introduced commercially in the early 1880s as
incandescent welding.
Figure R-6-Resistance Spot Weld Modern Resistance Welding Technology
Spot, seam, and projection welding are three resis-
RESISTANCE SPOT WELD SIZE tance welding processes in which coalescence of met-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also SPOT als is produced at the faying surfaces by the heat
WELD SIZE. generated by the resistance of the work to the passage
of electric current. Force is always applied before, dur-
RESISTANCE WELDER ing, and after the application of current to confine the
A resistance welding machine. weld contact area at the faying surfaces and, in some
applications, to forge the weld metal during postheat-
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) ing. Figure R-7 illustrates the three processes.
A group of welding processes that produces coales- In spot welding, a nugget of weld metal is produced
cence of the faying surfaces with the heat obtuined at the electrode site, but two or more nuggets may be
Welding Encyclopedia RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) 431
BEFORE AFTER
WELDING WELDING
Figure R-7-Simplified Diagrams Showing the Basic Processes of Spot, Seam, and Projection Welding
made simultaneously using multiple sets of electrodes. cool while under pressure until it has adequate
Projection welding is similar except that nugget loca- strength to hold the parts together. The current density
tion is determined by a projection or embossment on and pressure must be such that a nugget is formed, but
one faying surface, or by the intersection of parts in not so high that molten metal is expelled from the
the case of wires or rods (cross-wire welding). Two or weld zone. The duration of weld current must be suffi-
more projection welds can be made simultaneously ciently short to prevent excessive heating of the elec-
with one set of electrodes. trode faces. Such heating may bond the electrodes to
Seam welding is a variation of spot welding in the work and greatly reduce their life.
which a series of overlapping nuggets is produced to The heat required for these resistance welding pro-
obtain a continuous, leak tight seam. One or both elec- cesses is produced by the resistance of the workpieces
trodes are generally wheels that rotate as the work to an electric current passing through the material.
passes between them. A seam weld can be produced Because of the short electric current path in the work
with spot welding equipment but the operation will be and limited weld time, relatively high welding currents
much slower. are required to develop the necessary welding heat.
A series of separate spot welds may be made with a Heat Generation. In an electrical conductor, the
seam welding machine and wheel electrodes by suit- amount of heat generated depends upon three factors:
ably adjusting the travel speed and the time between (1) the amperage, (2) the resistance of the conductor
welds. Movement of the work may or may not be (including interface resistance), and (3) the duration of
stopped during the spot weld cycle. This procedure is current. These three factors affect the heat generated
known as roll spot welding. as expressed in the formula
Principles of Operation
Q = 12Rt
Spot, seam, and projection welding operations
involve a coordinated application of electric current where:
and mechanical pressure of the proper magnitudes and Q = heat generated, joules
durations. The welding current must pass from the I = current, amperes
electrodes through the work. Its continuity is assured R = resistance of the work, ohms
by forces applied to the electrodes, or by projections
t = duration of current, seconds
which are shaped to provide the necessary current den-
sity and pressure. The sequence of operation must first The heat generated is proportional to the square of
develop sufficient heat to raise a confined volume of the welding current and directly proportional to the
metal to the molten state. This metal is then allowed to resistance and the time. Part of the heat generated is
432 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) Welding Encyclopedia
used to make the weld and part is lost to the surround- force.) This is a point of high heat generation, but the
ing metal. surface of the base metal does not reach its fusion tem-
The secondary circuit of a resistance welding perature during the current passage, due to the high
machine and the work being welded constitute a series thermal conductivity of the electrodes (1 and 7 ) and
of resistances. The total resistance of the cuinent path the fact that they are usually water cooled.
affects the current magnitude. The current will be the (3) 3 and 5 , the total resistance of the base metal
same in all parts of the circuit regardless of the instan- itself, which is directly proportional to its resistivity
taneous resistance at any location in the circuit, but the and thickness, and inversely proportional to the cross-
heat generated at any location in the circuit will be sectional area of the current path.
directly proportional to the resistance at that point. (4) 4, the base metal interface resistance at the loca-
An important characteristic of resistance welding is tion where the weld is to be formed. This is the point
the rapidity with which welding heat can be produced. of highest resistance and, therefore, the point of great-
The temperature distribution in the work and elec- est heat generation. Since heat is also generated at
trodes, in the case of spot, seam, and projection weld- points 2 and 6, the heat generated at interface 4 is not
ing, is illustrated in Figure R-8. There are, in effect, at readily lost to the electrodes.
least seven resistances connected in series in a weld Heat will be generated in each of the seven loca-
that account for the temperature distribution. For a tions in Figure R-8 in proportion to the resistance of
two-thickness joint, these are the following: each. Welding heat, however, is required only at the
(1) 1 and 7 , the electrical resistance of the electrode base metal interface, and the heat generated at all other
material. locations should be minimized. Since the greatest
(2) 2 and 6, the contact resistance between the elec- resistance is located at 4,heat is most rapidly devel-
trode and the base metal. The magnitude of this resis- oped at that location. Points of next lower resistance
tance depends on the surface condition of the base are 2 and 6. The temperature rises rapidly at these
metal and the electrode, the size and contour of the points also, but not as fast as at 4. After about 20% of
electrode face, and the electrode force. (Resistance is the weld time, the heat gradient may conform to the
roughly inversely proportional to the contacting profile shown in Figure R-8. Heat generated at 2 and 6
-1
+
I
II --
:
+3
-5
-7
W I ' I '
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DOWNSLOPE TIME
k WELDING CYCLE4-
Figure R-1 0-Multiple-Impulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
ence to a portable gun). See STANDARD WELDING variations in the welding heat because of variations in
TERMS. the welding contact resistance.
One of the methods used to minimize these prob-
RESISTANCEWELDING, Refrigerated lems is to circulate a refrigerated coolant through the
A process developed to overcome pickup problems electrodes. A coolant temperature of -12C (10F)
in the resistance welding of aluminum. was found to reduce the softening and pickup prob-
lems to the point that the electrodes could be used to
Aluminum is readily welded using the resistance
make as many as 2000 spot welds between electrode
spot welding process. However, because of the rela- dressings (with a file or emery cloth). While this
tively low electrical resistance of aluminum, the cur- extended electrode service life by a factor of ten, the
rent requirements for welding are two to three times refrigerated coolant method has been partially
the values required for welding a similar thickness of replaced by the development of (1) copper alloy elec-
carbon steel. The high welding currents required for trodes that do not deform plastically at the tempera-
aluminum result in heating of the copper welding elec- tures encountered, and (2) small replaceable electrode
trodes and mushrooming of the contact tips. There is caps that resulted in discarding 14 g (1/2 oz) of copper
also the problem of pickup of aluminum on the cop- rather than the previous 170 g (6 oz) when the tips
per electrodes during the welding cycle. Both of these were worn out.
phenomena result in changes in current density, and
therefore weld quality. Another problem is the oxide RESISTANCE WELDING, Stored Energy
scale which forms on aluminum. In spite of careful A form of resistance welding in which the electrical
cleaning methods prior to welding, the oxide layer energy needed to cause Joule heating in the work-
forms on aluminum very quickly and can cause wide pieces is obtained from a bank of capacitors or con-
Welding Encyclopedia RHEOSTAT 435
densers. These machines draw power from the supply See Figure R-10. See also WELD INTERVAL, RESIS-
line over a relatively long time between welds, accu- TANCE WELDING.
mulating power to deliver to the electrodes during a Practical solutions to the successful resistance spot
short weld time. The process is also known as Capaci- welding of bare and coated steels and the non-ferrous
tor-Discharge Welding. See ARC STUD WELDING. group of metals and alloys, particularly in dissimilar
combinations, are generally considered to be difficult
RESISTANCEWELDING, Three-phase or impossible. Control of the process is crucial. Con-
Resistance welding which employs three-phase trol technology is continually advancing, so modern
alternating current primarily to overcome the demands reference sources, including recently published papers,
of high-power loads on existing power lines and are recommended. The interested reader is referred to
facilities. information on control of the resistance welding pro-
Line currents in three-phase systems require only cess in the American Welding Societys Welding
1/6 to 1/4 of the current needed for single-phase Handbook, Volume 2, 8th Edition, Miami, Florida,
equipment of the same welding capacity. 1991.
Additional advantages are:
(1) A machine power factor typically over 85% RESISTOR
(2) Identical (i.e., balanced) current demands on A device that has measurable, controllable, or
each leg (or line) of a three-phase power source known electrical resistance, used in electronic circuits
(3) The same secondary current regardless of the or in arc welding circuits to regulate the arc amperes.
inductive load introduced into the throat of the weld-
ing machine RESPIRATOR
(4) Lower installation cost compared to single- An apparatus used to assure adequate oxygen for
phase life support; or, a device worn over the nose and mouth
From the welding viewpoint, advantages include: to protect the respiratory tract against airborne con-
(1) less tendency for metal expulsion; (2) longer elec- taminants present in the welding atmosphere. Air-
trode tip life; (3) less sensitivity to tip size; (4) self- supplied respirators or face masks are generally pre-
regulating secondary current; ( 5 ) more uniform distri- ferred. and air-supplied welding helmets are available
bution of current during projection welding; (6) easier commercially.
welding of aluminum, brass, magnesium and other Filter-type respirators, approved by the U.S. Bureau
non-ferrous metals, with less electrode pickup. Refer- of Mines for metal fumes, give adequate protection
ence: American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, against particulate contaminants that are less toxic
8th Edition, Volume 2, Three-phase Power Sources, than lead, provided they are used and maintained cor-
Miami, Florida, 1991. rectly. Filter-type respirators are not recommended for
general use because of the difficulty in assuring proper
RESISTANCEWELDING TIMERS use and maintenance. They will not protect against
See ELECTRONIC CONTROLS, Resistance Welding. mercury vapor, carbon monoxide, or nitrogen dioxide.
See other references on Resistance Welding Controls, For these hazards an air-supplied respirator, hose
e.g., American Welding Society Welding Handbook, mask, or gas mask is required.
8th Edition, Volume 2; Miami, Florida: 1991.
RETAINING SHOE
RESISTANCEWELDING UPSLOPE TIME
A nonstandard term for BACKING SHOE.
The time during which the welding current continu-
ously increasesfrom the beginning of the welding cur- REVERSE POLARITY
rent. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
R- 10. A nonstandard term for DIRECT CURRENT ELEC-
TRODE POSITIVE.
RESISTANCEWELDING WELD TIME
The duration of welding current flow through the RHEOSTAT
workpieces in making a weld by single-impulse weld- A variable electrical resistor for regulating currents;
ing orflash welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. used in arc welding to regulate the arc amperes.
436 RIBBON FLAME Welding Encyclopedia
(2) Cylindrical coordinate robots have one circular An arc welding robot requires a number of periph-
axis and two linear axes. Their working zone is a era1 or supporting devices to achieve optimum produc-
cylinder. tivity. The basic elements of a robotic work cell are
(3) Spherical coordinate robots employ two circular shown in Table R-2. Many variations are possible, and
axes and one linear axis to move the robot wrist. Their each device could contain its own controller that
working zone is spherical. would execute instructions from its program on com-
(4) Articulating (jointed arm) robots utilize rotary mand from the robot or host controller. All robot sta-
joints and motions similar to a human arm to move the tions can be enhanced by one or more of the
robot wrist. The working zone has a irregular shape. components listed inTable R-3. These components
All four robot geometries perform the same basic help to teach the robot quickly, minimize times for
function: the movement of the robot wrist to a location scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, and assure
in space. Each geometry has advantages and limita- operator and equipment safety. Also included in Table
tions under certain conditions. Articulating and recti- R-3 are several features that are not necessary for effi-
linear robots are favored designs for arc welding. cient robot cell use but can enhance the productivity of
Robotic arc welding is applicable to high, medium, the cell.
and low volume manufacturing operations under cer- An articulating (jointed arm)robot is favored for
tain conditions. It can be applied to automation of arc welding small parts where there are long travel dis-
medium and low volume production quantities where tances between welds. The arm of this type of robot is
the total volume warrants the investment, capable of quick motion. This robot design is also pre-
438 ROBOTIC WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
depending on the welding system being used, the Extremely high or low loads may be exerted on con-
experience of the programmers, and the com!plexity of tact. Magnitude of output load can be adjusted pneu-
the welding process. Investment in programrning must matically, from 0 to 9000 kg (0 to 20 000 pounds).
be taken into account when determining the econom-
ics of automatic welding. Once an investment is made ROLL WELDING (ROW)
for a specific weldment the program can be stored for A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
future use. by the application of heat and suficient pressure with
Safety
rolls to cause deformation at the faying suq6aces. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also FORGE WELDING.
The operator of a robotic system can easily avoid
close proximity to jagged edges of parts, weld metal ROOT
expulsion, and other welding hazards. However, the A nonstandard term when used for JOINT ROOT and
movement of the robot arm creates a dangerous envi- WELD ROOT.
ronment. Workers in the area must be prevented from
entering the working envelope of the robot. Protective ROOT BEAD
fences, power interlocks and detection devices should A weld bead that extends into or includes part or all
be installed to assure worker safety. of the joint root. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ROCKWELL HARDNESSTEST ROOT BEND TEST
See HARDNESS TESTING. A test in which the weld root is on the convex sur-
face of a specified bend radius. See STANDARD WELD-
ROD, Brazing ING TERMS.
See BRAZING WIRE and COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
ROOT CRACK
ROD, WELDING See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
See WELDING ROD.
ROOT EDGE
ROLL A root face of zero width. See STANDARD WELDING
See OVERLAP. TERMS. See Appendix 6.
FACE
REINFORCEMENT
WELD TOE
ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
(8)
b
ROTOR
The rotating member of an electric machine; the
armature.
ROUND-EDGE SHAPE
A type of edge shape in which the surface is curved.
See Appendix 6. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
RUNOFF WELD TAB
Additional material that extends beyond the end of
the joint, on which the weld is terminated. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
443
444 SAFE PRACTICES Welding Encyclopedia
(11) A fire extinguisher should be available during cylinders. The following rules apply to both these
any welding operation. See FIRE HAZARDS AND PRO- categories:
TECTION. General Rules
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting (1) Regulators, pressure gauges, hoses or other
Cylinder Safety. Compressed gas cylinders are safe apparatus provided for use with a particular gas
for the purposes for which they are intended. Serious must not be used on cylinders containing a different
accidents connected with their handling, use and stor- gas.
age can often be traced to mishandling or abuse. (2) Threads on regulators or other unions are
Only cylinders designed and maintained in accor- designed to match those on cylinder valve outlets for
dance with specifications of the U.S. Department of specific gases. Connections that do not fit should not
Transportation (DOT) may be used in the United be forced.
States. Cylinders must not be filled except by the (3) Attempting to mix gases in a cylinder, or
owner, or with the consent of the owner, and then only attempting to transfer any gas from one cylinder to
in accordance with the regulations of the U.S. Depart- another, is prohibited.
ment of Transportation. It is illegal to remove or (4) Never, under any circumstances, should the
change the numbers or marks stamped into cylinders. operator attempt to refill any cylinder.
Proper names for gases should always be used. (5) Tampering with safety devices on cylinders or
Oxygen should not be referred to as air, or acetylene cylinder valves is prohibited. Repairing or altering cyl-
as gas. Several safety rules are specific to oxygen inders or valves should never be attempted.
and acetylene. (6) An open flame should never be used to detect
combustible gas leaks. Soapy water should be used for
Oxygen. Oxygen is not flammable, but it supports this purpose.
combustion. Oil and grease should not be allowed to
(7) Connections to piping, regulators, and other
come in contact with oxygen cylinders, valves, regula- appliances should always be kept tight to prevent
tors, gauges, or fittings. Oxygen cylinders or apparatus
leakage.
should not be handled with oily hands or gloves
because spontaneous combustion may occur. (8) Caps should be provided for valve protection;
the caps should be kept on cylinders except when cyl-
Neither oxygen nor any gas should be used as a sub- inders are in use.
stitute for compressed air to power pneumatic tools or
similar devices. It is dangerous to use oxygen to start a Operating Safety
diesel engine, for imposing pressure in oil reservoirs, (1) Gases from cylinders should never be used
for paint spraying, or for blowing out pipelines. Pres- without reducing the pressure through a suitable regu-
sure from an oxygen or gas supply should never be lator attached directly to the cylinder.
used to clear clogged oil lines. (2) After the valve cap is removed, the valve should
be opened for an instant to clear the opening of parti-
Acetylene. The cylinder valve should be fully open
cles of dust or dirt.
when the cylinder is in use. Acetylene should never be
used at a gauge pressure in excess of 103 Kpa (15 psi). (3) A pressure-reducing regulator should be
Acetylene cylinders should be used and stored in an attached to the cylinder valve before it is put in use.
upright position to avoid the possibility of drawing out (4)After attaching the regulator and before the cyl-
acetone. The pressure in an acetylene cylinder does inder valve is opened, the adjusting screw of the regu-
not accurately indicate the amount of gas contained in lator must be released.
the cylinder. The amount is determined by weight. (5) The cylinder valve should be opened slowly,
using only tools or wrenches provided or approved by
High-pressure and Fuel Gas Cylinders the gas manufacturer. The gas should never be permit-
Gases used in oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, brazing, ted to enter the regulator suddenly.
and heating operations are oxygen, acetylene, hydro- (6) Before a regulator is removed from a cylinder,
gen, methylacetylene propadiene (MAPP), propylene, the cylinder valve should be closed and all gas
methane (natural gas), and propane. released from the regulator.
The two main categories of cylinders used in these (7) The operator should not use the regulators
operations are high-pressure cylinders and fuel gas attached to cylinders as brackets to hang torches.
Welding Encyclopedia SALTBATH 445
(8) Sparks and flames from the welding or cutting WELDING, OXYACETYLENE WELDING, WELDING
torch should be kept away from cylinders. FUMES, and SAFE PRACTICES. See also Appendix 13.
(9) Hot slag should not be allowed to fall on com-
bustible materials or on the cylinders. SAFETY VALVE
(10) When cylinders are not in use, valves should be A pressure-release device installed in pressure ves-
kept tightly closed. sels and pipe systems which is designed to blow out
Cylinder Storage
when the pressure rises above a predetermined point.
(1) Do not store cylinders near flammable material, SALT BATH
especially oil, gasoline, grease, or any substance likely Immersion of steel and other metals in a salt solu-
to cause or accelerate fire. tion for tempering or heat treating.
(2) Do not store reserve stocks of cylinders contain- Salt baths may be classified in three general types:
ing combustible gases with oxygen or other gases; neutral, reducing or oxidizing.
they should be grouped separately.
Neutral Baths
(3) Store all cylinders in a well-ventilated place.
(4)All cylinders should be protected against exces- (1) Low-temperature baths which are operated at
sive rise of temperature. Cylinders may be stored in 150 to 595C (300 to 1100F) may be used for temper-
the open, but in such cases, should be protected ing or for low-temperature heat treatments such as the
against extremes of weather. During winter, cylinders solution treatment or aging of aluminum alloys.
stored outdoors should be protected against accumula- (2) Medium temperature baths, operated at 675 to
tions of ice or snow. In summer, cylinders stored out- 900C (1250 to 1650F) are used principally for heat-
doors should be screened against continuous direct ing steel before quenching.
rays of the sun. High-temperature baths, higher than 925C
( 5 ) Cylinders should not be exposed to continuous (1700F), are used primarily for heat treatment of
dampness. high-speed steel (tool steel alloys), but may also be
(6) Full cylinders should not be stored near eleva- used for copper brazing.
tors or gangways, or in locations where heavy moving Among the precautions to be observed in using var-
objects may strike or fall on them. ious types of salt bath: it is important to avoid contam-
(7) Full and empty cylinders should be stored sepa- ination of neutral baths with cyanide salts. Another
rately to avoid confusion. precaution is to avoid overheating the bath.
Reducing Baths
Safe Handling
(1) Cylinders should never be dropped or permitted Reducing salt baths are used for carburizing or
to strike each other violently. nitriding. A sufficient concentration of cyanide must
(2) A lifting magnet, or a sling rope or chain should be maintained in reducing salt baths for satisfactory
results. A carbonaceous blanket on top of a bath of this
not be used when handling cylinders. A crane may be
type not only cuts down heat loss, but also helps to
used when a safe cradle or platform is provided to hold
reduce the breakdown of cyanides in the bath.
the cylinders.
(3) Cylinders should never be used as rollers, sup- Oxidizing Baths
ports, or for any purpose other than to carry gas. Oxidizing baths are used for coloring steels or other
(4)When empty cylinders are returned, cylinder metals and may also be used for annealing noble met-
valves should be closed before shipment. Protective als. Fused salt baths of this type may be used at 5 10C
caps and nuts for valve outlets should be in place (950F) for blackening steel, and an aqueous solution
before shipping empties. of this type may be used at 150C (300F) for the same
purpose.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT The surface hardness of heat-treated tool steel
Various items, including clothing, eye wear, head alloys may be increased by nitriding them in a high-
gear, hand wear, foot wear, instruments, tools, and speed case salt bath at approximately 550C (1025F)
devices used to protect workers from injury or death for a relatively short period of time. The tendency of
when working with potentially hazardous chemicals, sharp edges of tools treated in this manner to chip can
materials, articles, equipment, processes or systems be reduced by a subsequent tempering operation at
associated with welding. See EYE PROTECTION, ARC 540 to 565C (1000 to 1050F).
446 SALT-BATH DIP BRAZING Welding Encyclopedia
SALT-BATH DIP BRAZING Repairs. Cracks in band saw and circular saw blades
A dip brazing process variation. See STANDARD can be repaired by welding. A section with broken
WELDING TERMS. teeth can be cut away, and replaced with a usable sec-
tion cut from an old blade and welded in place. How-
SANDBLAST ever, a special technique is necessary; special jigs and
A method of discharging fine sand at high velocity anvils are required, and specific welding rods must be
to remove rust, dirt and scale from a surface before used.
welding, painting, or finishing. Band saw steel is made of nickel-, chrome-, or
When welding, if more than one layer of metal is to molybdenum-steel, or another alloyed steel. The car-
be deposited, the oxide and scale should be: removed bon content often is about 0.70%.Welding rods, there-
from each layer before the next layer is applied. Sand- fore, should approximate this alloy, and an excellent
blasting is probably the fastest and most efficient choice is a chrome-vanadium steel rod containing
method of producing a thorough cleaning job. approximately 0.80 to 1.10% chromium, 0.15 to
A portable sandblaster consists of a sheet metal tank 0.18% vanadium and 0.40 to 0.50% carbon. There are
provided with a filling hole and a pipe T-outlet for an many other good rods for welding saw blades.
air-operated siphon. The siphon consists of a pipe Jigs for band saws are designed so that the broken
from the vertical of the T to the bottom of the tank; the or cracked parts of the saw blade can be clamped just
horizontal outlets of the T are fitted with a sand nozzle above the anvil and, by a movement of a foot lever,
and an air control valve. The sand nozzle tip should be brought down in contact with the anvil for hammering.
replaceable because it will wear quite rapidly. A sand- A small torch must be used, and the flame adjusted
blaster of this type will operate well with an air pres- exactly to neutral characteristics. It is very important
sure of about 620 kPa (90 psi). that no oxide or slag particles be entrapped in the
Care should be exercised when sandblasting to weld.
avoid entrapping sand in crevices or embedding sand The crack is welded at its inner beginning, with
in the surfaces of soft metals and alloys. Particles of weld progression toward the open end. Only about 9.5
sand can result in contamination of subsequent weld to 13 mm (3/8 to 1/2 in.) should be welded, then the
passes, and can lead to other problems in the weld- saw blade should be brought down on the anvil while
ment. the weld is peened with a light hammer. Peening
should be applied only when the metal is at a forging
SAND HOLES heat. Another 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) is then welded and
Craters or porous holes in castings. peened. This sequence is continued until the crack is
completely welded.
SANDBERG (In Situ) RAIL HARDENING PROCESS If the break is all the way across a band saw blade,
The Sandberg process is an application of the oxy- the first weld is made in the center of the saw blade
acetylene flame to harden rails. In this process, rails and then on each side of the center, alternately, until
already in service are heated with the torch, then the weld is completed.
quenched with water. In one experiment, rails treated Circular saw blades are usually welded in a similar
by this process remained unaffected after 360 000 cars manner, beginning at the inside end of the crack, weld-
had passed over them, although adjoining lengths of ing about 8.5 mm (3/8 in.) on one side, then peening
untreated rails corrugated when subjected to the same the weld. The blade is then turned over and the oppo-
test. See also FLAME HARDENING. site side welded and peened. This is continued until
the crack is completely welded. See also BAND SAW
SAWS, MANUFACTUREAND REPAIR BY WELDING BLADE REPAIRS.
Welding is used in the manufacture of saw blades
for band saws, power hacksaws, and circular saws. A SCALE
hard strip (or ring) containing the teeth is welded to a A term sometimes applied to a surface coating of
softer, tougher strip (or disc) to provide for safe opera- oxide on molten iron or steel.
tion of the saw blade. Processes include resistance
seam and mash welding, high-frequency (resistance) SCALING POWDER
welding, and laser-beam and electron-beam welding. A flux used to dissolve the oxide that forms in cast
Brazing is also used to manufacture saw blades. iron welds.
Welding Encyclopedia SEAMWELD 447
SCULPTURE
SCARFING See WELDED SCULFTURE.
A process for removing defects and checks which
develop in the rolling of steel billets. Scarfing is SEAL WELD
accomplished with a low-velocity oxygen deseaming Any weld designed primarily to provide a specific
torch, a specially designed torch with an unusually degree of tightness against fluid leakage. See STAN-
large oxygen orifice. The steel is preheated locally to a DARD WELDING TERMS.
cherry red, and the oxygen, under low pressure and
velocity, is projected against the red-hot surface. The SEAM
steel around the defect is consumed and the defect is A nonstandard term when used for a welded,
entirely burned away. brazed, or soldered joint.
Alternatively, the term scafing is used to refer to
the process of preparing a scarf groove. SEAM WELD
A continuous weld made between or upon overlap-
SCARF JOINT ping members, in which coalescence may start and
A nonstandard term for SCARF GROOVE. occur on the faring surfaces, or may have proceeded
from the outer surface of one membel: The continuous
SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM weld may consist of a single weld bead or a series of
A diagram proposed by A. E. Schaeffler in 1956 to overlapping spot welds. See STANDARD WELDING
predict the ferrite number (FN)of a stainless steel TERMS. See Figure s-2. See also ARC SEAM WELD and
weld deposit. The user calculated the chromium and RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING.
nickel equivalents of the deposit, based on weld chem- Seam welds are made with resistance welding
istry, and was able to plot the ferrite number. The equipment in high-production manufacturing. Seam
Schaeffler Diagram was followed by the DeLong dia- welds are typically used to produce continuous gas- or
gram (proposed by W. T. DeLong in 1974), the Espy liquid-tight joints in sheet metal assemblies, such as
Diagram (proposed by R. H. Espey in 1982), and the automotive gasoline tanks. This process is also used to
WRC-1992 Diagram (developed by a Welding weld longitudinal seams in structural tubular sections
Research Council Sub-committee in 1992 and that do not require leak-tight seams. A resistance seam
described in WRC Bulletin 342. See DELONG DIA- weld is made on overlapping workpieces and is a con-
448 SEAM WELD SIZE Weldina EncvcloDedia
tinuous weld formed by overlapping weld nuggets, by same welding current, and power demand will be only
a continuous weld nugget, or by forging the joint as it slightly greater than for a single weld.
is heated to the welding temperature by its resistance A tandem wheel arrangement can reduce welding
to the welding current. time by 50%, since both halves of a joint can be
In most applications, two wheel electrodes, or one welded simultaneously. Thus, for a joint 182 cm
translating wheel and a stationary mandrel, are used to (72 in.) long, two welding heads can be placed 91 cm
provide the current and pressure for resistance seam (36 in.) apart, with the welding current path through
welding. Seam welds can also be produced using spot the work from one wheel electrode to the other. A third
welding electrodes; this requires the purposeful over- continuous electrode is used on the other side of the
lapping of the spot welds in order to obtain a leak-tight joint. The full length of the joint can be welded with
seam weld. Two variations of this process are lap seam only 91 cm (36 in.) of travel. See RESISTANCEWELD-
welding, using two wheel ,electrodes (or one wheel and ING (RW) and TUBE MANUFACTURE.
a mandrel) and mash seam welding, which makes a lap
joint primarily by high-temperature plastic forming SEAM WELD SIZE
and diffusion, as opposed to melting and solidification. The width of the weld metal in the plane of the fay-
In mash seam welding, overlap is maintained by ing surfaces. See Figure s-3and Appendix 11.
clamping or tack welding the pieces.
The electrode wire seam welding process uses an SEARING
intermediate wire electrode between each wheel elec- An iron-cleaning application accomplished by
trode and the workpiece. This process is used almost adjusting an oxyacetylene torch flame to slightly oxi-
exclusively for welding tin mill products to fabricate dizing (excess oxygen), and passing it over the surface
cans. of the iron to burn off the graphite film. Searing can
Butt joint seam welding is done with the edges of also be used to preheat cast iron, which will braze
the sheets forming a butt joint. A thin, narrow strip of more rapidly at a temperature of 90 to 150C (200 to
metal fed between the workpieces and the wheel elec- 300F).
trode is welded to one or both sides of the joint. The
metal strip bridges the gap between the workpieces, SEAT
distributes the welding current to both sheet edges, In a regulator, the surface on which a valve disc
adds electrical resistance, and contains the molten rests when fully closed. See REGULATOR.
weld nugget as the nugget forms. The strip serves as a
filler metal, and produces a flush or slightly reinforced SECONDARY CIRCUIT
weld joint. That portion of a welding machine that conducts the
Two seam welds can be made in series, using two secondary current between the secondary terminals of
weld heads. The two heads may be mounted side by the welding transformer and the electrodes, or elec-
side or in tandem. Two seams can be welded with the trode and workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Weldina Encvclooedia SEMIAUTOMATIC, adj. 449
SECONDARY CURRENT PATH, ResistanceWelding reverse resistance must be high. Consequently, the
The electrical path through which the welding cur- voltage drop across the cell in the reverse direction
rent passes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. must also be high. The minimum value of the reverse
voltage drop is limited by the breakdown potential of
SEGREGATION the barrier layer of the rectifier cell.
The tendency for alloy constituents to freeze at dif- Selenium rectifiers had the advantage of being able
ferent temperatures during (real, non-equilibrium) to accept high-voltage surges without breaking down.
solidification so that there is an uneven distribution of Cooling was easily achieved, because selenium rectifi-
these elements in the alloy. Such segregation can ers were usually made up of a number of plates. This
occur on either a microscopic scale, as the natural also made it easy to add more rectifying surface if
result of solute redistribution (due to the distribution required for a specific application. The disadvantage
coefficient), or on a macroscopic scale as the result of the selenium rectifier was that it required more
of improper (incomplete) mixing of dissimilar physical space in the power source. It was an impor-
metals or alloys or due to gravity effects in alloys. See tant stepping stone in the development of solid state
METALLURGY. rectifiers.
SELECTIVE BLOCK SEQUENCE SELF-EXCITED
A block sequence in which successive blocks are A generator in which the current in the field coil is
completed in an order selected to control residual produced by the generator itself.
stresses and distortion. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. SELF-FLUXING ALLOY, Thermal Spraying
A sugacing material that wets the substrate and
SELENIUM RECTIFIER coalesces when heated to its melting point, with no
Selenium rectifiers were used in d-c welding power flux other than the boron and silicon contained in the
supplies until the development of silicon, or solid alloy. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
state, rectifiers. Selenium rectifiers provided a conve-
nient means of changing alternating current to direct SELF-SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING
current. This ability was based on the characteristic of (FCAW-S)
permitting the current to pass freely in one direction, A flux cored arc welding process variation in which
while blocking, or greatly limiting, its passage in the shielding gas is obtained exclusively from the flux
opposite direction. within the electrode. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
If the rectifier cell readily passes current in a for- See also FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
ward direction, it indicates that the resistance to cur-
rent flow in this direction is low. The resulting forward SEMIAUTOMATIC, adj.
voltage drop across the cell thus must also be low. Pertaining to the manual control of a process with
Conversely, if the current flow in the opposite direc- equipment that automatically controls one or more of
tion is blocked, or held to a minimum value, the the process conditions. See STANDARD WELDING
450 SEMIAUTOMATICBRAZING Welding Encyclopedia
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Elements (like silicon, germanium, selenium, and
others, especially in Group IV of the periodic table) or
nn
compounds (like gallium arsenic and indium tellu-
rium), which exhibit electrical properties intermediate
between conductive metals and non-conductive or
insulating non-metals. Such materials are the basis for
modern electronic devices referred to as solid-state
devices.
These materials are particularly interesting for their
characteristic of allowing current flow in one direction
and not in the other, and, so, are used for rectifying (or
Figure S-&Typical Arrangements for Series
converting) alternating current (ac) to direct current
Resistance Spot Welding
(dc). See also SELENIUM RECTIFIER, SILICON RECTI-
FIER, and RECTIFIER WELDER.
SETBACK
SEMI-RIGID JOINT See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also CONTACT
See RIGID JOINT. TUBE SETBACK and ELECTRODE SETBACK.
Welding Encyclopedia SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 451
of heat; temperatures above 5000C (9000F) have Depending on the type o f electrode being used, the
been measured at its center. Melting of the base metal covering performs one or more of the following
takes place almost instantaneously upon arc initiation. functions:
If welds are made in either the flat or the horizontal (1) Provides a gas to shield the arc and prevent
position, metal transfer is induced by the force of excessive atmospheric contamination of the molten
gravity, gas expansion, electric and electromagnetic filler metal
forces, and surface tension. For welds in other posi- (2) Provides scavengers, deoxidizers, and fluxing
tions, gravity works against the other forces. agents to cleanse the weld and prevent excessive grain
The process requires sufficient electric current to growth in the weld metal
melt both the electrode and a proper amount of base (3) Establishes the electrical characteristics of the
metal. It also requires an appropriate gap between the electrode
tip of the electrode and the base metal or the molten (4) Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld
weld pool. These requirements are necessary to set the metal from the air and enhances the mechanical prop-
stage for coalescence. The sizes and types of elec- erties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness of the weld
trodes for SMAW define the arc voltage requirements metal
(within the overall range of 16 to 40 V) and the amper- ( 5 ) Provides a means of adding alloying elements to
age requirements (within the overall range of 20 to change the mechanical properties of the weld metal.
550 A). The current may be either alternating or direct, Functions (1) and (4) prevent the pickup of oxygen
depending on the electrode being used, but the power and nitrogen from the air by the molten filler metal in
source must be able to control the level of current the arc stream and by the weld metal as it solidifies
within a reasonable range in order to respond to the and cools.
complex variables of the welding process itself.
The covering on shielded metal arc electrodes is
Covered Electrodes applied by either the extrusion or the dipping process.
In addition to establishing the arc and supplying Extrusion is much more widely used. The dipping pro-
filler metal for the weld deposit, the electrode intro- cess is used primarily for cast and some fabricated
duces other materials into or around the arc, or both. core rods. In either case, the covering contains most of
Weldina EncvcloDedia SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 453
the shielding, scavenging, and deoxidizing materials. efficient use of the arc energy. Metal powders other
Most SMAW electrodes have a solid metal core. Some than iron are frequently used to alter the mechanical
are made with a fabricated or composite core consist- properties of the weld metal.
ing of metal powders encased in a metallic sheath. In The thick coverings on electrodes with relatively
this latter case, the purpose of some or even all of the large amounts of iron powder increase the depth of the
metal powders is to produce an alloy weld deposit. crucible at the tip of the electrode. This deep crucible
In addition to improving the mechanical properties helps to contain the heat of the arc and permits the use
of the weld metal, electrode coverings can be designed of the drag technique to maintain a constant arc length.
for welding with alternating current (ac). With ac, the When iron or other metal powders are added in rela-
welding arc goes out and is reestablished each time the tively large amounts, the deposition rate and welding
current reverses its direction. For good arc stability, it speed usually increase.
is necessary to have a gas in the arc stream that will Iron powder electrodes with thick coverings reduce
remain ionized during each reversal of the current. the level of skill needed to weld. The tip of the elec-
This ionized gas makes possible the re-ignition of the trode can be dragged along the surface of the work
arc. Gases that readily ionize are available from a vari- while maintaining a welding arc. For this reason,
ety of compounds, including those that contain potas- heavy iron powder electrodes frequently are called
sium. It is the incorporation of these compounds in the drug electrodes. Deposition rates are high, but,
electrode covering that enables the electrode to oper- because slag solidification is slow, these electrodes are
ate on ac. To increase the deposition rate, the cover- not suitable for out-of-position welds.
ings of some carbon- and low-alloy steel electrodes
contain iron powder. The iron powder is another Arc Shielding
source of metal available for deposition, in addition to The arc shielding action, illustrated in Figure S-6, is
that obtained from the core of the electrode. The pres- essentially the same for all electrodes, but the specific
ence of iron powder in the covering also makes more method of shielding and the volume of slag produced
ELECTRODE
COVERING
CORE WIRE
SHIELDING
ATMOSPHERE
-
SOLIDIFIEII S L A G WELDPOOL
7METALAND
SLAG DROPLETS
PENETRATION
DEPTH
\\\ \ WELDMETAL
\ \ , \ \ , ,,
\\\\\> Y
------
BASE METAL
DIRECTION OF WELDING +
-
Figure Sd-Schematic View of Shielded Metal Arc Welding
454 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
vary from type to type. The bulk of the covering mate- SMAW electrodes are available to weld carbon- and
rials on some electrodes is converted to gas b,y the heat low-alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, copper,
of the arc, and only a small amount of sla,g is pro- and nickel, and their alloys, and for some aluminum
duced. This type of electrode depends largely on a gas- applications. Low-melting metals, such as lead, tin,
eous shield to prevent atmospheric contamination. and zinc, and their alloys, are not welded with SMAW
Weld metal from such electrodes can be identified by because the intense heat of the arc is too high for them.
the incomplete or light layer of slag which covers the SMAW is not suitable for reactive metals such as tita-
bead. nium, zirconium, tantalum, and niobium because the
For electrodes at the other extreme, the bulk of the shielding provided is inadequate to prevent oxygen
covering is converted to slag by the heat of the arc, and contamination of the weld.
only a small volume of shielding gas is produced. The
Covered electrodes are produced in lengths of 230
tiny globules of metal being transferred across the arc
to 460 mm (9 to 18 in.). As the arc is first struck, the
are entirely coated with a thin film of molten slag. This
molten slag floats to the surface of the weld puddle current flows the entire length of the electrode. The
because it is lighter than the metal. The slag solidifies amount of current that can be used, therefore, is lim-
after the weld metal has solidified. Welds made with ited by the electrical resistance of the core wire.
these electrodes are identified by the heavy slag Excessive amperage overheats the electrode and
deposits that completely cover the weld beads. breaks down the covering. This, in turn, changes the
Between these extremes is a wide variety of electrode arc characteristics and the shielding that is obtained.
types, each with a different combination of gas and Because of this limitation, deposition rates are gener-
slag shielding. ally lower than for a welding process such as gas metal
Variations in the amount of slag and gas shielding arc welding (GMAW).
also influence the welding characteristics of covered Operator duty cycle and overall deposition rates for
electrodes. Electrodes which produce a heavy slag can covered electrodes are usually less than provided with
carry high amperage and provide high deposition a continuous electrode process such as flux cored arc
rates, making them ideal for heavy weldmerits in the welding (FCAW). This is because electrodes can be
flat position. Electrodes which produce a light slag consumed only to some certain minimum length.
layer are used with lower amperage and provide lower When that length has been reached, the welder must
deposition rates. These electrodes produce a smaller discard the unconsumed electrode stub and insert a
weld pool and are suitable for making welds in all new electrode into the holder. In addition, slag usually
positions. Because of the differences in their welding must be removed at starts and stops and before depos-
characteristics, one type of covered electrode usually iting a weld bead adjacent to or onto a previously
will be best suited for a given application. deposited bead.
SMAW Capabilitiesand Limitations
Equipment
Shielded metal arc welding is the most widely used
process, particularly for short welds in production, Power Sources. Either alternating current (ac) or
maintenance and repair work, and for field construc- direct current (dc) may be employed for shielded
tion. The following are advantages of this process: metal arc welding, depending on the welding power
(1) The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive, supply and the electrode selected. The specific type of
and portable. current employed influences the performance of the
(2) The filler metal, and the means of protecting it electrode. Each current type has its advantages and
and the weld metal from harmful oxidation during limitations, and these must be considered when select-
welding, are provided by the covered electrode. ing the type of current for a specific application. Fac-
(3) Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not tors which need to be considered are as follows:
required. (1) Voltage Drop. Voltage drop in the welding
(4) The process is less sensitive to wind and draft cables is lower with ac. This makes ac more suitable if
than gas shielded arc welding processes. the welding is to be done at long distances from the
( 5 ) It can be used in areas of limited access. power supply. However, long cables which carry ac
(6) The process is suitable for most of the com- should not be coiled because the inductive losses
monly used metals and alloys. encountered in such cases can be substantial.
Welding Encyclopedia SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 455
(2) Low Current. With small diameter electrodes power source. Even though the difference in the slope
and low welding currents, dc provides better operating of the various curves is substantial, the power source is
characteristics and a more stable arc. still considered a constant-current power source. The
(3) Arc Starting. Striking the arc is generally easier changes shown in the volt-ampere curve are accom-
with dc, particularly if small diameter electrodes are plished by adjusting both the open circuit voltage
used. With ac, the welding current passes through zero (OCV) and the current settings on the power source.
each half cycle, and this presents problems for arc Voltage. Open circuit voltage, which is the voltage
starting and arc stability. set on the power source, does not refer to arc voltage.
(4)Arc Length. Welding with a short arc length Arc voltage is the voltage between the electrode and
(low arc voltage) is easier with dc than with ac. This is
the work during welding and is determined by arc
an important consideration, except for the heavy iron length for any given electrode. Open circuit voltage,
powder electrodes. With those electrodes, the deep on the other hand, is the voltage generated by the
crucible formed by the heavy covering automatically welding machine when no welding is being done.
maintains the proper arc length when the electrode tip Open circuit voltages generally run between 50 and
is dragged on the surface of the joint.
100 V, whereas arc voltages are between 17 and 40 V.
(5) Arc Blow. Alternating current rarely presents a The open circuit voltage drops to the arc voltage when
problem with arc blow because the magnetic field is the arc is struck and the welding load comes on the
constantly reversing (120 times per second). Arc blow machine. The arc length and the type of electrode
can be a significant problem with d-c welding of fer- being used determine just what this arc voltage will be.
ritic steel because of unbalanced magnetic fields If the arc is lengthened, the arc voltage will increase
around the arc. and the welding current will decrease. The change in
(6) Welding Position. Direct current is somewhat amperage which a change in arc length produces is
better than ac for vertical and overhead welds because determined by the slope of the volt-ampere curve
lower amperage can be used. With suitable electrodes, within the welding range.
however, satisfactory welds can be made in all posi-
tions with ac. Some power sources do not provide for control of
(7) Metal Thickness. Both sheet metal and heavy the open circuit voltage because this control is not
sections can be welded using dc. The welding of sheet needed for all welding processes. It is a useful feature
metal with ac is less desirable than with dc. Arc condi- for SMAW, yet it is not necessary for all applications
tions at low current levels required for thin materials of the process.
are less stable on ac power than on dc power. Power Source Selection. Several factors need to be
Constant-voltage power sources are not suitable for considered when a power source for SMAW is
SMAW because with their flat volt-ampere curve, selected:
even a small change in arc length (voltage) produces a (1) The type of welding current required
relatively large change in amperage. A constant-cur- (2) The amperage range required
rent power source is preferred for manual welding,
(3) The positions in which welding will be done
because the steeper the slope of the volt-ampere curve
(within the welding range), the smaller the change in (4) The primary power available at the work station
current for a given change in arc voltage (arc length). Selection of the type of current, ac, dc, or both, will
For applications that involve large diameter elec- be based largely on the types of electrodes to be used
trodes and high welding currents, a steep volt-ampere and the kind of welds to be made. For ac, a trans-
curve is desirable. former or an alternator type of power source may be
Where more precise control of the size of the mol- used. For dc, transformer-rectifier or motor-generator
ten pool is required (out-of-position welds and root power sources are available. When both ac and dc will
passes of joints with varying fit-up, for example), a be needed, a single-phase transformer-rectifier or an
flatter volt-ampere curve is desirable. This enables the alternator-rectifier power source may be used. Other-
welder to change the welding current within a specific wise, two welding machines will be required, one for
range simply by changing arc length. In this manner, ac and one for dc.
the welder has some control over the amount of filler The amperage requirements will be determined by
metal that is being deposited. Figure S-7 portrays these the sizes and types of electrodes to be used. When a
different volt-ampere curves for a typical welding variety will be encountered, the power supply must be
456 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
100
MAXIMUM OCV
w
(3
a
!i 50
9 MINIMUM OCV
32
27 ARC VOLTAGE
22 -SHORT ARC
I I i l l
CURRENT,A
4#
lbo 15
I
I
I
200
Figure S-7-The Effect of Volt-Ampere Curve Slope on Current Output with a Change in Arc Voltage
Welding Encyclopedia SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 457
permit some movement between them and provide dirt, slag, and any other foreign matter that would
maximum flexibility. Welding cable is pro4uced in a interfere with welding. To accomplish this, the welder
range of sizes from about AWG 6 to 4/0.The size of should have a steel wire brush, a hammer, a chisel, and
the cable required for a particular application depends a chipping hammer. These tools are used to remove
on the maximum amperage to be used for welding, the dirt and rust from the base metal, cut tack welds, and
length of the welding circuit (welding and work cables chip slag from the weld bead.
combined), and the duty cycle of the welding machine. The joint to be welded may require backing to sup-
Table C-1 shows the recommended size of copper port the molten weld pool during deposition of the first
welding cable for various welding currents and circuit layer of weld metal. Backing strips or nonmetallic
lengths. When aluminum cable is used, it should be backing materials are sometimes used, particularly for
two AWG (American Wire Gauge) sizes larger than joints which are accessible from only one side.
copper cable for the application. Cable sizes are Materials
increased as the length of the welding circuit increases Base Metals. The SMAW process is used in joining
to keep the voltage drop and the attendant power loss and surfacing applications on a variety of base metals.
in the cable at acceptable levels. The suitability of the process for any specific base
If long cables are necessary, short sections can be metal depends on the availability of a covered elec-
joined by suitable cable connectors. The connectors trode whose weld metal has the required composition
must provide good electrical contact with low resis- and properties. Electrodes are available for the follow-
tance, and their insulation must be equivalent to that of ing base metals:
the cable. Lugs, at the end of each cable, are used to (1) Carbon steels
connect the cables to the power source. The connec- (2) Low-alloy steels
tion between the cable and a connector or lug must be (3) Corrosion-resisting steels
tight with low electrical resistance. Soldered joints and (4) Cast irons (ductile and gray)
mechanical connections are used. Aluminum cable (5) Aluminum and aluminum alloys
requires a good mechanical connection to avoid over- (6) Copper and copper alloys
heating. Oxidation of the aluminum significantly (7) Nickel and nickel alloys
increases the electrical resistance of the connection. Electrodes are available for application of wear,
This of course, can lead to overheating, excessive impact, or corrosion resistant surfaces to these same
power loss, and cable failure. Care must be taken to base metals.
avoid damage to the jacket of the cable, particularly Covered Electrodes
for the electrode cable. Contact with hot metal or sharp
edges may penetrate the jacket and ground the cable. Covered electrodes are classified according to the
requirements of specifications issued by the American
Helmet. The purpose of the helmet is to protect the Welding Society (AWS). Certain agencies of the
welders eyes, face, forehead, neck, and ears from the Department of Defense also issue specifications for
direct rays of the arc and from flying sparks and spat- covered electrodes. The AWS specification numbers
ter. Some helmets have an optional flip lid which and their electrode classifications are shown in Table
permits the dark filter plate over the opening in the S-1. The electrodes are classified on the basis of their
shield to be flipped up so the welder can see while the chemical composition or mechanical properties, or
slag is being chipped from the weld. This protects the both, of their undiluted weld metal. Carbon steel, low-
welders face and eyes from flying slag. Slag can alloy steel, and stainless steel electrodes are also clas-
cause serious injury if it strikes a person, particularly sified according to the type of welding current they are
while it is hot. It can be harmful to the eyes whether it suited for and sometimes according to the positions of
is hot or cold. welding that they can be used. See ELECTRODE CLAS-
Helmets are generally constructed of pressed fiber SIFICATION. See also Appendix 17.
or fiberglass insulating material. A helmet should be Electrode Conditioning
light in weight and should be designed to give the SMAW electrode coverings are hygroscopic (they
welder the greatest possible comfort. readily absorb and retain moisture). Some coverings
Miscellaneous Equipment. Cleanliness is important are more hygroscopic than others. The moisture they
in welding. The surfaces of the workpieces and the pick up on exposure to a humid atmosphere dissoci-
previously deposited weld metal must be cleaned of ates to form hydrogen and oxygen during welding.
Welding Encyclopedia SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 459
Backing Weld. A backing weld is one or more back- The filter plate needs to be protected from molten
ing passes in a single groove weld joint. This weld is spatter and from breakage. This is done by placing a
deposited on the back side of the joint before the first plate of clear glass, or other suitable material, on each
pass is deposited on the face side. The concept is illus- side of the filter plate. Those who are not welders but
trated in Figure S-10. After the backing weld, all sub- work near the arc also need to be protected. This pro-
sequent passes are made in the groove from the face tection usually is provided by either permanent or por-
side. The root of the joint may be ground or gouged table screens. Failure to use adequate protection can
after the backing weld is made to produce sound, clean result in eye burn for the welder or for those working
metal on which to deposit the first pass on the face around the arc. Eye bum, which is similar to sunburn,
side of the joint. is extremely painful for a period of 24 to 48 hours.
Unprotected skin, exposed to the arc, may also be
burned. A physician should be consulted in the case of
GROOVE WELD MADE severe arc burn, regardless of whether it is of the skin
AFTER WELDING OTHER SIDE or the eyes.
If welding is being performed in confined spaces
with poor ventilation, auxiliary air should be supplied
to the welder. This should be done through an attach-
ment to the helmet.
The method used must not restrict the welders
manipulation of the helmet, interfere with the field of
vision, or make welding difficult. Additional informa-
tion on eye protection and ventilation is given in ANSI
249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, published by the
American Welding Society.
From time to time during welding, sparks or glob-
L BACKING WELD ules of molten metal are thrown out from the arc.This
is always a point of concern, but it becomes more seri-
Figure S-10-A Typical Backing Weld ous when welding is performed out of position or
when extremely high welding currents are used. To
ensure protection from bums under these conditions,
Safety Recommendations the welder should wear flame-resistant gloves, a pro-
The operator must protect eyes and skin from radia- tective apron, and a jacket (See Figure s-8).It may
tion from the arc. A welding helmet with a suitable fil- also be desirable to protect the welders ankles and
ter lens should be used, as well as dark clothing, feet from slag and spatter. CuffIess pants and high
preferably wool, to protect the skin. Leather gloves work shoes or boots are recommended.
and clothing should be worn to protect against bums To avoid electric shock, the operator should not
from arc spatter. weld while standing on a wet surface. Equipment
should be examined periodically to make sure there
Welding helmets are provided with filter plate win- are no cracks or worn spots on electrode holder or
dows, the standard size being 51 by 130 mm (2 by 4-1/ cable insulation.
8 in.). Larger openings are available. The filter plate
should be capable of absorbing infrared rays, ultravio- SHIELDING GAS
let rays, and most of the visible rays emanating from Protective gas used to prevent or reduce atmo-
the arc. Filter plates that are now available absorb 99% spheric contamination of a weld, especially by oxygen
or more of the infrared and ultraviolet rays from the and nitrogen. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
arc. also PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE.
The shade of the filter plate suggested for use with The arc is said to be shielded when the metal from
electrodes up to 4 mm (Y32 in.) diameter is No. 10. the electrode, as it passes through the arc, is protected
For 4.8 to 6.4 mm (3116 to 114 in.) electrodes, Shade from contact with the oxygen and nitrogen of the air.
No. 12 should be used. Shade No. 14 should be used With a shielded metal arc electrode, the shielding is
for electrodes over 6.4 mm (1/4 in.). usually accomplished by using a heavily coated elec-
462 SHIP WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
trode. The coating, in some instances, produces carbon Oxyfuel Gas Welding. Shielding gases in one form or
monoxide and hydrogen as it burns, and also forms a another have always been utilized as a means of pre-
crucible, or hollow shell, extending beyond the end of venting contact of the surrounding air with the molten
the electrode. A slag is also formed over the molten weld metal during a welding operation. In oxyhydro-
metal, protecting it from the air and slowing down the gen or oxyacetylene welding, the shielding gas is
rate of cooling. By this means, varying in detail with inherent and usually consists of a mixture of several
different electrodes, the air surrounding the arc is gaseous products of combustion, such as hydrogen,
deoxidized and the metal is protected, or shielded, water vapor, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
from the oxygen and nitrogen which would otherwise Though these gases are chemically active at welding
be present. The result is greater tensile strength and temperatures, the overall effect of the shielding gas
ductility of the weld metal. mixture can be oxidizing, neutralizing, or reducing, as
The primary function of a shielding gas is to needed, by adjusting the oxyfuel-gas ratio. This makes
exclude the atmosphere from contact with the molten it is possible to weld a variety of materials with the
weld metal. This is necessary because most metals, oxyfuel gas flame.
when heated to their melting point in air, exhibit a Historical Background
strong tendency to form oxides, and to a lesser extent,
nitrides. Oxygen will also react with carbon in molten The fact that argon and helium would make ideal
steel to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. shielding gases for all types of welding operations had
The various products of these reactions may result in been known for many years. However, the problem of
weld deficiencies, such as trapped slag, porosity, and introducing these gases into the welding area, as well
weld metal embrittlement. Reaction products are eas- as the problem of high cost, precluded their use. In the
ily formed by exposure to the atmosphere unless pre- early development of gas tungsten arc welding
cautions are taken to exclude nitrogen and oxygen. (GTAW), argon or helium, or a mixture of the two,
In addition to providing a protective environment, were used. Not only did these inert gases provide pro-
the shield gas and flow rate also have a pronounced tective atmospheres for all materials, but they also pro-
vided protection for the nonconsumable tungsten
effect on the following:
electrode.
(1) Arc characteristics
(2) Mode of metal transfer With the development of the gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process, it became evident that the composi-
(3) Penetration and weld bead profile
tion of the inert shielding gases could be tailored to
(4) Speed of welding specific applications by adding small amounts of an
( 5 ) Undercutting tendency active gas, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide, to argon
(6) Cleaning action or helium. Later refinements, particularly in the area
(7) Weld metal mechanical properties of welding steel, made it possible to use carbon diox-
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). In SMAW, gas ide or carbon dioxide-argon mixtures for effective
shielding is achieved by using covered electrodes with shielding. Formerly called Mig welding, the term gas
certain organic products in the electrode coating mate- metal arc welding evolved because it is a more accu-
rial. This material decomposes at arc temperature to rate description of the gases used in the process. See
produce an atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon ARGON, HELIUM, and CARBON DIOXIDE.
dioxide (CO,) and carbon monoxide (CO), with or
without small amounts of hydrogen. These gases, SHIP WELDING
while primarily shielding, also contribute to the stabi- Several welding processes are required for the var-
lization of the arc and the general improvement of the ied and specialized requirements of ship construction.
arc characteristics. Present day ships are larger and are designed for weld-
Generally, the shielding gases developed by elec- ing, with consideration given to vessel weight, weld-
trode coatings are most effective when welding ferrous ing processes, practices and procedures, and shipyard
materials, but they are also useful for some of the facilities. Hull designs of tankers have changed to pro-
hard-to-weld materials, such as aluminum- and cop- vide increased protection against accidental oil spills
per-base alloys. Specific fluxes are used with these after collisions with reefs, rocks or other ships.
electrodes to form fusible metal oxide slags which do The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mandated double
not interfere with the welding operation. hulls by the year 2010 on all tankers entering United
Welding WELDING SHIP 463
States waters. As a result, the shipbuilding industry is strength steels, the plates do not have to be as thick,
investigatingprocedures to manufacture ships with again limiting the application for electrogas and elec-
double hulls. One approach employs curved hull plat- troslag welding. Figure S-11 shows the completion of
ing and the electrogas welding(EGW) process. a 3 m (10 ft) high vertical electrogas weld in a 16 mm
(5/8 in.) thick steel barge hull.
Welding Processes. Ingenious modifications of the
shielded metalarc welding process have been adopted
in shipyards to improve productivity andto reduce the
schedule times. The use of a sliding tripod to feed the
electrode along the joint, after arc initiation, permits
one welder to operate as many as six large-diameter
welding electrodes simultaneously.This version, com-
monly calledgravity welding, is used in many yards in
the world. A less frequently used variation is a method
called firecracker welding, which requires the elec-
trode to be placed on the workpiece along the joint.
Once the arc is established, the weld proceeds down
the length of the electrode until the filler material is
consumed. Bothof these processesare effectively lim-
ited to the horizontalfillet weld position.
To aid in achieving higher deposition rates, the sub-
merged arc welding(SAW) process was developedfor
the shipbuilding industry. Manyof the deckplates and
hull plates are flat and have long butt joint connec-
tions. Because of the size of the plates, much work is
performedoutdoors. The submerged arc process is
ideal forthe combination of these conditions. Portable
self-propelled tractors that can carry the welding flux,
a spool of welding electrode and the process control
unit have been designed to implement the process in
both the shop and field.
Multiple electrode SAW systems can provide very
highdepositionrates for the joining of thick plate
assemblies. A uniquearrangement of the electrical
connectionsfor series arc SAW produces a weld
deposit that is effectively used forone-side butt weld-
ing of the plates. The need to turn the very large plate
assemblies is eliminated, because there is no second- Figure S-11-Electrogas Welding of a VerticalHull
Joint
side welding required.This provides shipbuilders with
a very effective method of fabrication for the most
fundamental form of ship design, the construction of Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) has become the
the deck and shell plate blankets. most popular welding method for shipbuilding appli-
Electrogas (EGW) and electroslag (ESW) welding cations. Even though shipbuilders attempt to utilize
have been usedto join many ships having long vertical the flat position or horizontal fillet weld position as
butt joints in the hull design. These processes make the much as possible, a high percentage of the welding
vertical connections automatically, andthe deposition required in ship construction must be done in the
rates for these processesare high. With the incorpora- vertical, horizontal and overhead positions. The
tionofhigherstrength steels in ship designs,these development of small-diameter flux cored welding
methods are not as popular because the high heat input electrodes with excellent mechanical properties has
inherent in the weld zone can have an adverse effect accelerated the use of this process in shipyards
on the heat-affected zone properties.Also, with higher around the world.
464 SHIP WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is also used for inverted position on movable gantries which span the
ship construction.Althoughnot as commoninthe assembly, permitting access using the arm reach of the
United States aselsewherein the world,gasmetal robot andthe positioning capability of the gantry.
arc welding is used for hull and superstructure con- Materials. The principle material usedfor shipbuild-
struction. The flexibility of the process permits high ing is low-carbon steel. Manyother materials are used
deposition rates using spray transfer in the flat and forhulland structural components,includinghigh-
horizontal fillet positions while also having a pulsing strengthsteel and high-strength, low-alloy steel,
transfer available forout-of-positionwork.Figure quenchedandtempered steel, andaluminum.Other
S-12 shows the GMAW process being used to weld a materialssuch as carbonsteel,austenitic stainless
section of aluminum superstructure. steel, copper alloys, nickel alloys andtitanium are
used for the service distribution systems. The assort-
ment of materials that may be used in a ship design
results in many challenges for the correct selection of
filler materials and weldingprocesses.
Operating Systems. A ship is much like a moving
city. Each ship requires installation of equipment for
propulsion,waterand electrical distribution, waste
disposal, food preparation and the many other aspects
of services required for the operation of the ship and
the life of the crew. The equipment is manufactured
from many welded components. Because of this vari-
ety of systems, shipbuilding requires the implementa-
tion of welding for structural, piping, pressure vessels
andsheetmetalapplications.Considering also the
diversity of materialsthat are incorporatedin the
designs of ships for strength,corrosionresistance,
weight and fatiguelifepurposesmakes ships an
Figure S-12-Mechanized Gas Metal Arc Welding extraordinary welded product. Figure S-13 shows an
Aluminum Superstructure in a Shipyard Arleigh Burkeclass Aegis destroyer beingfitted out.
Photo courtesy of lngalls Shipbuilding Historical Background
Welding has been an important fabrication process
for shipbuilding since World War I. It was during this
In addition to the hull structure, ships require exten-
era that the value of welding for the repair and con-
sive use of piping and ventilation ducting to operate
struction of ships was recognized. It was essential for
properly at sea. A common process for these applica-
the war effort to transport troops and supplies by sea,
tions is gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The precise
and the demand for ships became critical. The use of
control of the welding arc is ideally suitedfor many of
welding madeit possible to provide the ships required
the pipe and duct joints. To enhance the productivity
by the United States to effectively support the battle
of the outfitting shops, automated systems are com- fronts in Europe. The government established a com-
monly usedfor welding these components. mittee to investigatethe accelerated useof electric arc
An innovation in shipbuilding technologyis the use welding in
shipbuilding to support the national
of welding robots. Roboticarc welding has been used defense. It was from the formationof this body that the
in limited applications, however, with further develop- American Welding Society was created 1919. in
ments in the software systems and hardware configu- As welding came into use in shipbuilding, its first
rations, the number of robots being
used
in application was to barges. The hull of the barge is a
shipbuildingincreasesannually. The mostcommon simple box structure in which the stresses are easily
application for an arc welding robot is the joining of calculable. This is not the case with ships in ocean ser-
two structures using fillet welds. While some robots vice, such as cargo vessels and tankers. Theyare suh-
are portable enough to be placed on the assembly for ject to high stresses due to wind and wave action, as
access to the weld path, robots can be installed in the well as to possible stresses caused bycargo weight dis-
Welding
Encyclopedia SHORT CIRCUIT GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW-S) 465
wire, which is a consumable electrode, has a good The arc voltage and arc current patterns during a
burn off characteristic, and the correct shielding gas typical short circuiting welding cycle are traced by
and welding machine are used. means of an oscillograph; an example is shown in
Short circuiting GMAW has gained wide accep- Figure S-14. Each short circuit should produce a defi-
tance in industry for welding thin materials in all posi- nite controlled current surge sufficient to recreate the
tions, and some heavier gauges in the vertical and arc without an undesirable high surge or blast. The
overhead positions. It has proven useful for applica- complete fusion cycle associated with short circuit
tions that require welding large gaps. metal transfer, followed by the reestablishment of the
Short circuiting metal transfer is most widely used arc is pictured in the bottom portion of Figure S-14.
in welding carbon steels and low-alloy steels. Stainless The shorting action is shown in steps A through D. In
steels and light gauge aluminum are also being welded E the pinch effect has been completed, and the arc is
with this process, but to a lesser degree. Short circuit- reignited to start the cycle over, as shown in E
ing metal transfer is done at low currents, generally through H. At I, the short circuit is again extinguish-
from 50 to 225 amperes, and low voltage, 12 to ing the arc, then the steps are repeated. The cycle is
22 volts, using small diameter wires, usually with 0.8, acomplete round of events from one short circuit
0.9 and 1.1 mm (0.030,0.035, and 0.045 in.) diameters. until the wire is again shorted by touching the weld
The outstanding characteristic of the short circuit- puddle.
ing arc is the frequent shorting of the wire to the work- Special machines of the constant potential type are
piece. All metal transfer takes place when the arc is used for this welding method. They have appropriate
extinguished. This happens at a steady rate from 20 to induction or voltage-ampere slope control, or both, for
over 200 times a second. This results in a very stable producing the specific current surges needed to imple-
arc of low energy and heat input. The low heat input ment short circuit metal transfer for its full range of
minimizes distortion and metallurgical effects. most metals.
L
w
LT
LT
3
0
TIME -
A B C D E F G H I
Table S-2
Chemical Composition Requirements for Silver Filler Metals ~~
Other
AWS UNS Elements,
Classification Numbera Ag cu Zn Cd Ni Sn Li Mn Totalb
Selecting Silver Filler Metals metals. Cadmium oxide present in brazing fume is poi-
Silver, alloyed with copper in a proportion of 72% sonous, and cadmium-free filler metals should be uti-
silver, 28% copper, forms a eutectic with a melting lized wherever possible. Tin can effectively reduce the
point of 780C (435F).This filler metal (BAg-8) can brazing temperature, and is used to replace zinc or
be used to furnace braze nonferrous base metals in a cadmium in filler metals. Nickel is added to assist in
protective atmosphere. This alloy, however, does not wetting tungsten carbides and provides greater corro-
easily wet ferrous metals. The addition of zinc lowers sion resistance. Brazing alloys containing nickel are
the melting temperature of the silver copper binary especially recommended for joining stainless steels
alloys and helps wet iron, cobalt, and nickel. Cadmium because they reduce susceptibility to interfacial corro-
is also effective in lowering the brazing temperature of sion. Manganese is sometimes added to improve wet-
these alloys and assists in wetting a variety of base ting on stainless steel, other nickel-chromium alloys,
470 SILVER-BASE FILLER METAL BRAZING Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-3
Solidus, Liquidus, and Brazing Temperature Ranges for Silver Filler Metals*
Solidus Liquidus Brazing Temperature Range
and cemented carbides. Lithium is effective in reduc- paste, powder, and strip. Several filler metals are avail-
ing oxides of refractory metals to promote filler metal able as a clad or "sandwich" strip with filler metal
wetting, and improve flow on stainless steels furnace bonded to both sides of a copper core. This clad strip is
brazed in protective atmospheres. popular in brazing carbide tool tips. The copper core
Flux is required when torch brazing with these filler absorbs stresses set up by differences in thermal
metals in an oxidizing environment. Mineral fluxes expansion between the carbide and base metal, thus
conforming to AWS FB3A, or other classifications, in helping to prevent cracking.
powder, paste, or slurry form are generally used. Vapor BAg-1 brazing filler metal has the lowest brazing
flux introduced through a torch flame also is suitable temperature range of the BAg filler metals. Because of
although filler metal capillary action may be limited this, it flows freely into tight capillary joints. Its nar-
with this type application. Vapor (gas) flux is normally row melting range is suitable for rapid or slow meth-
used as a supplement to mineral flux types, to improve ods of heating. This filler metal also contains
protection, wetting and flow. cadmium, and toxic fumes may be formed when it is
Silver brazing filler metals are available in numer- heated. Precautions must be taken to assure proper
ous forms including: wire, rod, pre-formed shapes, ventilation of the brazing area to protect brazing per-
Welding Encyclopedia SILVER-BASE FILLER METAL BRAZING 471
sonnel. BAg-la brazing filler metal has properties (3) Improving color match where the site color will
similar to BAg-1. Either composition may be used blend with the base metal
where low-temperature, free-flowing filler metals are BAg-8 brazing filler metal is suitable for furnace
desired. This filler metal also contains cadmium, and brazing in a protective atmosphere without the use of a
fume hazards must be eliminated. flux, as well as for brazing procedures requiring a flux.
BAg-2 brazing filler metal, like BAg-1, is free- It is usually used on copper or copper alloys. When
flowing and suited for general purpose work. Its molten, BAg-8 is very fluid and may flow out over the
broader melting range is helpful where clearances are workpiece surfaces during some furnace brazing appli-
wide or not uniform. Unless heating is rapid, care must cations. It can also be used on stainless steel, nickel-
be taken that the lower melting constituents do not base alloys and carbon steel, although its wetting
separate by liquation. This filler metal contains cad- action on these metals is slow. Higher brazing temper-
mium and fumes are toxic. Refer to Appendix 13 for atures will improve flow and wetting.
safety information on use of the product. BAg-Sa brazing filler metal is used for zinc in a
BAg-2a brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-2, but protective atmosphere and is advantageous when braz-
is more economical than BAg-2 since it contains 5% ing precipitation hardening and other stainless steels in
less silver. This filler metal contains cadmium, and the 760 to 870C (1400 to 1600F) range. The lithium
fumes formed on heating are toxic. Refer to Appendix content serves to promote wetting and to increase the
13 for more information. flow of the filler metal on difficult-to-braze metals and
BAg-3 brazing filler metal is a modification of alloys. Lithium is particularly helpful on base metals
BAg-la; i.e., nickel is added. It has good corrosion containing minor amounts of titanium and aluminum.
resistance in marine environments and caustic media BAg-9 and -10 filler metals are used particularly for
and when used on stainless steel will inhibit crevice joining sterling silver. These filler metals have differ-
(interface) corrosion. Because its nickel content ent brazing temperatures, and so can be used for step-
improves wettability on tungsten carbide tool tips, the brazing of successive joints. The color, after brazing,
largest use is to braze carbide tool assemblies. Melting approximates the color of sterling silver.
range and low fluidity make BAg-3 suitable for form- BAg- 13 brazing filler metal is used for service tem-
ing larger fillets or filling wide clearances. This filler peratures up to 370C (700F). Its low zinc content
metal contains cadmium, and toxic fumes are formed makes it suitable for furnace brazing.
when it is heated. Consult Appendix 13 for safety BAg-13a brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-13,
information. except that it contains no zinc, which is advantageous
BAg-4 brazing filler metal, like BAg-3, is used where volatilization is objectionable in furnace
extensively for carbide tip brazing, but flows less brazing.
freely than BAg-3. This filler metal does not contain BAg-18 brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-8 in
cadmium. its applications. Its tin content helps promote wetting
BAg-5 and -6 brazing filler metals are frequently on stainless steel, nickel-base alloys, and carbon steel.
used for brazing in the electrical industry. They are BAg-18 has a lower liquidus than BAg-8 and is used
also used, along with BAg-7 and -24, in the dairy and in step-brazing applications and where fluxless braz-
food industries where the use of cadmium-containing ing is important.
filler metals is prohibited. BAg-5 is an excellent filler BAg-19 brazing filler metal is used for the same
metal for brazing brass parts (such as in ships piping, applications as BAg-Sa. BAg-19 is often used in
band instruments, or lamps. Since BAg-6 has a broad higher brazing temperature applications where the pre-
melting range and is not as free flowing as BAg-1 and cipitation hardening heat treatment and brazing are
-2, it is a better filler metal for filling wide joint clear- combined.
ances or forming large fillets. BAg-20 brazing filler metal possesses good wetting
BAg-7 brazing filler metal, a cadmium-free substi- and flow characteristics and has a brazing temperature
tute for BAg-1, is low-melting with good flow and range higher than the popular Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd composi-
wetting properties. Typical applications include: tions. Due to its good brazing properties, freedom
(1) Food equipment where cadmium must be from cadmium, and a more economical silver content,
avoided new uses for this filler metal are being developed.
(2) Minimizing stress corrosion cracking in nickel BAg-2 1 brazing filler metal is used in brazing AISU
or nickel-base alloys at low brazing temperatures 300 and 400 series stainless steels, as well as the pre-
472 SILVER-BASE FILLER METAL BRAZING Weldinq Encyclopedia
cipitation hardening nickel and steel alloys. BAg-2 1 is BAg-34 brazing filler metal is a cadmium-free
particularly suited to protective atmosphere furnace material with free-flowing characteristics. The brazing
brazing because of the absence of zinc and1 cadmium. temperature range is similar to that of BAg-2 and
It does not require a flux for proper brazing, unless the BAg-2a, making it an ideal substitute for these filler
temperatures are low. It requires a rather hilgh brazing metals.
temperature, and it flows in a sluggish manner. The The silver copper eutectic (BAg-8), which contains
nickel content makes it immune to crevice corrosion, 72% silver and 28% copper, melts at 780C (1435F)
particularly on the 400 series stainless steels, by and is used when zinc in the alloy would give trouble.
imparting a nickel-rich layer along the fillet edge. It Alloys containing silver, copper, manganese, and
has been used for brazing stainless steel vanes of gas those with a further addition of nickel and silicon are
turbine aircraft engines. used for similar purposes. Zinc or zinc and cadmium
BAg-22 is a low-temperature, cadmium-free filler combined with relatively high percentages of silver
metal with improved strength characteristics over provide a series of alloys that melt at temperatures
B Ag-3, particularly in brazing tungsten carbide tools. between 700 and 760C (1300 and 1400"F), have a
BAg-23 is a high-temperature, free-flowing filler white color, and are used in applications where copper
metal usable both for torch and protective atmosphere would be objectionable. An alloy containing silver,
furnace brazing. This filler metal is mainly used in copper, zinc and cadmium (BAg-la), which flows
brazing stainless steel, nickel-base and cobalt-base freely at 635C (1175F) is used extensively for join-
alloys for high temperature applications. If this filler ing both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys,
metal is used in a high-vacuum atmosphere, a loss of because it makes strong joints.
manganese will occur due to its high vapor pressure. Conductivity. Silver brazing alloys have a higher
Thus a partial pressure vacuum is desirable. electrical conductivity than base metal brazing alloys,
BAg-24 brazing filler metal is low-melting, free- and therefore their use is particularly desirable for
flowing, cadmium-free, and suitable for use in joining brazing parts of electrical apparatus where the highest
low carbon 300 series stainless steels (particularly conductivity is required. Zinc tends to lower the con-
food handling equipment and hospital utensils), and ductivity, and the silver copper eutectic previously
small tungsten carbide inserts for cutting tools. mentioned has about 70% of the conductivity of
BAg-26 brazing filler metal is a low-silver cad- copper.
mium-free material suitable for carbide and stainless Corrosion. Any of the standard silver brazing alloys
steel brazing. The low brazing temperature and good are resistant to most of the common types of corrosion.
flow characteristics make it well suited for moderate When unusual conditions have to be met, it is desir-
strength applications. able to make up specimens and subject them to the
BAg-27 brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-2, but actual conditions of use in order to determine the best
has lower silver and is somewhat more subject to liq- alloy. Galvanic corrosion is a problem, but since it is
uation due to a wider melting range. This filler metal generally in proportion to the areas exposed to attack,
contains cadmium. Toxic fumes are formed on heat- a cathodic joining alloy would give the best result. Sil-
ing. Refer to Appendix 13 for safety information. ver alloys with high percentages of silver are cathodic
BAg-28 brazing filler metal has a lower brazing to many metals and alloys used to resist corrosive con-
temperature with a relatively narrower melting range ditions, therefore they are satisfactory for use under
than other cadmium-free classifications with similar such conditions. For example, these high-grade silver
silver content. BAg-28 also has free-flowing charac- alloys are cathodic to nickel-copper alloys and stain-
teristics. less steel under many corrosive conditions for which
BAg-33 brazing filler metal was developed to these metals are used. They should not be used, how-
minimize brazing temperature for a filler metal con- ever, for joining stainless steel when the joints are
taining 25% silver. It has a lower liquidus and, there- likely to be attacked by nitric acid.
fore, a narrower melting range than BAg-27. Its higher The question of color match with different metals
total zinc plus cadmium content may require more and alloys is often raised. Those silver brazing alloys
care during brazing. Refer to Appendix 13 for infor- with low percentages of silver are yellow and the color
mation about safety requirements when brazing with becomes whiter as the silver is increased. Alloys with
cadmium-bearing alloys. high silver and without any copper are the whitest, but
Welding Encyclopedia SILVER-BASE FILLER METAL BRAZING 473
in a properly fitted joint, the band of brazing alloy When joining flat members, either with lap or butt
which is visible is so narrow that any slight difference joints, it is desirable to grind or machine the surfaces
in color is generally a negligible factor. of the joint so that they may be held parallel and equi-
distant to each other. If thin sheet inserts are used, the
Fitting, Cleaning, and Assembling
parts should be clamped together with enough pres-
Silver brazing alloys flow freely into narrow open- sure to hold them firmly together after the alloy has
ings, and clearances in the range of 0.05 to 0.10 mm melted.
(0.002 to 0.004 in.) should be maintained to produce After the members have been properly cleaned and
the strongest joints. Figure S-15illustrates the effect of fitted, the joint surfaces should be protected with a
joint clearance on strength. The surfaces of the joint film of flux. This flux must be fluid and chemically
should be clean, and free from all grease, dirt and active at the melting point of the brazing alloy and
oxide scale. Any film that prevents the wetting of the should be spread over the entire surface. It is also
joint surfaces will keep a strong bond from being advisable to protect the brazing alloy with flux when it
made. After all contaminants have been removed, the is fed into the joint.
surface can be cleaned with emery cloth, washed with Borax, or combinations of borax and boric acid are
an appropriate cleaning solution, or pickled with a used, but specially prepared fluxes that are fluid and
suitable solution to remove any scale or highly pol- active at lower temperatures are available, and are pre-
ished surface that has resulted from rolling or drawing. ferred for the lower melting point alloys. These propri-
A slight roughening of highly polished surfaces by etary fluxes are composed of chemicals that dissolve
either mechanical or chemical means will assist in refractory oxides readily, and should be used when
good bonding. brazing stainless steels.
120
.-
Y
v)
i
I-
100 c3
Z
W
K
I-
(0
W
80
I-
60
275 1 I I I I I I I 40
0 .15 .30 .45 .60
THICKNESS OF JOINT, mm
Figure S-15-Relationship of Tensile Strength to Joint Clearance for a Stainless Steel Joint Brazed with
BAg-la Filler Metal
474 SILVER SOLDERING Welding Encyclopedia
Furnace Brazing. Furnace brazing is extensively In the manufacture of electric motors, end rings are
used with silver-base filler metals. Either c;ontinuous bonded to rotor bars; and many small parts in the man-
or batch furnaces are used, and the heatiqg may be ufacture of electrical equipment are brazed with silver
supplied by gas or electricity. The atmospllere in the alloys. Lacing wires and shrouding are joined to tur-
furnace is controlled to prevent oxidation by the use of bine blades, and in certain types of turbines, the blades
various types of reducing or non-oxidizing gases. are silver-alloy brazed to packing pieces.
A considerable amount of brazing is done with
Refrigerators and Air Conditioning. One of the larg-
induction and resistance heating.
est uses of silver brazing alloys is in the manufacture
Dip Brazing. Dip brazing is another successful of refrigeration units, for both household and indus-
method of brazing. The metal bath form of dip brazing trial plants. The low temperature at which they melt
is principally used for dipping small parts like terminal and the strong corrosion-resistant joints make them
wires. Salt bath brazing has been applied to different particularly desirable for joining the light metal sheets
types of assemblies where the silver brazing alloy can and tubing which are used in this industry.
be pre-placed, and the component parts jigged in a sat-
isfactory manner. Piping. Standard pipe and fittings up to 25 cm (10
in.) or more in diameter are joined with these alloys,
Gas Brazing. Gas brazing includes all combinations
and tests on joints show no failure in the pipe or fitting
of torch brazing, such as oxyacetylene, oxyhydrogen,
when the work is done properly. Special fittings are
oxygen and natural gas, and butane or propane; also
being made with rings of silver brazing alloy fitted
air with these fuel gases. The air-gas and air-acetylene
torches will produce satisfactory results with small into grooves cut in the fittings, and this type of joint
parts, and the large torches or those with multiple has been specified for marine and navy piping, and
flames may be used on fairly large workpieces. piping in buildings.
In order to obtain the full benefit from these low- Other Uses. Articles for home, such as cooking
temperature silver brazing filler metals, the brazer utensils, hot water tanks, water heaters, and metal fur-
should be trained to observe the rate at which different niture are brazed. Industrial equipment such as chemi-
metals become heated to the brazing temperature, and cal equipment and containers, dairy equipment, and
to give particular attention to the relative mass of each innumerable products in the electrical, automotive and
of the members being brazed. Metals of high heat con- aerospace industries are brazed with silver-base metal
ductivity, such as copper, should be preheated some fillers. See also BRAZING, FURNACES, INDUCTION
distance from the joint. If there is much difference in HEATING, and SALT BATH.
the size of the parts, then the one with largest cross
section should be given the most heat. SILVER SOLDERING
Even though silver-base brazing filler metals are A nonstandard term for brazing with a silver-base
more expensive than soft solder, they are used for two
filler metal.
reasons: (1) the demand of industry for better and
quicker methods of joining and fabricating articles and
SINGLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
equipment from sheet metal and tubing, and (2) the
comparatively low melting points of these alloys, their A type of bevel edge shape having one prepared
free-flowing properties and the strength of joints made sugace. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen-
with them. dix 6.
Applications
SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
Electrical. Transformer leads and taps are brazed
with silver alloys because of the low temperatures at A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
which strong, shock-resistantjoints of high conductiv- TERMS. SeeAppendix 6.
ity can be made. Joints in bus bar installations of all
kinds are made with these alloys because of the high SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVEWELD
strength, corrosion resistance, and elimination of volt- A weld in a groove formed by a member with a
age drop. Ground connections and cable joints are also curved sugace in contact with a planar membel: See
made with this process. STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
I
I
Welding Encyclopedia SINGLE-V-GROOVE WELD 475
SPLICE MEMBER
JOINT MEMBER
1
Welding Encyclopedia SLOT WELD SIZE 477
SKULL SLOPE
The unmelted residue from a liquated filler metal. A term describing the shape of the static volt-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ampere curve of a constant potential welding machine.
Slope is caused by impedance and is usually intro-
SLAG duced by adding substantial amounts of inductive
A nonmetallic product resulting from the mutual reaction to the welding power circuit. The amount of
dissolution of flu and nonmetallic impurities in some slope can be controlled by a variable reactor in the a-c
welding and brazing processes. See STANDARD WELD- portion of the welding. It should be remembered that
ING TERMS. a reactor inherently opposes change in the welding
This term is used to describe the oxides and nonme- current.
tallic solids that sometimes are entrapped in weld As more reactance is added to a welding circuit,
metal, between adjacent beads, or between the weld there is a steeper slope to the volt-ampere curve. The
metal and the base metal. During deposition and sub- addition of reactance does two things: (1) it limits the
sequent solidification of the weld metal, many chemi- available short circuit current and (2) it slows the rate
cal reactions occur. Some of the products of these of response of the welding machine to changing arc
reactions are solid nonmetallic compounds which are conditions. These factors assist in decreasing the cur-
insoluble in the molten metal. Because of their lower rent surge when the electrode makes short-circuiting
specific gravity, these compounds will rise to the sur- contact with the base metal. The result is decreased
face of the molten metal unless they become entrapped spatter from the welding arc.
within the weld metal. It makes no difference whether the reactor is in the
In shielded metal arc welding, flux cored arc weld- primary or secondary a-c circuit, since there will be no
ing, and submerged arc welding, a slag is also formed significant change in the performance characteristics
over the molten metal, protecting it from the air and either way. Resistance may be added to either the a-c
slowing down the rate of cooling. By this means, vary- or d-c circuit to accomplish the same purpose, but it is
ing in detail with different electrodes and fluxes, the a more expensive method. Resistance will introduce
air surrounding the arc is deoxidized and the metal is more slope with less slow-down of response time. See
protected, or shielded, from the oxygen and nitrogen CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE.
which would otherwise be present. The result is
greater tensile strength and ductility of the weld metal. SLOT WELD
This term is also applied to the scale blown out of A weld made in an elongated hole in one member of
the kerf when cutting with a torch. a joint &sing that member to another member. The
hole may be open at one end. Afillet welded slot is not
SLAG-COVERED ELECTRODE to be construed as conforming to this definition. See
The electrode heavily coated with slag used in STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-17.
shielded metal arc welding. The slag covers the weld
and cools in the form of a brittle mass, which can be
chipped off when the weld is completed. See COVERED
ELECTRODE.
SLAG INCLUSION
Figure S-17-Slot Welds
Nonmetallic material entrapped in a weld. See
SLAG.
SLOT WELD SIZE
SLAKED LIME The width and length of the weld metal in the plane
The residue calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)* in an acet- Of the faying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING
ylene generator. See CALCIUM CARBIDE. TERMS.
478 SLUDGE Welding Encyclopedia
SOLDERABILITY
The capacity of a material to be soldered under the
imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably SOLDER INTERFACE
designed structure and to perj4orm satisfactorily in the
intended sewice. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Figure S-18-Soldered Joint
Welding Encyclopedia SOLDERING (S) 479
Advantages of Soldering. A major factor in the pop- present that needs to be removed to prevent early joint
ularity of soldering is that it is a low-temperature pro- deterioration.
cess and therefore has minimum effect on base metal Physical problems affecting wetting, spreading, and
properties. The low temperature used for joining capillary action can result in unsatisfactory joints.
requires little energy input and allows precise control They generally result from poor surface condition or
of the process. A wide range of heating methods can improper flux. Some metals, for example, chromium,
be adopted, giving flexibility in design and manufac- cannot be readily wet by most known solder filler mei-
turing procedures. Modem automation produces large als. De-wetting is the retraction of solder on an already
numbers of joints in electrical and electronic circuits. wetted surface which leaves areas of incomplete cov-
Highly reliable joints can be obtained with carefully erage. Inadequate cleaning, poor flux selection, and
controlled procedures. The occasional defective sol- wrong solder composition are the main causes of de-
dered joint can easily be repaired. wetting.
Chemistry, physics, and metallurgy are the main Basic Steps
disciplines involved in soldering. Wetting and spread-
ing solder filler metals on metallic surfaces are condi- Base Metal Selection. Base metals are usually
tioned by the surface tension properties of the selected for specific properties that are needed for the
materials involved and the degree of alloying taking component or part design. These include strength,
place during the soldering action. Soldering normally ductility, electrical conductivity, weight, and corrosion
requires the presence of a flux. The flux cleans the resistance. The solderability of the base materials must
metal to be joined and lowers the surface tension also be considered because the selection of flux and
between the molten metal and the solid substrate. The surface preparation will depend on the base materials.
flux improves the wetting and spreading of the solder Solder Selection. The solder is selected to provide
metal. good flow, penetration and wetting capability in the
Wetting takes place when the solder leaves a contin- soldering operation, and the desired joint properties in
uous permanent film on the base metal surface. Alloy- the finished product.
ing depends on the solubility of the base metal in
Flux Selection. Flux is intended to enhance the wet-
molten solder metal. A high level of alloying between
the base metal and solder metal can retard spreading, ting of base materials by the solder by removing tar-
therefore, good solder filler metals usually dissolve nish films from precleaned surfaces, and by preventing
only a moderate amount of metal. Intermetallic com- oxidation during the soldering operation. The selection
pounds may form, depending of the metal systems of the type of flux usually depends on the solderability
involved. of the base materials. Rosin fluxes are used with base
metals in electrical and electronic applications, or with
Many solder joints are designed with gaps that metals that are precoated with a solderable finish.
require capillarity between the solder and base metal. Inorganic fluxes are often used in industrial soldering
Capillary action is improved by lowering surface ten- such as plumbing and vehicle radiators. The flux
sion, narrowing the gap in the joint, and using a highly requirements for soldering a number of alloys and
compatible displacement flux. metals are indicated in Table S-4.
Surfaces of the materials to be joined must be
cleaned of dirt, oxides, or other contaminants. One Joint Design. Joints should be designed to fulfill the
function of a flux is to provide a final cleaning by requirements of the finished assembly and to permit
chemical reaction with the metal surface. This attack application of the flux and solder by the soldering pro-
should be slight but effective. Covering the surface cess that will be used. Joints should be designed so
with flux is no substitute for prior cleaning. that proper clearance is maintained during heating.
Special fixtures may be necessary, or the components
When heated, the flux is activated; it cleans con- can be crimped, clinched, wrapped, or otherwise held
tacted surfaces and protects the cleaned areas from together.
oxidation during soldering. The solder filler metal is
applied when the joint has been heated to the soldering Precleaning. All metal surfaces to be soldered
temperature. The surfaces are protected by the acti- should be cleaned before assembly to facilitate wetting
vated flux during soldering action. When soldered of the base metal by the solder. Flux should not be
joints have been cooled, some residual flux may be considered as a substitute for precleaning. Precoating
480 SOLDERING (S) Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-4
Flux Requirem,entsfor Metals, Alloys, and Coatings
Base Metal, Alloy, Special Flux Soldering Not
or Applied Finish Rosin Organic Inorganic andlor Solder Recommended*
Aluminum - __ - X -
Aluminum-bronze - __ - X -
Beryllium - __ - - X
Beryllium-copper - X X - -
Brass X X X - -
Cadmium X X X
Cast iron - __ -
Chromium - __ -
Copper X X X
Copper-chromium - - X
Copper-nickel X X X
Copper-silicon - - X
Gold X X X
Inconel - - -
Lead X X X
Magnesium - - - X
Manganese-bronze - - - X
(high tensile)
Monel - X X
Nickel - x X
Nickel-iron - X X
Nichrome - __ -
Palladium X X X
Platinum X x X
Rhodium - __ X
Silver X X X
Stainless steel __ X
Steel - X
Tin X X X
Tin-bronze X X X
Tin-lead X X X
Tin-nickel - x X - -
Tin-zinc X x X - -
Titanium - -- - - X
Zinc - x X - -
Zinc die castings - I - - X
*With proper procedures, such as precoating, most metals can be soldered.
Welding Encyclopedia SOLDERING (S) 481
may be necessary for base materials that are difficult Hard solders are called spelter, and hard soldering
to solder. is called brazing. Brazing produces greater strength
than soldering with the soft solders. Hard solders will
Soldering Process. The soldering process should be
also withstand more heat than soft solders. Hard sol-
selected to provide the proper soldering temperature,
ders contain metals such as copper, zinc, or silver, and
heat distribution, and rate of heating and cooling
require a red heat to melt them.
required for the product being assembled. Application
of the solder and flux will be dictated by the selection Soft solders are made of such metals as lead, tin, or
of the soldering process. bismuth. They are used for applications in which the
articles to be soldered must be air- or water-tight, but
Flux Residue Treatment. Flux residue should be are not exposed to high temperatures, and when
removed after soldering unless the flux is specifically strength is not a factor. It is a much simpler operation
designed to be consumed during the process. to join metals with soft solder than with hard solder,
Solders
and soft soldering is used when possible in place of
brazing.
Solders have melting points or melting ranges gen- The ordinary good grade of solder is made of tin
erally below 425C (SOOOF). A wide range of solder and lead in equal parts. Fine solder: two parts tin, one
filler metals designed for use with most industrial met- part lead; cheap solder: one part tin, two parts lead.
als and alloys are commercially available. These gen-
erally flow satisfactorily with the appropriate fluxes to Mixing Solders. By varying the proportions and
produce good surface wetting, and result in joints with adding bismuth, a solder can be made that will melt in
satisfactory properties. Tin-lead alloys are the most boiling water. In mixing solders, the least fusible metal
widely used solder filler metals. should be melted first and the more easily fusible met-
als added. Mixing soft solders should be done under
Historical Background melted tallow and agitated by thrusting a stick of green
Soldering is a technology that has been in continu- wood or raw potato under the molten metal. The
ous development from ancient times. Many artifacts escaping steam stirs and mixes the metals very thor-
discovered in archeological excavations were joined oughly. They can be then run out in molds. A small
by soldering. The technology seems to have existed channel of angle iron will serve in mixing hard sol-
for several thousand years, with changes as metallurgi- ders. They should be melted under a coating of pow-
cal knowledge and new metals were discovered. dered charcoal or borax. Hard solders may be reduced
Copper and lead alloys were the first to be joined. to granulated form (the most convenient form for use)
Early metallurgists learned to identify eutectics in by casting into small strips or ingots and filing with a
binary systems. The use of eutectic alloys permitted coarse file.
soldering to join simple shapes into complex items of Silver solder should be rolled or hammered into
jewelry and utensils. The industrial revolution pro- thin strips or sheets and cut to suitable size. A silver
moted widespread use of soldered joints. Advance- coin hammered thin makes a very satisfactory solder
ments in alloy joining, processing techniques, and for iron, copper and hard brass. Copper to which is
applications continue today. Soldering is now used in added 10% of silver is suitable for soldering sheet
industrial applications, satellite communications, com- steel.
puters, and the space program. Soldering
The following is excerpted from the Welding Ency- To prepare for soldering, the surfaces must be
clopedia, First Edition, edited by L. B. Mackenzie, cleaned, either by scraping or filing, or by using a suit-
Welding Engineer Publishing Company, Chicago, able acid, or a combination of both. In the case of
1921. sheet iron covered with scale, one method is to scrape
Fusible alloys are used to join metals by soldering. or file the surface, or scratch it with a wire brush and
The types of soldering are distinguished by self- coat it with strong muriatic (hydrochloric) acid, letting
descriptive names: hard, soft, silver, gold, aluminum, the acid act for 5 or 10 minutes, and then wiping it dry
copper, tin, pewter, and spelter. The kind of solder and applying cut acid (hydrochloric acid to which an
used depends on the metals to be joined; in all cases, excess of zinc has been slowly added).
the solder should be more fusible than the metals to be In the soldering process, the metals must be heated
joined. above the melting point of the solder, and since metals
482 SOLDERING BLOWPIPE Welding Encyclopedia
readily oxidize when heated, a flux is necessary to coat tubes, a proportion of 10 parts solder to one part burnt
the surfaces after they are cleaned, to prevent their oxi- borax is used. Other mixtures are used for other met-
dation. Cast iron may be soldered by using a flux made als. The melting points of the metals being soldered
by adding zinc chloride to melted tallow and heating must be taken into account in selecting the grade of
until it foams and turns a reddish brown. Zinc chloride solder to be used.
solution also is satisfactory. It is very important, how-
ever, to clean the surface very thoroughly and solder SOLDERING BLOWPIPE
immediately after cleaning. A device used to obtain a small, accurately directed
Selection of Flux. For hard soldering, borax is used
flame forfine work. A portion of any flame is blown to
as a flux. For silver soldering, finely powdered borax the desired location by the blowpipe, which is usually
mixed with water to the consistency of paste is very mouth operated. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
effective. However, this flux should be allowed to dry SOLDERING FLUX
after applying. For soldering galvanized iron, raw
A compound that dissolves the oxide from the sur-
hydrochloric acid is used as a flux.
face being soldered. Flux enhances the wetting of base
For soldering copper, brass, or gunmetal, a flux of materials by the solder by removing tarnish films from
zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, or rosin is used. precleaned surfaces, and by preventing oxidation dur-
For soldering zinc, galvanized iron and steel, hydro- ing soldering. See SOLDERING, Flux Selection.
chloric acid or ammonium chloride (Sal-ammoniac) is
used. For soldering tinware, pewter or lead, a flux of SOLDERING GUN
rosin, turpentine, or Russian tallow is used. An electrical soldering iron with a pistol grip and a
Jewelry Soldering quick-heating, relatively small bit. See STANDARD
If acids are used to clean the soldered joint, it WELDING TERMS.
should be thoroughly washed to remove all excess
acid to prevent subsequent corrosion. When soldering SOLDERING IRON
jewelry, zinc chloride should be used. For soldering A soldering tool having an internally or externally
small pieces, tin foil cut to size and moistened with a heated metal bit usually made of coppel: See STAN-
solution of Sal-ammoniac placed between the pieces DARD WELDING TERMS.
to be soldered may be used. The pieces should be The soldering iron accomplishes several tasks:
made flat and smooth at the joint, the tin foil inserted (1) Provides a source of heat to the joint to melt the
and the pieces gently heated. For soldering gold arti- solder
cles, a solder made of two grams silver, one gram cop- (2) Provides a means of transporting molten solder
per, and one pennyweight gold may be used with to the joint, if needed
success. A good solder for general use contains 18 (3) Provides a means of withdrawing excess solder
parts gold, 4 parts silver, six parts copper, and two from the joint, if required.
parts zinc.
Antimony, arsenic, tin and lead should not be used SOLDER INTERFACE
in soldering gold. The integace between solder metal and base metal
in a soldered joint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Burnt Borax Flux. The flux used is usually borax,
See Figure S- 18.
but it should be properly prepared. This is done by
covering the bottom of a pan with a thin, even layer of SOLDERING PASTE
ordinary commercial borax and heating it over a slow
A soldering flux in paste form, or, alternatively, a
fire until it will crumble in the fingers to a fine dry
paste consisting of a mixture of flux and powder sol-
powder. An hours heating should be sufficient.
der alloy. The latter is often called solder paste or
Brazing Solders. The brazing solder and the burnt paste solder.
borax are thorough mixed in suitable proportions, and
water is added to bring the supply, for later use, to the SOLENOID
consistency of putty. This is mixed with more water, as A coil of insulated wire wound in the form of a
required, to a mixture like grout in cement work, and spring or on a spool, used to induce a magnetic field to
applied to the parts to be soldered. For brass and steel cause an action, such opening or closing a switch.
,
Welding Encyclopedia SPARK TEST 483
SOLID-STATE WELDlNG(SSW)
A group of welding processes that produces coales-
cence by the application of pressure at a welding tem-
perature below the melting temperatures of the base
metal and the filler metal. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
Examples of solid state welding are friction weld-
ing, explosion welding, diffusion welding and ultra-
sonic welding.
SOLID SOLUTION
STRIP
\ I
An alloy in which in the solid state the items of the
various component metals are formed with a single
lattice. See METALLURGY.
SPATTER SPHEROlDlZlNG
The metal particles expelled during fusion welding Long-term heating of high-carbon steels at or near
that do not form a part of the weld. See STANDARD the critical temperature, followed by slow cooling
WELDING TERMS. throughout the upper part of the cooling range, for the
Causes of spatter: The inherent properties of certain purpose of spheroidizing the cementite in the steel.
electrodes; excessive welding current; the: type or
diameter of rod used; an excessively long arc; arc SPIKING, Electron Beam Welding and Laser Beam
blow. Welding
Corrections: Use correct type of electrode; check A condition where the joint penetration is nonuni-
for correct welding current and arc length; reduce arc form and changes abruptly over the length of the weld.
blow; use anti-spatter on parts adjacent to the weld to See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
prevent spalls from adhering to the work.
The cause of spiking is the intermittent and random
SPATTER LOSS
loss of the vapor cavity produced in the keyhole mode
used in processes with high energy density. Liquid
Metal lost due to spattel: See STANDARD WELDING falling back into the vapor cavity causes a momentary
TERMS.
loss of penetration when it briefly blocks beam energy.
Spatter loss can be determined from the difference
in weight between the weight of the electrode actually
SPINNING
deposited on the workpiece and the weight of the elec-
trode consumed (melted). A mechanical process for shaping shallow vessels
from metal disks by rotating a lathe while pressing a
SPECIFICATIONS tool against the peripheral zone. It is sometimes neces-
Documents which clearly and accurately describe sary to carry out this process in several stages, due to
all of the pertinent technical information necessary for work hardening. If this occurs, an annealing operation
a material, product, system, or service, then ascertain is undertaken between spinning stages.
that the requirements have been met. See STANDARDS,
Welding. SPIT
A nonstandard term when used for FLASH and
SPECIFIC GRAVITY EXPULSION during resistance welding by various
The relative density of materials, i.e., the weight as processes.
compared with an equal volume of some other mate-
rial. Solids and liquids are usually compared with SPLICE
water, and gases are usually compared with air.
A nonstandard term when used for a welded,
SPECIFIC HEAT brazed, or soldered joint.
The ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a material one degree to that required SPLICED BUTT JOINT
to raise the temperature of an equal mass of water one See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See SPLICED
degree. The heat in calories required to raise the JOINT.See Figure S-16.
temperature of one gram of a substance one degree
Centigrade. SPLICED JOINT
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE A joint in which an additional workpiece spans the
The electrical resistance of a one-centimeter cube of joint and is welded to each joint membel: See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-16. See also
any material.
SPLICE MEMBER.
SPEED CONTROL VALVE
A combination check valve and needle valve which SPLICE MEMBER
restricts the flow of air or liquid in one direction, and The workpiece that spans the joint in a spliced joint.
allows unrestricted passage in the opposite direction. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure s-16.
Welding Encyclopedia SPOT WELD SIZE 485
SPLIT LAYER TECHNIQUE of one member. The weld cross section (plan view) is
A welding technique in which more than one weld is approximately circular. See STANDARD WELDING
applied to a single layer. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-21. See also ARC SPOT WELD and
TERMS. RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING.
SPLIT PHASE
SPOT WELDING
An electrical circuit arrangement in which currents
A resistance welding process in which the fusion is
of different phases are obtained from a single-phase
confined to a relatively small area, approximating the
source by using reactances of different values in paral-
shape or contour of one or both welding electrodes. This
lel circuits.
is generally a small portion of the lapped surfaces of the
SPLIT PIPE BACKING workpieces being joined. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
A pipe segment used as a backing for welding butt
joints in round bars. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. SPOT WELDING, INERT ARC
See Figure S-20. A variation of the gas tungsten arc welding process,
often done manually with a pistol-like holder that has
SPOOL a vented, water-cooled gas nozzle, a tungsten elec-
A filler metal package consisting of a continuous trode that is concentrically positioned relative to the
length of welding wire in coil form wound on a cylin- gas nozzle, and a trigger switch for controlling the
der (called a barrel), which is flanged at both ends. operation. Figure S-22 illustrates manual gas tungsten
The flange contains a spindle hole of smaller diameter arc spot welding.
than the inside diameter of the barrel. See STANDARD Spot welding may be done with either ac or DCEN.
WELDING TERMS. Sequencing controls automatically establish the
SPOON preweld gas and water flow, start the arc, time the arc
A small instrument or flatter used in finishing the duration, and provide the required postweld gas and
surface of an aluminum weld. water flow.
TORCH CABLE
AND HOSES SHIELDING
GAS
1 c
CONTROLS
FOR TIMING
CURRENT FLOW, WELDING
SHIELDING GAS, POWER
COOLING WATER, SUPPLY
AND
r
HIGH FREQUENCY
-
/ TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE 4 c e
I
Welding Encyclopedia STACK CUlTING 487
SPRAYING RATE, Thermal Spraying (GMAW) process, spray transfer is the result of a
The rate at which surfacing material passes pinch effect on the molten tip of the consumable weld-
through the gun. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ing wire. The pinch effect physically limits the size of
the molten ball that can be formed on the end of the
SPRAYING SEQUENCE, Thermal Spraying welding wire, and therefore only droplets of metals are
The order in which layers of materials are applied, transferred rapidly through the welding arc from the
such as overlapped, superimposed, or at various wire to the workpiece. The droplets produced in the
angles. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. spray transfer method are equal to or smaller than the
diameter of the wire being used. See PINCH EFFECT,
SPRAY TAB, Thermal Spraying GLOBULAR TRANSFER. and GAS METAL ARC WELDING.
A small piece of additional material that is ther-
mally sprayed concurrently. with the workpiece, and SPRAY WELDING
used to evaluate the quality of the thermal spray A group of thermal spraying processes used prima-
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. rily for surfacing, but also for producing shapes in
molds. These processes involve spraying a finely
SPRAY TRANSFER, Arc Welding divided material (e.g., particles of metal, ceramic, or
Metal transfer in which molten metal from a con- polymer) through a heat source and depositing it on a
sumable electrode is propelled axially across the arc surface using the kinetic energy of the particle. See
in small droplets. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. THERMAL SPRAYING.
See Figure S-23. See also GLOBULAR TRANSFER and
SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER. SQUARE EDGE SHAPE
A type of edge shape in which the prepared surface
lies perpendicular to the material surface. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
SQUARE-GROOVE WELD
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Appendix6.
SQUEEZE TIME, ResistanceWelding
The time between the initiation of the welding cycle
and first application of current in spot, seam, or pro-
jection and some types of upset welds. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Figure H-6.
STACK CUTTING
Thermal cutting of stacked metal plates arranged
so that all the plates are severed by a single cut.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL
CUTTING.
The stack cutting technique is often used to cut
sheet material that is too thin for ordinary oxyfuel cut-
ting methods. Sheet thicknesses of 0.9 mm (20 gauge)
and over are the most practical. Stack cutting is used in
place of shearing or stamping, particularly where vol-
ume does not justify expensive dies. The flame cut
edges are square and free of burrs.
Figure S-23-Axial Spray Transfer
Stack cutting is usually limited to sheet and plate up
to 13 mm (1/2 in.) thick because of the difficulty in
When using argon, or an argon and oxygen mixture, clamping heavier material in a tight stack. A stack cut-
as a shielding gas with the gas metal arc welding ting operation is shown in Figure s-24.
488 STAGGERED INTERMllTENT WELD Weldina EncvcloDedia
STAINLESS STEEL
Figure S-24-Typical Stack Cutting Operation with Stainless steels are alloys of iron base metals,
the Plates Clamped by Vertical Welds highly resistant to acids, except sulfuric and hydro-
chloric acids. They are also resistant to oxidation and
Successful stack cutting requires clean, flat sheet or scaling at high temperatures and retain their physical
plate. Dirt, mill scale, rust, and paint may interrupt the properties well under heat. Stainless steels are used in
cut and reduce cut quality. The stack must be securely the chemical, oil, dairy, food, paper and other indus-
clamped, particularly at the cut location, with the tries requiring material with unusual resistance to cor-
edges aligned at the point where the cut is to start. rosion and heat. The stainless steels are supplied in
Piercing of stacks with the oxyfuel torch to start a plates, sheets, bars, strip, tubing, bolts, nuts, rivets,
cut is impractical. Holes must be drilled though the and wire, and can be rolled, drawn, formed, or worked
stacks to start an interior cut. into almost any specific shape or apparatus, merely by
following the correct procedure for the particular alloy
The total thickness of the stack is determined by the
at hand.
cutting tolerance requirement and the thickness of the
Usually, the resistance of stainless steels to corro-
top piece. With a cutting tolerance of 0.8 mm (1/32 in.),
sive attack is primarily due to chromium content,
stack height should not exceed 50 mm (2 in.); with a
which is 10%or higher in most types of stainless steel.
1.6 mm (1/16 in.) tolerance, the thickness may be up to
Nickel is also used as an alloying element, ranging in
100 mm (4 in.). The maximum practical limit of thick-
content from 2 to 35%. Consequently the stainless
ness is about 150 mm (6 in.).
steels are grouped into two main categories: straight
When stack cutting material less than 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) chromium (or nearly so) and chromium-nickel (with
thick, a waster plate 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick is used on the remainder essentially iron).
top. It insures better starting, a sharper edge on the top The straight chromium alloys contain about 12%
production piece, and no buckling of the top sheet. chromium. Various others contain chromium in
Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC). The plasma process has increasing amounts, but the majority are the austenitic
been used for stack cutting of carbon steel, stainless class, consisting of iron alloyed with about 18% chro-
steel, and aluminum. The plates to be stack-cut should mium and 8% or more of nickel.
preferably be clamped together. PAC can tolerate In addition to the recognized corrosion resistance,
wider gaps between plates than OFC. certain types of stainless steels have a number of other
useful properties, such as toughness at sub-zero tem-
STAGGERED INTERMITTENT WELD peratures, good strength at elevated temperatures, and
An intermittent weld on both sides of a joint in the ability to remain nonmagnetic under a variety of
which the weld increments on one side are alternated conditions. Some alloys are hardened by simple, low-
Welding Encyclopedia STAINLESS STEEL, Brazing 489
temperature precipitation heat treatments, thus avoid- tion. American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
ing quenching operations. The reasons for selecting a 1994.
stainless steel must justify its higher cost. However,
when all aspects of fabricating, treating, and service STAINLESS STEEL, Brazing
performance are considered, stainless steel compo- Stainless steels may be brazed by all processes, but
nents are often incorporated in many kinds of welded with tighter process controls than required to braze
construction. carbon steels. The most rigorous requirements are
The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) stan- imposed by inherent chemical characteristics of the
dards for stainless steels, their type numbers and com- stainless steels and the generally more arduous service
position ranges for the 300 Series stainless steels are environments. Success in brazing stainless steel com-
shown in Table S-5. ponents depends on a knowledge of the properties of
Stainless steels in the form of castings have been stainless steels and rigid adherence to the appropriate
given designations and composition limits by the process controls.
Alloy Casting Institute (ACI), a division of Steel Base Metals. Stainless steels may be grouped into
Founders Society of America (SFSA). Reference: Lin- five categories: (1) austenitic (nonhardenable) steels,
nert, George E, Welding Metallurgy, Vol. 1, 4th Edi- (2) ferritic (nonhardenable) steels, (3) martensitic
Table S-5
Stainless Steel Chemical Requirements Composition, %a
UNS Manga- Phos- Molyb- Other
Designation Qpe Carbonb nae phorus Sulfur Silicon Chromium Nickel denum Nitrogen Copper ElementsC
-
S30100 301 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00 6.00-8.00 ... 0.10 ... ...
S30200 302 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 8.00-10.00 ... 0.10 ... ...
S30400 304 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 8.00-10.50 ... 0.10 ... ...
SO3403 304L 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 8.00-1 2.00 ... 0.10 ... ...
S30500 305 0.12 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 10.50-13.00 ... ... ... ...
S30815 308 0.05-0.10 0.80 0.040 0.030 I.40-2.00 20.00-22.00 10.00-12.00 ... 0.14-0.20 ... Ce 0.03-0.08
S30908 309s 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-15.00 ... ... ... ...
S30909 309H 0.04-0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-15.00 ... ... ... ...
S30940 309Cb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-16.00 ... ... ... Cb IOxCmin,
1.10max
S31008 310s 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50 24.00-26.00 19.00-22.00 ... ... ... ...
,531009 310H 0.04-0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 24 00-26.00 19.00-22.00 ... ... ... ...
,931040 310Cb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50 24 00-26.00 19.00-22.00 ... ... ... CblOxC
S31050 310MoLN 0.030 2.00 0.030 0.010 0.50 24 00-26.00 21.00-23.00 2.00-3.00 0.10-0.16 ...
S31600 316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 0.10 ... ...
S31603 316L 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 0.10 ... ...
S31635 316Ti 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.0-3.0 0.10 1 . . Ti 5 x (C + N)
min, 0.70 max
S31640 316Cb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.0-3.0 0.10 ... Cb 10 x C min,
1.10max
s 31700 317 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 11.00-15.00 3.00-4.00 0.10 ... ...
S31703 317L 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 11.00-15.00 3.00-4.00 0.10 ... ...
S32100 32 1 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 9.00-12.00 ... 0.10 ... Ti 5 x (C +N)
min, 0.70 max
S34700 347 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 9.00-13.00 ... ... ... Cb 10 x C min,
1 .OO max
S34709 347H 0.04-0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 9.00-13.00 ... ... ... Cb 8 x C min,
1 .OO max
(hardenable) steels, (4)precipitation hardening steels, brushing should be avoided, but if necessary, stainless
and ( 5 ) duplex stainless steels. All these alloys are iron steel brushes should be used. Cleaned surfaces should
based and contain chromium, the basic element that be protected to prevent soiling by dirt, oil or finger-
imparts corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance prints. The parts should be brazed immediately after
of the stainless steels varies from one alloy tio another, cleaning. When this is not practical, the cleaned parts
and for any given alloy, varies from one corrosive should be enclosed in containers such as sealed poly-
medium to another. If doubt exists about the correct ethylene bags or desiccator jars to exclude moisture
stainless steel to use in a given environment, standard and other contaminants until the part can be brazed.
reference works or manufacturer's representatives
should be consulted. Fluxes and Atmospheres. Stainless steel assemblies
are routinely furnace brazed in atmospheres of dry
Filler Metals. Factors to be considered in selecting a
hydrogen, argon, helium, dissociated ammonia, or
filler metal for a particular application include the vacuum,, without the aid of flux. When fluxes are
following:
required, there are a number of special compositions
( 1) Service conditions, including operating temper-
available for use with stainless steels. There are many
ature, stresses, and environment
special requirements for brazing stainless steels;
(2) Heat treatment requirements for martensitic or
appropriate references should be consulted.
precipitation hardening steels
(3) Brazing process Postbraze Operations. The major stainless steel
(4) cost postbraze operations that may be necessary are
(5) Special precautions, such as sensitization of removal of flux or stopoff residues, and any required
unstabilized austenitic steels at certain temperatures. postbraze heat treatment.
Commercially available brazing filler metals used Depending on the materials used, flux or stopoff
for joining stainless steels are commonly the copper, residues can be removed by water rinsing, chemical
silver, nickel, cobalt, platinum, palladium, and gold cleaning, or mechanical means. With abrasive clean-
based alloys.
ing, the grit should be sand or another nonmetallic
Process and Equipment. Stainless steels can be material. Metallic shot, other than stainless steel,
brazed with any brazing process. Much controlled- should be avoided because particles may become
atmosphere brazing is performed on stainless steels, embedded in the stainless steel surface and cause rust-
and the acceptability of this technique is attributed to ing or pitting corrosion in service.
the ready availability of reliable atmospheres and vac- Unless the brazing cycle is compatible with the heat
uum furnaces. The primary requirements are that the treating requirements of the base metal, heat treatment
furnaces have good temperature control, plus or minus after brazing will be required for assemblies which are
8C (15"F), at brazing temperature and be capable of
made with martensitic or precipitation hardening
fast heating and cooling. All gases used in atmosphere
stainless steels. Since treatments vary so widely, no
furnaces must be of high purity (>99.995% pure). Com-
mercial vacuum brazing equipment operates at pres- general rules can be made except that supplier recom-
sures varying from 0.0015 to 13.5 Pa to lo-' torr). mendations should be followed.
The necessary vacuum level depends on the particular Repair Methods. When furnace brazed assemblies
grade of stainless steel, with those containing titanium contain many joints, minor defects may occur that are
or aluminum requiring better vacuums. beyond acceptance limits, but which are not economi-
Precleaningand Surface Preparation. Stainless steels cally or technically feasible to repair by rebrazing the
require more stringent precleaning than carbon steels. entire assembly. In some cases, repairs can be made by
During the heating cycle, residual contaminants often localized rebrazing using oxyacetylene or gas tungsten
form tenacious films which are difficult to remove by arc torches. The manual gas tungsten arc method is
fluxes or reducing atmospheres. These films form as a useful for braze fillet repairs on applications like tur-
direct reaction between the contaminant and stainless bine engine stators. Filler metal is added, as required.
steel surface. Prototype work on a mock-up with proper evaluation
Precleaning for brazing should include a degreasing prior to actual repair work is recommended. Refer-
operation. The joint surfaces should also be cleaned ence: American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook,
mechanically or with an acid pickling solution. Wire 4th Edition, Miami, Florida. 1991.
Welding Encyclopedia STAINLESS STEEL WELDING 491
STAINLESS STEEL, Cutting 260C (400 or 500F), some bending will occur before
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, METAL POWDER CUT- breaking. These factors should be considered before
TING, and PLASMA ARC CUTTING. welding straight chromium steels.
STAINLESS STEEL, Silver Brazing Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels. The chromium-
Stainless steel can be satisfactorily brazed using sil- nickel group is highly recommended for welding.
ver brazing filler metal with the proper fluxes. Ordi- These metals, being of an austenitic nature, are
nary steel flux or borax will not successfully remove extremely tough and ductile in the as-welded condi-
the scale formed on the surface when heated, and so tion. A straight chromium weld will probably snap as
will prohibit any bond between the braze material and soon as it is bent, but a chromium-nickel weld will
the steel. The filler metal will ball up, resembling bend back flat on itself with no sign of fracture.
water drops on an oiled surface, and will not adhere. Chromium-nickel alloys can be welded with any of
Special fluxes for stainless steel are available which, the commonly used processes, such as gas metal arc
when used dry or in a water paste applied to the sur- welding (GMAW), shielded metal arc welding
face before heating, will eliminate this difficulty (SMAW) or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Forge
because they fuse and protect the steel from the forma- welding is not recommended because scale is formed
tion of an oxide on the surface. on the surface and prevents proper fusion.
Low-melting silver braze alloy is preferred over In addition to being very fluid in the molten state,
those melting at higher temperatures because it the 18-8 type has a high thermal expansion, about 60%
reduces the tendency to form scale and also reduces more than that of carbon steel; a low heat conductivity
warping. It is advisable to heat the rod and apply dry (about 1/3 to 1/2 that of carbon steel), and a lower
flux in addition to the original paste or dry powder on melting point. These same characteristics apply to the
the steel itself. When brazing sheet metal, overheating straight chromium type, except that the coefficient of
the metal must be carefully avoided, because copper expansion is about 10% less than that of carbon steel.
brazing alloys will penetrate entirely through the sheet These factors should be considered in the design of
following the grain boundaries, resulting in checks or any welded equipment to prevent difficulties which
cracks upon cooling. See SILVER ALLOY BRAZING. might arise from undue strains, or warpage.
Carbide Precipitation. While welds in alloys of the
STAINLESS STEEL WELDING chromium-nickel group are far more satisfactory from
When welding stainless steels the process and pro- the standpoint of physical tests, they do, under certain
cedures must be selected in consideration of the alloy- conditions, exhibit a tendency toward weld decay, or
ing elements of the two general types of steels: straight lack of corrosion resistance. When an 18-8 stainless
chromium, and chromium-nickel. steel with more than 0.08% carbon is heated between
Straight Chromium Stainless Steel. These steels, 540 and 800C (1000 and 1500F) and cooled slowly,
especially those containing 18% chromium or more, excess carbon is precipitated, or segregated out of
are subject to a rapid grain growth when heated to a solution, and deposited along the grain boundaries in
high temperature, and do not respond satisfactorily to the form of carbides. These carbides are less resistant
heat treatment. They can be softened to a certain to corrosion than the iron-chromium-nickel alloy, with
extent, provided proper control is maintained after the result that wherever they are present, more rapid
welding by annealing for eight hours or so at about attack will occur when exposed to corrosive
790C (1450F). This may or may not be not be satis- conditions.
factory, as much depends on the actual welding. As a In making a weld, the metal deposited and the joint
rule, numerous small beads will produce the best itself are heated to the melting or fusing temperature,
results when followed by annealing. which is around 1475C (2690F), and the body of the
These alloys, when welded, have very little ductil- work remains cold. Hence, there will be a zone near
ity; the welds are likely to crack on deformation, or the weld and parallel to it which will be heated
bending. Therefore they are not recommended when between 540 and 800C (1000 and 1500F), and in
the product will be subjected to movement or shock at which area carbides will be precipitated. This region
room temperature. However, if a little heat is applied, may be wide or narrow, near or some distance from the
or the operating temperature is about 95C (200F) or weld, depending on the type of joint and method of
more, the welds will be much tougher, and at 200 or welding, which determines the total amount of heat
492 STAINLESS STEEL WELDING Weldina Encvclopedia
applied. If welding is rapid, the zone will be narrow Welding Processes, 1992; and Volume 3, 8th Edition,
and close; if welding is slow, it will be wide and fur- Materials and Applications, 1996; published by the
ther away. This carbide can be put into solution again American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
by heating to a temperature about 480C (900F) or Arc Welding
higher, and cooling rapidly through the critical range. Arc welding produces highly satisfactory results on
Air cooling will be sufficiently rapid if the weldment stainless steels. Direct current, electrode positive
is thin, 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) or less, but a water quench is (DCEP) should be used, the same as when welding the
advised if the weldment is thick. If the material con- non-ferrous metals such as bronze, aluminum, or cop-
tains less than 0.08% carbon, such as a modified Type per, and similar to the practice followed when welding
302, this carbide segregation will be practically negli- carbon steel with heavy flux-coated electrodes. While
gible, simply because there is not much carbon present direct current electrode positive (DCEP) will generally
and the small amount available remains in solid solu- give best results, it cannot be considered a hard-and-
tion in the alloy itself. This carbide precipitation will fast rule. In some instances, especially when heavy
not seriously affect the physical properties until it plates were involved, direct current electrode negative
becomes quite extensive, but it will reduce the corro- (DCEN) produced better fusion and penetration.
sion resistance considerably, if present even in small
quantities. For this reason, only a modified Type 302 is Plate Preparation. Scarfing the edges is not neces-
recommended for welded equipment which is to be sary on plate up to 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thickness. For
subjected to highly corrosive attack and which cannot 4.8 mm (3116 in.), if only one bead is to be laid from
be conditioned after welding. It is also recommended one side, it is advisable to scarf the edges on a 45"
for equipment operating at elevated temperatures, such angle to within 1.6 to 2.4 mm (1116 to 3/32 in.) of the
as 540C (1000F) or higher. While reducing the car- bottom. With 6 mm (114 in.) or heavier, it is best to use
bon content to below 0.07% will practically eliminate two or more beads, scarfing from either one or both
precipitation of carbides during the short time of weld- sides and leaving about 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) unbeveled at
ing, it will not necessarily stop this condition in equip- either the bottom or center, as the case may be.
ment operating continuously between 540 to 815C The 18-8 stainless has a high coefficient of expan-
(1000 to 1500F). Additions of such alloys as nio- sion, about 60% greater than mild steel. In setting up
bium, titanium, or molybdenum to the low carbon any job, allowance must be made for this expansion. If
stainless steel will further reduce this tendency. Where automatic arc welding is used, the edges should be
only heating is the factor, niobium or titanium is satis- clamped parallel in the same way as carbon steel, with
factory. If corrosion resistance is of most importance, extra allowance made only when movement is calcu-
then molybdenum is preferred. This intergranular cor- lated. If a ring is to be welded to a flat circular sheet
rosion is characteristic of the chromium-nickel alloys and a corner weld used, the sheet will bulge at the cen-
of higher alloy content as well as those containing ter due to contraction around the outside on cooling.
only 18-8, provided the carbon is over 0.08. While For this reason, it is more important than with steel to
corrosion will occur under highly corrosive conditions turn a 25 or 50 mm (1 or 2 in.) flange around the sheet
such as would be produced by an acid attack com- and then butt weld the ring or shell to it; this permits
monly found in the chemical industries, it should not the weld to move slightly without producing a buckle.
be assumed that low-carbon alloys are essential for all For the same reason, it is advisable to have proper fix-
welded products. Alloys with medium carbon content tures for holding the work in place while welding to
have proven entirely satisfactory in manufacturing prevent localized strains pulling at the joints and draw-
other products, such as food handling apparatus, dairy ing them out of line. This is almost sure to happen if an
equipment, architectural trim, or heat-resisting units. attempt is made to weld a curved seam without sup-
Hence, unless the service environment is severely port from a jig or fixture.
corrosive, the regular 18-8 type will be found to be Welding Current. The 18-8 alloy can be welded with
satisfactory. a lower welding current than required for steel,
No attempt will be made here to comprehensively because this alloy has lower heat conductivity and a
cover the subject of stainless steel welding and lower melting point than steel. These characteristics
brazing; however, some general information is pro- tend to keep the heat of the arc localized at the point of
vided. Suggested references are the Welding Hand- contact rather than allowing it to travel rapidly back
book: Vol. 1, 8th Edition, 1987 Volume 2, 8th Edition, into the plate, so less heat is required for the same size
Welding Encyclopedia STAINLESS STEEL WELDING 493
plate and wire than is ordinarily used. For example, if warpage is likely to occur, due to its lower expansion,
110 to 120 amperes were used with 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) and the welds will be hard and comparatively brittle,
steel wire, only about 90 to 100 amperes would be due to its martensitic structure. In the lower chromium
needed for 18-8 stainless steel. Stainless will penetrate alloys, for example, 12%chromium, the welds can be
much better than steel because it is very fluid when toughened by annealing, but in the higher alloys with
molten, while ordinary carbon steel tends to be more 18% or more chromium, they do not respond satisfac-
viscous and sluggish. torily to annealing or heat treating. However, if a
proper welding procedure is followed, they can be
Flux Coating on Electrodes. Chromium and nickel
softened to some extent by annealing for eight hours
are the chief elements in the stainless steel alloys; the
or so at 790C (1450F).These alloys are so brittle at
balance is iron. These alloys are highly resistant to
room temperature in the as-welded state that they will
heat, that is, they will not scale appreciably at high
snap at the slightest deformation.
temperatures as long as they remain in solid form, but
will oxidize as soon as molten if exposed to the air. Discoloration. The high temperature employed in
The iron and nickel will remain practically unaffected, welding, whether on chromium steel or chromium-
but chromium will oxidize rapidly, so it is necessary to nickel steel, will discolor the metal for a short distance
protect the molten metal from contact with the air. In on each side of the weld. This is an oxide and is only a
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), this is accom- surface condition; that is, the oxide on the surface does
plished by applying a flux coating on the outside of the not affect the metal beneath it. The discoloration can
electrode which will fuse along with the wire. This be removed easily by some form of pickling, or by
protects the metal while going through the arc and grinding and polishing with abrasive wheels and grits.
covers over the deposited metal, excluding any air After grinding and polishing, the metal underneath
until the weld has solidified. If the type of flux coating will be in the same condition as before welding. If this
does not afford the required protection, an imperfect or oxide is not removed and the surface becomes wet and
badly oxidized weld will result. dry, it will change from a blue color to a brown,
In addition to protecting the metal, the flux coating resembling iron rust, along these areas. This is also a
should also have a stabilizing effect to assist in main- surface condition only.
taining a steady arc. As the weld cools, this slag cover- Oxyfuel Gas Welding
ing will crack off to a large extent, due to the Oxyfuel gas welding with acetylene can be used on
difference in contraction rates between it and the stainless steel, especially in the lighter gauges, such as
metal. However, if a weld of more than one bead is to 18 gauge or thinner. Gas welding, of course, is slower
be made, all slag should be removed with an air-oper- than the electric arc method and therefore apt to pro-
ated cleaning tool, or by a similar method, to guard duce considerably more buckling and warping.
against slag which might be entrapped by further lay-
ers. The flux has a low melting point, and any small Neutral Flame. A neutral flame should be used for
particles remaining will generally be fused and floated welding stainless steel; the flame should be as small as
to the surface by the heat of the next beads, but this possible, supplying only sufficient heat to produce
does not always happen. This cleaning procedure will good fusion. Any excess heat will simply aggravate
produce welds which will not show any blowholes, buckling.
gas pockets or slag inclusions on a ground and pol- Flux. Although the neutral flame will protect the
ished specimen. upper side of the weld, it will have no effect on the
When welding stainless steels, the welding rod underside. It is necessary, therefore, to apply a flux
should have higher chromium and nickel content than along the underside near the edges. The flux may also
the plate to be welded, to compensate for alloying ele- be applied on the top of the weld as well as on the bot-
ments lost across the arc. This will provide similar cor- tom, or on the wire itself. However, it has been found
rosion, physical and chemical characteristics between that the best results are obtained by applying it only to
the two. the underside, using as a filler rod a bare wire with the
In the straight chromium field, the alloy containing same analysis as the plate.
18% chromium is the most common. This type The flux is generally easiest to apply if it is mixed
requires the same procedure in welding as the chro- with water and made into a paste about the consistency
mium-nickel variety, the differences being that less of molasses. After applying the paste, it should be
494 STAINLESS STEEL WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
allowed to dry long enough to permit it to become generated. The pressure generally determines the
fairly solid before welding. As soon as the heat is amount of upset displacement directly following the
applied, this flux will fuse, forming a sort of molded fusing period, producing an indentation on each side
cover for the bead and protecting it on the underside. of the welded sheets. In addition to these variables, the
This will produce a smooth, neat-appearing bead; time of current flow is of great importance. Too long a
without the flux it will be rough and irregular, and will period gives the same result as too much heat. Too
generally present a burned or bad appearance. short a period will produce no weld.
Resistance Welding It is evident, therefore, that spot welding depends
on the following four variables:
Stainless steels are particularly adapted to resis-
tance welding because the inherently high electrical (1) Current
resistance is a fixed property of the steel and is a con- (2) Diameter of electrode contact points
stant. Stainless steels present a clean surface, free from (3) Pressure (controlled by spring or pneumatic
oxide and scale, and unlike plate stock, there is no zinc pressure)
or lead coating. This tends to reduce the contact resis- (4)Length of time the current is allowed to flow.
tance. Contact resistance varies with the pressure, the If both electrodes are the same diameter, a depres-
condition of the electrodes, and the condition of the sion will occur on both sides. While not serious
surfaces of the materials to be welded. The inherent when a pickle finish is used, the depression can be
resistance of the steel itself is high, so that this propor- objectionable on a polished surface. This depression
tion of the total resistance is higher than in other weld- can be reduced by placing a copper block about
able materials.Thus, the variable portions of the total 23 mm (1/2 in.) thick and 50 mm (2 in.) square
resistance are reduced to a minimum and welding con- between the electrode and the polished side, thus
trol is greatly simplified. putting the major depression on the underside. An alu-
The capacity of the welding machine required to minum block 3.2 to 6.4 mm (1/8 to 1/4 in.) thick works
make a weld in stainless steel is likewise materially well in some cases, but due to the lower melting point
reduced. This is due to the high resistance of the metal of aluminum, will tend to pit if a slight arc is drawn.
and its low heat conductivity. Low heat conductivity This procedure will reduce the depression but will not
prevents too rapid a dissipation of heat and allows a eliminate it entirely, because the depression is due to
greater proportion of the heat to go to the weld. shrinkage of the molten metal in the center of the
weld, which pulls the base material from both sur-
Spot Welding. Spot welding, in principle, is pro- faces. If the work is to be polished, the remaining
duced by holding two sheets in close contact between indentation will have to be ground out.
two copper electrodes, and passing a low-voltage, high Spot welding, like any other type of welding requir-
current through the circuit for a short period of time. ing a high temperature, will cause a blue oxide to be
Fusion immediately takes place between the two formed on the surface which will change to a brown
sheets, while the excess heat is rapidly carried away color resembling rust if exposed to the weather or
from the outside surfaces by water-cooled electrodes. moist conditions. This is only a surface condition,
See RESISTANCE WELDING. affecting the original oxide only. If the welds are to be
While the total heat applied will be determined by exposed to the atmosphere, they should be cleaned
adjusting the welding control, the area of the electrode with acid, as in pickling. In the ground and polished
points should be maintained as constant as possible. state, spot welds have withstood several hundred hours
Any increase in area will tend to reduce the heat per of salt spray without the least sign of attack.
unit area, resulting in an improperly or poorly fused
joint. A decrease in area will increase the unit heat and Shot Welding. Shot welding is also a form of spot
will usually burn a hole entirely or partly through the welding, but uses a higher voltage and shorter time,
sheet to be welded, other factors remaining constant. which produces less heat on the surface. It tends to
The pressure exerted by the electrodes is generally confine the heat more completely to the junction of the
produced by the compression of helical springs, and two sections being welded, with the result that there is
can be adjusted by a lock nut on a shaft through the less oxide or discoloration on the surface than that pro-
center of the spring. Variable pressures will also affect duced with spot welding.
the quality of the weld. Too much pressure will reduce Seam Welding. Seam welding is similar to spot
the resistance of the joint and tend to decrease the heat welding in principle. Instead of using two electrodes in
Welding Encyclopedia STANDARDS, Welding 495
making one weld at a time, rollers are substituted for tubes, cylinders, or flat sheets, and are available in
electrodes and the work is fed between these, and a models capable of producing welds from 0.6 to 3.65 m
continual series of intermittent welds is produced. Var- (24 to 144 in.) in length. They produce fusion butt
ious machines employ different methods of producing welded joints free of meltout, burnbacks, extreme
this intermittent effect but in nearly all cases the result- shrinkage or distortion.
ing weld is a series of overlapping spot welds, as can
be noted by a stitch effect on the surface. The adjust- STANDARD RESISTANCE
ment or manipulation is similar to that for spot weld- Known resistance that is used for comparison with
ing. It should be remembered, however, that the range unknown resistance.
for welding the chromium and chromium-nickel stain-
less steels is considerably narrower than for common STANDARDS, Welding
steel and because of this, a closer adjustment is of vital The term Standard applies collectively to codes,
importance. specifications, recommended practices, classifications,
methods, and guides for a welding process or applica-
Flash Welding. Stainless steel can be flash welded tion that have been prepared by a sponsoring commit-
much like ordinary steel products, provided certain tee of the American Welding Society (AWS), and
conditions noted previously are observed. In flash approved and adopted in accordance with established
welding, the two sheets or bars to be joined are held in procedures. Standards for welding are published in
clamps approximately 12.3 mm (1/2 in.) or so from the cooperation with the American National Standards
edges, depending on the section. The current is turned Institute (ANSI).
on, the edges brought together and a certain amount The American Welding Society maintains more
flashed off, during which time the temperature of the than 125 technical committees and sub-committees
metal is rising to welding heat. At the proper time, the which prepare and publish approximately 140 docu-
current is shut off and the two edges squeezed ments to serve the welding industry. All AWS stan-
together, or upset, producing a burr along the outside dards are voluntary consensus standards because they
which, when ground or chipped off, shows a solid are adopted voluntarily by users. Volunteers from
weld beneath. every sector of the welding industry pool their
In producing the actual upset, the first stage should knowledge and expertise to produce these standards,
be very rapid, followed by a slower movement than which are essential to industry and the progress of
with steel. This will keep the very fluid, nearly molten technology.
metal from dropping away at first, and the slower and Code. A code is a standard consisting of a set of
final movement will allow the metal to upset evenly conditions and requirements relating to a particular
instead of crawling irregularly from one side to the subject, and indicating appropriate procedures by
other. When conditions are right, this joint will be which it can be determined that the requirements have
solid. It is necessary, therefore, that all stages are auto- been met. It is a standard that is suitable for adoption
matically controlled. The two edges along the joint by a governmental authority as a part of a law or regu-
should be as uniform and straight as possible in order lation, or as specified by other mandatory documents.
to start heating or flashing along the entire section A code is intended to be mandatory, and it should be
simultaneously. This will prevent overheating or loss used when so required by a governmental authority
of metal at any one point, as would be the case if con- or specified by other mandatory documents. Other
tact were made at one end of the joint much earlier mandatory documents could be documents issued by
than at the other. The grips should also be in good agencies such as purchasing departments, trade asso-
mechanical condition to prevent climbing, especially ciations, or insurance companies.
with thin sections. In general, as in spot welding, less Specification. A specification is a standard that
heat or shorter time will be required than with com- clearly and accurately describes the essential technical
mon steel of the same section. requirements for a material, product, system or ser-
vice. It indicates the procedures, methods, qualifica-
STAKE WELDER tions, or equipment by which it can be determined that
A longitudinal fixture designed for straight-line the requirements have been met. A specification is
welding applications on metal from 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) intended to be mandatory when referenced by other
and thicker. These fixtures are used for welding cones, mandatory documents, such as those for procurement
496 STANDARD WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (SWPS) Welding Encyclopedia
purposes, or when mutually agreed upon by the parties the Technical Activities Committee, which consists of
involved. the chairmen of all of the technical committees, and
Recommended Practice. A recommended practice is
three at-large members. Members of the TAC vote on
a standard that describes general industry practice for two aspects of the document:
some particular process, material, technique, or (1) Conformance with the rules for preparation of
method, as well as other factors and items that should the Standard
be considered before using that process, material, (2) Adequacy of the technical content of the
technique, or method. document.
The next step is review by the Technical Council,
Classification. A classification is a standard which consists of ten members of the AWS Board of
intended primarily to establish an arrangement or divi- Directors. Technical Council members verify by vote
sion of materials or products into groups based on sim- that ANSUAWS rules and procedures were followed
ilar characteristics such as origin, composition, during the preparation and balloting of the document.
properties, or use. Technical Council members may comment on the
Method. A method is a standard consisting of a set technical content of a document, but they do not vote
of requirements relating to the manner in which a par- on technical content.
ticular kind of test, sampling, analysis, or measure- When the Standard is submitted to the Technical
ment is conducted to determine the properties, Council, it is opened to public review. Availability of
composition, or performance of some item. A method the document for review is advertised in the Welding
does not include numerical limits for the properties, Journal and ANSIs publication, Standards Action.
composition, or performance, and is invoked, not by Anyone concerned with the document has 60 days to
itself, but by other standards. obtain a copy and make comment. All comments
Guide. A guide is a standard that provides informa- received are considered and the commentator is noti-
tion to the user as to the best practical methods to fied of the results. If there are no negative responses to
accomplish the task described. A guide usually pro- the draft, or when negative responses have been
vides several different methods. resolved, ANSIs Board of Standards Review
approves the document as an American National Stan-
Standards Development
dard and it is published.
The Technical Activities Committee (TAC) of the Standards development and maintenance is an
American Welding Society has oversight of the techni- ongoing process. Every five years these documents
cal committees and subcommittees responsible for must be revised, reaffirmed or withdrawn to comply
writing standards. with ANSI requirements. See Appendix 16.
AWS subcommittees consist of volunteers who pro-
vide the technical input to the documents and prepare STANDARD WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
the standards. Committee membership must be bal- (SWPS)
anced to ensure that all interests are properly repre- A welding procedure specification (WPS) prepared
sented. A committee ideally consists of one-third by the Welding Research Council (WRC) Welding
suppliers (producers or distributors of any product or Procedures Committee. The committee uses procedure
service specified in the Standard), one-third consum- qualification reports (PQRs) which it develops or
ers (those directly concerned with the use of any prod- those developed by industries and donated. After the
uct specified in the Standard, but not with its standard welding procedure specifications are pre-
production or distribution), and one-third general pared by the WRC committee, they are sent to the
interest members, (others who are interested, i.e., the American Welding Society (AWS) B2 Committee on
academic community). Qualification. The documents then proceed through
Committee meetings are open to the public; com- the AWS ballot sequence, and after approval at all lev-
mittee meeting schedules are published in the Welding els, become American National Standards. See also
Journal each month. Appendix 16.
After subcommittee agreement on the content of the
document, it is reviewed by the specific technical STANDARD WELDING TERMS
committee to which the subcommittee reports. The A glossary of terms and definitions developed by
draft approved by the technical committee is sent to the American Welding Society (AWS) to standardize
Welding Encyclopedia STEEL, Alloy 497
Table S-6
AISI-SAE System fo,r Designation of Carbon and Alloy Steels*
Description AISI-SAE Designation UNS Identifier Number**
STEEL, Austenitic lining and the slag used in a process. Most of the non-
See MANGANESE STEEL and STAINLESS STEEL. metallic compounds that are used in making refractory
furnace linings or employed as a flux or slag can be
STEEL, Basic classified as having either acid or basic (alkaline char-
Steel melted under a slag with a basic reaction, and acteristics when heated to the temperatures encoun-
in a furnace with a basic bottom and lining. tered in steelmaking. A material is classified by noting
In specific steelmaking processes, the matter of acid any tendency on its part to react with a strongly basic
versus basic steelmaking should be examined, because material like lime (CaO) or a decidedly acid material
an understanding of these two terms is metallurgically like silica (Si02). Dissimilar materials will react or
important to both steelmaking and welding. The terms attack each other while similar materials will not. A
acid and basic are derived from the kind of refractory furnace operating with a basic-type slag will have a
Welding Encyclopedia STEEL, High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) 499
refractory lining made of basic materials, whereas a Fatigue Failures. Cast steel is generally presumed to
furnace using an acid-type slag will have a lining of have less resistance to fatigue than rolled steel. Cast-
acid materials. If an acid slag is used in a basic-lined ings subjected to alternating stresses of tension and
furnace, the slag would quickly attack and damage the compression will provide service for a given length of
furnace lining. The common acid materials involved in time but may eventually fail. The initial failure due to
steel-melting are silica (Si02) and phosphorus pentox- breakage may be repaired by welding, but in a com-
ide (P205), while the basic materials are lime (CaO), paratively short length of time, another failure may
burnt dolomite (MgO, CaO), iron oxide (FeO), and occur in some other pari of the casting. One explana-
manganese oxide (MnO). tion for this reaction is that at the time of initial failure,
The important difference between acid and basic the metal of the casting had undergone its limit of
steelmaking processes is in their respective ability to fatigue. If the casting had been annealed, the later fail-
rid the molten metal bath of residual phosphorus and ures would probably have been eliminated. Frequently
sulfur. In the acid steelmaking furnace, there is no sig- steel castings which have been repeatedly subjected to
nificant removal of phosphorus and sulfur because the high temperatures cannot be welded. This occurs par-
acid slag cannot react chemically with these two ele- ticularly in the ,case of annealing pots and annealing
ments. The charge of raw materials as a whole must boxes. In such a case it is impossible to get a reason-
meet the same maximum requirements specified for able degree of fusion between the added metal and the
these two elements in the finished steel. This means metal of the original piece.
high-grade ore and steel scrap must be used. For the
most part, an acid-lined furnace functions mainly as a STEEL, Clad
furnace to melt a charge, remove carbon, and hold the A thin solid overlay section bonded to the surface of
molten bath while nonmetallics rise from it and a heavier section of steel plate to provide corrosion
become part of the slag. resistance or an improved mechanical property. Steel
plate can be clad by overlay welding, explosion weld-
STEEL, Capped ing, or by roll welding two or more solid sections
See STEEL, Rimmed. together. See STAINLESS STEEL WELDING.
STEPBACK SEQUENCE
STEEL, Low-Carbon
A nonstandard term for BACKSTEP SEQUENCE.
A classification of carbon steel with a carbon con-
tent less than 0.15%. Only residual quantities of other STEP BRAZING
elements are present, except for small quantities of sil- The brazing of successive joints on a given part
icon and manganese which are added for deoxidation with filler metals of successively lower brazing tem-
during the steel making process. peratures so as to accomplish the joining without dis-
turbing the joints previously brazed. See STANDARD
STEEL, Manganese WELDING TERMS.
See MANGANESE STEEL.
STEP DOWN
STEEL, Medium Carbon The reducing of electric current or voltage from a
Steel that contains between 0.30 and 0.45% carbon. higher to a lower value.
to a single impact at high velocity. Bridges and off- However, even fracture mechanics methods cannot
shore platforms exemplify the first category, making exactly replicate actual service conditions. The engi-
fatigue a primary consideration in design. In order to neer n$st still use judgement in assessing how much
minimize the probability of fracture under dynamic toughness is adequate for any given application.
stress and in the presence of a discontinuity, a speci-
Service Environments. The bridge and offshore
fied notch toughness is usually required for base
metal, filler metal, deposited weld metal, base metal industries have long histories with their particular
heat-affected zone (HAZ) or any combination of these. structures and dynamic loading environments; there-
Base metal notch toughness is a metallurgical prop- fore, the incidences of brittle fracture that occur now
erty usually obtained through control of chemistry, in these applications are usually due to poor design
deoxidizing (killing), heat treatment (e.g., normaliz- details or fabrication that allows severe stress concen-
ing), or thermomechanical processing. Filler metals tration sites for cracking to initiate. Until the
usually rely on alloys, such as nickel, for enhancing Northridge, California, and Great Hanshin (Kobe),
toughness as demonstrated by the electrode manufac- Japan,. karthquakes of 1994 and 1995, respectively,
turer's certification tests. steel moment frame buildings designed to resist seis-
For deposited weld metal and the heat-affected zone mic loading had a flawless track record of fracture-
(HAZ), a filler metal and base metal with a specified free sirvivability. However, these two earthquakes
notch toughness obviously must be employed, but severely undermined confidence in many assumptions
technique also becomes important in ensuring that the about seismic structural design, material properties
fused joint has the required minimum toughness. This and testing methods.
is demonstrated in the welding procedure specification Many welded connection and base metal fractures
(WPS) qualification test. Typical techniques include were observed in buildings, though no fracture
low heat input and the use of small weld beads that resulted in structural collapse. As a result, extensive
temper or grain-refine previously deposited passes. research and debate continues as to the best method of
Although the science of fracture mechanics has resisting fracture in a seismic event. Earthquakes, rep-
introduced mathematical rigor to the subject of frac- resenting nature's power at its most awesome, will
ture resistance, the Charpy-V notch test remains the continue to challenge all assumptions and predictions.
method of choice for assessing notch toughness. Typi- However, the performance of welded steel structures,
cally expressed as impact energy required for speci- while also not conforming to predicted behavior, have
men fracture at a specified test temperature, Charpy succeeded in their most vital requirement, the preser-
V-notch values are a qualitative assessment of vation of human life. In comparison to structures of
toughness. other materials that collapsed and did result in deaths,
It is important for designers to understand the welded steel is still viewed by many as the optimum
relative nature of these values; whereas it can be seismic material.
stated with confidence that a material tested at
27 joules at -18C (20 ft-lbs at 0F) is tougher than a Material Selection. Though steel constitutes the bulk
material tested at 27 joules at 21C (20 ft-lbs at 70"F), of structural metal used by industry, aluminum is the
it would not be appropriate to assume that the second most popular structural metal, primarily
27 joules at -18C (20 ft-lb at 0F) material could because of its low weight to strength ratio and resis-
successfully resist an impact of 27 joules at -18C tance to corrosion. The marine and aerospace indus-
(20 ft-lb at 0F) in actual service. This is because tries in particular find welded aluminum to be an
several factors influence notch toughness which are attractive alternative to steel. Alloys such as 6061 are
not accurately reflected in the Charpy V-notch test. readily weldable and frequently used in the as-welded
Temperature, loading rate, severity of stress risers and condition, even though the joint strength is less than
degree of restraint against plastic flow are all key the base metal strength. When higher strengths as well
factors in degrading fracture resistance, and it is the as corrosion resistance are requirements, stainless steel
interaction of these factors that is critical to this competes with other metals such as nickel and tita-
property. nium. These metals have their own peculiar weldabil-
Fracture mechanics has attempted to rationalize ity requirements that challenge engineers and
these factors through the use of formulae and tests, fabricators. Other materials may be introduced into the
which are generally expensive and time-consuming. structural markets of the future, posing fabricators
Welding Encyclopedia STRUCTURAL WELDING 505
with the challenge of welding with a variety of ing within prescribed limits which could constrain a
processes. fabricator from maximizing productivity. It is fre-
Welding Processes. Process selection is, in fact, a
quently more efficient to take the expense of qualify-
vital concern of fabricators faced with production and ing a WPS in order to use parameters that are more
quality demands as well as the need to control costs. In productive than permitted for WPS prequalification.
the past, the flexibility offered by the SMAW process Welder Qualification. Whereas WPS tests are
made it an overwhelming favorite for shop, field and intended to demonstrate metallurgical and mechanical
repair welding alike. Although the cellulosic and rutile compatibility between base metal and filler metal, per-
SMAW electrodes (e.g., E6010) have traditionally sonnel qualification tests the welders skill and compe-
been popular for their contribution to weldability, the tence to deposit sound weld metal. Qualified personnel
large quantity of diffusible hydrogen contained within are the first line of defense against welding defects.
their deposited weld metal can promote hydrogen Fabricators can benefit by ensuring that their welding
cracking unless strictly controlled. personnel are well trained for their job function.
With the productivity improvements made in auto- Inspection. Inspection occurs before, during and
matic and semi-automatic processes, the popularity of after welding to ensure conformance with contract
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) has declined sig- requirements (e.g., drawings, specifications). The
nificantly. Shop welding provides an ideal environ- owner of a structure may choose to select a verifica-
ment to make the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and tion inspector, who is typically a third party agency, to
flux cored arc welding (FCAW) processes popular for oversee a fabricators work. The fabricating company
welding sheet steels as well as structural thicknesses, will have its own inspectors to supervise qualifica-
3.2 mm (0.125 in.) and up. tions, material certifications, joint fit-ups, electrode
Thick materials, on the order of 50 mm (2 in.) and and base metal preparation, and all other activities
greater, are more efficiently shop welded with the sub- required to deliver a quality product.
merged arc welding (SAW), electroslag welding Inspection is sometimes an area much neglected by
(ESW) or electrogas welding (EGW) processes. The engineers, who should take into account the diversity
ESW process offers the highest potential productivity, of available inspection methods. The engineer should
but extra care must be taken to avoid mid-welding ascertain prior to bid document release what kinds of
stoppages and excessive HAZ grain growth. While welds require which type of inspections. Typically,
SMAW is still frequently used in shop welding, its use critical connections subject to tension require a nonde-
is declining for general production welding. structive testing (NDT) method suitable for probing
Field welding, with its exposure to wind and differ- below the weld surface. Radiographic testing (RT) and
ing accessibility situations, limits the process types ultrasonic testing (UT) are the most popular methods
available to a contractor. Here again SMAW has been for this task, with RT competing with UT in the shop
the process of choice and remains popular; however, environment, but with UT being overwhelmingly pop-
the improved reliability, productivity and portability of ular in the field. Both methods can detect discontinui-
the FCAW-S process have made significant inroads ties within the volume of the weld, through visual
into SMAWs popularity. The self-shielded flux core indications on exposed film (RT) or acoustic reflec-
process is, in fact, very often selected in the building tions displayed on a screen (UT).
and marine industries because of its high arc duty For less critical connections, such as joints in com-
cycle, high productivity and lower defect rejection rate pression or shear, surface NDT methods are less
than SMAW. Repair welding remains the one area expensive and easier to implement. Magnetic particle
where SMAW will probably maintain its popularity. testing (MT) and liquid penetrant testing (PT) are the
Procedure Qualification. Qualification of welding preferred methods, though MT is limited to steels with
procedure specifications (WPS) and personnel (weld- a predominantly ferritic or martensitic microstruc-
ers, welding operators and tack welders) is an essential tures. Only surface or near-surface discontinuities are
aspect of any fabricators quality assurance and quality visually detectable, but since it is usually surface
control (QNQC) program. Fabricators can economize defects that result in crack initiation, these NDT meth-
by promoting the use of prequalified WPSs which are ods are adequate for non-tension welds.
exempt from mechanical testing when performed in Repair welding is necessitated when unacceptable
accordance with ANSUAWS D 1.1. This requires stay- discontinuities are discovered by the inspection. If the
506 STUB Welding Encyclopedia
automatic welding, the work may be moved beneath a the predominant heat source. The flux blanket on the
stationary wire feeder. top surface of the weld pool prevents atmospheric
Additional flux is continually fed in front of and gases from contaminating the weld metal, and dis-
around the electrode, and continuously distributed solves impurities in the base metal and electrode and
over the joint. Heat evolved by the electric arc pro- floats them to the surface. The flux can also add or
gressively melts some of the flux, the end of the wire, remove certain alloying elements to or from the weld
and the adjacent edges of the base metal, creating a metal.
pool of molten metal beneath a layer of liquid slag. As the welding zone progresses along the seam,
The melted bath near the arc is in a highly turbulent the weld metal and then the liquid flux cool and solid-
state. Gas bubbles are quickly swept to the surface of ify, forming a weld bead and a protective slag shield
the pool. The flux floats on the molten metal and com- over it.
pletely shields the welding zone from the atmosphere. It is important that the slag is completely removed
The liquid flux may conduct some electric current before making another weld pass. The submerged arc
between the wire and base metal, but an electric arc is process is illustrated in Figure S-27.
TO AUTOMATIC
WIRE FEED
TO WELDING TO FLUX
POWER SOURCE t HOPPER
4
SOLID
SLAG-
CONTACT - - FLUX
\ FLUX
SHELF 7 MI
WELDING
WELD^
WIRE
BASt
METAL
-
WELD TRAVEL
/
I- WELD /
BACKING
PLATE
Factors that determine whether to use submerged Automatic Welding. Automatic welding is done with
arc welding include: equipment that performs the welding operation with-
(1) The chemical composition and mechanical out requiring a welding operator to continually moni-
properties required of the final deposit tor and adjust the controls. The expense of self-
(2) Thickness of base metal to be welded regulating equipment can be justified in order to
(3) Joint accessibility achieve high production rates. Automatic submerged
arc hardfacing of a caster roll is shown in Figure S-29.
(4) Position in which the weld is tobe made
(5) Frequency or volume of welding tobe performed.
Submerged arc welding can be applied in three dif-
ferent modes: semiautomatic, automatic, and machine.
Each method requires that the work be positioned so
that the flux and the molten weld pool will remain in
place until they have solidified. Many types of fixtures
and positioning equipment are available or canbe built
to satisfy this requirement.
Semiautomatic Welding. Semiautomatic welding is
done with a hand-held welding gun, which delivers
both flux and the electrode. The electrode is driven by
a wire feeder. Flux may be supplied by a gravity bop-
per mounted on the gun or pressure fed through a hose.
This method features manual guidance using relatively
small diameter electrodes and moderate travel speeds.
The travel may be manual or driven by a small gun-
mounted driving motor. See Figure S-28.
Figure S-29-Automatic Dual-Head Submerged
Arc Hardfacing of a Caster Roll
Photo courtesy of Lincoln Electric Company
Alternating-Current Power Sources. Alternating- row-gqp welding, and applications where arc blow is a
current welding power sources rated for 800 to 1500 A prob1e,jixi,.
I-:
" -
at 100% duty cycle are available. If higher amperages __ . -. Controls
are required, these machines can be connected in Th&tate-of-the-art wire feeders used for automatic
parallel. SAW, such^ ~s the one shown in Figure S-32, have
Conventional a-c power sources are the constant- microprocessor-based digital controls. These controls
current type. The output of these machines drops to have feed-back loops interfaced with the power supply
zero with each polarity reversal, so a high open circuit and wire feed motor, to maintain the welding voltage
voltage (greater than 80 V) is required to ensure re- and. wire-:speed at preset values. The great advantage
ignition of the arc. Even at that high open circuit volt- of dfgital controls is their precise control of the weld-
age, arc re-ignition problems are sometimes encoun- ing $6@5ss. The disadvantages are that the controls
tered with certain fluxes. Because these power are no6i5'oinpatible with some power supplies, and they
supplies are the constant-current type, the speed con- are not as rugged as most analog controls.
trols must be voltage sensing, variable wire feed type.
The constant-voltage square wave a-c power source
is a relatively new type. Both the output current and
the output voltage from these supplies approximate
square waves. Because polarity reversals are instanta-
neous with square wave supplies, as is shown in Fig-
ure s-31,arc re-ignition problems are not as severe as
those encountered with conventional a-c supplies.
Hence, some fluxes that do not work with conven-
tional a-c sources will work with square wave a-c sup-
plies. Relatively simple constant wire feed speed
controls can be used with square wave supplies, since
they supply constant voltage.
I
Welding Encyclopedia SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) 511
Wire feed motors are typically heavy duty, perma- Accessory Equipment
nent magnet-type motors with an integral reducing Accessory equipment commonly used with SAW
gearbox, feeding wire at speeds in the range of 8 to includes travel equipment, flux recovery units, fixtur-
235 mrn/sec (20 to 550 in./min.). ing equipment, and positioning equipment.
The feed roll assembly may have one drive and one
Travel Equipment. Weld head travel in SAW is gen-
idler roll, two drive rolls, or four drive rolls. Four-roll
erally provided by a tractor-type carriage, a side beam
drive assemblies are reported to provide positive feed-
carriage, or a manipulator.
ing with the least wire slippage. Feed rolls may be
knurled-V or smooth-V type; knurled-V rolls are the A tractor-type carriage, as shown in Figure S-33,
most common. In some cases, where the wire is being provides travel along straight or gently curved weld
pushed through a conduit, smoother feeding will result joints by riding on tracks set up along the joint, or by
if smooth V-groove rolls are used. riding on the workpiece itself. Trackless units use
The torch assembly guides the wire through the guide wheels or some other type of mechanical joint-
contact tip to the weld zone, and also delivers welding tracking device. The weld head, control, wire supply,
power to the wire at the contact tip. and flux hopper are generally mounted on the tractor.
Special equipment is needed for narrow groove Maximum travel speeds possible with tractors are
(SAW-NG) and strip electrode SAW. Parallel wire about 45 mm/s (100 in./min). Tractors find the most
SAW uses special feed roll and torch assemblies that use in field welding where their relative portability is
provide positive feeding of two wires through one necessary because the workpiece cannot be moved.
torch body. Strip electrode SAW also requires a special
feed roll and torch assembly. Torches that feed strip
are generally adjustable to accommodate several sizes
of strip, typically 30, 45, 60, 90 mm (1.2, 1.8, 2.4,
3.5 in.) wide, and up to 1 mm thick (0.04 in.) thick.
The assemblies for parallel wire and strip electrode
SAW are generally designed for mounting on standard
welding heads with little or no modification.
The special SAW-NG equipment has long narrow
torch assemblies and long narrow flux nozzles to
deliver the flux and wire to the bottom of deep narrow
grooves. These systems may also have some means to
bend the wire to assure good side wall fusion in the
narrow groove. Simple SAW-NG adaptors can be
mounted directly on standard weld heads; more com-
plex systems are available as complete weld head
assemblies.
For semiautomatic SAW, the weld head may be a
GMAW-type wire feeder that pushes the electrode
through a conduit to the torch assembly. Such wire
feeders accept any of the drive roll systems previously
Figure S-33-Submerged Arc Welding Head,
described, and are generally capable of feeding wire
Control, Wire Supply, and Flux Hopper Mounted
up to 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) in diameter at wire feed speeds on a Tractor Type Carriage
over 235 mm/s (550 in./min). The torch-conduit
assembly allows for welding up to 4.6 m (15 ft) from
the wire feeder. Flux feed is provided either by a small Side beam carriages provide linear travel only, and
1.8 kg (4lb) gravity feed flux hopper mounted on the are capable of travel speeds in excess of 85 mrn/s
torch, or from a remote flux tank that uses compressed (200 in./min). Because side beam systems are gener-
air to convey the flux to the weld zone. In both cases, ally fixed and the workpiece must be brought to the
the flux is delivered through the torch surrounding the weld station, their greatest use is for shop welding.
welding wire. A typical semiautomatic SAW system is The weld head, wire, flux hopper, and sometimes the
shown in Figure S-28. control are mounted on the carriage.
512 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Welding Encyclopedia
Manipulators are similar to side beams, in that they increase operating efficiency and eliminate end-of-coil
are fixed and the workpiece must be brought to the waste.
welder. Manipulators are more versatile than side Submerged arc welding electrodes vary in size from
beams in that they are capable of linear motion in three 1.6 to 6.4 mm (1/16 to 1/4 in.) in diameter. General
axes. The weld head, wire, flux hopper, and often the guidelines for amperage range selection are presented
control and operator ride on the manipulator. in Table S-7. The wide amperage ranges are typical of
Flux Recovery Units submerged arc welding. Refer to ANSI /AWS A5.17,
Flux recovery units are frequently used to maxi- Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
mize flux utilization and minimize manual clean-up. for Submerged Arc Welding.
Flux recovery units may do any combination of the
following:
~~
Table S-7
(1) Remove unfused flux and fused slag behind the Submerged Arc Wires-
weld head Diameters vs. Current Range
(2) Screen out fused slag and other oversized Wire Diameter
material
Current Range
(3) Remove magnetic particles mm in. (Amperes)
(4) Remove fines
( 5 ) Recirculate flux back to a hopper for reuse 2.3 5/64 200-500
(6)Heat flux in a hopper to keep it dry. 2.4 3/32 300-600
Pneumatic flux feeding is commonly used in semi- 3.2 118 300-800
automatic SAW and frequently in automatic SAW. 4.0 5/32 400-900
4.8 3/16 500-1200
Positioners and Fixtures. Because SAW is limited to 5.6 7/32 600- 1300
flat position welding, positioners and related fixturing 6.4 114 600-1600
equipment find widespread use. Commonly used posi-
tioners include:
(1) Head-tailstock units, turning rolls, or both, to Welding Fluxes
rotate cylindrical parts under the weld head
(2) Tilting-rotating positioners, to bring the area to Fluxes are granular mineral compounds mixed
be welded on irregular parts into the flat position according to various formulations. Based on the
choice of several manufacturing methods, the different
Custom fixturing often includes positioners to aid in
types of fluxes are fused, bonded (also known as
setting up, positioning, and holding the workpiece.
agglomerated), and mechanically mixed.
Turnkey systems are available.
Materials Fused Fluxes. The raw materials of a fused flux are
Submerged arc welding is used to fabricate most mixed dry and melted in an electric furnace. After
materials in general use, from plain carbon steels to melting, the furnace charge is poured and cooled.
exotic nickel-base alloys. Most steels and alloys are Cooling may be accomplished by shooting the melt
readily weldable with commercially available wires through a stream of water or by pouring it onto large
and fluxes. chill blocks. The result is a product with a glassy
appearance which is then crushed, screened for size,
Electrodes and packaged.
Submerged arc electrodes produce weld deposits Fused fluxes have the following advantages:
matching carbon steel, low- alloy steel, high-carbon
steels, special alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel (1) Good chemical homogeneity
alloys, and special alloys for surfhcing applications. (2) Easy removal of the fines without affecting the
These electrodes are supplied as bare solid wire and as flux composition
composite metal-cored electrodes (similar to flux- (3) Normally will not absorb moisture, which sim-
cored arc welding electrodes). plifies handling, storage, and welding problems
Electrodes are normally packaged as coils or drums (4) Readily recycled through feeding and recovery
ranging in weight from 11 to 454 kg (25 to 1000 lb). systems without significant change in particle size or
Large electrode packages are economical because they composition.
,
Welding Encyclopedia SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) 513
Their main disadvantage is the difficulty of adding Fluxes are identified as chemically basic, chemi-
deoxidizers and ferro-alloys to them during manufac- cally acid, or chemically neutral. The basic or acid
ture without segregation or extremely high losses. The quality of a flux is related to the ease with which the
high temperatures needed to melt the raw ingredients component oxides of the flux ingredients dissociate
limit the range of flux compositions. into a metallic ion with a positive charge and a nega-
Bonded Fluxes. To manufacture a bonded flux, the tively charged oxygen ion. Chemically basic fluxes are
raw materials are powdered, dry mixed, and bonded normally high in MgO or CaO, while chemically acid
with either potassium silicate, sodium silicate, or a fluxes are normally high in SO2.
mixture of the two. After bonding, the wet mix is pel- The basicity or acidity of a flux is often referred to
letized and baked at a temperature lower than that used as the ratio of CaO or MgO to Si02. Fluxes having
for fused fluxes. The pellets are then broken up, ratios greater than one are called chemically basic.
screened to size, and packaged. The advantages of Ratios near unity are chemically neutral. Those less
bonded fluxes include the following: than unity are chemically acidic.
(1) Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying ele-
Welding of Carbon Steel Materials
ments; alloying elements are added as ferro-alloys or
as elemental metals to produce alloys not readily Carbon steel materials are usually welded with elec-
available as electrodes, or to adjust weld metal trode and flux combinations classified under AWS
compositions Standard A5.17, Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
(2) Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding for Submerged Arc Welding. Typical steels that are
(3) Color identification welded with these consumables are listed in ANSV
The disadvantages are the following: AWS D1.l, Structural Welding Code-Steel, as Group I
(1) Tendency for some fluxes to absorb moisture in and I1 classifications. These steels include ASTM
a manner similar to coatings on some shielded metal A106 Grade B, A36, A516 Grades 55 to 70, A537
arc electrodes Class 1, A570 Grades 30 to 50, API 5LX Grades X42
(2) Possible gas evolution from the molten slag to X52, and ABS Grades A to EH36. These steels are
(3) Possible change in flux composition due to seg- usually supplied in the as-rolled or the normalized
regation or removal of fine mesh particles. condition.
Mechanically Mixed Fluxes. To produce a mechani- Table S-8 lists minimum mechanical properties for
cally mixed flux, two or more fused or bonded fluxes various wire/flux combinations. When selecting SAW
are mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired consumables, it is required that both the minimum ten-
resu1ts.The advantage of mechanically mixed fluxes is sile and minimum yield strengths as well as the notch
that several commercial fluxes may be mixed for toughness properties (when required) of the weld
highly critical or proprietary welding operations. The metal be matched with the base metal. AWS Filler
following are disadvantages of mechanically mixed Metal Comparison Charts show the commercial prod-
fluxes: ucts that meet the AWS wire-flux classifications listed
(1) Segregation of the combined fluxes during ship- in Table S-8. In special applications, particularly car-
ment, storage, and handling bon steel weldments subject to long term postweld
(2) Segregation occurring in the feeding and recov- heat treatment, low-alloy submerged arc welding con-
ery systems during the welding operation sumables covered by ANSVAWS A5.23, Specifica-
(3) Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to tions for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes, may
mix be required to meet tensile properties of the base
Flux Usage. In applications where low hydrogen metal. Table S-9 shows the classification system for
considerations are important, fluxes must be kept dry. flux-electrode combinations. Fluxes are classified on
Fused fluxes do not contain chemically bonded H20, the basis of weld metal properties obtained when used
but the particles hold surface moisture. Bonded fluxes with specific electrodes.
contain chemically bonded H20, and may hold surface ANSVAWS A5.23 lists welding consumables used
moisture as well. Bonded fluxes need to be protected with carbon steel base materials to meet special notch
in the same manner as low-hydrogen shielded metal toughness requirements. Actual mechanical properties
arc electrodes. The user should follow the directions of obtained may significantly exceed minimum values
the flux manufacturer for specific baking procedures. shown.
514 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-8
Minimum Mechanical Prooerties,with Carbon Steel Consumables Covered bv AWS A5.17
Tensile Strength Yield Strength % Charpy Impact Values
AWS Welding Elongation
Classification Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi in 2 inches (Joules) (Ft-Lbs) Test Temp.
Table S-9
Classification System for Flux-Electrode Combination
See AWS Publication A5.17 (Latest Edition) for Additional Information
Indicates flux
Indicates the minimum tensile strength [in increments of 69 MPa (10 000 psi)] of weld
metal made in accordance with the welding conditions given, and using the flux being clas-
sified and the specific classification of electrode indicated.
Designates the condition of heat treatment in which the tests were conducted: A for as-
welded and Pfor postweld heat treated. The time and temperature of the PWHT are as
specified.
Indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact strength of the weld metal referred to
above meets or exceeds 27 J (20 ft-lb).
FXXX-EXXX
Examples
F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It refers to a flux that will produce weld metal which, in the as-welded condi-
tion, will have a tensile strength no lower than 480 MPa (70 000 psi) and Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least 27 J
(20 ft-lb) at -51C (-60F) when produced with an EM12K electrode under the conditions called for in this specification.
F7A4-ECl is a complete designation for a flux when the trade name of the electrode used in classification is indicated as
well. It refers to a flux that will produce weld metal with that electrode, which in the as-welded condition, will have a ten-
sile strength no lower than 480 MPa (70 000 psi) and Charpy V-notch energy of at least 27 J (20 ft-lb) at -40C (40F)
under the conditions called for in this specification.
American Iron and Steel Institute numbering system is General Process Applications
used for these alloys. SAW is used in a wide range of industrial applica-
Fluxes for stainless steel SAW are proprietary. tions. High weld quality, high deposition rates, deep
Manufacturers of fluxes should be consulted for rec- penetration, and adaptability to automatic operation
ommendations. Submerged arc fluxes are available in make the process suitable for fabrication of large
fused and bonded types for welding stainless alloys. weldments. It is used extensively in pressure vessel
Some bonded fluxes contain chromium, nickel, fabrication, ship and barge building, railroad car fabri-
molybdenum, or niobium to replace elements lost cation, pipe manufacturing, and the fabrication of
across the arc. The newer chemically basic fluxes have structural members where long welds are required.
shown more consistent element recovery than earlier, Automatic SAW installations manufacture mass pro-
less basic or acid types. Performance of fluxes for duced assemblies joined with repetitive short welds.
stainless steel weldments may depend on the users The process is used to weld materials ranging from
care in flux handling and reuse. Over-recycled fluxes 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) sheet to thick, heavy weldments.
will become depleted in compensating elements. Refer Submerged arc welding is not suitable for all metals
to the manufacturers recommendation for handling and alloys. It is widely used on carbon steels, low-
and recycling of flux. alloy structural steels, and stainless steels. It joins
516 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Weldina Encyclopedia
some high-strength structural steels, high-carbon Travel Speed. With any combination of welding cur-
steels, and nickel alloys. However, better joint proper- rent and voltage, the effects of changing the travel
ties are obtained with these metals by using .a process speed conform to a general pattern. If the travel speed
with lower heat input to the base metal, such as gas is increased, (1) power or heat input per unit length of
metal arc welding. weld is decreased, and (2) less filler metal is applied
Submerged arc welding is used to weld butt joints per unit length of weld, resulting in less weld rein-
in the flat position, fillet welds in the flat and horizon- forcement. Thus, the weld bead becomes smaller.
tal positions, and for surfacing in the flat position.
Electrode Size. Electrode size affects the weld bead
With special tooling and fixturing, lap and butt joints
shape and the, depth of penetration at a fixed current.
can be welded in the horizontal position.
Small diameter electrodes are used with semiauto-
Operating Variables matic equipment to provide flexibility of movement.
Control of the operating variables in submerged arc They are also used for multiple electrode, parallel
welding is essential if high production rates and welds power equipment. Where poor fit-up is encountered, a
of good quality are to be obtained. These variables, larger diameter electrode is better than small ones for
in their approximate order of importance, are the bridging large root openings.
following: Electrode size also influences the deposition rate.
(1) Welding amperage At any given current, a small diameter electrode will
(2) Type of flux and particle distribution have a higher current density and a higher deposition
(3) Welding voltage rate than a larger electrode. However, a larger diameter
(4) Welding speed electrode can carry more current than a smaller elec-
(5) Electrode size trode, and produce a higher deposition rate at higher
(6) Electrode extension amperage.
(7) Type of electrode
(8) Width and depth of the layer of flux. Electrode Extension
Welding Amperage. Welding current is the most In developing a procedure, an electrode extension
influential variable because it controls the rate at of approximately eight times the electrode diameter
which the electrode is melted and therefore the deposi- i s a good starting point. At current densities above
tion rate, the depth of penetration, and the amount of 125 A/m2(80 000 A/in.*), electrode extension
base metal melted. If the current is too high at a given becomes an important variable. At high current densi-
travel speed, the depth of fusion or penetration will be ties, resistance heating of the electrode between the
too great. The resulting weld may tend to melt through contact tube and the arc increases the electrode melt-
the metal being joined. High current also leads to ing rate. The longer the extension, the greater is the
waste of electrodes in the form of excessive reinforce- amount of heating and the higher the melting rate. This
ment. This over welding increases weld shrinkage and resistance heating is commonly referred to as I2 R
causes greater distortion. If the current is too low, heating.
inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may Deposition rates can be increased from 25% to 50%
result. by using long electrode extensions with no change in
welding amperage. With single electrode automatic
Welding Voltage. Welding voltage adjustment varies
SAW, the deposition rate may approach that of the
the length of the arc between the electrode and the
two-wire method with two power sources.
molten weld metal. If the overall voltage is increased,
the arc length increases; if the voltage is decreased, the Width and Depth of Flux. The width and depth of the
arc length decreases. layer of granular flux influence the appearance and
Voltage has little effect on the electrode deposition soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding
rate, which is determined by welding current. The action. If the granular layer is too deep, the arc is too
voltage principally determines the shape of the weld confined and the weld will have a rough, rope-like
bead cross section and its external appearance. appearance. The gases generated during welding can-
Increasing the welding voltage with constant current not readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld
and travel speed will: metal becomes irregularly distorted. If the granular
(1) Produce a flatter and wider bead layer is too shallow, the arc will not be entirely sub-
(2) Increase flux consumption. merged in flux. Flashing and spattering will occur. The
Welding Encyclopedia SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) 517
weld will have a poor appearance, and it may be the electrode into the puddle and applying the welding
porous. current. This method is regularly used in multiple-
An optimum depth of flux exists for any set of electrode welding. When two or more welding elec-
welding conditions. This depth can be established by trodes are separately fed into one weld pool, it is only
slowly increasing the flow of flux until the welding arc necessary to start one electrode to establish the weld
is submerged and flashing no longer occurs. pool. Then the other electrodes will arc when they are
Inclination of Work fed into the molten pool.
The inclination of the work during welding can Wire Retract Start. Retract arc starting is one of the
affect the weld bead shape. Most submerged arc most positive methods, but the welding equipment
welding is done in the flat position. However, it is must be designed for it. It is cost effective when fre-
sometimes necessary or desirable to weld with the quent starts have to be made and when starting loca-
work slightly inclined so that the weld progresses tion is important.
downhill or uphill. For example, in high-speed weld- Normal practice is to move the electrode down until
ing of 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) steel sheet, a better weld it lightly contacts the workpiece. Then the end of the
results when the work is inclined 15 to 18" and the electrode is covered with flux, and the welding current
welding is done downhill. Penetration is less than is turned on. The low voltage between the electrode
when the sheet is in a horizontal plane. The angle of and the work signals the wire feeder to withdraw the
inclination should be decreased as plate thickness tip of the electrode from the surface of the workpiece.
increases to increase penetration. An arc is initiated as this action takes place. As the arc
Arc Starting Methods voltage builds up, the wire feed motor quickly reverses
The method used to start the arc in a particular direction to feed the welding electrode toward the sur-
application will depend on such factors as the time face of the workpiece. Electrode feed speeds up until
required for starting relative to the total setup and the electrode melting rate and arc voltage stabilize at
welding time, the number of pieces to be welded, and the preset value.
the importance of starting the weld at a particular If the workpiece is light gauge metal, the electrode
place on the joint. There are six methods of starting: should make only light contact, consistent with good
electrical contact. The welding head should be rigidly
Steel Wool Ball Start. A tightly rolled ball of steel mounted. The end of the electrode must be clean and
wool about 10 mm (3/8 in.) in diameter is positioned free of fused slag. Wire cutters are used to snip off the
in the joint directly beneath the welding electrode. The tip of the electrode (preferably to a point) before each
welding electrode is lowered onto the steel wool until weld is made. The electrode size should be chosen to
the ball is compressed to approximately one-half its permit operation with high current densities since they
original height. The flux is then applied and welding is provide more reliable starting.
started. The steel wool ball creates a current path to the
work, but it melts rapidly while creating an arc. High-Frequency Start. This method requires special
equipment but requires no manipulation by the opera-
Sharp Wire Start. The welding electrode, protruding tor other than closing a starting switch. It is particu-
from the contact tube, is snipped with wire cutters to larly useful as a starting method for intermittent
form a sharp, chisel-like configuration at the end of the welding, or for welding at high production rates where
wire. The electrode is then lowered until the end many starts are required.
slightly contacts the workpiece. The flux is applied When the welding electrode approaches to within
and welding is commenced. The chisel point melts approximately 1.6 mm (1116 in.) above the workpiece,
away rapidly to start the arc. a high-frequency, high-voltage generator in the weld-
Scratch Start. The welding electrode is lowered ing circuit causes a spark to jump from the electrode to
until it is in light contact with the work, and the flux is the workpiece. This spark produces an ionized path
applied. Next, the carriage is started and the welding through which the welding current can flow, and the
current is immediately applied. The motion of the car- welding action begins.
riage prevents the welding wire from fusing to the Run-on and Run-Off Tabs
workpiece. When a weld starts and finishes at the abrupt end of
Molten Flux Start. Whenever there is a molten pud- a workpiece, it is necessary to provide a means of sup-
dle of flux, an arc may be started by simply inserting porting the weld metal, flux, and molten slag so that
518 SUBSTRATE Welding Encyclopedia
spillage does not occur. Tabs are the method most restoring the clad section in a fashion similar to join-
commonly used. An arc is started on a run-on tab that ing two clad plates.
is tack welded to the start end of the weld, and it is Safety Recommendations
stopped on a run-off tab at the finish end of the weld. For detailed safety information, refer to the equip-
The tabs are large enough so that the weld metal on the ment manufacturers instructions and the latest edi-
work itself is properly shaped at the ends of the joint. tions of ANSI 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting.
When the tabs are prepared, the groove should be sim- For mandatory federal safety regulations established
ilar to the one being welded, and the tabs must be wide by the U.S. Labor Departments Occupational Safety
enough to support the flux. and Health Administration, refer to the latest edition of
A variation of the tab is a copper dam that holds the OSHA Standards, Code of Federal Regulations, Title
flux, which in turn supports the weld metal at the ends 29 Part 1910, available from the Superintendent of
of the joint. Documents, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, DC
Slag Removal 20402.
On multiple pass welds, slag removal becomes Operators should always wear eye protection to
important because no subsequent passes should be guard against weld spatter, arc glare exposure, and fly-
made where slag is present. The factors that are partic- ing slag particles.
ularly important in dealing with slag removal are bead Power supplies and accessory equipment such as
size and bead shape. Smaller beads tend to cool more wire feeders should be properly grounded. Welding
quickly and slag adherence is reduced. Flat to slightly cables should be kept in good condition.
convex beads that blend evenly with the base metal Certain elements, when vaporized, can be poten-
make slag removal much easier than very concave or tially dangerous. Alloy steels, stainless steels, and
undercut beads. For this reason, a decrease in voltage nickel alloys contain such elements as chromium,
will improve slag removal in narrow grooves. On the cobalt, manganese, nickel, and vanadium. Material
first pass of two-pass welds, a concave bead that safety data sheets should be obtained from the manu-
blends smoothly to the top edges of the joint is much facturers to determine the content of the potentially
easier to clean than a convex bead that does not blend dangerous elements and their threshold limit values.
well. The submerged arc process greatly limits exposure
Weld Surfacing of operators to air contaminants because few welding
The term su$acing, as used with SAW, refers to the fumes escape from the flux overburden. Adequate
application by welding of a layer of material to a sur- ventilation will generally keep the welding area clear
face to obtain desired properties or dimensions, as of airborne hazards. The type of fan, exhaust, or other
opposed to making a joint. air movement system will be dependent on the work
The SAW process is often used to surface carbon area to be cleared. The various manufacturers of such
steel with stainless steel as an economical way to equipment should be consulted for a particular appli-
obtain a corrosion resistant layer on a steel workpiece. cation.
To end up with an overlay of specified composition, Basic information about this equipment can be
the filler metal must be enriched sufficiently to com- found in Chapter 10 of the Welding Handbook, Vol-
pensate for dilution. ume 1 (8th Edition), published by the American Weld-
ing Society, Miami, Florida.
Clad Steels
Stainless clad carbon- or low-alloy steel plates are SUBSTRATE
sometimes welded with stainless filler metal through- Any material to which a thermal spray deposit is
out the whole plate thickness, but usually carbon or applied. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
low-alloy steel filler metal is used on the unclad side,
followed by removal of a portion of the cladding and SUCK-BACK
completion of the joint with stainless filler metal. A nonstandard term for UNDERFILL at the root
Inexperienced fabricators should consult the manu- surface.
facturer of the clad steel for recommendations of
detailed welding procedures and subsequent postweld SULFUR
heat treatments. Joining clad steel to unclad steel sec- (Chemical symbol: S). A pale yellow, odorless, brit-
tions normally requires making the butt weld and tle, nonmetallic element found underground either in
Welding Encyclopedia SURFACING MATERIAL 519
the solid state or as molten sulfur. Sulfur is insoluble in attention be given to cleaning before applying heat
water but is soluble in carbon disulfide. from any source. Unless proven safe, all foreign mate-
Sulfur is an impurity which appears in steel. It is rial must be considered harmful in the presence of
harmful because it produces hot shortness, although it heat.
is frequently added to stainless steel to improve
machining qualities. Sulfur is also used in gunpowder, SURFACE ROUGHENING
in the vulcanization of rubber and in industrial chemi- A group of methods for producing irregularities on
cals. Atomic weight, 87.63; melting point, 900C a surface. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
(1652F); specific gravity, 2.64. DOVETAILING, GROOVE AND ROTARY ROUGHENING,
ROTARY ROUGHENING, ROUGH THREADING, and
SULFURIC ACID (H2S04)
THREADING AND KNURLING, Thermal Spraying.
Vitriol, or oil of vitriol. Sulfuric acid is used to sen-
sitize stainless steel and is also used as an etching
SURFACE TENSION
agent in metallography.
A phenomenon which causes liquids in contact with
SURFACE CHECKING their own vapors to reduce to minimum area, as if cov-
A condition consisting of shallow surface cracks ered by an invisible membrane. This effect is attrib-
that sometimes develops on cooling after heat is uted to forces that arise across the surface of the liquid
applied to the material. This condition usually occurs because the atoms or molecules at the exposed surface
in high-carbon steels following a quenching operation. are subject to interatomic forces from within the liq-
uid. Surface tension is measured in ergs/cm2.
SURFACE CLEANING
See FLAME CLEANING. In welding, the phenomenon of surface tension
comes into play when filler metal and slag globules
SURFACE EXPULSION come close to or in contact with the molten base metal
Expulsion occurring at an electrode-to-workpiece in the weld crater, with or without the aid of gravity.
contact rather than at the faying surface. See STAN- Surface tension not only attracts the liquid filler metal
DARD WELDING TERMS. and slag globules into the liquid crater, but makes it
possible to deposit weld metal in a horizontal, vertical
SURFACE HARDENING or overhead position. At the same time, the surface
Heating the surface layer (case) of a metal to a suit- tension determines the shape of weld contours. If
able temperature and cooling it so that the surface it were not for surface tension, it would be impossible
layer is harder than the core metal. Typical processes to deposit weld metal in any position other than flat.
for surface hardening are cyaniding, nitriding, heating See OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION and GLOBULAR
by flame or induction, and carburizing. TRANSFER.
.. . . .
US. Navy frigate under way. The Naval Surface Warefare Center, Bethesda, Maryland, contributes welding
technology usedin the constructionof these ships.
T
T vessels, and tubular products used in the petroleum
T: Abbreviation for temperature; t: abbreviation for industry.
time. Persons involved in tank welding should become
familiar with the ASME B&PV Code and API Stan-
TIT CURVE
dard 1104. Refer to American Welding Society, Weld-
Abbreviation for Time-Temperature-Transformation ing Handbook, Volume 1, 8th Edition, American
Curve. Welding Society, Miami, Florida. 1989.
TAB Tank Repair. There are many types of tanks and pip-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also RUNOFF ing systems which have contained hazardous sub-
WELD TAB, STARTING WELD TAB, and WELD TAB. stances. All are potentially dangerous. Information on
safe practices for tank repair is found in ANSVAWS
TACKER F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for Preparation
A nonstandard term for TACK WELDER. for Welding and Cutting of Containers and Piping.
Metal storage tanks commonly located at the top
TACK WELD
of buildings to supply water for private fire protection
A weld made to hold the parts of a weldment in are welded subject to rules and regulations of the
proper alignment until the final welds are made. See American Water Works Association (AWWA) and the
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
National Board of Fire Underwriters. These rules are
A tack weld is a short weld made at intermittent set forth in ANSVAWWA DlOO (AWS D5.2), AWWA
points to hold abutting edges together. The length of Standard for Welded Steel Tanksfor Water Storage.
the weld, spacing between welds, and design of the
tack weld should always be specified. Specifications TANKS, SAFE PRACTICES
usually include the length of each tack weld and the
Tanks which contained flammable oil, gasoline,
measurement from center to center of the tack welds.
vapors or gas must be handled with caution when
The particular design of the tack weld is often not
making repairs by welding. These tanks may contain
specified.
sufficient air and residual fumes to cause an explosion
TACKING when mixed with the gas used with a cutting or weld-
Welding at several points on the welding line to ing torch. The document, AWS F4.1, Recommended
hold the workpieces together and prevent the pieces Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding and
from shifting during the actual welding operation. See Cutting Containers and Piping That Have Held Haz-
TACK WELD. ardous Substances, should be consulted.
Before welding or cutting a tank with an arc or
TANK WELDING torch it is essential to clean the tank thoroughly and
The American Society for Mechanical Engineers remove all possibility of a flammable mixture remain-
(ASME) maintains a Boiler and Pressure Vessel ing in the tank.
(B&PV) Code which contains material standards and
specifications that cover tanks made from carbon and TANTALUM
alloy steels. The ASME codes govern design, con- (Chemical symbol: Ta). A ductile, gray metallic ele-
struction, maintenance, and inspection of power boil- ment. It is known for its resistance to a wide variety of
ers, heating boilers, nuclear power plant components, acids, alcohols, chlorides, sulfates, and other chemi-
pressure piping systems, and pressure vessels operat- cals. Tantalum is used as an alloy in metals, and is also
ing at 103 kPa (15 psi) and higher. used in electrical capacitors and high-temperature fur-
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has pre- nace components. Atomic number, 73; atomic weight,
pared material specifications for welding steel tanks, 181; melting point, 2910C (5270F).
52 1
522 TAPER DELAY TIME Welding Encyclopedia
Table T-1
Characteristics of the Common Fuel Gases
Flame Heat of Combustion
Specific Volume to Oxygen-to- Temperature
Gravitya Weight Radioa G~ for OxygenC Primary Secondary Total
Combustion
Fuel Gas Formula Air = 1 m3kg ft3/lb Ratiob "C OF MJ/m3 Btu/ft3 MJ/m3 Btu/ft3 MJ/m3 Btu/ft3
Acetylene CZHz 0.906 0.91 14.6 2.5 3087 5589 19 507 36 963 55 1470
Propane CZH3 1.52 0.54 8.7 5.O 2526 4579 10 255 94 2243 104 2498
Methylacetylene- C3H4 1.48 0.55 8.9 4.0 2927 5301 21 571 70 1889 91 2460
propadiene (MPS)d
Propylene C3H6 1.48 0.55 8.9 4.5 2900 5250 16 438 73 1962 89 2400
Natural gas (methane) CH4 0.62 1.44 23.6 2.0 2538 4600 0.4 11 37 989 37 1000
Hydrogen Hz 0.07 11.77 188.7 0.5 2660 4820 12 325
a. At 15.6"C (60'F).
b. The volume units of oxygen required to completely bum a unit volume of fuel gas. A portion of the oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere.
c. The temperature of the neutral flame.
d. May contain significant amounts of saturated hydrocarbons.
TEMPER CARBON plate. The colors formed on iron and carbon steel by
The microstructure of a casting of any type of mal- progressively higher temperatures are listed in Table
leable iron is derived by controlled annealing of white T-2.
iron of suitable composition. During the annealing
cycle, carbon that exists in combined form, either as Table T-2
massive carbides or as a micro constituent in pearlite, Temper Colors Formed on Iron and Carbon Steel
is converted to a form of free graphite known as tem-
per carbon. Approximate Temperature
at Which Color Forms
TEMPER COLORS Color Formed
on Surface "C "F
Temper colors on bare, clean, bright steel provide a
useful visual method of estimating time and tempera- Light Straw 200 400
ture of exposure of heat-affected areas in weldments, Tan 230 450
judging from surface appearance. When a weld is Brown 275 525
made by localized heating, temper colors ranging from Purple 300 575
shades of black, through blue, red, brown and tan will Dark Blue 315 600
run in bands parallel to the long axis of the weld after Black 425 and higher 800 and higher
the weld has cooled. These variations in color are the
effect of various thicknesses of oxide films that form
on the surface of iron and steel when heated in air. TEMPERING
Sand blasting or pickling can be used to prepare a sur-
face on which temper colors from welding can be A process for increasing the degree of hardness or
observed. Temper colors can give a rough indication resiliency of a metal; the reheating of iron base alloys
of the maximum temperature imposed on the base after hardening at a temperature below the critical
metal at varying distances from the weld. For exam- range, followed by a specified rate of cooling.
ple, if two different welds are compared for temper
colors, and the brown-purple transition is found closer TEMPER TIME, Resistance Welding
to the edge of the weld in the first plate, it can be con- The time following quench time during which a cur-
cluded that the weld in the first plate was heated more rent is passed through the weld for heat treating. See
rapidly and cooled faster than the weld in the second STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure I- 1.
524 TEMPLATE Welding Encyclopedia
-
TOTAL ELONGATION TO FRACTURE I,
I
I - 80
I
ELASTIC STRAIN I
I
500 I I
I
I
I
I
I
ULTIMATE I - 70
TENSILE I
I I
450- I I
I
I I
I I I
60
.-
cn
Y
50 5I
w
a:
kl
0
40
u
W
W
30
55
20
10
r
ment components. For example, the aerospace indus-
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT try has developed hundreds of applications, including
air seals and wear-resistant surfaces to prevent fretting
and galling at elevated temperatures. In addition,
marine, mining, food, automotive, petroleum, electri-
cal power generation, thermal processing, chemical
processing and electronic applications use thermally
sprayed coatings to achieve results that no substrate by
itself can provide.
BOND LINE The surfacing is applied with a thermal spraying
gun, which generates the necessary heat by using com-
Figure T-3-Surfacing Material Applied by a bustible gases or an electric arc. As the materials are
Thermal Spraying Process heated, they change to a plastic or molten state, and
are accelerated by a compressed gas. The particles, in
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT DENSITY RATIO a confined stream, are conveyed to a substrate. The
The ratio of the density of the thermal spray deposit particles strike the surface, flatten, and form thin plate-
to the theoretical density of the surfacing material, lets (splats) that conform and adhere to the irregulari-
usually expressed as percent of theoretical density. See ties of the prepared surface and to each other. As the
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. sprayed particles impinge on the substrate, they cool
and build up, particle by particle, into a lamellar struc-
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT INTERFACE ture; thus a coating is formed.
The interface between the thermal spray deposit Process Variations
and the substrate. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The basic variations of the thermal spraying pro-
cesses occur in the spray materials used, the method of
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT STRENGTH heating, and the method of propelling the materials to
The tensile strength of a thermal spray deposit. See the substrate.
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Spray Materials. The spray materials used are in the
form of wire, rod, cord (a continuous length of plastic
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT STRESS tubing), or powder. Cord spraying is primarily used in
The residual stress in a thermal spra,y deposit Europe. Many metals, oxides, cermets, and intermetal-
resulting from rapid cooling of molten or semimolten lic compounds, some organic plastics, and certain
Welding Encyclopedia THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) 529
glasses can be deposited by one or more of the various Hypersonic Flame Spraying. Detonation and contin-
processes. uous-flame guns are two types of hypersonic spray
Processes. Thermal spraying processes can be cate- guns.
gorized under two basic groups, according to the The detonation gun operates on principles signifi-
methods of heat generation. See Table T- 4. Group 1 cantly different from other flame spray methods. This
uses combustible gases as the heat source. Group 2 method repeatedly heats and projects charges of pow-
uses electric power as the heat source, such as plasma, der onto a substrate by rapid successive detonations of
electric arc, and induction plasma. Consumables used an explosive mixture of oxygen and acetylene in the
in Group 2 are in the powder or wire form. gun chamber.
The continuous-flame hypersonic guns used in the
Table T-4
United States use a propylene-oxygen flame. The
Basic Groups of Thermal Spraying powder is brought to the torch using a nitrogen carrier.
The torch is designed to confine the powder in the cen-
Group T-Combustion Group 11-Electrical ter of the flame. The particles leave the gun at veloci-
ties generally in excess of mach 4. This speed is far
1 . Flame 1. Arc greater than achieved in most other spray methods.
a. Subsonic 2. Plasmaarc
Particle impact velocities for various thermal spray
b. Hypersonic 3. Induction coupled plasma
processes are shown in Figure T-4. The kinetic energy
released by impingement upon the substrate contrib-
utes additional heat that promotes bonding, high den-
Additional heat is generated at impact during hyper- sity, and appreciable hardness values.
sonic flame spraying, as the spray material gives up its
kinetic energy.
Group I-Combustion
Subsonic Flame Spraying. In subsonic flame spray- I I I
ing, the spray material is fed into and melted by an FLAME 0 POWDER
oxyfuel gas flame. Whether the material is in the form SUBSONIC 0WIRE,CORD
HYPERSONIC 1
l -
of wire, rod or powder, molten particles are propelled
onto the substrate by the force of the flame.
A wide variety of materials in these forms can be
sprayed with the flame. Materials that cannot be PLASMA
melted with an oxyfuel gas flame, and those that burn LOW ENERGY 0
or become severely oxidized in the oxyfuel flame, can- HIGH ENERGY 0
not be flame sprayed.
Flame spray accessories in the form of air jets and
air shrouds are available to change the flame charac-
teristics. These accessories can be used to adjust the
shape of the flame and the velocity of the sprayed
materials.
Materials are deposited in multiple layers, each of
which can be as thin as 130 pm (0.0005 in.) per pass. Group Il-Electric
The total thickness of material deposited will depend Arc Spraying. The spray materials used with arc
upon several factors including: spraying, commonly called electric arc spniying, are
(1) Type of surfacing material and its properties metals and alloys in wire form, and powders contained
(2) Condition of the workpiece material, including in a metal sheath (cored wire). Two continuously fed
wires are melted by an arc operating between them.
geometry
The molten metal is atomized and propelled onto the
(3) Service requirements of the coated product substrate by a high-velocity gas jet, usually air. Recent
(4) Post-spray treatment of the coated product work has been done using other gases. This method is
530 THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) Welding Encyclopedia
restricted to spraying consumables that car1 be pro- Procedures for Sprayed Coatings
duced in continuous wire form. Success in the use of thermally sprayed coatings
relies on careful adherence to specific process proce-
Plasma Spraying. Plasma spraying is a thermal
dures. This is a basic rule of thermal spraying, and
spraying process in which a nontransferred plasma arc
deviation from the standards for a particular applica-
gun is used to create an arc plasma that melts and pro-
tion, or inattention to detail, especially preparation,
pels the surfacing material to the substrate.
will produce an unreliable result.
The term nontrunsferred arc means that the plasma Sprayed coating systems have four basic compo-
arc is contained within the gun, and that the substrate nents: substrate type, bond coats as necessary, coating
is not part of the electric circuit. The arc is m,aintained structure, and finish.
between a tungsten cathode and a constricting nozzle
which serves as the anode. An inert gas or a reducing Substrates. Substrates on which the thermally
gas, under pressure, enters the annular space between sprayed coatings are applied include metals, oxides,
the anode and cathode, where it becomes ionized, pro- ceramics, glass, most plastics, and wood. All spray
ducing temperatures up to 17 000C (30 OOOOF). The materials cannot be applied to all substrates, since some
hot plasma gas passes through the nozzle as a high- require special techniques or are temperature sensitive.
velocity jet. The su;facing material, in powder form, is Substrate preparation is required for every thermal
injected into the hot gas stream, where it becomes spraying process, and is virtually the same for each
molten and is propelled onto the substrate. process. Two important steps are:
(1) Cleaning the surface to eliminate contamination
Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA). This process is a com- that will inhibit the bonding of the coating to the
bination of welding and thermal spraying processes. substrate.
Powder is introduced into the plasma arc stream from
(2) Roughening the substrate surface to create
where it is melted and conveyed to the workpiece. The
minute asperities or irregularities (anchor teeth),
emitted spray forms a molten puddle on the substrate, which provide a greater effective surface area to
which cools and solidifies as a parent metal dilution
enhance coating adhesion and bond strength.
(weldment). As compared to a thermal spraying
deposit, a FTA deposit is generally more localized, Bond Coats. Certain materials adhere to clean, smooth
denser, and metallurgically bonded to the base. The surfaces forming strong coating-to-substrate bonds, over
selection of coating materials and suitable substrates is a wide range of conditions. A thm layer of bonding mate-
limited. rial serves as an anchor for subsequent applied coating
layers. Bond coatings are particularly applicable to sub-
Vacuum Plasma Spraying. Vacuum spraying is a strates too thin or too hard to be prepared by abrasive
variation of plasma spraying which is performed in a roughening methods. Bond coatings are used extensively
vacuum chamber. The advantage of the process is the as a substrate for ceramic materials. Bond coatings of
elimination of oxides from the deposit. This is espe- nickel, chromium, stainless steel, or the corrosion resis-
cially advantageous in aircraft engine applications. tant alloys are applied in thicknesses of 0.05 to 0.33 mm
The cost of this apparatus is about ten times that of (0.002 to 0.013 in.) or more. The bond coating provides a
standard plasma spray equipment. Operating costs are flexible and adherent substrate for ceramic deposits.
also higher. The bond between the coating and the substrate
Induction Coupled Plasma Spraying. Induction cou- may be mechanical or metallurgical. Adhesion is
pled plasma equipment is used to create an ultra high- influenced by a combination of (1) coating material,
temperature arc region 50 mm (2 in.) in diameter by (2) spray particle size, (3) substrate condition and
150 mm (6 in.) long, into which powders are injected. geometry, (4)degree of surface roughness, ( 5 ) surface
The powder is heated along a substantially longer path cleanliness, (6) surface temperature before, during,
than that within a comparable plasma spray gun. The and after spraying, (7) particle impact velocity, (8)
longer powder residence time makes possible the use type of base material, and (9) spray angle.
of larger particles, assures the melting of the particles, Coating Structure. The deposited structure and
and results in a more consistent sprayed coating. chemistry of coatings sprayed in ambient air are differ-
Because of the size of the equipment, this system ent from those of the same material in the wrought or
has limited torch movement and portability. pre-sprayed form.
Weidina EncvcloDedia THERMALSPRAYING mHSP) 531
The differences in structure and chemistry are due are metals and alloys in the form of wire, cord, pow-
to the incremental nature of the coating, and its reac- der, and ceramics as powder, cord, or rod.
tion with the process gases and the atmosphere sur- Wire and Rod. The equipment for flame spraying
rounding the coatingmaterialwhilein the molten wire and rod is similar to that shown in FigureT-5. A
state. For example, when air or oxygen is used as the cross section of a typical wire thermal spraying gunis
process gas, oxides of the spray material are formed shown in FigureT-6.
while the particles are in transit and become a partof
the coating.
Metal coatings tendto be porous and brittle, andto
differ in hardness from the original consumable mate-
rial.Theas-sprayedstructures of coatingswill be
similar in their lamellar nature, but will exhibit varying
characteristics,depending on the particularspraying
process used, process variables, techniques employed,
and the nature ofthe spray material applied.
The coatingdensitywillvarywith the particle
velocity, the heat source temperatureof the spray pro-
cess, andtheamount of air used. A listing of heat
source temperatures is shown in Table T-5.The den-
sity also varies with the typeof powder, its mesh size,
spray rate, standoff distance, and methodof injection.
Table 1-5
Heat Source Temperatures
Temperature
Source C F
Acetylene, oxygen 3100 5625
Arcs and plasmas 2200-8300 4000-15 OOO
Hydrogen, oxygen 2690 4875
MPS, oxygen 2870 5200
Natural gas, oxygen 2735 4955
Propane, oxygen 2640 4785
GAS
WIRE,
CORD,
- /- CAP
OR BURNING GASES
7
-
SPRAY STREAM
One of the following fuel gases may be combined the powder is melted and carried by the flame onto the
with oxygen for use in flame spraying: acetylene, substrate. The typical powder feeding mechanism
methylacetylene-propadiene stabilized (MPS), pro- incorporates a container and metering device which
pane, hydrogen, or natural gas. Acetylene is widely regulates the feed rate of the material into the carrier
used because higher flame temperatures are attainable. gas stream. A hyper-velocity oxyfuel gas powder
See Table T-5. In many cases lower temperature spray gun is shown in Figure T-7.
flames can be used to economic advantage. A fuel gas Fusion or metallurgical bonding to a metal substrate
flame is used for melting only, and not for propelling is accomplished by heating the deposit to its melting
or conveying the coating material. To accomplish temperature range. The fusing temperature is usually
spraying, the flame is surrounded with a stream of in excess of 1040C (1900F), and is accomplished
compressed gas, usually air, which atomizes the mol- with any heating source such as a flame, induction
ten material and propels it onto the substrate. For spe- coil, or a furnace.
cial applications inert gas may be used.
Variations in the powder flame spraying process
Powder. Powder flame spraying guns are Lighter and include compressed gas to feed powder to the flame,
more compact than other types of thermal spraying additional air jets to accelerate the molten particles, a
equipment. Due to lower particle velocities and tem- remote powder feeder with an inert gas to convey
peratures obtained, the coatings produced have lower powder through a pressurized tube into the gun, and
adhesive strength, lower overall cohesive strength, and devices for high-speed powder acceleration at atmo-
higher porosity than coatings produced by other spray spheric pressure. Such refinements tend to improve
processes. flow rate, and sometimes to increase particle velocity,
The powder feedstock may be pure metal, an alloy, which enhances bond strength and coating density.
a composite, a carbide, a ceramic, or any combination
of these. The process is used to apply self fluxing Oxygen Detonation Gun. The detonation gun is dif-
metallic alloy coatings. These materials contain boron ferent from other combustion spraying devices. It uses
and silicon, which serve as fluxing agents, and oxida- the energy of explosions of oxygen-acetylene mix-
tion is minimized. Feedstock is stored in a hopper tures, rather than a steady flame, to blast powdered
which may be integrated with the gun or connected to particles onto the surface of the substrate. The result-
it. A small amount of gas is diverted to carry the pow- ing deposit is extremely hard, dense, and tightly
der from the hopper into the oxyfuel gas stream, where bonded.
Welding Encvclopedia THERMALSPRAYING (THSP) 533
Figure F7-Hyper Velocity Oxyfuel Gas Spray Gun. Note Diamond Pattern Resulting from Supersonic
Outlet Velocity Shown Spraying Tungsten Carbide Powder.
The detonation gun, shown in Figure T-8, consists high particle impingement velocity results in a strong
of a long barrel into which a mixture of oxygen, fuel bond with the substrate. Excellent finishes are achiev-
gas, and powdered coating material, suspended in able, and the porosity content of the coating is low.
nitrogen, is introduced. The gas mixture is ignited by Electrical Heating
an electric spark several times per second, creating a
series of controlled detonation waves (flame fronts) Wire Arc Process. The wire arc spray process uses
which accelerate and heat the powder particles as they anarc between two consumable wires (feedstock).
move down the barrel. Exit particle velocities of They are kept insulated from each other and automati-
approximately 760 d s e c (2500 ft/sec) are produced. cally advance to meet at a point within an atomizing
After each ejection of powder, nitrogen purges the unit gas stream. A potential difference of 18 to 40 volts
prior to successive detonations. Multiple detonations applied across the wires initiates an arc as they con-
per second build up the coating to the specified verge, melting the tips of both wires. An atomizing
thickness. gas, usually compressed air, is directed across the arc
Temperatures above 3315C (6000F) are achieved zone, shearing off molten droplets which form the
within the detonation gun, while the substrate temper- atomized spray.
ature is maintained below 150C (300F) by a carbon The velocity of the gas through the atomizing
dioxide cooling system. nozzle can be regulated over a range of 4.0 to 5.5 d s
Coating thicknesses range between 0.05 and0.50 mm (800 to 1100 ft/min) to control deposit characteristics.
(0.002 and 0.02 in.). The process produces a sound Molten metal particles are ejected from the arc at the
level in excess of 150 decibels, and is housed in a rate of several thousand particles per second.
soundproof room. The actual coating operation is In comparison with wire flame spraying, the quan-
completely automatic and remotely controlled. The tity of metal oxides is better controlled and spray rates
534 THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) Welding Encyclopedia
The d-c power source, providing a voltage of 18 to using the lowest possible arc voltage consistent with
40 volts, permits operation over a wide range of metals good arc stability, and the normal spray gun-to-work
and alloys. The arc gap and spray particle size increase distance. These conditions ensure the following:
with a rise in voltage. The voltage should be kept at (1) Fine particle size
the lowest possible level, consistent with good arc sta- (2) Minimum loss of alloy constituents
bility, to provide the smoothest coatings and maximum (3) A concentrated spray pattern
coating density. (4)High melting rate
Wire Control Unit. The wire control unit consists of Plasma Arc Spraying
two reel (or coil) holders, which are insulated from
Turbine and rocket engine components are exposed
each other and connected to the spray gun with flexi-
to extreme service conditions. Existing engineering
ble insulated wire guide tubes. Wire sizes range from
materials will not stand up to these conditions without
1.6 to 3.2 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in.). Wires of larger diame-
a protective thermally sprayed coating. In many cases,
ters are usually in coil form, while smaller diameter
the spray coating consists of ceramic oxides and car-
wires are preferably level wound on reels or in barrels.
bides which require temperatures higher than those
System Operations. Wire arc spray systems can be possible with flame and arc processes. The plasma
operated from a control console or from the gun. The spray process evolved to meet these needs.
control console will have the switches and regulators The plasma spray process also stimulated the evolu-
necessary for controlling and monitoring the operating tion of a new family of materials and application tech-
circuits that power the gun and control the spray pro- niques for a greatly expanded range of industrial
cedure, namely the following: applications. Plasma spraying supplements the older
(1) A direct current power source, usually of the processes of flame and wire arc spraying.
constant voltage type In the plasma spray process, a gas or gas mixture is
(2) A dual wire feeding system passed through an electric arc between a coaxially
(3) A compressed gas supply with regulators and aligned tungsten alloy cathode and an orifice within a
flow meters built into the control assembly copper anode. The process is illustrated in Figure
(4)Arc spray gun and related console switching T-IO. The gas passing through the orifice is ionized.
After the first pass has been applied over the entire The temperature of the ionized plasma is much higher
surface of the workpiece, subsequent spraying is done than that obtained with a combustion flame.
n
-..
--
TUNGSTEN
CATHODE ANODE)
&
,( PLASMA / !
-
/
SUBSTRATE
As the plasma jet exits the gun, disassociated mole- ture without spalling. Self fluxing coatings are limited
cules of a diatomic gas recombine and liberate heat. to applications where the effects of fusing tempera-
The powder is introduced into the plasma, melted, and tures and any distortion can be tolerated. Thick coat-
propelled onto the workpiece by a high-velocity gas ings of dissimilar metals can be applied in multiple
stream. The heat content, temperature, and velocity of passes. For optimum results, the surface to be coated
the plasma jet are controlled by the nozzle type, the arc should be cleaned of all oxide residues after each fus-
current, the mixture ratio of gases and the gas flow ing stage or layer.
rate. A properly sprayed and fused deposit will be nearly
The arc operates on direct current from a welding homogeneous, metallurgically bonded to the substrate,
type power supply. The electric power to the arc is and have no open or visible porosity. It will have
governed by a central control unit that regulates the higher hardness than an equivalent mechanically
flow of plasma gas and cooling water, and sequences bonded deposit, and will withstand pressures and envi-
these elements to allow the process to operate reliably ronments better than non-fused deposits.
and precisely. Either nitrogen or argon is used as the Self-Fluxing Alloys. Most self-fluxing alloys fall into
plasma forming gas. A secondary gas, either hydrogen two general groups: nickel-chromium-boron-silicon
or helium, may be added to increase the heat content alloys and cobalt-chromium-boron-silicon alloys. In
and velocity of the plasma. some cases tungsten carbide or chromium carbide par-
Controlled Atmosphere Plasma Spraying. Plasma arc ticles are blended with an alloy from one of these
spraying lends itself to controlled atmosphere applica- groups.
tions. Temperature regulation of both the substrate and The boron and silicon additions are crucial elements
atmosphere are more precise in controlled atmo- that act as fluxing agents and as melting point depres-
spheres. This results in lower oxidation of the sprayed sants. They permit fusing at temperatures compatible
materials and less porosity in the sprayed deposit. It with steels, certain chromium-iron alloys, and some
also produces closer control of the composition and nickel base alloys.
morphology of the sprayed coating. This results in The hardness of fused coatings will range from 20
greater structural homogeneity, absence of oxide, to 60 HRC, depending upon alloy composition. Hard-
increased hardness, and a thicker deposit capability. ness is virtually unaffected by the thermal spraying
These benefits are produced at a higher deposition procedures since there is almost no dilution with the
rate. base metal.
Fused Spray Deposits In addition to cleaning, blasting, thermal spraying,
A fused spray deposit is a self-fluxing alloy depos- and work-handling equipment, some device or method
ited by thermal spraying, which is subsequently heated is needed to fuse the sprayed deposit. Fusing may be
to coalescence within itself and with the substrate. The done with an oxyfuel gas torch, in a furnace, or by
materials wet the substrate without the addition of a induction heating.
fluxing agent, provided the substrate is properly Thermal sprayed deposits can be fused to a wide
cleaned and prepared to receive it. The materials are variety of substrates. Some base metals are easier to
powdered nickel or cobalt alloys, and they may be surface than others. Those which can be readily
applied by powder flame spraying or by plasma sprayed with one or more self-fluxing alloys and then
spraying. fused are:
The application of a fused deposit involves four (1) Carbon and low-alloy steel with less than 0.25%
operations: carbon
(1) Surface preparation (2) AISI 300 series stainless steels, except Types
(2) Spraying the self-fluxing alloy 303 and 321 '
(3) Fusing the coating to the substrate (3) Certain grades of cast iron
(4) Finishing the coating to meet surface and (4) Nickel and nickel alloys that are free of titanium
dimensional requirements and aluminum
Fused coatings are dense and nearly porosity free. Metals that require special procedures to avoid
The alloy compositions can result in hardness levels undesirable metallurgical changes are carbon and low-
greater than 50 HRC. Coating thickness is limited to alloy steels with more than 0.25% carbon, and AISI
those ranges which can be heated to melting teinpera- 400 series stainless steels, except Types 414 and 431.
Welding Encyclopedia THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) 537
Types 414, 431, and the precipitation hardening stain- Various other finishing methods are occasionally
less steels are not recommended as base metals for used. These include buffing, tumbling, burnishing, belt
self-fluxing alloys. polishing, lapping, and honing.
Cracking of some types of fused sprayed deposits Properties of Thermal Sprayed Deposits
on hardenable steels (above 25 HRC) can be avoided The quality and the properties of thermal sprayed
by isothermal annealing of the parts from the fusing deposits are largely determined by the size, tempera-
temperature. ture, and velocity of the spray droplets as they impinge
Post-Treatments on the substrate, and the degree of oxidation of both
the droplets and the substrate during spraying. These
Sealing. Sealing of sprayed deposits is performed to factors will vary with the method of spraying and the
lengthen the service life or prevent corrosion of the procedures employed.
substrate, or both. Sprayed deposits of aluminum or The physical and mechanical properties of a spray
zinc may be sealed with vinyl coatings, either clear or deposit normally differ greatly from those of the origi-
aluminum pigmented. The sealer may be applied to fill nal material. The deposit structure is lamellar and non-
only subsurface pores in the deposit, or both subsur- homogeneous, and its cohesion is generally the result
face pores and surface irregularities. The latter tech- of mechanical interlocking. For these reasons, spray
nique will provide a smooth coating to resist industrial deposits should be considered as a separate and dis-
atmospheres. The vinyl coatings may be applied with a tinct form of fabricated material.
brush or spray gun. Oxide spray deposits tend to retain their physical
Epoxies, silicones, and other similar materials are properties with only modest losses. The chemical
used as sealants for certain corrosive conditions. Vac- compositions of reactive type ceramics, such as car-
uum impregnations with plastic solutions are also bides, silicides, and borides normally change when the
possible. materials are sprayed in air with the flame or plasma
methods.
Diffusing. A thin layer of aluminum may be diffused
into a steel or silicon bronze substrate at 760C Microstructure. The microstructure of a transverse
(1400F). The diffused layer can provide corrosion section through a flame sprayed metal deposit will
protection against hot gases up to 870C (1600F). show a heterogeneous mixture of layered metal parti-
After depositing the aluminum, the part can be coated cles (white), metal oxide inclusions (gray), and pores
with an aluminum pigmented bitumastic sealer or (black). A photomicrograph of a transverse section
other suitable material, to prevent oxidation of the alu- through a flame sprayed deposit of 0.80% carbon steel
minum during the diffusion heat treatment. There are is shown in Figure T- 11. The light layered particles are
similar aircraft applications with diffusion tempera- bonded to one another by chemical and mechanical
tures dependent upon the base material to which the interactions.
aluminum is applied. The microstructure of the polished and etched sur-
face of the 0.80% carbon steel deposit is shown in Fig-
Surface Finishing. Techniques for surface finishing ure T-12. It has an emulsified appearance because the
of thermal spray deposits differ somewhat from those flattened steel particles (light) are separated by the
commonly used for metals. Most sprayed deposits are oxide (gray).
primarily mechanically bonded to the substrates, As-sprayed, self-fluxing alloy deposits are oxida-
except for fused coatings. Excessive pressure or heat tion resistant in nature. As shown in Figure T-13, the
generated in the coating during the finishing operation microstructure of a fused nickel-chromium self-flux-
can cause damage such as cracking, crazing, or separa- ing alloy deposit has a cast structure with some poros-
tion from the substrate. ity and inclusions. The roughness of the prepared
The selection of a finishing method depends on the substrate (bottom of figure) is also evident.
type of deposit material, its hardness, the coating Hardness. The heterogeneous structures of spray
thickness, as well as dimensional and surface rough- deposits generally have a lower macrohardness than
ness requirements. Spray deposits of soft metals are the original rod or wire supplied to the gun. However,
usually finished by machining. Hardfaced substrates the hardness of individual deposit particles (micro-
and ceramic sprayed coatings are usually finished by hardness) may be much higher than that of the overall
grinding. deposit. The type of hardness test should be selected to
538 THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) Welding Encyclopedia
Density. Thermal sprayed deposits have densities spraying of copper on electrical contacts, carbon
less than 100% of the filler metals used because they brushes, and glass in automotive fuses, as well as sil-
are porous and contain some oxide. The densities of ver or copper contacts.
the flame sprayed deposits and the original wire for In the field of electrical insulation, various ceramic
several metals are shown in Table T-6. deposits can be used for insulators. Magnetic shielding
of electrical components may be provided with depos-
Table T-6 its of zinc or tin zinc applied to electronic cases and
Comparison of the Densities of Flame Sprayed chassis. Condenser plates can be made by spraying
Metal DeDosits and the Wire aluminum on both sides of a cloth tape.
Density, kg/m3 (lbfin?) Foundry. Changes in contour of expensive patterns
and match plates can be readily accomplished by the
Flame Sprayed application of thermal spray deposits followed by
Metal Deposit (Wire) Wire appropriate finishing. Patterns and molds can be
1100 Aluminum 2408 (0.087) 2713 (0.098) repaired with wear resistant deposits. Blow holes in
Copper 7501 (0.271) 8968 (0.324) castings that appear during machining can be filled to
Molybdenum 9024 (0.326) 10214 (0.369) salvage the parts.
AIS1 1025 Steel 6754 (0.244) 7861 (0.284)
304 Stainless Steel 6892 (0.249) 8027 (0.290) Brazing and Soldering. Thermal spraying is fre-
Zinc 6839 (0.229) 7141 (0.258) quently used for the preplacement of solder or brazing
filler metals. The usual practice is to apply the filler
metal using thermal spraying techniques.
Coating Selection and Applications Aircraft and Missiles. Thermal spraying is used for
The selection of a proper coating material involves air seals and wear-resistant surfaces to prevent fretting
more than choosing the desired properties of the and galling at elevated temperatures. Deposits of alu-
deposit. It should be approached as an engineering mina and zirconia are used for thermal insulation.
problem by considering such items as coating function References: American Welding Society, Thermal
and service environment, in addition to the physical Spraying Practice, Theory and Application, Miami,
and chemical properties of both the coating and the Florida: American Welding Society, 1985.
substrate. The properties of conventional materials are
well understood, and their service performance pre- American Welding Society, Welding Handbook,
dictable. This is not true of thermal spray coatings. Chapter 28, Thermal Spraying, V01.2, 8th Ed. Miami,
The mechanical and corrosion resistant properties of Florida: American Welding Society, 1991
sprayed materials differ from solid or powder metal
parts of the same chemistry. Coating material selection THERMAL SPRAYING DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY
should be based on properties related to end use and The ratio of the weight of thermal spray deposit to
service environment, plus factors involving its com- the weight of sufacing material sprayed, expressed in
patibility with the substrate. It is not difficult to select percent. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
the proper coating for a given function after all the
pertinent factors are taken into consideration. THERMAL SPRAYING GUN
Wear Resistance. In the mechanical field, thermal A device for heating, feeding, and directing theflow
spray hardfacing materials can be used to combat of sufacing material. See STANDARD WELDING
many types of wear. The ability of metal spray depos- TERMS.
its to absorb and maintain a film of lubricant is a dis-
tinct advantage in many applications. THERMAL SPRAYING OPERATOR
Electrical Characteristics. The electrical resistance One who operates automatic, mechanized, or
of a metal spray deposit may be 50 to 100% higher robotic thermal spraying equipment. Variations of this
than that of the same metal in cast or wrought form. term are ARC SPRAYING OPERATOR, FLAME SPRAYING
This must be considered in the design of spray depos- OPERATOR, and PLASMA SPRAYING OPERATOR. See
its for electrical conductors. Such applications include STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
540 THERMAL SPRAY PASS Welding Encyclopedia
THERMAL SPRAY PASS Schmidt AG West Germany (Orgotheus Inc. USA) dis-
A single progression of the thermal spi;aying gun covered that the exothermic reaction between a
across the substrate su$ace. See STANDARD WELDING mixture of aluminum powder and a metal oxide can be
TERMS. initiated by an external heat source. The reaction is
highly exothermic, and therefore, once started, it is
THERMAL STRESS self-sustaining.
Stress resulting from nonuniform temperature dis-
tribution. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The Thermite Reaction
Thermal stress may refer to stresses in a welded The thermite mixture can be ignited and brought to
joint, welded structure, or part and is produced by dif- a high temperature in one spot, and when started, the
ferences in temperature or coefficients of expansion reaction will continue throughout the rest of the mass.
during welding or cutting. This reaction occurs when the aluminum combines
with the oxygen of the iron oxide to form aluminum
THERMITE, Cast Iron oxide (slag) in a super-heated molten state while the
A thermite mixture containing additions of ferro- iron is set free and is produced as liquid steel, also
silicon and mild steel. super-heated. The temperature created by this reaction
THERMITE CRUCIBLE is about 3150C (5650"F), but because of heat loss
The vessel in which the thermite reaction takes through the crucible, the molten metal actually reaches
place. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also about 2400C (4350F). When steel at this high tem-
THERMITE WELDING. perature is poured around and between two iron or
steel sections which have been previously heated to
THERMITE FORGING red heat, they will become dissolved and will amal-
A thermite mixture with the addition of carbon, gamate with the thermite steel. When the entire mass
manganese, nickel and mild steel. See THERMITE cools down it forms a single homogeneous section.
WELDING. The thermite reaction is not explosive, and no dan-
ger is incurred in storing and handling the material,
THERMITE MIXTURE since it requires the temperature of liquid steel to
A mixture of metal oxide andfinely divided alumi- ignite it.
num with the addition of alloying metals as required.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Applications
This process is not often used in production welding
THERMITE MOLD
because other processes are more efficient, but ther-
A mold formed around the workpieces to receive mite welding continues to be used for making butt
molten metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. welds between lengths of railroad rails, for joining
THERMITE REACTION very thick sections of cast iron and steel castings, and
The chemical reaction between metal oxide and for joining very large size steel reinforcing bars
aluminum that produces superheated molten metal embedded in concrete structures. Circumstances can
and a slag containing aluminum oxide. See STANDARD arise where thermite welding is the best process to fill
WELDING TERMS. special needs. Repair of massive sections that have
cracked in large machines is an application where ther-
THERMITE WELDING (TW) mite welding can be used to advantage.
A welding process that produces coalescence of The most common application of the process is the
metals by heating them with superheated liquid metal welding of rail sections into continuous lengths to
from a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and minimize the number of bolted joints in the track
aluminum, with or without the application of pressure. structure. In coal mines, the main hauling track is
Filler metal is obtained from the liquid metal. See often welded to minimize maintenance and to reduce
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. coal spillage caused by uneven track. Crane rails are
Historical Background usually welded to minimize joint maintenance and
The thermite process was developed at the end of vibration of the building as heavily loaded wheels pass
the 19th century when Hans Goldschmidt of Gold- over the joint.
Welding Encyclopedia THREE-PHASE WELDING 541
THERMOCOMPRESSION BONDING
Figure T-14-Threading and Knurling as a
A nonstandard term for HOT PRESSURE WELDING. Preparation for Thermal Spraying
THERMO-ELECTRICITY
3F
Electricity produced by heating metals.
A welding test position designationfor a linearfillet
THERMOCOUPLE
weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in the
vertical welding position. See STANDARD WELDING
Two different metals welded together and used for TERMS. See Appendix 4.
the purpose of producing thermo-electricity.
3G
THERMOMETER
A welding test position designation for a linear
An instrument for measuring relative temperatures. groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
See Appendix 14. See also PYROMETER. made in the vertical welding position. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
THERMOSTAT
A device that opens and closes a circuit when the THREE PHASE
temperature changes. A generator or circuit delivering three voltages that
are 1/3 of a cycle apart in reaching their maximum
THREADING AND KNURLING, Thermal Spraying value. Three-phase current is generally used for cir-
A method of sur$ace roughening in which spiral cuits of 220 volts or more.
threads are prepared, followed by upsetting with a
knurling tool. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See THREE-PHASE WELDING
Figure T- 14. See RESISTANCEWELDING.
542 THROAT AREA Welding Encyclopedia
Table T-7
~
Mechanical ProDerties of Titanium and Titanium Allov Weld Metal
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test Impact Strength, Charpy V-notch
Rockwell Impurity
UTS 0.2% YS ~1 in J ft-lb Hardness Contenta
1 in.
AWS Filler Metal (25.4mm) RA H, 0, Fe,
No. Classificationb MPa ksi MPa ksi % % 20C 0C -62C 68F 32F -80F BM HAZ Weld ppm % %
(Rockwell B)
1 ERTi-lc 414 60 324 47 41 77 220 216 224 162 159 165 46 47 46 20 0.09 <0.06
2 ERTi-2c 400 58 296 43 42 76 54 57 48 40 42 35 43 45 44 30 0.07 <0.06
3 ERTi-3 565 82 441 64 24 48 21 19 17 16 14 13 53 55 56 50 0.16 0.13
4 ERTi-4 607 88 476 69 22 46 37 30 33 27 22 25 55 57 57 40 0.20 0.28
5 ERTi-0.2Pd 496 73 476 58 28 59 56 52 45 41 38 33 52 53 53 45 0.13 0.16
6 ERTi-3A1-2.5V 689 100 545 79 20 59 62 57 48 46 42 35 60 60 60 75 0.08 0.08
7 ERTi-3A1-2.5V-1 703 101 572 83 18 56 58 59 50 43 44 37 58 60 60 15 0.08 0.08
(Rockwell C)
a. The composition for all the weld metals included carbon in the range of 0.02 to 0.04% and nitrogen in the range of 0.005 to 0.012%. The nominal alloy contents in percent are shown in the
AWS Classification designation.
b. Alloy Nos. 15 and 16 are not included in the AWS filler metal specification.
C. Difference in toughness between ERTi-1 and ERTi-2 due to hydrogen content. Other titanium alloys are not sensitive to hydrogen within nominal specification limits.
Welding Encyclopedia TITANIUM WELDING 545
~~ ~ ~ ~~
Table T-9
Titanium and Titanium Allov Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods
Chemical Composition, Percenta
AWS Classification C 0, Hz Nz A1 V Sn Cr Fe Mo Nb Ta Pd Ti
tures up to 60C (140F). The part should be handled, faces followed by washing with a suitable solvent,
after pickling and rinsing, with lint-free gloves during may be used in lieu of pickling treatment.
assembly in the welding or brazing fixture. The fixtur-
ing itself should be thoroughly cleaned and degreased Protection During Joining. Because of the sensitivity
prior to loading the workpieces. of titanium to embrittlement by oxygen, nitrogen, and
Oxide scale formed at temperatures above 595C hydrogen, the entire component or that portion to be
(1100F)is difficult to remove chemically. Mechanical heated above about 260C (500F) must be protected
methods, such as vapor blasting and grit blasting, from atmospheric contamination. Protection or shield-
should be used for scale removal. Mechanical opera- ing is commonly provided' by a high-purity inert gas
tions are usually followed by a pickling operation to cover in the open or in a chamber, or by a vacuum of
ensure complete removal of surface contamination. 0.013 Pa (lo4 torr) or lower.
To control porosity in welding operations, the sur- During arc welding, titanium must be protected
faces to be joined are often given special treatments, from the atmosphere until it has cooled below about
including draw filing, wire brushing, or abrading the 425C (SOOOF). Adequate protection can be provided
joint and adjacent surfaces prior to fitup and final by an auxiliary inert gas shielding device when weld-
cleaning. Sheared joint edges frequently require spe- ing in the open. For critical applications, welding
cial treatments to remove entrapped dirt, metal slivers, should be done in a gas-tight chamber that is thor-
and small cracks because these edge discontinuities oughly purged of air prior to filling with high-purity
promote weld porosity. argon, helium, or mixtures of the two.
Preweld cleaning operations should be accom- The purity of the shielding gas influences the
plished immediately prior to welding. If this is not mechanical properties of the welded joint. Both air and
practical, the parts should be stored with a desiccant in water vapor are particularly detrimental. The purity of
sealed bags or in a humidity-controlled storage room. commercial inert gases used for welding is normally
Alternatively, thorough degreasing and light pickling satisfactory, but care must be taken to ensure that
of parts just prior to welding or brazing is strongly rec- moisture and air are not entrained into the gas delivery
ommended. Mechanical abrasion of the faying sur- system. The dew point of the gas should be measured
Welding Encyclopedia TITANIUM WELDING 547
at the welding location or as it is purged from a and adjacent base metal (primary shielding), (2) the
welding chamber. A dew point of 4 0 C (40F) at hot, solidified weld metal and heat-affected zone (sec-
the point of weld is the approximate maximum mois- ondary shielding, and (3) the back side of the weld
ture limit. Shielding gases have a dew point of -51C joint (backing).
(-60F) or lower. Primary Gas Shielding. Primary gas shielding is
The inert gas at the cylinder or other source must be provided by the arc welding torch or arc welding gun
sufficiently dry to allow a margin for some moisture nozzle. The nozzle size usually ranges from 12.7 to
pickup in the delivery system. One method of check- 19 mm (0.5 to 0.75 in.). In general, the largest nozzle
ing gas purity is to weld a sample piece of titanium, consistent with accessibility and visibility should be
prior to welding the workpiece itself, then to bend it. used. Nozzles that provide laminar flow of the shield-
The surface appearance and the degree of bending are ing gas are desirable because they lessen the possi-
a good indication of the gas purity. A second sample bility of turbulent gas flow where air mixes into the
should be welded and bent after the workpiece is com- gas stream at its periphery. Proper shielding of the
pleted to assure that the shielding was satisfactory dur- molten weld pool is critical.
ing welding.
Secondary Gas Shielding. The primary gas shielding
The color of a weld bead on titanium is often used as
advances with the arc welding gun and a secondary
a measure of the level of contamination or the shielding
inert shielding gas is necessary to protect the solidi-
gas purity. A light bronze color indicates a small
fied, cooling weld bead and the heat-affected zone.
amount of surface contamination; a shiny blue color
The hot weld zone must be shielded from the atmo-
indicates a greater amount of surface contamination.
sphere until it has cooled to a temperature where oxi-
Neither of these levels of surface contamination is dation is not a problem. The low thermal conductivity,
desirable, but may be acceptable on a single or final
and consequent slow cooling, of titanium requires that
weld pass, provided the surface layer is removed before
a considerable length of the hot weld be shielded;
the weldment is placed in service. A white, flaky layer
more than is usually provided by gas flow from an arc
on the weld bead indicates excessive contamination,
welding gun.
which is not an acceptable condition. In multipass
The common form of secondary shielding is a trail-
groove welds, no surface contamination is acceptable
ing shield; a typical design is shown in Figure T-15. It
and must be removed before depositing additional
consists of a metal chamber fitted to the torch nozzle
passes. If a white or gray flaky oxide is present, the gas
and held by a clamp. The inert gas flows through a
shielding system should be inspected, and the cause of
porous metal diffuser screen over the weld area. The
contamination corrected. The contaminated weld metal
shield must be wide enough to cover the heat-affected
should be removed because it is likely to be brittle. zone on each side of the weld bead.
When brazing or diffusion welding titanium parts, A trailing shield is used for machine or automatic
they must be protected by high-purity inert gas or pro- welding where travel speeds are higher. In one impor-
cessed in a vacuum. The time at temperature should be tant application, the trailing shield, used in welding
as short as practical because hot titanium (a getter) pipe in the horizontal-rolled position, is curved to con-
absorbs oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen by diffusion form to the pipe surface.
when available in even minute amounts. For manual welding, a large gas nozzle or an auxil-
Gas Shielded Arc Welding iary annular gas nozzle can be used with slow welding
The three processes normally used for joining tita- speeds. Trailing gas shielding can interfere with the
nium are gas tungsten arc, gas metal arc, and plasma visibility of the weld pool and manipulation of the
arc welding. manual arc welding torch.
Welding with all three processes can be done with Secondary shielding can be incorporated into the
manual, semiautomatic, or automatic equipment. Man- fixturing, as shown in Figure T-16. Inert gas passages
ual and automatic welding can be done in the open or are provided in the hold-down bars on both sides of
in a chamber filled with inert gas. Semiautomatic the weld seam. Shielding gas flows from the arc weld-
welding is usually done in the open, but could con- ing torch and hold-down bars into the channel formed
ceivably be performed in a chamber. by the bars, displacing the air from above the weld.
The main concern with welding in the open is ade- Backing Gas Shielding. Inert gas shielding is
quate inert gas shielding of (1) the molten weld pool required to protect the weld root and adjacent base
548 TITANIUM WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
W
t Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is commonly
used to weld titanium and its alloys, particularly for
BACKING GAS sheet thicknesses up to 3 mm (0.125 in.). Welding in
INLET open air is best done in the flat position to maintain
adequate inert gas shielding with the welding torch
(6)FOR CORNER OR FILLET WELDS and secondary shielding devices. Specially designed
secondary shielding devices may be required when
Figure T-17-Weld Backing Bars that Provide Inert welding in positions other than flat. Welding in posi-
Gas Shielding tions other than flat may contribute to the amount of
porosity in the weld metal.
550 TITANIUM WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is nor- ticularly with thick sections. Selecting the correct
mally used with Type EWTh-2 tungsten electrodes of welding conditions should produce a smoothly con-
proper size. Contamination of the weld with tungsten toured weld that blends with the base metal.
should be avoided because it embrittles the' titanium. With GMAW, the droplets of filler metal being
Electrode extension from the gas nozzle should be transferred across the arc are exposed to much higher
limited to the amount required for good visibility of temperatures than the filler metal fed into a GTAW
the weld pool. Excessive extension is likely tlo result in molten weld pool. The combination of high tempera-
weld metal contamination. ture and fine particle size makes the filler metal highly
When welding in open air, welding should be termi- susceptible to contamination by impurities in the arc
nated on a runoff tab or the welding torch should dwell atmosphere. Consequently, the welding gun and auxil-
over the weld with a postflow of shielding gas after
iary gas shielding must be carefully designed to pre-
shutting off the welding current. When a filler metal is
vent contamination of the inert gas welding
added, the heated end of the welding rod must be held
under the gas nozzle at all times to avoid contamina- atmosphere.
tion. If the tip of the rod becomes contaminated, it Equipment. Conventional GMAW power sources
must be cut off before continuing the weld. and control systems are satisfactory for welding tita-
Welding conditions for a specific application nium. Conventional GMAW guns are modified to pro-
depend on joint thickness, joint design, the weld tool- vide the necessary auxiliary gas shielding needed for
ing design, and method of welding (manual or titanium.
machine). For any given section thickness and joint
design, various combinations of amperage, voltage, Filler Metal Transfer. Titanium filler metal can be
welding speed, and filler wire feed rate can be used to transferred by all three types of metal transfer: short-
produce satisfactory welds. circuiting, globular, and spray. Globular transfer is not
Typical welding conditions that can be used for recommended for welding titanium because of exces-
machine gas tungsten arc welding of titanium are sive spatter and incomplete fusion in the weld. Short-
shown in Table T-10. The welding conditions gener- circuiting transfer can be used for welding thin sec-
ally do not have to be adjusted radically to accommo- tions in all positions. When welding thick sections, in
date the various titanium alloys, however, certain positions other than flat, incomplete fusion can be a
adjustments are often made to control weld porosity. problem because of the inherent low heat input.
Gas Metal Arc Welding When welding thick sections in the flat and hori-
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can be used for zontal positions, spray transfer is preferred to take
joining titanium. It is more economical than gas tung- advantage of high heat input and high deposition rates.
sten arc welding because of the deposition rates, par- Pulsed spray welding provides spray transfer with
Table T-10
Typical Conditions for GTAW Machine Welding of Titanium
Filler Wire
lower heat inputs that is advantageous for welding Ti-6A1-4V alloy that can be welded in a single pass is
thinner sections and in positions other than flat. about 15 mm (0.60 in.).
Plasma Arc Welding When welding with a high power density, ioniza-
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an extension of gas tion of metal vapor above the molten weld pool dif-
tungsten arc welding in that the arc plasma is forced fuses the laser beam and interferes with welding. This
through a constricting nozzle. Inert gas shielding of can be prevented by blowing the metal ions away from
the weld is provided by a shielding gas nozzle and an the weld pool with inert gas, preferably helium.
auxiliary trailing shield similar to that used with Helium-argon mixtures can also be used. At the same
GTAW and GMAW. Welding is accomplished with a time, a titanium weld must be shielded from the atmo-
transferred arc using direct current, electrode negative sphere to prevent contamination and embrittlement, as
supplied by a constant current power source. described previously for arc welding.
Argon, with a dew point of -60C (-76F) or lower, Other Processes
is generally used as the orifice gas and shielding gas, Titanium can also be welded using the diffusion,
but helium-argon mixtures are sometimes used for friction, resistance, and flash welding processes. Refer
shielding. Hydrogen must not be added to the inert gas to American Welding Society Welding Handbook, Vol.
because of its embrittling effects on titanium. 2, 8th Edition. American Welding Society, Miami,
Plasma arc welding can be done using two tech- Florida. 1991.
niques: melt-in and keyhole. The melt-in technique is
similar to GTAW. The keyhole technique provides Thermal Cutting
deep joint penetration for welding square-groove Titanium can be severed by oxyfuel gas cutting
joints in one pass. The two techniques can be com- (OFC) at speeds approximately three times faster than
bined for welding groove joints in thick sections. an equivalent thickness of steel, however, the cuts
Square-groove joints in titanium alloys from about result in a contaminated and hardened surface requir-
1.6 to 12.7 mm (0.062 to 0.50 in) thick can be welded ing some type of edge preparation before welding. The
with one pass with the keyhole technique. Plasma arc depth of hardening in titanium after OFC is less than
welds tend to be undercut along the top edges and 0.3 mm (0.010 in.), but the overall hardened zone can
have convex faces unless filler metal is added during extend up to 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) deep.
welding, or when a second pass is made as a cosmetic Titanium can also be cut using the plasma arc cut-
pass. ting (PAC) process. The cut face will be contaminated
Electron Beam Welding to some degree because of the exposure of the hot tita-
Electron beam welding (EBW) in high vacuum is nium to the atmosphere.
well suited for joining titanium; oxygen and nitrogen Safe Practices
contamination of the weld is held within acceptable The possibility of spontaneous ignition of titanium
levels. When electron beam welds are made in a vac- and titanium alloys is extremely remote. As in the case
uum or nonvacuum, inert-gas shielding requirements of magnesium and aluminum, the occurrence of fires
are the same as for arc welding. is usually encountered where an accumulation of
The process variables are accelerating voltage, grinding dust or machining chips exists. Even in
beam current, beam diameter, and travel speed. Beam extremely high surface-to-volume ratios, accumula-
dispersion increases with atmospheric density, pres- tions of clean titanium particles do not ignite at any
sure, or both. Deep joint penetration in square-groove temperature below incipient fusion temperature of the
welds is obtained with high beam power density and a air.
keyhole in the weld metal. However, spontaneous ignition of fine grinding dust
Laser Beam Welding or lathe chips saturated with oil under hot, humid con-
Laser beam welds can be produced in titanium by ditions has been reported. Water or water-based cool-
the conventional melt-in technique or by the keyhole ants should be used for all machining operations.
technique. With the keyhole technique, as much as Carbon dioxide is also a satisfactory coolant. Large
90% of the laser beam energy can be absorbed, accumulations of chips, turnings, or other metal pow-
depending on the metal. Absorption efficiency is ders, should be removed and stored in closed metal
significantly lower with the melt-in technique. At an containers. Dry grinding should be done in a manner
energy level of 15 kW, the maximum thickness of that will allow proper heat dissipation.
552 T-JOINT Welding Encyclopedia
Dry compound extinguishing agents or dry sand are have resulted in varied lines of tool and die welding
effective for titanium fires. Ordinary extiiliguishing electrodes, with recommended procedures for their
agents such as water, carbon tetrachloride, arid carbon use. This combined effort has served to minimize
dioxide foam are ineffective and should not be used. down-time in manufacturing facilities that use tools
Violent oxidation reaction (explosion]) occurs and dies.
between titanium and liquid oxygen or red-fuming Tool and Die Welding Electrodes
nitric acid. Reference: American Welding Society,
Welding Handbook, Volume 3, 8th Edition; American Tool and die welding electrodes can be divided into
Welding Society, Miami, Florida. two categories: basic tool steel welding electrodes, and
alloy welding electrodes. A combination of these two
T-JOINT types is used for some applications.
A joint between two members located approxi- Basic Tool Steel Welding Electrodes. This group
mately at right angles to each other in the form of a I: of coated electrodes includes water-hardening, air-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 5. hardening, hot-working and high-speed steel. These
electrodes are in an annealed state, and the weld metal
TOBIN BRONZE is hardened by air quenching from the high heat of the
A copper alloy with exceptionally good welding arc. The weld deposits are hard-as-welded, whether
properties. It is approximately 60% copper, 39% zinc they are applied to hardened or annealed tool steel,
and 1% tin. The melting point of Tobin bronze is mild, medium, or high-carbon steel, or to other alloy
885C (1625F). See COPPER ALLOY WELDING. steels. The weld deposits can be annealed to facilitate
machining, then heat treated and tempered. As a gen-
TOE eral rule, weld deposits will respond to the heat treat-
See WELD TOE. ment recommended for the average tool steel in its
classification.
TOE CRACK
Alloy Welding Electrodes. Included in this group are
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendixes 8 low-alloy electrodes for plastic or zinc casting molds
and 9. and flame-hardened dies. Also in this group are the
more highly alloyed electrodes used to weld dies for
TOE OF WELD forging, drawing and forming. These electrodes pro-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See a1.l.o WELD duce machinable weld deposits which are not affected
TOE. by heat treatment. They are available in several types,
providing a range of hardness in the weld deposits.
TOOL AND DIE WELDING Additional hardness is obtained by work hardening.
Virtually all types of tool steel can be welded by the
shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, plasma arc, or Combination. Other alloy electrodes are sometimes
electron beam processes. Die units used for blanking, used in conjunction with tool and die welding elec-
forming, forging, drawing, embossing, coining, or hot trodes, especially for applications on cast dies for
and cold trimming can be salvaged or reclaimed using drawing or forming. Nickel-iron electrodes, nickel
one of these processes. electrodes, and copper-nickel electrodes can be used
Tool and die welding applications can be separated as foundation on cast units, then other tool and die
into four categories: electrodes are used to finish the castings.
(1) Repairing of dies Current, Coatings, and Deposits. Generally, tool and
(2) Composite fabrication of dies die welding electrodes should be used on direct cur-
(3) Correction of designs rent electrode positive (DCEP). The percentage of
(4) Improvement of properties by hardfacing alloying elements lost in the weld deposits during
Die Welding and Repair. Welding professionals, welding can be regained by selecting an electrode
along with tool engineers, have developed tool and die which incorporates the required alloys in the coating.
welding and repair methods which can be economi- Mineral-alloyed coatings are preferred.
cally significant. Research, development and testing The introduction of a mineral-alloyed coating on
by welding equipment and electrode manufacturers the electrodes also helps produce a desirable spray
Welding Encyclopedia TOOL AND DIE WELDING 553
action of the arc and forms a protective slag, which is Admixture and Cooling. The admixture (dilution) of
easily removed. the deposits with the base metal produces weld metal
Tool and die welding electrodes will produce sound that is alloyed in direct proportion to the alloys con-
homogeneous weld deposits free from porosity. In tained in the electrodes and in the parent metal. When
many cases, laboratory tests have revealed weld elements such as carbon and chromium are added to
deposit structures that are superior to parent steel of steels to enhance hardenability, the percentage of these
the same class. elements will be directly reflected in the as-welded
Gas metal arc and flux-cored arc welding can be or as-heat treated hardness of the deposits.
used to weld tools and dies, generally using small Rate of Cooling. The rate of cooling after welding,
diameter (less than 1.5 mm [0.060 in.]) wires. The which is governed by the preheating temperature and
plasma arc, electron beam and laser beam processes, the size of the workpiece, affects the ultimate hard-
with or without filler metal, can also be used for tool ness. The larger the workpiece, the slower the air
and die welding. quench.
Factors Influencing Hardness Tempering. In welding tool steel, changes take place
The hardness developed in weld deposits as- in the steel that require tempering. Hardening a tool
welded and heat-treated will vary according to the steel with heat treatment requires tempering afterward.
following principal factors: To gain the same results, weld deposits should also be
(1) Preheat treatment (i.e., the preheating temperature) tempered. Tempering yields toughness with very little
(2) Technique during the welding sequence reduction of hardness. It refines the grain structure and
(3) Admixture of the base metal with the deposit relieves stresses and strains set up in the welding pro-
(4) Rate of cooling and mass of the workpiece cess. Tempering or drawing must suit requirements.
( 5 ) Tempering temperature after welding. Size governs the length of time of the draw, which
should never be less than one hour. Deposits of the
Preheating. As a crack-preventive measure, it is alloy type should not be tempered, but the units on
very important to preheat the workpieces to which tool which they are applied should be stress relieved. Par-
and die electrodes are to be applied. The degree of pre- tial repairs should be tempered according to the draw-
heat is a primary factor affecting the hardness devel- range temperatures of the base metal; full repairs
oped in weld deposits because preheating tends to should be tempered according to the recommended
delay the rate of air quenching. For a given set of draw-range temperatures for the electrode.
welding conditions, such as current and welding
Fundamentalsof Welding Tool Steel
speed, the cooling rate will be faster for a weld made
without preheat than with preheat. Preheating also Tool steels are carbon steels to which alloys have
helps to reduce or prevent shrinkage stresses and been added in varying quantities. Such elements as
deformation. carbon, manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, tung-
sten, vanadium, molybdenum and cobalt are added to
Welding Technique. Welding technique affects the steel to bring about such characteristics as greater
hardness of the weld deposit. Direct current electrode wear resistance and hardness, greater toughness or
positive (DCEP) is recommended because it mini- strength, stabilized size and shape during changes
mizes arc penetration, resulting in less admixture with caused by heat and cold, and red hardness, a condi-
the base metal. tion in which the steel will remain hard while red hot.
The smallest electrode adequate for the job should Because of the diversified composition of tool
be selected because it requires less heat, and this influ- steels, heat treating is a complex subject. However,
ences the ultimate hardness of the deposit. knowledge of the fundamentals of tool steels will be of
Work positioning, travel speed, welding current, help in setting up specifications for heat treating. In
and manipulation of the arc all exert an influence on practical tool and die welding, it is not necessary that
weld hardness. the electrode match the analysis of the tool steel being
Ultimate hardness and characteristics of the weld welded, but in most cases, the welding electrode
deposits can be enhanced by thorough peening while should match as closely as possible the heat treatment
at forging temperatures. Extended deposits should not recommended for that tool steel classification. Such
be made before peening because the metal will cool; terms as annealing, normalizing, hardening, and tem-
hot metal is more ductile. pering should be thoroughly understood.
554 TOOL AND DIE WELDING Welding Encyclopedia
The four general classifications of tool stqels are (1) rough-grind damaged areas to allow for a uniform
water-hardening, (2) oil-hardening, (3) airahardening depth of at least 3 mm (1/8 in.) of finished deposits.
and (4) hot working. It is necessary to study the In making repairs to entire cutting edges of tool or
analysis of the composition of tool steels iln order to dies, rough-grind edges to be welded to an approxi-
become familiar with their properties and characteris- mate 45" angle to allow deposits of 6 mm (114 in.) of
tics. Although hundreds of different tool steels are finished metal.
available, four general classes of electrodes (including On die units that require repairs over large areas,
high-speed steel electrodes) will generally suffice to prepare surfaces so that finished deposits will be at
weld them. It would be impractical to have a welding least 3 mm (1/8 in.) deep.
electrode to match each and every analysis, or exact For repairs to drawing and forming dies of cast
specifications for heat treatment of this great variety of structure, the edges or areas to be faced should be pre-
tool steels. In welding, however, it is not a question pared uniformly so that finished deposits are at least
of matching the analysis of the steel, but of matching 3 mm (1/8 in.) deep. To prepare for extremely long
as closely as possible the heat treatment in its deposits, for forming edges or over large areas on cast-
classification. iron base metal, studding may be required. The studs
Recommended Welding Sequence. Tool and die
should be staggered, spaced 40 mm (1-1/2 in.) apart.
welding is not complicated if instructions and recom- When preparing damaged forging die blocks for
mendations are followed explicitly. The following welding, areas to be repaired should be chipped,
basic principles should help to meet almost any tool ground or machined as uniformly as possible to a fin-
and die welding specifications. ished depth of about 5 mm (3/16 in.) for the inlay
deposit, or, where necessary, to below the heat-
(1) Identify the type of tool steel to be welded. This checked depth.
will determine the heat treatment involved and will
govern the handling of the unit in the welding (4) Preheat. Identification of the type of steel to be
sequence. welded will determine the draw range temperatures
(2) Select the correct electrode. In making partial involved. It is very important not to exceed maximum
repairs of cutting edges or working surfaces, select the preheat temperature or exceed the maximum tempera-
electrode that will match, as closely as possible, the ture of the draw range for the type of steel to be
heat treatment of the metal to be welded. welded. Hardness will be lost if the unit is preheated to
a temperature above the draw range, because the origi-
To make full repairs to cutting edges or working nal structure of the steel will be disturbed. Maintain
surfaces, choose the electrode with characteristics best temperature under the minimum of the draw range in
suited for the type of work to which the unit will be preheating, and never above the maximum for the
subjected. Take into consideration any factors involv- interpass temperature while welding. This will retain
ing heat, abrasion, shock, and thickness of metal to be the original hardness of the steel.
cut or formed.
For forging die repair, or facing cast or carbon-steel (5) Welding. Generally, direct current electrode
dies for drawing or forming, select alloy electrodes positive (DCEP) is used to apply tool-steel and alloy
recommended by the manufacturer for these purposes. electrodes. However, they may also be applied with ac.
Keep the temperature of the parent metal as uniform
The size of the electrode to be used for a repair will as possible during welding to assure uniform hardness
depend on the width and depth of the damaged area. In of deposits.
general, a 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) diameter electrode will In welding cutting edges, position the work, if pos-
repair a damaged area 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) wide and sible, so that the deposit will flow or roll over the
2.4 mm (3/32 in.) deep. The same relation applies to cutting edges.
other electrode diameters. Always select the smallest
Always try to work slightly upward, as gravity
electrode, especially for sharp cutting edges, because
causes the deposit to roll back and build up evenly.
less heat is required for welding. There is also less
Gravity also causes slag to roll out of the crater and
chance of creating shear marks, and less grinding will
keep it clean. There is no need to weave the electrode
be necessary after welding. in an intricate pattern.
(3) Prepare the surface to be welded. In m,aking par- In depositing beads, a slow travel speed is used to
tial repairs of cutting edges or working surfaces, secure an even deposit and to assure more uniform
1
Welding Encyclopedia TOOL AND DIE WELDING 555
fusion of the electrode with the base metal. Keep the post-heating serves as a tempering medium for the
area clean by frequent brushing. deposited metal. Postheating refines the grain structure
Thoroughly peen all deposits to offset shrinkage and relieves stresses set up by welding.
and stress. Ball peen hammers are generally used, but In tempering deposits made to effect a partial repair,
small pneumatic hammers are efficient for large areas. the general rule is to temper according to the draw-
It is important not to deposit excess metal in one range temperature of the base metal. If a unit has been
pass. On final passes, retain beads as close as possible repaired over the entire edge or working area, temper
to finished size. This will eliminate excessive the deposits according to the draw range temperatures
grinding. recommended for the electrode used. All welded units
When welding cutting edges, the arc should not be should be tempered or drawn to meet requirements of
broken by rapidly pulling away the electrode. Lower- the base metal and the electrode.
ing the electrode gradually as you stop welding will The welder should seek advice from the manufac-
prevent deep craters and the searing of sharp edges turer of the unit or the electrode manufacturer on heat-
adjacent to the weld area. treating specifications as to the length of time welded
When repairing parts of cutting edges, the weld units should be drawn or tempered.
bead should first progress in one direction to within a Preheating equipment can also be used for post-
short distance of the other end; then it should progress heating, tempering or drawing. A temperature-
in the opposite direction and overlap the first bead. controlled furnace should be used if available.
This will prevent craters and sear marks at the extreme Composite Fabrication
end of the deposited metal. Sometimes die units can be fabricated as compos-
When welding deeply damaged cutting edges (or ites. Water-hardening, oil-hardening, air-hardening or
drawing and forming surfaces), start at the bottom and hot-work tool steel electrodes can be applied to a base
gradually fill up the damaged areas. Use a slightly of a mild, medium or high-carbon steel (or S A E
higher amperage on the first and second beads than on graded steel). The weld deposits are confined to cut-
finishing beads. Peening while the weld metal is in the ting edges or working areas. The result is a fabricated
forging state also eliminates sear marks at the edges of composite die constructed mostly of inexpensive steel.
the deposits. The same basic principles can be followed on draw-
If two or three dissimilar types of tool-steel elec- ing and forming dies that are used on cast structures:
trodes are to be welded on one die unit, care must be deposit the tool steel alloy along sharp contours, belt
exercised in applying the electrodes in sequence to lines and radii. This prolongs the life of the forming
their draw ranges; the first electrode applied must have surfaces, helping to withstand abrasion, scoring or
the highest draw range, then the electrodes are applied fouling.
in decreasing order to the electrode with the lowest Flame- hardening dies can be fabricated by using
draw range. This will prevent the annealing of previ- low-alloy electrodes.
ously applied deposits. Existing tool steel units can be converted into com-
To make repairs to entire cutting or forming edges posite units to meet unusual conditions by welding a
of draw rings, extrusion dies or similar circular parts, better grade of tool steel along the cutting edges or
the skip-weld method should be used to ensure even working areas.
distribution of heat. Because deposits made with tool-steel electrodes
Warping or distortion is offset by preheating to are hard as welded, it is not necessary to post-heat treat
expand the units, and by peening to stretch welded fabricated composite units except for tempering as
deposits and to offset stresses. These are mechanical recommended. To facilitate machining, however, the
problems. Shims and clamps can be used to advantage. deposit can be annealed and subsequently heat treated
Peening will relieve the stresses set up in the welding with the recommended heat treatment.
operation by stretching the deposited metal. Do not The recommended welding sequence for composite
weld more than 75 mm (3 in.) before peening. fabrication is similar to that used for welding tool
(6) Post-heat or Temper Deposits or Sections. After steel. On units with composite construction, tempering
welding, the unit is allowed to cool to approximately should always favor the deposited metal. The base
room temperature and is then tempered by reheating to metal acts only as a retaining medium for the cutting
the recommended temperature. This is important, as or working edge of the desired tool steel. For the rec-
556 TOOL BRAZING Welding Encyclopedia
ommended tempering temperatures of deposits in of the upper piece would cause the parts to settle into
composite fabrication, refer to manufacturei's infor- intimate contact during brazing. The parts were care-
mation on each electrode. fully aligned. With irregular breaks this is seldom a
problem as the parts tend to align themselves naturally.
TOOL BRAZING
Heating. Heat was applied to the cutter with an oxy-
Although brazing as applied to tools is generally for acetylene torch; the torch was chosen primarily
repairs, there are many applications in which brazing
because of its speed in heating the tool steel to 635C
is used to make composite tools by joining hard, tough (1175"F), the brazing alloy melting point, or flow
metal to a softer steel. Whether the appli'cation is
point.
repairing or building a tool, the same general brazing
processes are used. Brazing with a silver-base filler When the metal glowed a dull red and the flux was
metal is probably the most widely used of the pro- completely liquid and clear, the joints had to be only
cesses; this is particularly true for high-speed steel cut- touched with silver alloy wire, and the alloy was
ting tool reclamation, and for applying cemented pulled by capillary action throughout all joint areas.
carbide tips. See BRAZING, Carbide Tools. The alloy was fed into the joints until it became visibly
evident that all breaks had been completely filled.
Repair Technique While every step is important, this dual heating is the
Brazing with a silver-base filler metal has been suc- payoff. Heat must be uniformly distributed and the
cessfully used to reclaim tools that had broken and torch kept moving to avoid affecting tool temper and
appeared ready for the scrap heap. An example is a setting up strains. After brazing, the cutter was cov-
gear cutter which had broken into three pieces. ered with several layers of insulating blanket and left
The equipment needed to restore this cutter con- in position to cool slowly. See American Welding
sisted of an oxyacetylene torch, a small length of 0.8 Society Welding Handbook, Volume 4, 8th Edition,
rnm (0.031 in.) diameter silver alloy brazing wire, a jar Miami, Florida: American Welding Society.
of flux, a few ounces of solvent, and a small length of
nichrome wire for holding the parts while brazing. TORCH
Cleanliness is the first law of good brazing practice. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also AIR CAR-
In making this repair, the first step was to carefully BON ARC CUTTING TORCH, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUT-
clean the pieces individually with a solvent to make TING TORCH, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH,
certain that each piece was scrupulously clean and HEATING TORCH, OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING TORCH, OXY-
bright. All surfaces of the pieces were then fluxed. It is FUEL GAS WELDING TORCH, PLASMA ARC CUTTING
important to use a silver brazing flux which is entirely TORCH, and PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH.
liquid and active in dissolving oxides at the exact tem-
perature required for silver alloy brazing. TORCH BRAZING (TB)
Precoating A brazing process that uses heat from a fie1 gas
Joint surfaces of each broken piece were precoated flume. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
(pretinned) with a silver brazing alloy in the following
TORCH CLASSIFICATION
process:
(1) An oxyacetylene torch was used to bring the Injector Torch. These low-pressure torches operate
surfaces to be joined to brazing temperature, or on an acetylene pressure of less than 7 Pa (1 psi). They
approximately 635C (1175F). The flame was kept were originally designed for use with low-pressure
moving to assure uniform heating and to avoid hot acetylene generators where higher acetylene pressures
spots. Enough silver brazing alloy was applied to were not available. The acetylene, passing through rel-
cover the surface completely. atively large openings, is drawn into the mixer by the
(2) While the heat was maintained, the molten braz- action of the high pressure of the oxygen as it passes
ing alloy was puddled, rubbed into the surface with a through a very small orifice in the injector.
metal rod until the surface was completely covered Balanced Pressure Torch. These torches utilize acet-
with a thin, even coat. After pretinning, all joint sur- ylene under pressures from 7 to 103 Pa (1 to 15 psi),
faces were again liberally covered with flux to get rid depending upon the size of the tip. The torch utilizes
of oxides which tend to form during final heating. both oxygen and the fuel gas under equal pressures. In
Pieces were then assembled upright so that the weight this case, the ports at the entrance to the mixer are
Welding Encyclopedia TRANSFER OF WELD METAL 557
equal in area, and under equal pressures deliver equal 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd. Miami, Florida 33126. (800)
volumes of oxygen and the fuel gas to the mixer. The 443-9353. Fax (305) 443-6445.
flow of gases is not influenced by the mixer, as it is in
the injector torch. TRAINING QUALIFICATIONS FOR CODE WORK
Welder, welding operator, and tack welder qualifi-
TORCH SOLDERING (TS) cation tests determine the ability of the persons tested
A soldering process that uses heat from a fuel gas to produce acceptably sound welds with the process,
flame. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. materials, and procedure required in the tests. Various
codes, specifications, and governing rules generally
TORCH TIP prescribe similar methods for qualifying welders,
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See WELDING TIP welding operators, and tack welders. The applicable
and CUTTING TIP. code or specification should be consulted for precise
details and requirements.
TORSION TEST Welding operators frequently take qualifying tests
A test to determine the amount of stress caused in a to comply with the requirements of a code or specifi-
metal or material when twisted; for example, the tor- cation governing a particular type of work on which
sion strength of wire is tested to see how much twist- the operator is to be employed. Table T-11 lists some
ing can be applied before it will split or break. of the principal codes and specifications containing
rules for qualifying welding operators. Each of these
TOUGHNESS
codes contains specific provisions governing the pro-
The resistance of a material to fracture after perma- cedure to be followed in qualifying welding operators
nent deformation has begun.
for work under that code. The codes usually provide
Materials with the property of toughness are those for the following requirements:
that will withstand heavy shocks or absorb a large
(1) The manner of supervising the tests
amount of energy.
(2) The number and types of tests required
TRACER (3) The method of welding the specimens
A radioisotope mixed with a stable material used to (4) The method of testing the specimens
trace another material as it undergoes chemical and (5) The test results required
physical changes. See ISOTOPES. (6)Provision for retests in the event of initial failure
(7) The period of time qualification is effective
TRACK WELDING (8) The method of requalification.
The welding of railroad track prior to installation In some cases, the codes prescribe a specific
and for repair of damage (e& wear). See RAIL JOINT method of recording the results of the qualification
WELDING. tests. Usually the method requires completing a form
covering qualifications, issuing a certificate, and filing
TRAINING these records with the employer.
Training is essential to the production of quality No two codes are exactly alike with respect to the
welds and weldments in all processes. The American provisions for qualifying welding operators, so it nec-
Welding Society offers materials for use in training essary, when seeking detailed information as to the
courses for welding personnel. types of tests required and the method of test super-
AWS document EG2.0, Guide for the Training and vision, to consult the specific code or specification
Qualification of Welding Personnel: Entry Level governing the particular type of work to be done.
Welder, provides a complete curriculum for training
welders to Entry Level (Level I) requirements. The TRANSFERREDARC
curriculum is based on a needs analysis from 800 A plasma arc established between the electrode of
responses to a survey conducted in the United States. the plasma arc torch and the workpiece. See STAN-
AWS/ANSI EG3.O and EG4.0 cover qualifications DARD WELDING TERMS.
for Level I1 (Advanced) welders and Level I11 (Expert)
welders, respectively. These documents are available TRANSFER OF WELD METAL
from the American Welding Society. Interested per- Molten metal produced at the tip or end of a con-
sons should contact the American Welding Society, sumable arc welding electrode transfers to the work-
558 TRANSFORMER Welding Encyclopedia
Table T-11
ecifications for Welded or Brazed Products
rformance or Procedure Qualification
Designation Title
piece and weld pool by one of three major modes: (1) cuits joined together by a magnetic circuit formed in
globular, (2) spray, (3) and short-circuiting.Transfer an iron core.
under pulsed current operation is often considered to
constitute a fourth mode called pulsed transfer, but TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
there is actually no difference in mode, but only in the The power delivered by a transformer (output)
current at which the globular mode makes transitions divided by the power input to it.
to the spray mode.
TRANSFORMER WELDING MACHINE
The various metal transfer modes are important An alternating-current arc welding machine.
because they change the amount of heat carried to the
workpiece and weld pool, and thus the deposition rate, TRANSVERSE BEND SPECIMEN
and greatly affect control of the molten weld pool in See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See a h TRANS-
out-of-position welding. For example, welding over- VERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN.
head is facilitated by short-circuiting transfer, where
capillary attraction helps overcome the effects of grav- TRANSVERSECRACK
ity on the molten metal. The physics underlying each A crack with its major axis oriented approximately
mode are covered in the Welding Handbook, 8th Edi- perpendicular to the weld axis. See STANDARD WELD-
tion, Volume 1: Miami, Florida: American Welding ING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
Society, 1989.
TRANSVERSE SEAM WELDING
See also GLOBULAR METAL TRANSFER, SPRAY
A seam weld made in a direction essentially at a
TRANSFER, Arc Welding, and SHORT CIRCUITING
right angle to the throat depth of a seam welding
TRANSFER.
machine.
TRANSFORMER TRANSVERSE TENSION SPECIMEN
A device used to change alternating current from See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRANS-
one voltage to another. It consists of two electrical cir- VERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN.
Welding Encyclopedia TRAVEL START DELAY TIME 559
TRANSVERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN at its point of intersection with the extension of the
A weld test specimen with its major axis perpendic- electrode axis, in a plane determined by the electrode
ular to the weld axis. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. axis and a line tangent to the pipe sugace at the
See also LONGITUDINAL WELD TEST SPECIMEN. same point. This angle can also be used to partially
define the position of guns, torches, rods, and beams.
TRAVEL ANGLE See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure T-19.
The angle less than 90 degrees between the elec- See also DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE, and WORK
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis, in ANGLE.
a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld
axis. This angle can also be used to partially define the TRAVEL SPEED
position of guns, torches, rods, and beams. See STAN-
Rate of weld progression.
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure T-18. See also
DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE, and WORK ANGLE.
TRAVEL START DELAY TIME
TRAVEL ANGLE, Pipe The time interval from arc initiation to the start of
The angle less than 90 degrees between the elec- the torch, gun, or workpiece travel. See STANDARD
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19.
,i TANGENT LINE
1 ] PROGRESSION
PIPE WELD
Figure T-19-Position of Electrode, Gun, Torch, Rod, or Beam for Pipe Welding
TRAVEL STOP DELAY TIME (160F). At this temperature, the solution is active but
The time interval from beginning of downslope time there is negligible change in concentration because of
or crater fill time to shut-off of torch, gun, or work- evaporation.
piece travel. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See The principal defects which may appear in the
Appendix 19. etched specimen (as noted in both the API and ASME
codes) are lack of fusion, slag inclusions, gas pockets,
TREPANNING cracks and undercutting.
A mechanical process for removing a specimen
from a welded seam so that the weld metal may be TROOSITE
examined. The specimen, or plug, should include the A micro constituent of hardened or hardened-and-
entire width of the weld seam and enough of the adja- tempered steel, which etches rapidly and therefore
cent parent metal to allow observation of the degree usually appears as a dark substance. It consists of a
of fusion. The plug is cut with a circular saw which very fine aggregate of ferrite cementite and is not visi-
has a pilot (drill) in the center. An electric drill, pneu- ble with the unaided eye. It can be viewed using a
matic motor, or drill press may be used to drive the high-powered microscope. Troosite usually occurs in
trepan. rounded or nodular form. See METALLURGY.
The trepanned plug is usually polished to a bright,
smooth finish and then etched. A satisfactory etching TRUE RESISTANCE
reagent for steel specimens is a 50% solution of Actual resistance measured in ohms as compared to
hydrochloric acid used at a temperature: of 70C counter-electromotive force.
Welding Encyclopedia TUBE TESTING 561
E-
HYDRAULIC PUMP
GAGE 7 v
Figure T-21-Hydraulic Pump Used for Testing Welded Tubing or Small Cylinders
Welding Encyclopedia TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE 563
Table T-I 2
Color Code and Alloying Elements for Various Tungsten Electrode Alloys
Nominal Weight or Alloying
AWS Classification Colora Alloying Element Alloying Oxide Oxide Percent
EWP Green - - -
EWCe-2 Orange Cerium Ce02 2
EWLa-1 Black Lanthanum La203 1
EWTh-1 Yellow Thorium Tho, 1
EWTh-2 Red Thorium Tho2 2
EWZr-I Brown Zirconium Zr02 .25
EWG Gray Not Specifiedb -
a. Color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc., at any point on the surface of the electrode.
b. Manufacturer must identify the type and nominal content of the rare earth oxide addition.
564 TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE Welding Encyclopedia
(0.010 in.) diameter electrode is kO.025 mm considered before selecting an electrode for a specific
(kO.001 in.); for the 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) e1e:ctrode it is application.
k0.05 mm (k0.002in.). All of the other sjlzes have a All tungsten electrodes will do a welding job and
diameter tolerance of k0.08 mm (k0.003 in.). may be used in a similar manner. However, each elec-
Electrodes are available in 75, 150, 1801,300, 450, trode classification contributes distinct advantages to
and 600 mm (3, 6, 7, 12, 18, and 24 in.) lengths, with operating characteristics and usability. For this reason,
the three shorter lengths having a k1.6 mm (+1/16 in.) electrode selection must take into account the advan-
tolerance, while the three longer electrodes must be tages of one classification of electrodes over another.
Pure tungsten electrodes (EWP) are generally used
within k3.2 mm (+1/8 in.) of the specified length. The
with alternating current, either balanced wave or
0.25 mm (0.010 in.) diameter electrode is also avail-
continuous high-frequency stabilized. The current-
able in coil form.
carrying capacity of pure tungsten is lower than that of
Tungsten Electrode Selection alloy tungsten electrodes.
There are many factors to be considered when Pure tungsten electrodes have reasonably good
selecting proper tungsten electrodes for gas tungsten resistance to contamination and maintain a balled end,
arc welding. Probably the most influential factor, how- which is preferred for aluminum and magnesium
ever, is the type and thickness of base metal. The capa- welding with ac.
bility of a tungsten electrode to carry welding current Tungsten electrodes alloyed with thoria (thorium
oxide), ceria (cerium oxide), lanthana (lanthanum
depends on the tungsten alloy used, the electrode
oxide), or zirconia (zirconium oxide) are available
diameter, the type and polarity of the current, and the
commercially. The addition of these oxides makes arc
extension of the electrode beyond the collet (the sleeve
starting easier and produces a more stable arc. Alloyed
or tube which holds the electrode). tungsten electrodes also have about a 50% greater cur-
An electrode of a given size will have its greatest rent-carrying capacity for the same diameter pure
current-cawing capacity with direct current, straight tungsten electrode. The alloyed electrodes (except
polarity (DCEN); less with alternating current, and zirconiated) are designed basically for direct current
still less with direct current, reverse polarity (DCEP). (DCEN) welding applications. They can be used on
Table T-13 lists some of the typical current values alternating current welding, but considerable difficulty
which may be used with argon gas shielding. There is experienced in maintaining a satisfactory "balled"
are, however, other factors which should be carefully end.
Table T-13
Recommended Tungsten Electrodesaand Gas Cups for Various Welding Currents
Electrode Diameter Direct Current, A Alternating Current, A
Use Gas
Cup I.D., Straight Polarityb, Reverse Polarityb, Unbalanced Balanced
mm in. in. DCEN DCEP WaveC WaveC
Zirconium alloyed tungsten (EWZr) is ideal for a-c or seldom-used process. See STANDARD WELDING
welding applications because of its high resistance to TERMS.
contamination, as well as good arc starting characteris-
tics. These electrodes are highly recommended for TWIN CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW-T)
those welding conditions where minute quantities of A carbon arc welding process variation that uses an
any type of foreign matter in the weld are intolerable. arc between two carbon electrodes and no shielding.
Zirconium electrodes are used for the welding of alu- See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
minum and magnesium. Pure tungsten or zirconium-
tungsten electrodes form a hemispherical or balled TWIN-POINT WELDING
end as used. If welding conditions are right, the balled A spot welding process employing two electrodes
end should be clean, shiny, and as reflective as a mir- and a shunt bar so that two welds may be made at one
rored surface. time. This setup is used in push-pull welding, and is
The primary advantage of the tungsten electrode is sometimes referred to as series spot welding.
a high melting point to prevent contamination of the
weld. Melting occurs when the electrode is overheated 2F, Pipe
by excessive welding currents. For the most satisfac- A welding test position designation for a circumfer-
tory welding operations, electrode temperatures entialfillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis
should approach the melting point but not exceed it. approximately vertical, in which the weld is made in
After the classification of electrode is selected, the size the horizontal welding position. See STANDARD WELD-
of the electrode is selected. Usually, the electrode size ING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
selected is near the maximum current range for the
particular electrode and type of job. If this is the case, 2F, Plate
the following must be considered: too small an elec- A welding test position designationfor a linearfillet
trode may result in the molten tip falling off to con- weld applied to a joint in which the weld is made in the
taminate the weld, and too large an electrode will horizontal welding position. See STANDARD WELDING
produce an arc that will become difficult to control. If TERMS. See Appendix 4.
the current is correct for the welding operation, the
electrode will have a hemispherical end. If the current 2FR
is too high, a ball will form on the end of the elec- A welding test position designation for a circumfer-
trode. If the diameter of this ball exceeds the diame- entialfillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis
ter of the electrode by 1- 1/2 times, there is a likelihood approximately horizontal, in which the weld is made in
that it will drop off to contaminate the weld. For this the horizontal welding position by rotating the pipe
reason, the welding current should be reduced when about its axis. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
these conditions become apparent. See GAS TUNGSTEN Appendix 4.
ARC WELDING.
2G, Pipe
T-WELD A welding test position designation for a circumfer-
A weld in which one plate is welded vertically to ential groove weld applied to a joint in a pipe, with its
another, as in the case of the edge of a transverse bulk- axis approximately vertical, in which the weld is made
head being welded against the shell plating or deck. in the horizontal welding position. See STANDARD
This is a weld which in all cases requires exceptional WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
care, and can only be used where it is possible to work
from both sides of the vertical plate. A T-weld is also 2G, Plate
used for welding a rod in a vertical position to a flat A welding test position designation for a linear
surface, such as the rung of a ladder, or a plate welded groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
vertically to a pipe stanchion, as in the case of water made in the horizontal welding position. See STAN-
closet stalls. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
The titanium wing boxeson these F-14 fighter planes were welded with
the electron beam processat the
Grumman plant in Bethpage, New York
U-BEND mined, and in some cases, the approximate size of the
See BEND TEST. discontinuity can be determined.
Advantages
U-GROOVE WELD
The principal advantages of UT compared to other
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING NDT methods are the following:
TERMS. See Appendix 6.
(1) Discontinuities in thick sections can be detected.
ULTRASONICCOUPLER, Ultrasonic Soldering and (2) Relatively high sensitivity to small discontinui-
Ultrasonic Welding ties is exhibited.
Elements through which ultrasonic vibration is (3) Depth of internal discontinuities can be
transmitted from the transducer to the tip. See STAN- determined; size and shape of discontinuities can be
DARD WELDING TERMS. estimated.
(4) Adequate inspections can be made from one
ULTRASONICSOLDERING (USS) surface.
A soldering process variation in which high-fre- ( 5 ) Equipment can be moved to the job site.
quency vibratory energy is transmitted through molten (6) Process is nonhazardous to personnel or other
solder to remove undesirable surface films and thereby equipment.
promote wetting of the base metal. This operation is Limitations
usually accomplished without flux. See STANDARD The following limitations apply to ultrasonic
WELDING TERMS. testing:
(1) Set-up and operation require trained and
ULTRASONICTESTING (UT)
experienced technicians, especially for manual
A nondestructive test (NDT) method in which examinations.
beams of high-frequency sound waves are introduced (2) Weldments that are rough, irregular in shape,
into a test object to detect and locate internal disconti- very small, or thin are difficult or impossible to
nuities. A sound beam is directed into the test object inspect; this includes fillet welds.
on a predictable path, and is reflected at interfaces or (3) Discontinuities at the surface are difficult to
other interruptions in material continuity. The
detect.
reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the
(4)A coupler is needed between the sound trans-
presence and location of discontinuities.
ducers and the weldment to transmit the ultrasonic
The detection, location and evaluation of disconti- wave energy.
nuities is possible because (1) the velocity of sound
through a given material is nearly constant, making
( 5 ) Reference standards are required to calibrate the
equipment and to evaluate the size of discontinuities.
distance measurements possible, and (2) the amplitude
of the reflected sound pulse is nearly proportional to (6) Reference standards should describe the item to
the size of the reflected discontinuity. be examined with respect to design, material specifica-
tions, and heat treatment condition.
Ultrasound wave is electronically collected and pre-
sented on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen for evalua- Equipment
tion by a qualified and certified ultrasound technician. A block diagram of a pulse-echo flaw detector is
Ultrasonic testing can be used to detect cracks, lam- shown in Figure U-1. Most ultrasonic testing systems
inations, shrinkage cavities, pores, slag inclusions, use the following basic components:
incomplete fusion or bonding, incomplete joint pene- (1) An electronic signal generator (pulser) that pro-
tration, and other discontinuities in weldments and duces bursts of alternating voltage.
brazements. With proper techniques, the approximate (2) A sending transducer that emits a beam of ultra-
position and depth of the discontinuity can be deter- sonic waves when alternating voltage is applied.
567
568 ULTRASONICTESTING (UT) Welding Encyclopedia
SWEEP DELAY
SWEEP LENGTH
SCREEN DISPLAY
TRANSDUCER
The sound wave frequencies used are between 1 (4) A receiving transducer to convert the sound
and 6 MHz, which are beyond the audible range. Most waves to alternating voltage. This transducer may be
weld testing is performed at 2.25 MHz. Higher fre- combined with the sending transducer.
quencies, Le., 5 MHz, will produce small, sharp sound ( 5 ) An electronic device to amplify and demodulate
beams useful in locating and evaluating discontinuities or otherwise change the signal from the receiving
in thin wall weldments. transducer.
(3) A coupler to transmit the ultrasonic energy from (6) A display or indicating device to characterize or
the transducer to the test piece and vice versa. record the output from the test piece.
,
Welding Encyclopedia ULTRASONIC TESTING (UTI 569
(7) An electronic timer to control the operation. must be similar in acoustic qualities to the metal being
There are three basic modes of propagating sound tested.
through metals: longitudinal, (sometimes called The International Institute of Welding (IIW) test
straight or compressional), transverse (also called block is widely used as a calibration block for ultra-
shear wave), and surface waves (sometimes referred to sonic testing of steel welds. This block and other test
as Rayleigh waves). In the longitudinal and transverse blocks are used to calibrate an instrument for sensitiv-
modes, waves are propagated by the displacement of ity, resolution, linearity, angle of sound propagation,
successive atoms or molecules in the metal. and distance and gain calibrations.
Longitudinal wave ultrasound is generally limited Standard test blocks are shown in ASTM E164,
in use to detecting inclusions and lamellar-type dis- Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Exarnina-
continuities in base metal. Transverse wave ultrasound tion of Weldrnents, latest edition, West Conshohocken,
is most valuable in the detection of weld discontinui- Pennsylvania: American Society for Testing and
ties because of its ability to furnish three-dimensional Materials.
coordinates for discontinuity locations, orientations, Test Procedures. Most ultrasonic testing of welds is
and characteristics. The sensitivity of shear waves is done following a specific code or procedure. An
also about double that of longitudinal waves for the example of such a procedure is that contained in AWS
same frequency and search unit size. D1.I, Structural Welding Code-Steel for testing
The zones in the base metal adjacent to a weld groove welds in structures.
should be tested with longitudinal waves first, to ASTM E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
ensure that the base metal does not contain discontinu- Contact Examination of Weldments covers examina-
ities that would interfere with shear wave evaluation tion of specific weld configurations in wrought ferrous
of the weld. and aluminum alloys to detect weld discontinuities.
In the third mode, surface waves are propagated Procedures for calibrating the equipment and appropri-
along the metal surface, similar to waves on the sur- ate calibration blocks are included. Other ASTM stan-
face of water. These surface waves have little move- dards cover testing procedures with various ultrasonic
ment below the surface of a metal, therefore they are inspection methods for inspection of pipe and tubing.
not used for examination of welded and brazed joints. Procedures for UT of boiler and pressure vessel
Coupling. A liquid material is used for transmission components are given in ASME Boiler and Pressure
of ultrasonic waves into the test object. Some of the Vessel Code, Section V Nondestructive Examination.
more common coupling agents are water, light oil, Section XI, Insewice Inspection Requirements for
glycerine, and cellulose gum powder mixed with Nuclear Power Plants, gives methods for locating, siz-
water. ing, and evaluating discontinuities for continuing ser-
A weldment must be smooth and flat to allow inti- vice life and fracture mechanics analysis.
mate coupling. Weld spatter, slag, and other irregulari- Operator Qualifications. The reliability of ultrasonic
ties should be removed. Depending on the testing examination depends greatly on the interpretive ability
technique, it may be necessary to remove the weld of the ultrasonic testing technician. In general, UT
reinforcement. requires more training and experience than the other
Calibration. Ultrasonic testing is basically a compar- nondestructive testing methods, with the possible
ative evaluation. The horizontal (time) and the vertical exception of radiographic testing. Many critical vari-
(amplitude) dimensions on the CRT screen of the test ables are controlled by the operators. For this reason,
unit are related to distance and size, respectively. It is most standards require ultrasonic technicians to meet
necessary to establish a zero starting point for these the requirements of ASNT-TC- 1A, Personnel Qual$-
variables, and to calibrate an ultrasonic unit to a basic cation and Certification in Nondestructive Testing.
standard before use. Reporting. Careful tabulation of information in a
Various test blocks are used to assist in calibration report form is necessary for a meaningful test. Report-
of the equipment. Known reflecting areas can simulate ing requirements are included in ANSUAWS D1.1,
typical discontinuities. Notches substitute for surface Structural Welding Code-Steel. The welding inspec-
cracks, side-drilled holes for slag inclusions or internal tor should be familiar with the kinds of data that must
cracks, and angulated flat-bottomed holes for small be recorded and evaluated so that a satisfactory deter-
areas of incomplete fusion. The test block material mination of weld quality can be obtained. Standards
570 ULTRASONICWELDING (USW) Welding Encyclopedia
FORCE
Figure UB-Wedge-Reed
System
Ultrasonic Spot Welding
in Figure U-2. The sonotrode tip is the component that
directly contacts one of the workpieces and transmits
the vibratory energy into it. (The sonotrode is the industries, for fabricating small motor armatures, in
acoustical equivalent of the electrode and its holder the manufacture of aluminum foil, and in the assembly
used in resistance spot or seam welding). The clamp- of aluminum components. It is receiving acceptance as
ing force is applied through at least part of the a structural joining method by the automotive and
sonotrode, which in this case is the reed member. The aerospace industries. The process is uniquely useful
anvil supports the weldment and opposes the clamping for encapsulating materials such as explosives, pyro-
force. technics, and reactive chemicals that require hermetic
Applications sealing but cannot be processed by high-temperature
Ultrasonic welding is used to join both monometal- joining methods.
lic and bimetallic joints. The process is used to pro- The most important application of the USW process
duce lap joints between metal sheets or foils, between is the assembly of miniaturized electronics compo-
wires or ribbons and flat surfaces, between crossed or nents. Fine aluminum and gold lead wires are attached
parallel wires, and for joining other types of assem- to transistors, diodes, and other semiconductor
blies that can be supported on the anvil. devices. Wires and ribbons are bonded to thin films
This process is being used as a production tool in and microminiaturized circuits. Diode and transistor
the semiconductor, microcircuit, and electrioal contact chips are mounted directly on substrates. Reliable
Welding Encyclopedia ULTRASONICWELDING (USW) 571
joints with low electrical resistance are produced together under pressure between the sonotrode tip and
without contamination or thermal distortion of the the anvil face. The tip vibrates in a plane essentially
components. parallel to the plane of the weld interface, perpendicu-
Electrical connections, both single and stranded lar to the axis of static force application. Spot welds
wires, can be joined to other wires and to terminals. between sheets are roughly elliptical in shape at the
The joints are frequently made through anodized coat- interface. They can be overlapped to produce an essen-
ings on aluminum, or through certain types of electri- tially continuous weld joint. This type of seam may
cal insulation. Other current carrying devices, such as contain as few as 2 to 4 welds/cm (5 to 10 welds/
electric motors, field coils, harnesses, transformers in.). Closer weld spacing may be necessary if a leak-
and capacitors may be assembled with ultrasonically tight joint is required.
welded connections. Ring Welding. Ring welding produces a closed loop
Broken and random lengths of aluminum foil are weld which is usually circular in form but may also be
welded in continuous seams by foil rolling mills, with square, rectangular or oval. In this variation, the
almost undetectable splices after subsequent working sonotrode tip is hollow, and the tip face is contoured to
operations. Aluminum and copper sheet up to about the shape of the desired weld. The tip is vibrated tor-
0.5 mm (0.020 in.) can be spliced together using spe- sionally in a plane parallel to the weld interface. The
cial processing and equipment. weld is completed in a single, brief weld cycle.
In structural applications, USW produces joints of Line Welding. Line welding is a variation of spot
high integrity within the limitations of weldable sheet welding in which the workpieces are clamped between
thickness. An example is the assembly of a helicopter an anvil and a linear sonotrode tip. The tip is oscillated
access door, in which inner and outer skins of alumi- parallel to the plane of the weld interface and perpen-
num alloy are joined by multiple ultrasonic spot welds. dicular to both the weld line and the direction of
Ultrasonic welding has reduced fabrication costs for applied static force. The result is a narrow linear weld,
some solar energy conversion and collection systems. which can be up to 150 mm (6 in.) long, produced in a
An ultrasonic seam welding machine, operating at single weld cycle.
speeds up to 9 d m i n (30 ft/min), joins all connectors
in a single row in a fraction of the time require for Continuous Seam Welding. In this variation, joints
hand soldering or individual spot welding. Solar col- are produced between workpieces that are passed
lectors for hot water heating systems consisting of between a rotating, disk-shaped sonotrode tip and a
copper or aluminum tubing can be welded at signifi- roller type or flat anvil. The tip may traverse the work
cantly lower energy cost than soldering, resistance while it is supported on a fixed anvil, or the work may
spot welding, or roll welding. be moved between the tip and a counter-rotating or
Other applications include continuous seam weld- traversing anvil. Area bonds may be produced by
ing to assemble components of corrugated heat overlapping seam welds.
exchangers, and welding strainer screens without clog- The flow of energy through an ultrasonic welding
ging the holes. Beryllium foil windows for space radi- system begins with the introduction of 60 Hz electrical
ation counters have been ring welded to stainless steel power into a frequency converter. This device converts
frames to provide a helium leak-tight bond. Pinch-off the applied frequency to that required for the welding
weld closures in copper and aluminum tubing used in system, which is usually in the range of 10 to 75 kHz.
refrigeration and air conditioning are produced with The high-frequency electrical energy is conducted to
special serrated bar tips and anvils. one or more transducers in the welding system, where
it is converted to mechanical vibratory energy of the
Process Variations
same frequency. The vibratory energy is transmitted
There are four variations of the process, based on through the sonotrode and sonotrode tip into the work-
the type of weld produced. These are spot, ring, line piece. Some of the energy passes through the weld
and continuous seam welding. In addition, two zone and dissipates in the anvil support structure.
variants of ultrasonic spot welding are used in micro- For practical usage, the power required for welding
electronics. is usually measured in terms of the high-frequency
Spot Welding. In spot welding, individual weld electrical power delivered to the transducer. This
spots are produced by the momentary introduction of power can be monitored continuously and provides a
vibratory energy into the workpieces as they are held reliable average value to associate with equipment
572 ULTRA-SPEEDWELDING Welding Encyclopedia
welding positions, particularly on joints with restricted the work. This feature is essential for underwater work
access. because of poor visibility and reduced operator mobil-
Undercut of the sidewalls of a weld groove will in ity caused by cumbersome diving suits. Slots in the
no way affect the completed weld if the undercut is shield allow the burned gases to escape. A short torch
removed before the next bead is deposited at that loca- is used to reduce the reaction force produced by the
tion. A well-rounded chipping tool or grinding wheel compressed air and cutting oxygen pushing against the
will be required to remove the undercut. If the under- surrounding water.
cut is slight, however, an experienced welder who Gases. As the depth of water at which the cutting is
knows just how deep the arc will penetrate may not being done increases, the gas pressures must be
need to remove the undercut. increased to overcome both the added water pressure
The amount of undercut permitted in a completed and the frictional losses in the longer hoses. Approxi-
weld is usually dictated by the fabrication code being mately 3.5 kPa (1/2 psi) for each 300 mm (12 in.) of
used, and the requirements specified should be fol- depth must be added to the basic gas pressure require-
lowed because excessive undercut can materially ments used in air for the thickness being cut.
reduce the strength of the joint. This is particularly Methylacetylene-propadiene (MPS), propylene, and
true in applications subject to fatigue. Fortunately, this hydrogen are the best all-purpose preheat gases,
type of undercut can be detected by visual examina- because they can be used at any depths to which divers
tion of the completed weld, and it can be corrected by can descend and perform satisfactorily. Acetylene
blend grinding or depositing an additional bead. . must not be used at depths greater than approximately
6 m (20 ft), because its maximum safe operating pres-
UNDERFILL sure is 100 kPa (15 psi).
A condition in which the weld face or root su$ace No great difficulty is experienced in underwater sev-
extends below the adjacent sur$ace of the base metal. ering of steel plate in thicknesses from 13 mm (1/2 in.)
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8. to approximately 101 mm (4 in.) with the oxyfuel gas
cutting torch. Under 13 mm (1/2 in.) thickness, the con-
UNDERWATER CUTTING stant quenching effect of the surrounding water lowers
Underwater cutting is used for salvage work and for the efficiency of preheating. This requires much larger
cutting below the water surface on piers, dry docks, preheating flames and preheat gas flows. Cutting oxy-
and ships. The two methods most widely used are oxy- gen orifice size is considerably larger for underwater
fuel gas cutting (OFC) and oxygen arc cutting (AOC). cutting than for cutting in air. A special apparatus for
Technique. The technique for underwater cutting lighting the preheat flames under water is also needed.
with OFC is not materially different from that used in Oxygen Lance Cutting (LOC)
cutting steel in open air. An underwater OFC torch The LOC process can also be used underwater. The
embodies the same features as a standard OFC torch lance must be lighted before it is placed underwater;
with the additional feature of supplying its own ambi- then piercing proceeds essentially the same as in air.
ent atmosphere. In the underwater cutting torch, fuel The process produces a violent bubbling action which
and oxygen are mixed together and burned to produce can restrict visibility.
the preheat flame. Cutting oxygen is provided through Oxygen Arc Cutting (AOC)
the tip to sever the steel. In addition, the torch provides
This is another underwater cutting process used to
an air bubble around the cutting tip. The air bubble is
cut ferrous and nonferrous metals in any position.
maintained by a flow of compressed air around the tip.
Underwater electrodes for AOC are steel tubes with a
The air shield stabilizes the preheat flame and at the
waterproof coating. A fully insulated electrode holder
same time displaces the water from the cutting area.
equipped with a suitable flash-back arrester is
Special Equipment. The underwater cutting torch required. See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, OXYGEN LANCE
has connections for three hoses to supply compressed CUTTING, and OXYGEN ARC CUTTING.
air, fuel gas, and oxygen. A combination shield and
spacer device is attached at the cutting end of the UNDERWATER WELDING
torch. The adjustable shield controls the formation of Underwater welding (wet welding) is described as
the air bubble. The shield is adjusted so that the pre- welding at ambient pressure with the weldeddiver in
heat flame is positioned at the correct distance from the water with no physical barrier between the water
574 UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES,INC. Weldinn Encyclopedia
and the welding arc. Although it is a complex metal- Code (BPVCI) covers unfired pressure vessels. These
lurgical process, wet welding closely resembles weld- include towers, reactors and other oil and chemical
I
ing in air in that the welding arc and molten metal are refining vessels, heat exchangers for refineries, paper
shielded from the environment (water or dir) by gas mills, and other process industries, as well as storage
and slag produced by decomposition of dux coated tanks for large and small air and gas compressors. See
electrodes or flux cored wire. Underwater dry welding BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE.
is done at ambient pressure in a chamber from which
water has been displaced. Depending on the size and UNIDIRECTIONALCURRENT
configuration of the chamber, the weldeddiver may be An electrical current that flows in one direction
completely in the chamber, or only partially in the only.
chamber, and may work in conventional welders
attire, dive gear, or a combination of both. UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (UNS)
Underwater welding has been used during the A method for cross referencing the different num-
installation of new offshore drilling structures, sub-sea bering systems used to identify metals, alloys, and
pipelines and hot taps, docks and harbor facilities, and
welding filler metals. With UNS, it is possible to cor-
for modifications and additions to underwater struc-
relate over 4400 metals and alloys used in a variety of
tures. However, underwater welding is most often
specifications, regardless of the identifying number
required for repairs to existing structures. Maintenance
used by a society, trade association, producer, or user.
and repair applications include:
(1) Replacement of damaged sub-sea pipeline sec- UNS is produced jointly by the Society of Automo-
tions and pipeline manifolds tive Engineers (SAE) and the American Society for
(2) Replacement of structural members damaged by Testing and Materials (ASTM). It cross references the
corrosion and fatigue numbered metal and alloy designations of the major
organizations and systems, including Federal and mili-
(3) Damage occurring during installation, boat col-
lisions, or other accidental damage. tary. Over 500 of the listed numbers are for welding
and brazing filler metals that are classified by depos-
Specifications for underwater welding are pub-
lished by American Welding Society, Miami, Florida; ited metal composition. See Table U- 1.
in ANSUAWS D3.6-93, Specification for Underwater
Welding. UNIONMELT WELDING
See SUBMERGED ARC WELDING.
UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES, INC.
A not-for-profit organization chartered to maintain UNIPHASE
and operate product and safety certification programs. A single-phase alternating current.
See Appendix 2.
Underwriters Laboratories carries out safety exami- UNMIXED ZONE
nation and testing of devices, systems, and materials A thin boundary layer of weld metal, adjacent to the
against reasonably foreseeable risks. Success in the weld interface, that solidified without mixing with the
testing results in a UL label. Founded in 1894, UL rep- remaining weld metal. See STANDARD WELDING
resentatives make unannounced visits to factories TERMS. See also MIXED ZONE.
which make products bearing the UL label to check
correct maintenance of product integrity. UPHILL, adv.
UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES STANDARDS Welding with an upward progression. See STAN-
Rules formulated by the Underwriters Laboratories DARD WELDING TERMS.
to assure the safe construction of industrial equipment,
including welding apparatus. UPSET
Bulk deformation resulting from the application of
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSELS pressure in welding. The upset may be measured as a
Unfired pressure vessels are containers for the con- percent increase in interface area, a reduction in
tainment of pressure either internal or external. Sec- length, a percent reduction in lap joint thickness, or a
tion VI11 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel reduction in cross wire weld stack height.
I
Welding Encyclopedia UPSET WELDING (UW) 575
(1) Load the machine with the parts aligned end-to- The contact resistance between the faying surfaces
end is a function of the smoothness and cleanliness of the
(2) Clamp the parts securely surfaces and the contact pressure. This resistance var-
(3) Apply a welding force ies inversely with the contact pressure, provided the
other factors are constant. As the temperature at the
(4) Initiate the welding current
joint increases, the contact resistance changes, but it
( 5 ) Apply an upset force finally becomes zero when the weld is formed. Upset
(6) Shut off the welding current welding differs from flash welding in that no flashing
(7) Release the upset force takes place at any time during the welding cycle.
(8) Unclamp the weldment Generally, force and current are maintained
(9) Retuni the movable platen and unload the throughout the entire welding cycle. The force is kept
weldment(s). low at first to promote high initial contact resistance
The general arrangement for upset welding is between the two parts. It is increased to a higher value
shown in Figure U-4. One clamping die is stationary to upset the joint when the welding temperature is
and the other is movable to accomplish upset. Upset reached. After the prescribed upset is accomplished,
force is applied through the moveable clamping die or the welding current is turned off and the force is
a mechanical backup, or both. removed.
Equipment. Equipment for upset welding is gener-
ally designed to weld a particular family of alloys,
TO WELDING such as steels, within a size range based on cross-sec-
TRANSFORMER tional area. The mechanical capacity and electrical
characteristics of the machine are matched to that
application. Special designs may be required for cer-
CLAMPING tain aluminum alloys to provide close control of the
upset force.
Electric current for heating is provided by a resis-
tance welding transformer. It converts line power to
low-voltage, high-current power. No-load secondary
voltages range from about 0.4 to 8 V. Secondary cur-
rent is controlled by a transformer tap switch or by
electronic phase shift.
Basically, an upset welding machine has two plat-
ens, one of which is stationary and the other movable.
L STATIONARY MOVABLE
PART PART The clamping dies are mounted on these platens. The
clamps operate either in straight line motion or
through an arc about an axis, depending upon the
application. Force for upset butt welding is produced
generally by a mechanical, pneumatic, or hydraulic
system.
FINISHED UPSET WELD
Heat Balance. The upset process is generally used to
Figure U-&General Arrangement for Upset
join together two pieces of the same alloy and same
Welding of Bars, Rods, and Pipes cross-sectional geometry. In this case, heat balance
should be uniform across the joint. If the parts to be
welded are similar in composition and cross section
Joint Preparation. For uniform heating, the faying but of unequal mass, the part of larger mass should
surfaces should be flat, comparatively smooth, and project from the clamping die somewhat farther than
perpendicular to the direction of the upsetting force. the other part. With dissimilar metals, the one with
Prior to welding, they should be cleaned to remove higher electrical conductivity should extend farther
any dirt, oil, oxidation, or other materials that will from the clamp than the other. When upset welding
impede welding. large parts that do not make good contact with each
Welding Encyclopedia UPSET WELDING (UW) 577
other, it is sometimes advantageous to interrupt the section, can be adjusted either manually or by phase-
welding current periodically to allow the heat to dis- shift heat control. Figure U-5 (B) shows a rotary type
tribute evenly into the parts. oil-cooled welding transformer. This welding equip-
Applications. Upset welding is used in wire mills ment includes a dressing tool assembly for dressing
and in the manufacture of products made from wire. In the welding electrodes without removing them from
wire mill applications, the process is used to join wire the welding machine, and a scarfing tool assembly that
coils to each other to facilitate continuous processing. removes the upset metal after welding. The welded
Upset welding is also used to fabricate a wide variety tube then enters the straightening and sizing section,
of products from bar, strip, and tubing stock. Wire and shown in Figure U-5 (C). Following this, the tubing is
rod from 12.7 to 31.8 mm (0.05 to 1.25 in.) diameter cut to the desired length.
can be upset welded. Welding can be done using either a-c or d-c power.
Weld Quality. Butt joints can be made that have Alternating-current machines may be operated on
about the same properties as the unwelded base metal. either 60 Hz single-phase power or on power of higher
With proper procedures, welds made in wires are diffi- frequency produced by a single-phase alternator.
cult to locate after they have passed through a subse- Direct-current machines are powered by a three-phase
quent drawing process. In many instances, the welds transformer-rectifier unit.
are then considered part of the continuous wire. Welding Procedures. As the formed tube passes
Upset welds may be evaluated by tension testing. through the zone between the electrodes and the pinch
The tensile properties are compared to those of the rolls, there is a variation in pressure across the joint. If
base metal. Metallographic and dye penetrant inspec- no heat were generated along the edges, this pressure
tion techniques are also used. would be maximum at the center of the squeeze rolls.
A common method for evaluating a butt weld in However, since heat is generated in the metal ahead of
wire is a bend test. A welded sample is clamped in a the squeeze roll center line, the metal gradually
vise with the weld interface located one wire diameter becomes plastic and the point of initial edge contact is
from the vise jaws. The sample then is bent back and slightly ahead of the squeeze roll axes. The point of
forth until it breaks in two. If the fracture is through maximum upset pressure is somewhat ahead of the
the weld interface and shows complete fusion, or if it squeeze roll centerline.
occurs outside the weld, the weld quality is considered
The current across the seam is distributed in inverse
satisfactory.
proportion to the resistance between the two elec-
Continuous Upset Butt Welding trodes. This resistance, for the most part, is the contact
In the manufacture of welded pipe or tubing by con- resistance between the edges to be welded. Pressure is
tinuous upset welding, coiled strip is fed into a set of effective in reducing this contact resistance. As the
forming rolls. These rolls progressively form the strip temperature of the joint increases, the electrical resis-
into a cylindrical shape. The edges to be joined tance will increase and the pressure will decrease. A
approach each other at an angle and culminate in a very sharp thermal gradient caused by the resistance
longitudinal V at the point of welding. A wheel elec- heating at the peaks of the a-c cycle produces a stitch
trode contacts each edge of the tube a short distance effect. The stitch is normally of circular cross section,
from the apex of the V. Current from the power source lying centrally in the weld area and parallel to the line
travels from one electrode along the adjacent edge to of initial closure of the seam edges. It is the hottest
the apex, where welding is taking place, and then back portion of the weld. The stitch area is molten while the
along the other edge to the second electrode. The area between stitches is at a lower temperature. The
edges are resistance-heated to welding temperature by patches of molten metal are relatively free to flow
this current. The hot edges are then upset together by a under the influence of the motor forces (current and
set of pinch rolls to accomplish the weld. magnetic flux) acting on them. Consequently, they are
Equipment. Figure U-5 shows a typical tube mill ejected from the stitch area. If the welding heat is
that uses upset welding to join the longitudinal seam. excessive, too much metal is ejected and pinhole leaks
Figure U-5 (A) shows the steel strip entering the strip may result. With too little heat, the individual stitches
guide assembly and the first stages of the forming sec- will not overlap sufficiently, resulting in an interrupted
tion. The heat regulator, located behind the forming weld.
578 UPSLOPE TIME Welding Encyclopedia
UPSLOPE TIME
See AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING UPSLOPE TIME and
RESISTANCE WELDING UPSLOPE TIME.
der is pyrophoricand
care
must be exercisedto USABILITY
prevent fires. Atomicnumber, 92; atomic weight, A measure of the relative ease of application of a
238.07; meltingpoint1132C(2070'F).Uranium is weldingfiller metal to make a sound weld. See STAN-
usedprincipallyinnuclearapplicationsandresearch. DARD WELDING TERMS.
Ultrasonic testing of a weld section introduces beams of high-frequency sound waves into the weld
to
detect and locate internal discontinuities
580 Welding
Welders set upto weld endsof rails using the electrogas process. Thermite
W ~ I U I I is
I ~ also used to
provide continuous-welded railroad tracks.
VACUUM BRAZING above 316C (600F), which is detrimental to their
A nonstandard term for various brazing processes mechanical and corrosion resistant properties.
that take place in a chamber or retort below atmo- For gas tungsten arc welding, the vacuum chamber is
spheric pressure. a pressure-tight vessel in which the work, GTAW torch,
fixtures and power leads can be installed and which can
VACUUM CHAMBER be evacuated to a range of 0.1 to 5 microns, then
A container voided of air and other matter to pro- refilled with helium or argon at atmospheric pressure.
vide a controlled atmosphere in which highly reactive The vacuum chamber atmosphere can be further
metals such as titanium, zirconium and tantalum are purified of residual air (due to insufficient pump-down
welded. Various welding processes, such as electron or leakage during refilling) by holding an arc for sev-
beam welding, diffusion bonding and welding, and eral minutes on a scrap piece of the alloy to be welded.
furnace brazing are performed in a vacuum. The operation is halted when weld beads free of dis-
A vacuum chamber, sometimes called a dry box, coloration are observed.
is evacuated by a pumping system. The chamber pro- Helium, argon, or a mixture of the two may be used
vides a completely sealed enclosure which allows a as a shielding gas. The most important consideration
wide visual range so that all stages of the welding in the choice between argon and helium as an inert gas
operation can be observed. It may also provide access for welding is their individual arc characteristics. The
ports for placing or removing parts without contami- normal GTAW welding voltage in an argon atmo-
nating the atmosphere, and remote control devices to sphere is from 10 to 12 volts direct current electrode
manipulate the weldment. Refinements of the system negative (DCEN), and 16 to 20 volts in helium. These
can allow placement of parts in all positions, multiple values are for similar arc lengths.
glove openings, automatic gas controls, and other For this reason, when all other variables are held
accessories and equipment specific to the particular constant and equal, power input is greater with helium
manufacturing requirement. at the same welding current. It is difficult to strike an
arc in helium at less than 30 amperes, whereas an arc
Applications. The nuclear power and the aerospace
can be initiated in argon at 10 amperes. For this rea-
industries have applications for controlled-atmosphere son, it is generally necessary to use argon on thin
welding systems. Extreme corrosion problems materials to prevent excessive penetration or burn-
encountered in the nuclear industry and the need for through.
materials with low neutron absorption characteristics The most common vacuum chamber is a cylindrical
create numerous applications in which such materials vessel with removable plates for loading, and for
as zirconium and zircaloy-2 must be welded under access to the operators protective gloves extended
ideal conditions. inside. Specifications for construction of the vessel
A demand for materials with high strength-to- require that it have the capability to withstand vacu-
weight ratios and the capability to retain strength at ums in the order of lo4 mm of mercury. As an alter-
high temperatures, such as titanium and beryllium, has nate to a steel vessel, rigid or flexible plastic
similarly directed aircraft manufacturers to controlled- containers have been used successfully.
atmosphere welding. While normal design procedures for GTAW can be
A basic controlled atmosphere system is comprised followed, preference should be given those avoiding
of a vacuum chamber and pumping console, purifica- the use of filler wire to reduce possible contamination
tion trains, power supplies, travel and rotational fix- from wire surface impurities.
tures, air locks, fully automatic operational controls,
and other accessories. VACUUM PLASMA SPRAYING (VPSP)
Highly reactive metals readily absorb oxygen, A thermal spraying process variation using a
nitrogen and hydrogen when heated to temperatures plasma spraying gun confined to a stable enclosure
581
582 VACUUM TUBE Welding Encyclopedia
that is partially evacuated. See STANDARD WELDING the acetylene passes through it. The flux in a vapor
TERMS. form is picked up by the acetylene and carried through
the hose and torch to the point of welding. Vapor flux
VACUUM TUBE provides automatic fluxing and accurately regulates
A predecessor of solid state electronics. An electron the amount of flux used; it permits continuous welding
tube evacuated sufficiently high to allow electrons to without stopping to reflux the rod.
move with low interaction with remaining molecules
of air or gas. VARIABLE RESISTOR
Although they have been largely replaced by solid A resistor that can be changed or adjusted to differ-
state electronics, vacuum tubes of interest to the weld- ent values.
ing industry are the thyratron, which changes alternat-
ing current into direct current and regulates the flow, V-BLOCK
and the ignitron, which also changes high-voltage A jig made of a casting with a V-shaped notch used
alternating current into direct current. The ignitron to hold shafts or rods in alignment while they are
depends on the presence of liquid mercury inside the welded. Small jobs are facilitated by using V-blocks.
tube. Some tubes, such as the ignitron, are housed in
large tanks which have running water to cool parts of VENTILATION
the tube because of the high heats that are generated. In welding, brazing, cutting, or bonding operations,
See ELECTRONIC TUBE. a system of removing fumes, vapors, or gases from the
workplace and replacing them with fresh air. Refer to
VANADIUM ANSIJASC 2-49.1 Safety in Welding, Cutting and
(Chemical symbol: V). A rare bright white ductile Allied Processes.
metallic element usually found in nature as a com-
pound of lead or lead and copper. It is used in the pro- VERTICAL-DOWN
duction of steel to promote control of grain size and A nonstandard term for DOWNHILL.
provide corrosion resistance and hardenability. The
addition of vanadium tends to produce fine grain VERTICAL POSITION
structure during the heat treating process. Because of See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also VERTI-
this property, vanadium often eliminates the harmful CAL WELDING POSITION.
effects of overheating. Once used in armor plate, its
principal application is in high-speed steels. VERTICAL POSITION, Pipe Welding
A nonstandard term for the 2G position in pipe
VAN STONE JOINT welding.
This is a type of bolted flange pipe joint in which
the ends of the pipe are heated and flanged outward to VERTICAL WELD
form circular contacting flanges. A gasket is placed A butt or fillet weld with its linear direction vertical
between the flanged pipe ends and the bolted flanges or inclined at an angle less than 45" to the vertical;
are slipped over the flanged pipe ends and tightened to made by fusion welding.
draw the pipe ends tightly together.
VERTICAL WELDING POSITION
VALVE The welding position in which the weld axis, at
A device with a movable part which starts, stops, or the point of welding, is approximately vertical, and
regulates the flow of liquids or gases. the weld face lies in an approximately vertical plane.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4,
VALVE, HydrauIic Back-Pressure Figure C.
See WATER SEAL.
VERTICAL-UP
VAPOR FLUX A nonstandard term for UPHILL.
A flux that is brought to the oxyfuel gas torch by
passing acetylene through a liquid flux held in a dis- V-GROOVE WELD
penser. The dispenser is connected in the acetylene A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
line between the regulator and the torch so that all of TERMS. See Appendix 6.
Welding Encyclopedia VISUAL INSPECTION 583
80
60
40
25
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
CURRENT, A
Figure V-1-Typical Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a Drooping Power Source with Adjustable Open
Circuit Voltage
40 -
35
30
>
w- 25
s2
c3. 20
15
10
5 -
0 I I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
CURRENT. A
has a slightly downward (negative) slope beczluse inter- eficial for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) to
nal electrical impedance in the welding circuit causes a assist starting and to avoid electrode stubbing (sticking
I
minor voltage drop in the output. Changing that imped- in the puddle) if a welder uses too short an arc length.
ance will alter the slope of the volt-ampere curve.
Starting at point B in Figure V-2, the diagram VOLTAGE, ARC
shows that an increase or decrease in voltage to A or C The voltage across the arc; i.e., the voltage across
(5 V or 25%) produces a large change in amperage the gaseous zone of the welding arc; it varies with the
(100 A or 50%).This V-A characteristic is suitable for length of the arc.
constant-feed electrode processes, such as gas metal VOLTAGE DROP
arc, submerged arc, and flux cored arc welding, in The difference in voltage between two points in an
order to maintain a constant arc length. A slight electric circuit caused by resistance opposing the flow
change in arc length (voltage) will cause a fairly large of current.
change in welding current. This will automatically
increase or decrease the electrode melting rate to VOLTAGE, OPEN CIRCUIT
regain the desired arc length (voltage). This effect has The voltage between the terminals of the welding
been called self regulation. Adjustments are some- power source when no current is flowing in the weld-
times provided with constant-voltage power sources to ing circuit.
change or modify the slope or shape of the V-A curve.
If done with inductive devices, the dynamic character- VOLTAGE, WELDING ARC
istics will also change. The voltage measured between the electrode holder
Combined Constant-Current and Constant-Voltage and the base metal immediately adjacent to the arc. It is
Electronic controls can be designed to provide the sum of the arc-stream voltage, the cathode drop, the
either a constant-voltage or constant-current output anode drop, the drop in the electrode and the contact
from a single power source so that it can be used for a drop between the electrode holder and the electrode.
variety of welding and cutting purposes. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Electronically controlled outputs can also provide An automatic electrical control device for maintain-
output curves that are a combination of constant cur- ing a constant voltage supply to the primary of a weld-
rent and constant voltage, as shown in Figure V-3. The ing transformel: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
top part of the curve is essentially constant current;
below a certain trigger voltage, however, the curve VOLTMETER
switches to constant voltage. This type of curve is ben- An instrument which measures voltage.
2w l TRIGGER
VOLTAGE
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
CURRENT, A
WASTER PLATE
See STACK CUTTING and THERMAL CUTTlNG.
WATERGLASS
See SODIUM SILICATE.
5 87
588 WATER SEAL Welding Encyclopedia
WELDER REGISTRATION
The act of registering a welder certification or a
photostatic copy of the welder certification. See STAN
DARD WELDING TERMS.
WELD FACE
The exposed surface of a weld on the side from
which welding was done. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Figure W-3.
FACE
REINFORCEMENT
WELDER CERTIFICATION
Written verification that a welder has produced
welds meeting a prescribed standard of welder per-
formance. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
CERTIFlED WELDER,
Figure W-3-Certain Parts of a Weld
WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION
The demonstration of a welders ability to produce
welds meeting prescribed standards. See STANDARD WELD FACE UNDERFILL
WELDING TERMS. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8 ,
Welder, welding operator, and tack welder qualifi- (E) and (F). See also UNDERFILL.
cation tests determine the ability of the persons tested
to produce acceptably sound welds with the process, WELD GAUGE
materials, and procedure called for in the tests. Quali- A device designed for measuring the shape and size
fication tests are not intended to be used as a guide for of welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING ELECTRODE 591
Adequate ventilation is the key to control of fumes side and inside the container should be cleared of all
and gases in the welding environments. Natural, obstacles and hazardous materials.
mechanical, or respirator ventilation must be provided When repairing a container in place, entry of haz-
for all welding, cutting, brazing, and related opera- ardous substances released from the floor or the soil
tions. The ventilation must ensure that concentrations beneath the container must be prevented. The required
of hazardous airborne contaminants are maintained air-supplied respirators or hose masks are those
below recommended levels. These levels must be no accepted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines or other recog-
higher than the allowable levels specified by the U.S. nized agency. For more complete procedures, refer to
Occupational Safety and Health Administration or AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for the Prep-
other applicable authorities. aration for Welding and Cutting Containers that Have
Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American Weld-
Respiratory Protective Equipment. Where natural or
ing Society (latest edition). When welding or cutting
mechanical ventilation is not adequate or where pro-
inside of vessels that have held dangerous materials,
tection from toxic materials require a supplement to
the precautions for confined spaces must also be
ventilation, respiratory protective equipment must be
observed.
used. Respirators with air lines, or face masks that
give protection against all contaminants are generally Highly Toxic Materials. Certain materials which are
preferred. Air-supplied welding helmets are also avail- sometimes present in consumables, base metals, coat-
able commercially. Filter-type respirators, approved ings, or atmospheres for welding or cutting operations,
by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for metal fume, give ade- have permissible exposure limits of 1.O mg/m3 or less.
quate protection against particulate contaminants that Among such materials are the following metals and
are less toxic than lead, provided they are used and their compounds:
maintained correctly. Their general use is not recom- (1) Antimony
mended, however, because of the difficulty in assuring (2) Arsenic
proper use and maintenance. They will not protect (3) Barium
against mercury vapor, carbon monoxide, or nitrogen (4)Beryllium
dioxide. For these hazards an air line respirator, hose ( 5 ) Cadmium
mask, or gas mask is required.
(6) Chromium
Special Ventilation Situations (7) Cobalt
Welding in Confined Spaces. Special consideration (8) Copper
must be given to the safety and health of welders and (9) Lead
other workers in confined places. Gas cylinders must (10) Manganese
be located outside of the confined space to avoid pos- (11) Mercury
sible contamination of the space with leaking gases or (12) Nickel
volatile material. Welding power sources should also ( 13) Selenium
be located outside to reduce danger of engine exhaust (14) Silver
and electric shock.
(15) Vanadium
A means for removing persons quickly in case of Base metals and filler metals that may release some
emergency must be provided. Safety belts and life- of these materials as fume during welding or cutting
lines, when used, should be attached to the workers are shown in Table W-2.
body in a manner that avoids the possibility of the per-
Manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheets should
son becoming jammed in the exit. A trained helper
be consulted to determine if any of these highly toxic
should be stationed outside the confined space with a
materials are present in welding filler metals and
preplanned rescue procedure to be put into effect in
case of emergency.
fluxes being used. Material Safety Data Sheets should
be requested from suppliers. However, welding filler
Welding of Containers. Welding or cutting on the metals and fluxes are not the only source of these
outside or inside of containers or vessels that have materials. They may also be present in base metals,
held dangerous substances presents special hazards. coatings, or other sources in the work area. Radioac-
Flammable or toxic vapors may be present, or may be tive materials under Nuclear Regulatory Commission
generated by the applied heat. The immediate area out- jurisdiction require special considerations.
594 WELDING FUMES Welding Encyclopedia
Table W-2
Persons should not consume food in areas where
Possible Toxic Materials Evolved Dbring fumes that contain materials with very low allowable
Welding or Thermal Cutting exposure limits may be generated. They should also
practice good personal hygiene, such as washing
Evolved Metals or hands before touching food, to prevent ingestion of
Base or Filler Metal Their Compodpds toxic contaminants.
Carbon and low alloy Chromium, manganese, vanadium Fluorine Compounds. Fumes and gases from fluo-
steels rine compounds can be dangerous to health, and can
bum the eyes and skin on contact. Local mechanical
Stainless steels Chromium, manganese, nickel ventilation or respiratory protection must be provided
Manganese steels and Chromium, cobalt, manganese, when welding, brazing, cutting, or soldering in con-
hardfacing materials nickel, vanadium fined spaces involving fluxes, coatings, or other mate-
rial containing fluorine compounds.
High copper alloys Beryllium, chromium, copper, When such processes are employed in open spaces,
lead, nickel the need for local exhaust ventilation or respiratory
Coated or plated steel Cadmium*, chromium, copper, protection will depend upon the circumstances. Such
or copper lead, nickel, silver protection is not necessary when air samples taken in
breathing zones indicate that all fluorides are within
*When cadmium is a constituent in a filler metal, a warning label
must be affixed to the container or coil. Refer to ANSVASC
allowable limits. However, local exhaust ventilation is
249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting. New York: American Stan- always desirable for fixed-location production welding
dards Institute (latest edition). and for all production welding of stainless steels when
filler metals or fluxes containing fluorides are used.
Fumes Containing Zinc. Compounds may produce
When toxic materials are encountered as designated symptoms of nausea, dizziness, or fever (sometimes
constituents in welding, brazing or cutting operations, called metal fume fever). Welding or cutting where
special ventilation precautions must be takea to assure zinc may be present in consumables, base metals, or
that the levels of these contaminants in the atmosphere coatings should be done as described for fluorine com-
are at or below the limits allowed for human exposure. pounds.
All persons in the immediate vicinity of welding or Measurementof Exposure
cutting operations involving toxic materials must be
The American Conference of Governmental Indus-
similarly protected. Unless atmospheric tests under the
trial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the U.S. Department of
most adverse conditions establish that exposure is
Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration
within acceptable concentrations, the following pre-
(OSHA) have established allowable limits of airborne
cautions must be observed.
contaminants. They are called threshold limit values
Confined Spaces. Whenever any toxic materials are (TLVs), or permissible exposure limits (PELS).
encountered in confined space operations, local The TLV (a registered trade mark of the ACGIH) is
exhaust ventilation and respiratory protection must be the concentration of an airborne substance to which
used. most workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after
day, without adverse effect. In adapting these to the
Indoors. When any toxic materials are encountered
working environment, a TLV-TWA (Threshold Limit
in indoor operations, local exhaust (mechanical) venti-
Value-Time Weighted Average) quantity is defined.
lation must be used. When beryllium is encountered,
TLV-TWA is the time weighted average concentration
respiratory protection in addition to local exhaust ven-
for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour workweek to
tilation is essential.
which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
Outdoors. When any toxic materials are encoun- without adverse effect. TLV-TWA values should be
tered in outdoor operations, respiratory protection used as guides in the control of health hazards, and
approved by the Mine Safety and Health Association should not be interpreted as sharp lines between safe
(MSHA) the National Institute of Occupational Safety and dangerous concentrations.
and Health (NIOSH), or other approving, authority TLVs are revised annually as necessary. They may
may be required. or may not correspond to OSHA permissible exposure
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION (ASME B&PV Code) 595
limits (PEL) for the same materials. In many cases, tected from flying slag. Slag can cause serious injury if
current ACGIH values for welding materials are more it strikes a person, particularly while it is hot. It can be
stringent than OSHA levels. harmful to the eyes whether it is hot or cold.
The only way to assure that airborne contaminant
levels are within the allowable limits is to take air WELDING HOOD
samples at the breathing zones of the personnel A nonstandard term for WELDING HELMET.
involved. An operators actual on-the-job exposure to
welding fume should be measured following the WELDING JIG
guidelines provided in ANSVAWS Fl.l, Method for See JIG and FIXTURE.
Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding
WELDING LEADS
and Allied Processes. This document describes how to
obtain an accurate breathing zone sample of welding The workpiece lead and electrode lead of an arc
fume for a particular welding operation. Both the welding circuit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
amount of the fume and the composition of the fume Figure D-5.
can be determined in a single test using this method. WELDING MACHINE
Multiple samples are recommended for increased
Equipment used to perform the welding operation.
accuracy. When a helmet is worn, the sample should For example, spot welding machine, arc welding
be collected inside the helmet in the welders breath-
machine, and seam welding machine. See STANDARD
ing zone. WELDING TERMS.
WELDING GENERATOR WELDING MACHINE
A generator used for supplying current for welding. See ARC WELDER, ARC WELDING, and RESISTANCE
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. WELDING.
WELDING GROUND WELDING OPERATOR
A nonstandard and incorrect term for WORKPIECE One who operates adaptive control, automatic,
CONNECTION. mechanized, or robotic welding equipment. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
WELDING GOGGLES
Goggles with tinted lenses, used during welding or WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION
oxygen cutting, which protect the eyes from harmful (ASME B&PV Code)
radiation and flying particles. See Appendix 18. When welding under the specifications of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, each
WELDING HEAD employer is responsible for qualifying all the welders
The part of a welding machine in which a welding and welding operators employed by the company with
gun or torch is incorporated. See STANDARD WELDING responsibility for welding according to specifications
TERMS. of a code. However, to avoid duplication of effort, the
employer may accept a Weldermelder Operator Per-
WELDING HELMET formance Qualification (WPQ) made by a previous
A device equipped with a filter plate designed to be employer (subject to the approval of the owner or the
worn on the head to protect eyes, face, and neck from agent of the owner) on piping using the same or an
arc radiation, radiated heat, spatter or other harmful equivalent procedure in which the essential variables
matter expelled during some welding and cutting pro- are within the limits established in Section IX of the
cesses. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Helmets are generally constructed of pressed fiber An employer accepting such qualification tests by a
or fiberglass insulating material. A helmet should be previous employer is required to obtain a copy of the
light in weight and should be designed to give the WPQ showing the name of the employer by whom the
welder the greatest possible comfort. Some helmets welders or welding operators were qualified, the dates
have an optional flip lid, a dark filter plate covering of such qualification, and evidence that the welder or
the opening in the shield. It can be flipped up so the welding operator has maintained qualification with
welder can see to chip slag from the weld and be pro- Q-322 of Section IX of the Code. The employer then
596 WELDING, OVERHEAD Welding Encyclopedia
in a concise manner, and provide an accurate means Location of Elements. The elements of a welding
for welding personnel to adhere to original designs. symbol have standard locations with respect to each
A welding symbol can be used, for example, to other. See Appendix 7.
specify the type of weld, groove design, weld size, Location Significance of Arrow. The arrow element
welding process, face and root contours, sequence of in a welding symbol in conjunction with the reference
operations, length of weld, and other information. In line determines the arrow side and the other size of a
cases where all information cannot be conveyed by a weld, as shown in Appendix 7. The arrow side is
symbol alone, supplementary notes or dimensional always closest to the reader when viewed from the
details, or both, are sometimes required to provide the bottom of the drawing.
shop with complete requirements. The designer must The symbol depicting an arrow side weld is always
be sure that the requirements are fully presented on the placed below the reference line. The weld symbol
drawing or specifications. depicting an other-side weld is placed above the refer-
Nondestructive examination requirements for ence line; i.e., away froin the reader. Welds on both
welded or brazed joints can also be specified with sides of a joint are shown by placing weld symbols on
symbols. The specific inspection methods to be used both sides of the reference line.
are indicated on the symbols. The appropriate inspec- Some weld symbols have no arrow or other-side
tion methods depend on the quality requirements with significance. However, supplementary symbols used
respect to discontinuities in welded or brazed joints. in conjunction with these weld symbols may have sig-
The complete system of symbols is described in nificance. For example, welding symbols for resis-
ANSUAWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, tance spot and seam welding have no side
Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination, published significance, but GTAW, EBW, or other spot and seam
by the American Welding Society, Miami, Florida; lat- welds may have arrow and other-side significance.
est edition. This publication should be consulted when
References. When a specification, process, test, or
selecting the appropriate symbols for describing the
desired joint and inspection requirements. other reference is needed to clarify a welding symbol,
the reference is placed in a tail on the welding symbol.
Nondestructive testing methods, procedures, and
For example, the letters CJP may be used in the tail of
the type of discontinuities that each method will reveal
the arrow to indicate that a complete joint penetration
are contained in ANSVAWS B1.lO, Guide for the
groove weld is required, regardless of the type of weld
Nondestructive Inspection of Welds, Miami, Florida:
or joint preparation. The tail may be omitted when no
American Welding Society; latest edition.
specification, process, or other reference is required
In practice, most designers will need only a few of
with a welding symbol.
the many available symbols. The following informa-
tion describes the fundamentals of the symbols and Dimensions. Dimensions of a weld are shown on the
how to apply them. same side of the reference line as the weld symbol.
The size of the weld is shown to the left of the weld
Basic Weld Symbols. The terms weld symbol and symbol, and the length of the weld is placed on the
welding symbol have different meanings. A weld sym- right. If a length is not given, the weld symbol applies
bol indicates the required type of weld or braze. The to that portion of the joint between abrupt changes in
welding symbol includes the weld symbol and supple- the direction of welding or between specified dimen-
mentary information (see Appendix 7). A complete sion lines. If a weld symbol is shown on each side of
welding symbol consists of the following elements: the reference line, dimensions are required to be given
(1) Reference line for each weld, even though both welds are identical.
(2) Arrow SI units are preferred to U.S. customary units when
(3) Basic weld symbol specifying dimensions, Examples of dimensioning for
(4) Dimensions and other data typical fillet welds are shown in Appendix 7.
( 5 ) Supplementary symbols If a weld in a joint is to be intermittent, the length of
(6) Finish symbols the increments and the pitch (center-to-center spacing)
(7) Tail are placed to the right of the weld symbol.
(8) Specification, process, or other references The location on the symbol for specifying groove
All elements need not be used unless required for weld root opening, groove angle, plug or slot weld fill-
clarity. ing depth, the number of welds required in a joint, and
598 WELDING TECHNIQUE Welding Encyclopedia
other dimensions are shown in Appendix '7. See also which it is used. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
WELD SYMBOL. also WELDING ELECTRODE and WELDING ROD.
-
WELDING TORCH
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also GAS
TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH, OXYFUEL GAS
WELDING TORCH, and PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also MIXED metal. For example, weld metal is not usually cold-
ZONE and UNMIXED ZONE. worked. However, there are four mechanisms for
Weld metal is an admixture of melted base metal strengthening weld metal, and where applicable,
and deposited filler metal, if filler is used. Typical mechanisms are additive:
weld metals are rapidly solidified and have a fine- (1) Solidification grain structure
grain dendritic microstructure. In most arc welding (2) Solid solution strengthening
processes filler metal is added. Some welds are com- (3) Transformation hardening
posed of only remelted base metal; for example, elec-
tron beam and resistance welds are made without filler (4)Precipitation hardening
metal. The first mechanism is common to all welds, and the
second is applicable to any alloy type, but the third and
Microstructure.The microstructure of weld metal is
fourth apply to only specific groups of alloys. See
considerably different from that of the base metal of MIXED ZONE and UNMIXED ZONE.
similar composition. The difference in microstructure
is not related to chemical compositions, but to differ-
ent thermal and mechanical histories of the base metal WELD METAL AREA
and the weld metal. The area of weld metal as measured on the cross
The structure of the base metal is a result of a hot section of a weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
rolling operation and multiple recrystallization of the See Figure W-5.
hot-worked metal. In contrast, the weld metal has a
solidified or cast structure and has not been mechani-
cally deformed. This structure and its attendant
mechanical properties are the direct result of the
sequence of events that occur as the weld metal solidi-
fies. These events include reaction of the weld metal
with the gases in the vicinity of the weld and with non-
metallic liquid phases (slag or flux) during welding,
and also reactions that took place in the weld after
solidification.
Solidification. The unmelted portions of grains in
the heat-affected zone at the solid-liquid interface
serve as nucleation sites for weld metal solidification.
Metals grow more rapidly in certain crystallographic
directions. Therefore, favorably oriented grains grow Figure W-5-Parts of a Weld
for substantial distances, while the growth in others
that are less favorably oriented is blocked by faster
growing grains. As a result, weld metal often exhibits WELD METAL CRACK
a macrostructure, described as columnar, in which the See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
grains are relatively long and parallel to the direction
of heat flow. This structure is the natural result of the WELD METAL ZONE (WMZ)
influence of favorable crystal orientation on the com-
petitive nature of solidification grain growth. Weld That portion of the weld area consisting of weld
metal solidification of most commercial metals metal. See Figure W-5.
involves microsegregation of alloying and residual
elements. This action is associated with, and in large WELDOR
measure, responsible for the formation of dendrites. A A nonstandard term for WELDER.
dendrite is a structural feature which reflects the com-
plex shape taken by the liquid-solid interface during WELD PASS
solidification. A single progression of welding along a joint. The
Strengthening Mechanisms. Practical methods for result of a pass is a weld bead or layel: See STANDARD
strengthening weld metal are fewer than for base WELDING TERMS.
600 WELD PASS SEQUENCE Welding Encyclopedia
I
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING DEFECTS, CAUSES AND CORRECTIONS 601
WELD ROOT
1WELD ROOT
WELD ROOT
I I
Welding Encyclopedia WHITE METAL WELDING 603
zinc castings are more commonly encountered. Arc much as aluminum and less than one-quarter as much
welding is not practical for repairing broken zinc cast- as iron or steel. The low-weight characteristic is due to
ings because the arc temperature is so m9ch higher the high magnesium content of the alloys, which is
than the melting point of zinc. Special techniques must usually between 90% and 98%.
be used with oxyfuel gas welding. The temperature of Oxyacetylene welds on magnesium alloys require a
a neutral torch flame is about 3200C (5800"F), rod and a special flux. Any flux left in the weld will
although when using a considerable exces!; of acety- promote corrosion. After welding, the part requires a
lene, as this type of welding requires, the temperature thorough rinse with hot water and treatment with a
of the flame is somewhat lower. chrome pickle solution. It is then ready for painting.
See MAGNESIUM ALLOYS, Weldability.
Torch Tip. Since the oxyacetylene flame is much
hotter than necessary, welding this alloy requires a WIDMANSTATTEN STRUCTURE
very small welding tip, about the size of a No. 72 drill A crystal formation in the microstructure of a metal
bit. that occurs when a new solid phase forms from a par-
Applying Heat. The excess acetylene flame should ent solid phase, such as ferrite from austenite. The new
burn yellow but should not coat the metal with soot. phase generally develops plates parallel to lattice
The welding rod required is an alloy that will flow planes of a single form in the parent phase, as in the
smoothly at the right temperature. four families of octahedral planes in austenite. On the
Since the melting temperature of the alloy is rela- polished and etched surface the traces of the plates
tively low, too much heat will ruin the casting. intersect in a geometrical pattern. Needles and polyhe-
dra may also form. The orientation of the lattice in the
Joint Preparation. Preparation includes forming a V
new phase is related to the orientation of the lattice in
in the crack, or if broken all the way through, grinding
the parent phase. This structure is frequently seen in
or filing the edges to an angle of about 45", and then
cast steel and in overheated wrought steel that cools
lining up the parts on a carbon block. Chromium- or
too quickly, but may occur in any alloy in which a
nickel-plated parts require the removal of plating from
phase change occurs.
the weld site. Welder's clay, used as a support under
the weld, prevents the metal from flowing away or WIPED JOINT
sagging. A joint made with solder having a wide melting
Applying heat to the casting will cause the metal to range and with the heat supplied by the molten solder
flow. Turn the flame parallel to the surface, and main- poured onto the joint. The solder is manipulated with a
tain heat with the side of the flame. Heat the welding hand-held cloth or paddle so as to obtain the required
rod to the melting point, and touch the rod to the joint; size and contoul: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
the rod should flow into the V with complete fusion.
Repeat this operation until the break fills completely. WIRE FEED SPEED
Unless the rod penetrates into the weld and breaks the The rate at which wire is consumed in arc cutting,
surface tension, the rod will lie on the surface without thermal spraying, or welding. See STANDARD WELD-
fusing. ING TERMS.
Puddling is only necessary when the operator has
piled the rod on top of the weld instead of fusing it to WIRE FLAME SPRAYING (FLSP-W)
the base metal. Heat the base metal and rod to a flow- A thermal spraying process variation in which the
ing temperature, and using a bronze rod as a puddler, su$acing material is in wire form. See STANDARD
work the rod into the base metal. Welding these alloys WELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL SPRAYING.
requires very careful manipulation of the torch and
patience from the welder. WIRE STRAIGHTENER
Determine whether the metal is weldable by A device used for controlling the cast and helix of
attempting a weld on a small part of the break where coiled wire to enable it to be easily fed through the
little harm will be done. wire feed system. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Welding Magnesium Die Castings WIRE WELDING
Magnesium die castings are the industry's lightest A term derived from the continuous welding wire
structural metal, weighing approximately two-thirds as that serves as an electrode in semi-automatic gas metal
Welding Encyclopedia WROUGHT IRON WELDING 605
,. .. .
607
608 X-RAY TESTING OF WELDS Welding Encyclopedia
Table X-3
Advantages a,nd Limitations of Radiation Sources
Radioisotopes X-Ray Machines
Advantages
(1) Small and portable (1) Radiation can be shut off
(2) No electric power required (2) Penetrating power (kV) is adjustable
(3) No electrical hazards (3) Can be used on all metals
(4) Rugged (4) Radiographs have good contrast and sensitivity
( 5 ) Low initial cost
(6) High penetrating power
(7) Access into small cavities
(8) Low maintenance costs
Limitations
(1) Radiation emitted continuously by the isotope (1) High initial cost
(2) Radiation hazard if improperly handled (2) Requires source of electrical power
(3) Penetrating power cannot be adjusted (3) Equipment comparatively fragile
(4) Radioisotope decays in strength, requiring recalibration and (4) Less portable
replacement ( 5 ) Tube head usually large in size
( 5 ) Radiographic contrast generally lower than with x-rays (6) Electrical hazard from high voltage
(7) Radiation hazard during operation
In 1918, steel of 25 mm (1 in.) thickness repre- plane. The rays penetrate the metal without damaging
sented the absolute limit of X-ray penetration. As it, and the entire weld may be readily inspected.
equipment manufacturers improved the process by Fundamentals
raising the voltage across the tube elements, however, X-rays are produced in an evacuated tube through
increased thickness of metal could be radiographically the impact of a high-velocity electron stream on a
examined. metal plate, or target, at the anode (positive electrode)
H. H. Lester, a physicist at the Watertown Arsenal, of the tube. The electrons are boiled from the cath-
Watertown, Massachusetts, was one of the pioneers in ode (negative electrode) by means of a heated filament
the radiography of metal sections. In 1924, Lester con- and are accelerated by impressing an extremely high
ducted radiographic examinations of castings which potential (on the order of hundreds of kilovolts) across
were to be installed in the United States first 8.3 MPa the tube. X-ray voltages may reach as high as one mil-
(1200 psi) steam pressure power plant for the Boston lion volts. The currents however, are extremely low,
Edison Company, Radiographic inspection of the usually on the order of 6 to 25 milliamperes.
welded joints of pressure vessels soon followed. In Since they are much shorter in wave length than
1930, the United States Navy specified that X-ray tests visible light, X-rays can penetrate solid objects. They
must be made of the main longitudinal and circumfer- do not, however, penetrate all objects with equal facil-
ential joints of welded boilerdrums. Subsequently, the ity, but are absorbed to a degree depending on the
1931 ASME Boiler Code made X-ray examination of thickness and density of the material. Since density is
welded seams mandatory for power boiler drums and a function of atomic weight, the heavier metals offer
other pressure vessels designed for severe service the greatest resistance to the passage of X-rays. Lead,
conditions. Other code requirements for X-ray testing a substance with the high atomic weight of 207.20, has
followed. a very high degree of X-ray absorption and so is used
Applications as shielding against X-rays.
X-ray weld testing is particularly well suited to butt Like visible light, X-rays will travel in straight lines
joints, where weld and parent metals lie in the same unless deflected. As a result, the projected image of an
Welding Encyclopedia X-RAY TESTING OF WELDS 609
object will be accurate in size and shape. When the on the side closest to the defect and remove, then
image is recorded on film, it becomes a replace, a minimum of weld metal.
shadow picture dependent on the thickness and den-
X-ray Diffraction
sity of each partthrough which the rays travel.
X-rays darken a photographic film in much the X-ray equipment can also be used to investigate the
same way as visible light. The less dense regions of a properties of weld metals by creating and examining
weld offer the least resistance to the passage of X-rays. diffraction patterns. These are produced by localizing
These portions, consequently, will show darkest when a narrow beam of X-rays through a tube, passing the
the weld is radiographed. Denser regions, offering X-rays through pinholes, then through a small, thin
greater X-ray resistance, will permit fewer rays to sample of the material to be investigated. A film held
reach the film and will show as areas of comparative behind the sample will show a dark central spot sur-
whiteness. The process based on this principle permits rounded by a collection of rays, rings, and spots. This
the quick detection of weld faults. Such welding is called the difraction pattern, and its analysis makes
defects as porosity, slag inclusion, cracks, lack of it possible to peer into the molecular structure of mat-
fusion, gas pockets and blowholes all show up in ter and visualize the arrangement of the molecules
radiographs as dark areas. themselves. Diffraction analysis is very important in
The most important factor of any nondestructive the steel and alloying industries, where stresses and
weld test method is the ability of the inspector to cor- strains are a vital factor.
rectly interpret the indications of discovered defects. X-ray diffraction patterns can indicate the ductility
Only through careful study of many radiographs of the weld metal or parent metal, and also the pres-
exhibiting known defects can such ability be gained. ence of strained areas. In practice, it is customary to
The common welding faults revealed by radiographs make a number of patterns to determine the condition
are (in order of frequency): porosity, entrapped slag, of various areas of the metal: in the center of the weld,
cracks and lack of fusion. at the edge of the weld near the line of fusion, the edge
When there are defects and the weld must be of the parent metal near the line of fusion, two or more
chipped out, finding the exact location and depth of points in the parent metal which have undergone con-
the defect will facilitate the task of the welder or siderable changes in temperature during welding, and
gouger. This can be done with double exposure radia- finally, a point in the parent metal far enough removed
tion. In this method, exposures are made from two dif- from the weld so that it can safely be assumed to be
ferent angles on the same film or on separate films. unaffected by the heat. It should be noted that although
The distances are measured between the two positions only very small specimens are needed for investiga-
of the radiation source and between each position of tion by means of diffraction patterns, considerable
the identification markers on the surfaces of the plate. care must be exercised in preparing specimens to be
Images of both the marker and the defect are projected sure that the patterns will not show conditions intro-
on the film. By comparing the known distances and duced by the method of preparation itself, which were
solving similar triangles, the exact location of the fault not originally present in the specimens. See RADIO-
is readily found. This enables the welder to begin work GRAPHIC EXAMINATION. See also RADIOGRAPHY.
610 Welding Encyclopedia
611
612 Welding Encyclopedia
ZINC ZIRCONIUM
(Chemical symbol: Zn). A lustrous, bluish-white (Chemical symbol: Zr). A lustrous, steel-gray,
metallic element alloyed with copper to form brass, somewhat brittle metal with a high melting point. It is
and is also used in solders. Zinc is used in protective used as an alloying agent in iron and aluminum, and is
coatings on galvanized iron and other metals. Atomic also used in nuclear reactors. Atomic number, 40;
number, 30; atomic weight, 65.37; melting point, atomic weight, 91; melting point, 2350C (4262F);
419.4"C (786.9"F). Specific gravity ranges from 7.0 to specific gravity, 6.25.
7.2. Zirconium is very hard and is sometimes used in
Pure zinc is ductile; in commercial form, zinc is hardfacing material because of its resistance to corro-
brittle at room temperature, but becomes ductile when sion. When steel is alloyed with small amounts of zir-
slightly heated. At a temperature of 200C (392"F), it conium, fine grain size is produced, and no aluminum
can be powdered. At temperatures between 100 and additions to steel are required.
613
614 Welding Encyclopedia
Automatic roll spot seam welding systems designed to weld roofs of van bodies for an automobile
manufacturer produce welded roofs at the rate of 72/hr/station. There are
four roll spot welding units
per station.
Photo courtesy of Newcor
Appendix 1
History of Welding and Cutting
One of the earliest references to metalworking and 1895 - LeChatelier (France) credited with discover-
the metalworkers name appears in the Old Testament ing the oxygen-acetylene flame.
of the Bible. Genesis 4, verse 22, King James version 1896 - Reports of the first electric-welded tube pro-
states ...and Zillah, she also bare Tubal-Cain, an duction in Cleveland, Ohio.
instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. The Circa 1900 - Hans Goldschmidt, Goldschmidt AG
New International version states, Zillah also had a West Germany (Orgotheus Inc. USA) discov-
son, Tubal-Cain, who forged all kinds of tools out of ered that the exothermic reaction between a
bronze and Iron. The Living Bible states, To mixture of aluminum powder and a metal
Lamechs other wife Zillah, was born Tubal-Cain. He oxide can be initiated by an external heat
opened the first foundry, forging instruments of bronze source for thermite welding.
and iron. A welded iron headrest for Tutankhamen, 1900 - The first oxyacetylene torches were made by
believed to be from Syria, was crafted in 1350 BC. Fouche and Picard (France).
Milestones 1901 - The oxygen lance was invented by Menne
1836 - Acetylene gas discovered by Edmund Davy. (Germany).
1856 - The principle of resistance welding believed 1904 - Avery (USA) invented a portable cylinder for
to be discovered by physicist James Joule, acetylene-powered auto headlights; produced
England. by the Concentrated Acetylene Company
1862 - Woehler produced acetylene gas from cal- (CAC).
cium carbide. 1906 - CAC bought by Prest-0-Lite, forerunner of
1876 - John A. Tobin (USA), patented the alloy Linde Division, Union Carbide Corporation.
known as Tobin Bronze, a high-strength 1907 - Acetylene cutting used to demolish the old
copper-tin-zinc bronze. Grand Central Station in New York; com-
1881 - One of the earliest carbon arc welding pleted at 80% below projected cost.
machines invented by De Meritens (France). 1907-10 - Coated electrodes developed by 0. Kjell-
1881 - Dr. R. H. Thurston (United States) completed berg (Sweden).
a six-year study and exhaustive tests on the 1909 - Plasma arc system using a gas vortex stabi-
strength and ductility of a series of copper- lized arc invented by Schonherr.
zinc bronzes. 1911 - The first oxyfuel gas welded pipeline, 11
882- Patent granted to Robert A. Hadfield miles long, constructed by Philadelphia and
(England) for austenitic manganese steel Suburban Gas Company.
which he called Hadfield Steel. 1912 - Production of the first commercial oxyacety-
885 - Elihu Thompson (USA) awarded a patent on lene welded tubing in this country reported.
a resistance welding machine. 1912 - First all-steel automobile body joined by
885 - Carbon arc welding developed by Benardos resistance spot welding produced at the
& Olszewski (Russia). Edward G. Budd Company, Philadelphia.
1889-90 -First arc welding with bare wire electrodes Circa 1912 - Ford Motor Company developed weld-
by C. L. Coffin (USA). ing techniques in plant laboratory for Model
1890 - Concept of welding in an oxidizing medium T production.
originated by Coffin (USA). 1913 - Acetylene cylinder developed by Avery and
1890 - First oxyfuel gas cutting bank robbery Fisher (Indianapolis).
attempted by a Mr. Brown (England). 1917 - Arc welding used during World War I to
1892 - Calcium carbide manufactured by Willson repair engines in 109 captured German ships;
and Morehead (USA). after repairs, ships were used to send 500 000
1895 - Konrad Roentgen (Bavaria), observed the U.S. troops to France.
effects of X-radiation while passing an elec- 1917 - Webster & Southbridge Gas and Electric
tric current through a vacuum tube. Company, Massachusetts, welded 11 miles of
615
616 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
3-inch pipe with electric arc welding 1931 - Welded steel structure of Empire State Build-
machines. ing completed.
1919 - American Welding Society foundedby Com- 1933 - First arc-welded pipeline joined without
fort A. Adams. backing rings constructed by H.C. Price from
1920 - First all-welded-hull ship, the stearner Fulu- Oklahoma City to Thall, Kansas.
gar, launched (England). 1933 - Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, worlds
Circa 1920 - The Johnson Process for producing elec- highest suspension bridge (incorporating
tric resistance welded steel tubing patented. 87 750 tons of welded steel) opened to traffic.
Circa 1920-The first welded tanker, the Pough- 1934 - Unfired Pressure Vessel Code issued jointly
keepsie Socony, was launched (USA). by API-ASME (USA).
Circa 1920 - Flux cored wires for hardfacing 1935 - Submerged arc welding developed by Linde
introduced. Air Products Co. (USA).
1922 - Prairie Pipeline Company completed an 8- 1940 - First all-welded ship built in United States,
inch, 140-mile line carrying crude oil from the Exchequer, launched from Ingalls
Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas, using oxyacety- Shipyard.
lene welding. 1941 - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, (Heliarc)
1923 - First storage tank floating roof completed; invented by Meredith (USA).
designed to float welded roof on stored petro- 1941 - First American 60-ton tank completed; weld-
leum or chemical product, with tank walls ing becomes critical to the production of
designed to telescope to increase or decrease ships, planes, armored tanks and weapons in
tank size. World War 11.
924 - All-welded natural gas pipeline14 miles long 1943 - Curtiss-Wright welds hollow steel propeller
built by Magnolia Gas Company (USA) using blades using atomic hydrogen, submerged
acetylene welding. arc, and shielded metal arc processes.
924 - Radiography used by H. H. Lester to examine 1943 - Vera Anderson named national champion
castings to be installed in the United States woman welder of the United States in a con-
first 8.3 MPa (1200 psi) steam pressure test held at Ingalls Shipbuilding, Pascagula,
power plant for the Boston Edison Company. Mississippi.
926 - Solid extruded coating for shielded metal arc 1949 - The first all-welded Ford automobile was
welding electrodes introduced by A. 0. Smith produced using arc and resistance welding.
Co. (USA). 1950 - First spray transfer patent for gas metal arc
926 - First patents for flux cored wire granted to welding, by Muller, Gibson and Anderson,
Stoody (USA). marketed by Air Reduction Sales Company
1926 - M. Hobart and P. K. Devers issued separate (USA).
U.S. patents for developments in arc welding Circa 1950 -Electroslag welding first used for pro-
using helium as a shielding gas. duction in Russia.
1927 - First solo transatlantic flight achieved by 1953 - Patent for constricted plasma arc torch issued
Lindberg in Ryan monoplane; fuselage based to R.M. Gage (USA).
on structure of all-welded steel alloy tubing. 1954 - Self-shielded flux cored wire introduced by
928 - First structural welding code, Code for Lincoln Electric (USA).
Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building 1954 - First atomic submarine, The Nautilus, is
Construction published by American Weld- placed in U.S. Naval service.
ing Society; forerunner of D. 1.1, Structural 1955 - Constricted arc (plasma arc) developed and
Welding Code-Steel. introduced by Linde Division, Union Carbide
930 - Continuous welded rail introduced by the Corporation (USA).
Central Georgia Railroad for track through 1956 - Friction welding invented (Russia).
two tunnels. Welded rail used in open track Circa 1957-Carbon dioxide (COz) used for short
two years later. circuiting transfer, gas metal arc welding
Circa 1930 -Atomic hydrogen welding developed as (USA, Britain, and Russia).
method of welding metals other than carbon 1960 - First laser beam produced using a ruby crystal
and low-alloy steels. (USA).
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 617
1960s -Pulsed power gas metal arc welding intro- 1984 - Edison Welding Institute established by the
duced by Airco (USA). State of Ohio to improve welding technology
1961 - First public disclosure of electron beam weld- used in manufacturing.
ing by Stohr, French Atomic Energy Com- 1990s -Inverter technology dominates power supply
mission (France). designs. Reduced size and weight of equip-
1962 - Electrogas welding patent issued, assigned to ment is the result (world wide).
Arcos (Belgium). 1991 - Friction stir welding introduced and used suc-
1964 - Hot wire welding processes and one- cessfully to weld the 2000, 5000, and 6000
knob (Synergic Control) gas metal arc series of aluminum sheet alloys.
welding process control patented by Manz
(USA). 1993 - Robotically controlled COz laser beam pro-
1965 - The St. Louis Arch built from 142 welded cess used to weld U.S. Armys Abrams Main
stainless steel sections and erected as a tribute Battle Tank.
to the city and a memorial to westward Historical Perspectives
expansion. The following is an abridgement of an article, Zn
1965 - Welded space craft, Apollo 10, launched to the Beginning, written by Hal Stacey, and published
the moon (USA). in the Welding Journal, Volume 73, by the American
1967 - Worlds first undersea pipeline hot tap engi- Welding Society, Miami, Florida, June, 1994.
neered and welded by Frank Pilia (USA) for
Linde Division, Union Carbide Corporation, Welding is an ancient science, so old that its roots
in the Gulf of Mexico. have been lost in antiquity. One of the principles of
1968 - Development and manufacture of HY-130 metalworking that seems to have been passed down
steel for pressure vessels and ship hulls com- over the centuries, however, is that when iron is soft-
pleted as a result of $2.3 million research ened and rendered plastic by heating in a fire, it will,
effort by U.S. Steel aided by Naval Ship under suitable conditions, unite or weld. Because
Engineering Center. few implements or articles of iron or steel can survive
1968 - Critical comer pieces welded in place in the the attack of rust indefinitely, little direct evidence
first 22 floors of the John Hancock Center, remains as to exactly when welding originated. The art
Chicago; this steel structure consequently of working and hardening steel, an advanced stage in
welded to a height of 1107 feet. metalworking that doubtless took centuries to reach,
1969 - Plasma arc hot-wire cladding process was commonly practiced 30 centuries ago in Greece
introduced by Linde Division, Union Carbide and is mentioned by Homer.
Corporation. It is probable that the principles of welding were
1970s -Transistor-controlled inverter welding power discovered, lost and rediscovered repeatedly by
introduced (world wide). ancient peoples the world over, since it has been
1977 - Alaska Pipeline completed; 2500 tons of filler proven that primitive tribes on different continents,
metals used in 100 000 welds, spanning 798 with no apparent means of communicating with one
miles from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. another, developed and used the same basic methods
1980s -Semiconductor circuits and computer circuits of smelting, shaping and treating iron.
used to control welding and cutting processes By the time of the Renaissance, welding with fire
(world wide). had become an established practice, and the craftsmen
1980s -Vapor phase reflow soldering used for printed of that period were highly skilled in the art. The parts
circuit boards. to be joined were properly shaped and then reheated to
1983 - American Welding Institute (AWI) estab- the correct temperature in a forge or furnace before
lished as American Welding Technology being hammered, rolled or pressed together. Biringuc-
Application Center. cios Pyrotechnia, published in 1540, contains several
1983 - Spaceship Earth, 160-ft. diameter geodesic references to such operations. In one case, a square
dome at Epcot Center constructed with sub- piece of steel was welded to the end of an iron rod for
merged arc and shielded metal arc welding use in turning cannon bores. In another, cracked bells
processes; inspected with approximately were made whole again by a method of welding. It is
4000 radiographs. obvious that Biringuccio was intrigued by the latter
618 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
application, for he wrote, This seems to me an inge- were filed on this process in Petrograd, Russia, on
nious thing, little used, but of great usefulneqs. December 3, 1885, and issued May 17,1887. Benardos
Forge welding of iron developed into an illidustry of and Stanislav Olczewski received a German patent
considerable proportions and, until about 1890, was covering welding with a single carbon arc. In this
the only method available. When the two iron parts process, fusion was obtained by drawing an arc
reached the proper temperature, they were forced between a carbon electrode and the work to be welded.
together by various means, often being hung from Metal was added from an auxiliary source and fed into
cranes to facilitate the operation. Then, with the heat the arc or molten pool.
maintained at a certain temperature, the ends were In 1889, Zerener introduced the process that con-
struck repeatedly with a sledge hammer for a definite sists of drawing an arc between two carbon electrodes
period. That done, the part was withdrawn from the positioned at about 60 to each other and deflecting
fire and finished on an anvil. Forge welding is still the arc outward by means of an electromagnet placed
practiced to some extent today. between the electrodes. This method did not come into
The Electric Arc. Credit for the concept of modem much commercial use because the heat was less con-
welding is generally given to Sir Humphrey Davy centrated and there was less available heat in propor-
because of his discovery of the electric arc. In 1810, tion to the energy consumed.
while experimenting with the emerging science of Research was going on concurrently in the United
electricity, Davy discovered that an arc could be cre- States, as evidenced by the patent for an arc welding
ated by bringing two terminals of a comparatively process granted in 1889 to Charles Coffin of Detroit.
high voltage electric circuit near one another. This arc, This was the beginning of a great era in the welding
which cast a bright light and gave off a considerable industry, since the metal electrode suggested by Coffin
amount of heat, could be struck and maintained at will, supplied not only fusion heat to the metal being
and its length and intensity could be varied within lim- welded, but also the extra weld metal necessary for a
its determined by the voltage of the circuit and the good joint. In this process, the filler metal was sup-
type of terminals utilized. At that time it was regarded plied by excess metal along the weld line or by a metal
as a curiosity with no practical use; Sir Davy did not rod held in the welders hand.
apply the name arc to his discovery until 20 years In England, Slavianoffs work on a similar process
later. culminated in a patent awarded to him in 1889. How-
The arc was put to its first practical use in 1881, ever, there was little use for Slavianoffs method for
when carbon-arc street lamps were introduced. Shortly several years because suitable metal electrodes were
after, the electric furnace made its appearance. One of difficult to obtain. For this reason, industrial use of the
the earliest furnaces was installed by the Cowles carbon arc was limited during the years up to 1910,
Brothers in 1886 at Milton Staffordshire, England. when the development of covered electrodes by 0.
Arc welding experiments were first undertaken by Kjellberg of Sweden opened up a wide variety of com-
DeMeritens in 1881. In his experiments the various mercial applications.
parts of a lead battery plate were welded using a car- Welding and World War I
bon arc as the heat source. United States entry into World War I in Europe
In the early 1890s, Lloyd and Lloyd of Birming- posed a problem: how to produce the ships needed to
ham, England, established an arc welding shop, very transport the materials of war. Seeking a solution, the
well equipped for that era, which was capable of weld- government set up the U.S. Shipping Board, Emer-
ing wrought iron pipes up to a foot in diameter. In gency Fleet Corporation to cope with the demand for
1902, the Baldwin Locomotive Works established an shipping. Professor Comfort A. Adams of Harvard
extensive welding shop in Pennsylvania for loco- was appointed to head a committee to investigate the
motive repair and maintenance, using the carbon arc situation. The committee met for the first time in July,
process on a large scale. 1917.
Patent Records Adams committee visited England and discovered
Patent literature may be the most authentic source that the British were using arc welding to an increas-
of information about the early history of electric arc ing extent. Gas shortages had forced them to cut down
welding. Nickolas Von Benardos perfected and on gas welding, and so they were using arc welding
patented a carbon arc welding process. The patents with both bare and flux-covered electrodes in the pro-
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 619
duction of bombs, mines and torpedoes. Also, they had duced that year. Just four years later, wire production
initiated the construction of a ship with an all-welded- had jumped to 111 million pounds. In 1940, 199 mil-
hull. This steamer, the Fulagar, was built at the lion pounds were produced, and in 1943, wire produc-
Commell-Lairds shipyard and launched in 1920. tion reached a wartime peak of over a billion pounds.
Having viewed all this, the American committee Arc welding has grown into a very large and impor-
became enthusiastic converts to welding as a produc- tant industry. It is used not only for the manufacture of
tion tool, returned to the United States, and began to almost everything made of metal, but it is the mainte-
set up welding production methods for the necessary nance tool which keeps railroads, truck fleets, steel
war materials. During this flurry of industrial activity, mills, power plants, waterworks, refineries, and other
the production campaign itself seemed to turn into a vital national industries functioning.
battle between the proponents of gas, arc and spot Welding and Shipbuilding
welding, with skirmishes over the relative merits of
carbon and metallic electrodes, fluxed and bare metal During World War I, welding was involved in a his-
electrodes, and direct and alternating current. tory-making episode concerning 109 German ships
The Emergency Fleet Corporation and its subcom- that were in American ports when war first broke out.
mittee on welding had accomplished much toward the The German high command issued an order to the cap-
use of welding in ship construction. The war emer- tains of those ships to sabotage the vessels, especially
gency also resulted in the use of welding for many the boilers. The Germans reasoned that the Americans
applications previously considered inadvisable. By would not have enough time to repair them before the
this time, improvements in electrical equipment, weld- wars end.
ing electrodes and process controls were developed so Welding was used to repair all of these ships, and
that welding could be safely and economically used the job was completed within eight months. These
for general manufacturing of most metal products and same ships were used later to transport 500000
an increasing number of structural projects. doughboys to France. The repairs resulted in savings
Several notable uses of welding in construction to the taxpayers of $20 million.
included the three-span, 500-foot, all-welded bridge Reference: Excerpted from Irving, Bob, What
erected in 1923 in Toronto, Canada. As the economy, Welding Accomplished Way Back When, Volume 73,
strength and tightness of arc welded joints became bet- (l), Welding Journal, American Welding Society,
ter known, arc welding was used to construct storage Miami, Florida. 1994.
tanks for fuel oil, gasoline and distillate. An example After World War I ended, the welding industry
was the monumental job undertaken in Lancaster, turned its attention to domestic affairs. The American
Pennsylvania, in erecting a 1-million gallon capacity Welding Society, founded by Comfort A. Adams, was
standpipe, which towered 127 feet high over the sur- formally organized in 1919. In the 1920s, oxyacety-
rounding countryside. lene welding continued to be an important and popular
After the London Naval Treaty of 1930, the United process, but arc welding was beginning to be used in
States Navy, which had contributed greatly to welding such applications as long-distance pipelines. The
research, turned to welding more and more often in Johnson process was patented for electric resistance
order to reduce weight and stay within the Treaty limi- welded steel tubing. Flux cored wires for hardfacing
tations. Also, a welded merchant ship was built in was introduced. Significant developments were made
Charleston, South Carolina in 1930. It was the fore- in shielded metal arc welding processes and
runner of hundreds of welded ships that would be built electrodes.
for use in World War 11. The severe economic depression of the early 1930s
During the 1930s, the United States Army became was felt worldwide. As a result, many welding appli-
interested in welding, and much of Ordnances mate- cations involved the salvage, repair, and maintenance
rial was redesigned at the Watertown Arsenal for pro- of existing equipment. In spite of difficult economic
duction by welding. Ingalls Shipbuilding Corporation conditions, however, progress in welding technology
added to these the first all-welded ship built in Amer- continued. In the early 1930s, atomic hydrogen weld-
ica, the Exchequel; launched in October, 1940. ing was developed as a method of welding metals
The year 1932 was established as a reference stan- other than carbon and low-alloy steels, and in 1935,
dard by manufacturers of welding wire in the United submerged arc welding was developed and made com-
States. Approximately 18.3 million pounds were pro- mercially available. During the 1930s, continuous
620 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
welded rail was introduced in the railroad inqustry and still at sea. As a result, the chances of U.S. maritime
shortly became standard practice for rail line$ Notable ships making it through this one-two-three punch were
examples of welded steel structures built d,uring the about one out of two.
1930s were the Empire State Building and the San In what could have been interpreted as a warning, a
Francisco Bay Bridge. Welding was used in lthe fabri- Welding Research Council Committee in the late
cation of automobiles, ships, aircraft, railcars and 1930s had determined that steel plate had to have the
track; boilers, pressure vessels, piping and tubing, following chemical limitations in order to assure
tanks, containers, and countless industrial, commer- sound weldability: 0.26% carbon, 1 .OO% manganese,
cial, and household products. 0.04% sulfur, and 0.04% phosphorus. Several major
The end of World War I did not assure the antici- steel companies said they could not make a steel with
pated era of peace. The political adjustments and eco- this chemistry; there was no precedent for doing so.
nomic aftermath of the World War led to instability In 1944, our yards began to build the larger and
and unrest in almost every nation and in some coun- faster Victory ships (see Figure 1-1). A total of 531 of
tries, dictators were able to take over governments. these ships were built. Five hundred and twenty five
After only twenty years, when Germany invaded T-2 tankers were also built during the war, and it was a
Poland on September 1, 1939, the world was again at T-2 tanker named Schenectady that made the naval
war. The United States entered World War I1 on history books. Tied up after sea trials at an outfitting
December 7, 1941, when Pearl Harbor was attacked dock in Portland, Oregon, the Schenectady broke into
by Japan. Again the welding industrys priority was two pieces.
production of ships, aircraft, armored tanks, weapons,
and equipment for the war effort. In March, 1941, Senator Harry Truman, a Demo-
crat from Missouri, was appointed chairman of the
World War II Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National
The following is an abridgement of an article writ- Defense Program. Known as the Truman Committee,
ten by Bob Irving, What Welding Accomplished Way this seven-man group of senators was formed to look
Buck When, published in Volume 73 (1) of the Weld- into manufacturing problems in the defense industry,
ing Journal by the American Welding Society, Miami, and the Schenectudy was high on its agenda. Accord-
Florida; 1994. ing to a report of an investigation conducted by the
Shipbuilding American Bureau of Ships, some of the steel used in
Welding reached its zenith during World War I1 this ship was of a very poor quality and was most
with the enormous U.S. effort in shipbuilding. A total directly responsible for the failure of the T-2 tanker.
of 2710 Liberty ships were built to American Bureau About 5% of the steel delivered to the shipyard
of Shipping (ABS) class. Eighteen new shipyards were for the construction of the Schenectady was out of
established to build these badly needed vessels. The spec because of its high sulfur and phosphorus
production speed in many of these new yards was contents.
unprecedented. The record set for fabricating one In a special hearing on the matter, Senator Homer
complete Liberty ship was four days, 15 hours, and Ferguson, a Republican and a member of the commit-
30 minutes. tee, asked the president of the steel company responsi-
In the early years of World War 11, a great number ble for delivering the steel the following question: If
of Liberty ships and T-2 tankers sailed in convoys a customer asks you for a strength of 60 000 pounds,
across the Atlantic Ocean, through the Norwegian Sea, the breaking point on a test, and you give him a
then through the Barents Sea to the port of Murmansk product of 57000 pounds, but you represent to him
in the former Soviet Union, delivering military equip- in figures that you have tested it and it did test
ment and supplies to the Russian (Red) Army. If the 60 000 pounds, is that a misrepresentation of a mate-
ships could make it through the attacks from the Ger- rial fact?
man Luftwaffe and the torpedoes from the U-boats, Yes, sir, the company president replied. The hear-
both of which were based in Norway, there was also a ing lasted five hours. At the end, the steel company
third obstacle: the notches formed by welds that hadnt president promised the members of the Truman
been ground off. These notches often acted as crack Committee that someone would walk the plank
starters, and the extreme cold of that part of the world within his organization over this business of false
caused many cracks to propagate while the ships were representation.
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 621
Figure l-l-In 1944, U.S. Shipyards Started to Build the Victory Class of Ships
Photo courtesy of the American Bureau of Shipping
In the late 1950s, Pellini conducted the critical DI: Adams has achieved an outstanding record
experiment that led to the decision to use HT-80 steel of public service and has won the abiding esteem
in pressure hull submarine construction, whep he dem- and aflection of his fellows in the engineering
onstrated that the fracture safety of HY-80 $pas supe- profession. His career is an inspiration and a
rior to that of T-1 steel. Using explosives toldeform a challenge. -Dwight D. Eisenhower, President,
two-inch-thick sample consisting of the two steels United States of America.
welded together, he showed that the T-1 had a ten- It was fitting that the official name of the 1957 con-
dency to fracture in the heat-affected zona near the vention was the AWS Adams National Meeting. At a
weld. The impact was entirely visual. No analysis was banquet in his honor, Dr. Adams reminisced about his
necessary. days during World War I when he was appointed by
In its work with high-strength steels for submarines, President Woodrow Wilson to serve as chairman of the
the Naval Research Laboratorys Welding Section, Welding Committee of the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
headed at the time by Puzak, did much to call attention tion. A goal of the corporation was to provide welded
to the effects of hydrogen and certain combinations of ships for the war effort. The goal was not met in time.
alloy elements in weld metal and its effect on the At the banquet, Dr. Adams smiled and said, Its prob-
cracking tendency of weld metals and the heat- ably just as well.
affected zones of base metals. Puzak worked closely
with the welding engineers in shipyards to develop Tankers and Supertankers
and document fabrication procedures which would As shipbuilding moved into the 1960s, several
minimize the cracking of HY-80 welds during fabrica- unusually great demands were placed on oceangoing
tion. Such documentation was needed because of the vessels. Two examples were the liquefied natural gas
cracking incidents that had been occurring on sub- (LNG) tanker (see Figure 1-2) and the supertankers.
marines fabricated from HY-80 steel. At one time, Different designs of LNG tankers featured tanks or
Admiral Hyman Rickover tried to convince the Navy compartments welded from stainless steel, Invar, or
to return to the steel formerly used, but Pellini argued aluminum. A special facility was constructed by Gen-
the case successfully for HY-80 steel. eral Dynamics Corporation outside of Charleston,
Presidential Commendation South Carolina, where huge aluminum hemispheres
President Franklin Roosevelt had many good things were joined together by mechanized gas metal arc
to say about welding in a letter he wrote Prime Minis- welding. As each sphere was completed, it was loaded
ter Winston Churchill in the early years World War 11. on a barge, then delivered up the coast to the main
Churchill is said to have read a part of Roosevelts shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, where the ship was
letter to the members of the House of Commons: being built. The barge then returned to Charleston to
pick up the next sphere for delivery. The tankers were
Here there had been developed a welding tech- designed to house five spheres.
nique which enables us to construct standard Storage tanks were also being built to contain the
merchant ships with a speed unequaled in the gas onshore. The alloy of choice in this application
history of merchant shipping. was 9% nickel steel, a metal that was also selected for
The technique the President was referring to was liquid gas cylinders. The welds were made using a
undoubtedly submerged arc welding (SAW). The high-nickel filler metal.
Linde Air Products Companys version of this process
Supertankers. The closing of the Suez Canal in
was first introduced to industry in 1937. The sub-
merged arc, or Unionmelt process, was capable of 1956 triggered a boom in oil supertankers. In 1971, the
joining steel plate as much as 20 times faster than any Nisseki Maru, a 367 000-ton-deadweight tanker was
other welding method. launched from a Japanese shipyard. At the time, the
Nisseki Maru was believed to have been the largest
Roosevelt was not the only president who publicly
tanker the world. Larger tankers were to follow.
expressed appreciation for the welding industry. Presi-
dent Dwight D. Eisenhower commended the founder The Offshore Oil Industry. The vessels needed for the
of the American Welding Society, Dr. Comfort Avery exploration of undersea hydrocarbons were natural
Adams. On April 8, 1957, the President sent Dr. offshoots of shipbuilding. The first mobile, offshore
Adams a congratulatory telegram on the occasion of drilling rig, a pontoon-supported unit known then as a
the 38th Annual Meeting of AWS in Philadelphia: submersible, began operating in 1949.
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 623
Figure l-2-Complete with Welded 5083 Aluminum Tanks to Contain Liquified Natural Gas, the LNG Leo
is Shown Here
Photo courtesy of the American Bureau of Shipping
Later, the North Sea became the proving ground joints by the oxyfuel process was on a 17.7-km
for thick welds capable of sustaining high impact (Il-mile) line constructed by the Philadelphia & Sub-
loads at low temperatures. Huge platforms were fabri- urban Gas Company in 1911. In 1917, Webster &
cated in Scotland and in Norway to reap the rewards of Southbridge Gas and Electric Company of Massachu-
oil and gas in such areas as the Ekofisk and the setts used an electric machine to weld 11 miles of 3-in.
Brent fields. Structures had to stand up to waves 15 m diameter pipe. An early name in the electric welding
(50 ft) in height and winds of 112 to 210 km/h (70 to of pipelines was Electra Welding Company. (This
130 milesk). company has grown to become one of the largest pipe-
Interest in North Sea oil and gas was strong, but line contractors in the United States as H. C. Price
when the 1973 oil crisis hit, the rush became a roar. Company.) In 1922, an Electra Welding crew traveled
The search for oil and gas offshore increased to such a to Caney, Kansas, where it worked on a field pipeline
degree that by the end of 1974, the ABS had classed and repaired a large oil field tank bottom for Empire
145 mobile offshore drilling units. Drill ships and sub- Pipeline Company, using electric welding.
mersibles were also being classed. In 1924, Magnolia Gas Company of Dallas. Texas,
Earlier in time, in September, 1950, the seesaw bat- completed what is described as the first long-distance,
tle between oil tankers and pipelines tilted in the direc- all-welded natural gas pipe line. It extended for
tion of pipelines with the completion of the 1670-km 344 km (214 miles), and ran from the Webster Parish
(1040-mile) Trans-Arabian Pipeline or Tapline in the field in Louisiana to Beaumont, Texas. The line con-
Middle East. This pipeline was designed to replace sisted of 41- and 46-cm (16- and 18-in.) telescoped
7200 miles of sea journey from the Persian Gulf pipe, acetylene welded. In 1933, the H. C. Price Com-
through the Suez Canal. pany completed the first electric-welded pipeline with-
According to Daniel Yergin in his Pulitzer Prize out the use of a backup ring inside the pipe. The line
winning book, The Prize, the annual throughput of the was built for Phillips Petroleum Company and ran
Trans-Arabian Pipeline was the equivalent of 60 tank- from Oklahoma City to Thrall, Kansas.
ers in continuous operation from the Persian Gulf, via In the Golden Anniversary issue of The Oil and Gas
the Suez Canal, to the Mediterranean. King Ibn Saud Journal, Noah Wagner of the Prairie Pipeline Com-
said at the time, The oil it carried would fuel the pany was mentioned, ostensibly as a pioneer in the
recovery of Europe. acetylene welding of pipeline. Wagner is credited by
the magazine with introducing acetylene welding to
Cross-Country Pipelines pipeline work in 1920. Some time later, the company
Welding has always played an extremely important welded a 225-km (140-mile), 20-cm (%in.) line from
role in pipeline construction. The first welding of pipe Mexia to Hensley, Texas.
624 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
The first seamless pipe supplied by the mills was engineers had been working for years to establish
introduced in 1928. Electric-welded pipe pas intro- procedures. Then, at the eleventh hour, the environ-
duced shortly after. The two types of pipe still compete mentalists shook their heads and said, The welds
against one another. arent strong enough. They then established new spec-
At the 1934 Oil Show in Tulsa, a new speed record ifications for higher strength welds. The call went out
in pipeline welding was set when an automatic oxy- for a cellulosic electrode that would meet these new
acetylene welding system made a circumferential weld specs. Only one could be located at the time: it was an
in 6.4-mm (1/4-in.) wall, 305-mm (12-in.) diameter E8 1OG electrode from Thyssen, Germany, called Phoe-
pipe in 8 minutes. The equipment was a product of the nix Cell 80. Before the project was completed, more
Linde Air Products Company. than 1.5 million pounds of this electrode were con-
Arc Welding sumed in the fabrication of the Alaska pipeline. Of that
It was just about at that time, however, tihat acety- total, some 550000 pounds were flown in directly
from Germany to Alaska in an emergency airlift.
lene welding met its match: a very crude covered elec-
trode. Some of the core wires of these electrodes were Later in the construction phase, trouble arose over a
little more than rusty wire, a wire similar to the type certain section of pipeline which had not been
used for cattle fencing. In some instances, the elec- inspected properly. Unfortunately, a reporter with one
trode covering was wet newspaper, but it welded pipe of the wire services misinterpreted the situation, and
much faster than any acetylene welding system. the next day newspapers across the country were run-
The first electric welding used to construct new ning headlines to the effect that there were 30 000
steel roofs on large oil field tanks was done by Weld- defective welds in the Alaska pipeline. The Welding
ing Engineering Company (later known as H. C. Institute interceded and convinced the officials to have
Price). The emergence of shielded metal arc welding some of the weldments examined on a fitness-for-
electrodes in the early 1930s made it possible to weld purpose basis at the National Bureau of Standards
entire field storage tanks for the petroleum industry. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technol-
This change in joining technique dramatically ogy) in Boulder, Colorado. Using fracture mechanics
improved the tanks evaporation elimination and fire equipment, engineers there proved that the welds in
protection. question were adequate for the intended service.
The Alaska Pipeline
Prior to the construction of the Alaska pipeline, new
pipe mills were being opened throughout the country.
Stories about the Alaska pipeline continued for Bethlehem Steel held a major press conference in the
years: how some welders were making $90000 per late 1940s to celebrate the grand opening of its new
year, or about the tremendous job rush to Alaska from pipe mill at Steelton, Pennsylvania. It was one of the
the lower 48. One of the best reports on the pipeline first users of submerged arc welding.
appeared in National Geographic; it contained a fair
amount of information on welding. This important A prominent inventor, a man named Wally Rudd,
was making news with his patented high-frequency
project involved the joining of 1.2-m (48-in.) diameter,
resistance welding process. The first installation was
12.7-mm (112411.) wall, high-strength steel pipe. The
pipe had been made in Japan since no American pipe at Alcan, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, in 1955 for lon-
gitudinal welding of 2- to 6-inch diameter aluminum
mill was equipped to handle such a large size.
irrigation pipe. The first installation of the process at a
Severe weather conditions added to the usual con-
steel pipe mill was at Republic Steel Company in
struction problems.
1956. This particular invention was known as the
This was also a project in which organizations con- Thermatool process.
cerned with the environment interjected a major voice.
At one point, trenching had to be stopped completely The ASME Code
because the workers had come upon a polar bear in On May 2, 1930, the first fusion welded boiler drum
hibernation. What to do? After weeks of consultation was tested to destruction at Combustion Engineering,
with all sorts of experts, the decision was made to Inc., Chattanooga, Tennessee. Shielded metal arc elec-
leave the bear alone and to trench around him. trodes produced by C-E were used to fabricate the
Environmental organizations were also involved, boiler drum. Actual fabrication was performed by the
indirectly and early in the project, with the selection Hedges-Walsh-Weidner Company, a wholly owned
of welding electrodes. Metallurgists and welding subsidiary of Combustion Engineering. Thirteen
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 625
months later, the ASME code committee adopted new ating station in the United States. It was built by Com-
rules approving the use of welding for boiler drum bustion Engineering to Section I rules. The next ones
construction. On June 22, 1931, Combustion Engi- were built to Section VI11 rules. Then, finally, Section
neering shipped the first commercial land boiler fabri- I11 came into existence.
cated to these ASME code welding requirements to Industry ran into a series of welding problems in
the Fisher Body Division of General Motors Corpora- nuclear fabrication, but only because no one had expe-
tion. The facility was named a National Historic rience in this field. Electroslag welding was tried, but
Mechanical Engineering Landmark by ASME in 1980. given up. Strip cladding was first used. There were
The Brown Paper Company, Monroe, Louisiana, is problems with the copper coating on submerged arc
credited with being the first customer to have received welding wire. Embrittling effects were brought on as a
a fusion-welded power boiler drum for naval vessels result of radiation on the copper. Then there was stress
that had been constructed under a specification corrosion cracking of the boiling water reactors. To
adopted by the U.S. Navy. The rules were not unlike solve these problems, preferential alloying was used to
those written for the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel improve the toughness.
Code committee. This occurred in 1930, during the
great years. The Auto Capital of the World
The creation of the ASME Boiler Code was a great Detroit is not only the hub of automobile manufac-
milestone in the history of quality control and one in turing, it is also the scene where the largest amount of
which welding was heavily involved. A. M. Greene, welding in the entire world takes place, including both
Jr., referred to the period at the end of the 1920s and arc welding and resistance welding. One might say
the beginning of the 1930s as the great years in the that the two came together coincidentally around the
history of the Code. His first reason for calling those turn of the century when John C. Lincoln, the founder
particular years great was the advent of fusion weld- of The Lincoln Electric Company, built an electric
ing. During the period of 1928 to 1931, he said, weld- automobile and initiated the manufacture of equip-
ing was meeting the long service life expectations of ment to recharge the batteries for such vehicles. The
designers and fabricators for the shells and compo- use of welding for the manufacture of automobiles,
nents of boilers and pressure vessels. however, did not take place until many years later. The
One of the early methods used for weld testing by Ford Motor Company, for example, continued to rivet
Code fabricators was one called tapping, which its cars until 1934, when arc welding was first used to
appeared to have been a very low technology version join the frames together. Then in 1937, Ford started to
of acoustic emission. In the late 1920s, one might see use resistance spot welding. The first all-welded Ford
inspectors tapping weld joints with hammers, and automobile came out in 1949. Both arc and resistance
listening to the sound through stethoscopes. If the welding were used.
sound were a dead one, the weld was thought to be At the front end of the car, there were those who
defective. wanted to see an aluminum radiator. R. L. Peaslee said
Nuclear Power vacuum brazing was used for aluminum radiators to
The worlds first large-scale nuclear electric power prevent the erosion that had been taking place when
generating station went on line in 1956 at Calder Hall, the brazing of aluminum was processed in molten flux
West Cumberland, England. At the time, this plant was salt baths. If any salt remained on the part after clean-
described in a book entitled Wonders of the World as ing, corrosion problems would occur. The first alumi-
one of the seven wonders of the modern world. num radiator produced by vacuum brazing was done
The Vallecitos boiling water reactor, near Pleasan- by Harrison Radiator in New Jersey.
ton, California, the first privately owned and operated In the early 1960s, C. J. Miller of General Electrics
nuclear power plant, started to deliver significant aerospace group in Philadelphia discovered that a
quantities of electricity to the public utility grid in magnesium content in the cladding or brazing alloy
1957. General Electric, Pacific Gas and Electric, and was the agent that made vacuum brazing of aluminum
Bechtel collaborated on this effort. The reactor was work. Miller filed five or six patents in this general
named a historic landmark by the ASME in 1987. area. GE never pursued the vacuum brazing process
The Shippingport, Pennsylvania, Atomic Power commercially, but instead licensed companies to use
Station was the first commercial central electric gener- the technology and collected royalties from its use.
626 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
Recently, aluminum components have begun to be investment castings. As a result, these components are
specified in some automobiles. At Ford Mbtor Com- still joined by electron beam welding.
pany, aluminum hoods, deck-lids, and fdmders are In the United States, the fuselages and wings of alu-
specified for various vehicles. Weld bonding (the tech- minum aircraft have always been joined by various
nique of making resistance spot welds through epoxy) types of mechanical fastening devices. In the past,
is starting to be used in the production of automobiles attempts have made to build welded aircraft. One
having aluminum components. It is interesting that attempt took place in the 1930s in Philadelphia when
this is the same basic process used for years by the the Edward G. Budd Company fabricated a welded
Russians in the fabrication of their aircraft. stainless steel airplane. Called Pioneer, Budds stain-
Robots less airplane was flown successfully. The plane has
The first robot for resistance spot welding within since earned a permanent spot at the Franklin Institute
the Ford Motor Company went into operation in 1961. in Philadelphia. Budd was convinced that stainless
The robot was built by AM Industries. By 1994, there steel had a great future in transportation. Years later,
were more than 500 robots used to control resistance the Budd Company won the first contract to build
spot welding in the automotive industry. Metroliner passenger cars for the Northeast corridor.
According to Joseph Engelberger, the chairman and They were also welded from stainless steel.
chief executive officer of TRC, Danbury, Connecticut, Rocket to the Moon
the first robots for resistance spot welding at General On May 18, 1969, the Apollo I O manned spacecraft,
Motors (there were two of them) were installed in our rocket to the moon was fired into space. The
1964. Two years later, GM placed an order for 66 Uni- vehicles main weld was 10 m (33 ft) long, made by
mate robots from Unimation to be used in its new automatic gas tungsten arc welding. The vehicles
Lordstown, Ohio, plant. They were hydraulically oper- command module consisted of an outer heat shield of
ated and used for resistance spot welding. PH 1408 Mo stainless steel honeycomb, and an inner
The early work on electric robots was conducted by cabin was made from 2014-T6 and 6061-T6 alumi-
Victor Scheinman and several associates in Mountain num. Thicknesses were in the 1.5 mm (0.060 in.)
View, California. Their first electric arm was called the range.
Stanford arm. With backing from General Motors, Some 24600 cm (9700 in.) of gas tungsten arc
Unimation finally introduced the Puma electric robot welding were used to join the heat shield assembly.
in the early 1970s. The equipment operated on direct current, straight
The Early Days of the Jet Engine polarity. Gas shielding consisted of an argonhelium
There is a long history of successful welding of jet mixture. A total of 63 individual welds, measuring up
to 9400 cm (3700 in.) in total length, were made on the
engine components. In the 1970s, the production lines
at one of General Electric Aircraft Engines plants was inner cabin.
manned by more than 400 certified welders. A light- The other component for the Apollo 10 was the
weight engine of the 1958 period, the 5-79, featured spacecrafts Lunar Module. This component was made
rolled and flash-welded flanges or frames. Two major mostly of 2219 aluminum; it, too, was welded by the
applications there were gas tungsten arc welding of automatic gas tungsten arc process. Manufacturing
large diameter A286 steel turbine frames using a Has- records indicated that only 15.2 cm (6 in.), or
telloy W filler metal, and the welding of a Chromalloy 0.0007%, out of a total of 2950 cm (8640 in.) of welds
alloy steel front frame. The Chromalloy material was had to be repaired on five Lunar Modules.
developed by GE. The 5-79 engine powered the F-4 In terms of welding on the Apollo, probably the
fighter aircraft and the B-58 bomber. A commercial largest participant was Sciaky Brothers, Inc., Chicago.
derivative, the CJ-805 engine, powered the Convair After the mission was accomplished, Sciaky received
880. a congratulatory letter from the prime contractor of the
Unfortunately, the role of welding in the fabrication Apollo program, the Space Division of North Ameri-
of the jet engine is on the decline. Replacing it in many can Rockwell Corporation, Downey, California.
areas, particularly the rolled and welded frames, are Signed by Dale D. Myers, vice president, the letter
improved investment castings; however, the titanium stated:
fan frames for other engines, especially those specified Your firmS extensive welding contribution to
for the Boeing 747, are too big to be made out of the Apollo program is most highly commended.
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 627
Welding continues to play a vital role in aerospace. cost became so high that welders were called upon
One of the more recent innovations in the Space to attach sheet metal sections made out of these
Shuttle program, for example, has been the develop- expensive materials to the internals of many vessels.
ment and use by NASA of the variable polarity plasma The technique soon became known as wallpapering,
arc welding (VPPAW) machine in the fabrication of and it is moving into other areas of construction as
the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen fuel tanks. well.
These welding machines reduce distortion; reduce the
Railroads
original requirement of from 6 to 12 weld passes to 1
or 2 passes; and eliminate the need for precise joint In the 1930s, when the shift began from bolted to
fitup. continuous welded rail, many of the processes were
Structural Welding used: first oxyacetylene, then gas pressure welding.
Other processes, including submerged arc, gas metal
Welding has been important to the fabrication of
arc, and electroslag welding, have all been tried. At
buildings and bridges for many years. In 1928, for
present, resistance flash welding and thermite welding
instance, the steel framework for the four-story Upper
are generally used.
Carnegie Building was erected in Cleveland. The
115 tons of steel required was estimated to have been Electrodes with Extruded Coatings
15% less than that required for a riveted design. A. 0. Smith Corp. made two important contribu-
Welded construction received a lot of public atten- tions to the welding industry in 1927. One was the pro-
tion in the mid 1960s with the John Hancock building duction of solid electrodes with extruded coatings for
in Chicago. Big John, as it was referred to during its arc welding. The other was resistance flash welding
construction, eclipsed the Empire State Building in equipment capable of producing longitudinal seams of
Manhattan as the worlds tallest building. 440-foot lengths of large-diameter pipe in 30 seconds.
American Welding Society Structural Code Low-hydrogen coatings were first used on stainless
The popular AWS D l .1, Structural Welding Code- steel electrodes during the 1930s. The Germans were
Steel, officially came into existence in 1972, though it using a 25Cr/20Ni electrode to weld armor plate. The
traces its beginnings to 1928 when the Code for U.S. Navy wanted industry to develop a similar elec-
Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building Con- trode in this country. This was done at the Philadelphia
struction was first published by the American Welding Navy Yard. Then, in 1942, the War Production Board
Society. D1.1, as it is familiarly known throughout announced it wanted a cutback in the use of chromium
the steel construction industry, has become the bible and nickel, so al9Cr/9Ni electrode was developed.
of that industry. The newer D1.2, Structural Welding The low-hydrogen concept was then used on elec-
Code-Aluminum, traces its origin to the same 1928 trodes for welding armor plate in about the same time
Code. period. These types of coverings were finally applied
Utilities and the Environment to low-alloy steel electrodes.
During the depression years, welding was relied on The first commercially available iron powder low-
heavily for the fabrication of the huge electrical gener- hydrogen steel electrode was introduced by Alloy
ating complex known as the Tennessee Valley Author- Rods in 1953. It was called Atom Arc.
ity. Much more would be asked of welding by the Process Development
utilities in subsequent years. For example, the nations
concern with acid rain opened up a new market for One inventor who played a significant role in the
welding. The new market was the fabrication of flue early days of the industrial revolution was Elihu
gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers for certain utili- Thomson. In 1877 Thomson read a paper at the Frank-
ties throughout the country. The plants in question lin Institute in Philadelphia describing his experiments
were burning high-sulfur coal. Effluent from these with an induction coil. Eight years later, he was
plants drifted hundreds of miles away, damaging for- awarded a patent (the first) on resistance welding.
ests and lakes. Many of the FGD scrubbers were as Credit for the first complete description of spray
large as the electrical generating plants themselves. transfer; arc welding is given to Albert Muller, Glenn
The environments within the scrubbers were so severe J. Gibson and Nelson E. Anderson. Their Patent, No.
that designers were soon designating high-nickel and 2,504,868, was awarded on April 18, 1950. It was
titanium alloys as major materials of construction. The assigned to the Air Reduction Sales Company.
628 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) approximately 130 high-vacuum EBW machines were
The two versions of flux cored arc wqlding, gas delivered to customers in the United States.
shielded and self shielded, were both developed in the General Motors Corporation decided to use the
late 1950s. The gas shielded version was dedleloped by EBW process to weld the Type 409 stainless steel
Arthur Bernard, president of Bernard Welding Equip- catalytic converters at its AC Spark Plug Division in
ment Company. A manufacturer of welding torches, Milwaukee. 'The converters were produced to satisfy
Bernard had no interest in entering the market on a the needs for GM's passenger cars and trucks. After
full-fledged basis; instead, he sold the rights to his several decades of operation, these EBW machines are
invention to the National Cylinder Gas Company. The finally being replaced by gas metal arc welding
self-shielded version of flux cored arc welding was machines, chiefly because of the high cost of mainte-
developed by Tom Black, a research engineer at Lin- nance on the EBW machines. Unfortunately, electron
coln Electric Company. beam welding had one main drawback. For the process
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) to work at its best, welding had to take place inside a
vacuum chamber.
Originally known as Heliarc welding, gas tungsten
arc welding was invented by Russell Meredith, an Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
engineer working for Northrup Aircraft during World Though it took many years, EBW finally met its
War 11. The first paper on the process appeared in the match in laser beam welding. The laser does not have
Welding Journal in 1941. Meredith was awarded three to operate inside a vacuum. Early enthusiasm for the
patents on the process, the first of which was Patent laser even resulted in a system designed to weld an
No. 413,711, issued on February 24, 1942. The objec- entire car body. This system was ahead of its time,
tive had been to develop a process to weld magnesium although there are many lasers in automotive produc-
without the use of flux. On June 15, 1942, Meredith tion lines, welding parts both under the hood and on
was presented with the prestigious Award of Merit by the body.
Frank Knox, Secretary of the Navy. That same year In 1990, Gillette set up 30 industrial lasers in pro-
Northrup Aircraft licensed the Linde Air Products duction lines around the world to make the disposable
Company to further develop and market the process. shaving cartridges for its Sensor razor. The laser beam
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
welding machines were 250W Nd:YAG units from
Lumonics Corporation, Livonia, Michigan. In order to
The 1960s were exciting years for proponents of meet quotas, a requirement of 3 million micro spot
electron beam welding (EBW). Numerous high-tech welds per hour had to be met, and it was met.
manufacturing companies bought electron beam weld-
ing machines, placed them in R&D, and made them Fiber Optics. The science of fiber optics has found
the high points of plant tours. In production, some of interesting uses in the welding industry. One of its first
the feats and near-feats were amazing. Entire wing uses was for visual inspection of welds located in
sections for military aircraft were electron-beam hard-to-approach areas. Fiber optics is now being used
welded within a huge 32-foot long, 10-1/2-foot-wide, to transmit beams emanating from Nd:YAG lasers for
8-foot tall chamber, built by Sciaky Brothers at Grum- welding and cutting. One application of fiber optics
man Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage, N.Y. This ver- enables welders to repair large valves inside naval ves-
sion of EBW traced its beginnings to the French sels by taking the fiber optics cable through the hatch,
Atomic Energy Commission. Some of the first infor- avoiding cutting sections from the ships big enough to
mation about this particular process started to appear allow the valve to be removed and transported to a
in trade publications about 1957. It was being used in regular repair facility. Equipment based on this princi-
France to weld nuclear components. ple is starting to appear on automotive manufacturing
Predating the French work, an electron beam device lines to replace resistance spot welding.
was reported in Germany in 1948. In 1959, a scaled-up Laser Beam Patents. In 1958, Charles Towns and
high-vacuum version of the German process was Arthur Scala of Bell Laboratories delivered a paper
delivered to an aerospace company in the United, that proposed a basic structure for a device that would
States. Eventually the German technology, sold in produce laser light, but the first operable laser beam
Europe by Zeiss, was absorbed in this country by the welding machines'were based on a ruby laser and were
Hamilton Standard Division of United Aircraft Cor- operated by Ted Maiman at Hughes Aircraft in 1960.
poration. During the period from 1960 to 1964, The COz laser and the neodymium: yttrium aluminum
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 629
garnet (nd:YAG) laser were both invented in 1964 at in 1966 to Schwitzer, used in the manufacture of tur-
Bell Laboratories. C. K. N. Pate1 invented the C 0 2 bochargers.
laser.
Inverters
In 1968, a C 0 2 laser was built at the Everett
Research Laboratory. This unit appeared to be One of the more important developments in power
scalable to a high-power process. United Technolo- sources for arc welding has been the inverter. In 1974,
gies Research Center made deep penetration welds in the U.S. Maritime Commission expressed interest in
1/4 inch thick steel using a C 0 2 laser. The patent situ- the development of a portable 300-ampere welding
ation pertaining to lasers, however, continues to be power source using inverter technology. Jim Thommes
extremely complicated. was the chief designer of a first-generation prototype
unit based on transistors. Almost immediately after it
Electroslagand Electrogas Welding
was completed, a second-generation prototype was
During the height of the Cold War in the 1950s, also developed, this one using semiconductors. The
electroslag welding made its debut in the United States goal had been to develop an inverter power source that
in 1959 through a rather circuitous route. This verti- could be passed through ship hatches.
cal up system was introduced in this country by the
Arcos Corporation, which had obtained it from an OxyacetyleneCutting
affiliate in Belgium, which had obtained it from the In the early years of metalworking expansion, oxy-
Bratislava Institute of Welding in Czechoslovakia, acetylene cutting was found to be an extremely useful
which had obtained it from the inventor, the Paton process. One incident involving oxyacetylene cutting
Institute of Electric Welding in Kiev, the Ukraine. occurred in 1908, when crews were trying to dismantle
Many refinements and modifications have been made the Quebec bridge, which had fallen into the St.
to the electroslag unit, resulting in machines capable Lawrence River. They had tried dynamite, but that
of meeting the standards of United States industry. didnt work. Finally, a sales engineer and a few other
In 1976, the American Bureau of Shipping joined individuals succeeded in dismantling the bridge using
with the Maritime Administration to conduct an inves- manual torches. Two years later, the same process was
tigation to determine the limitations on the use of elec- used to dismantle the boilers of the battleship Ken-
troslag and electrogas welding. Recently developed tucky while it was moored at the Norfolk Naval Ship-
flux cored electrodes, lower heat input values and yard. Workers had already spent three months trying to
faster travel speeds have improved these processes. do the job with cold chisels and hacksaws, but were
ExplosionWelding able to do very little dismantling. Using oxyacetylene
The early work in explosion welding was conducted torches, the boilers were dismantled in 10 days.
at an underground site in New Jersey by the E. I. Plasma Arc Cutting
Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc. An interesting
Plasma arc cutting was displayed publicly in 1956.
application of this technology came about when Du
The equipment consisted essentially of a gas tungsten
Pont prepared specially designed transition pieces
between aluminum and steel for the United States arc welding torch with an arc-constricting nozzle. First
Coast Guard. Using these pieces, the Coast Guard was developed to cut aluminum, the process was expanded
able to attach aluminum superstructures to steel ships to cut stainless steel and other metals.
by welding the aluminum side of the transition joint to The Gleeble from Duffers Associates
the superstructure and the steel side to the steel deck- An important development in weld testing occurred
ing. Other types of ships soon took advantage of this in the mid 1950s, when two professors and one gradu-
new technology. ate student at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute devel-
Friction Welding oped an instrument capable of simulating and
The first friction welding machine used in the auto- analyzing temperature excursions in weld heat-
motive industry was built by AMF Industries. It went affected zones. It provided badly needed data. Nick-
into operation in a Ford Motor Company plant in Indi- named the Gleeble, it was invented by Ernest
anapolis, where it was used to weld SAE 5140 steel Nippes, Warren Savage and Hugo Ferguson. A com-
steering worms to SAE 1010 carbon steel shafts. Cat- pany, Duffers Associates, was formed to market the
erpillar Tractor sold its first inertia welding machines Gleeble. Ferguson became its president.
630 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
, ..._
1
Plasma arc hotwire claddingis used to build up the thicknessof metal for hardfacing to increase wear
resistance
Appendix 2
Major Associations of the Welding Industry
Abrasives Engineering Society (AES) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
108 Elliott Drive 11 West 42nd Street
Butler, PA 16001-1118 13th Floor
tel. (412) 282-6210 New York, NY 10036-8002
fax (412) 282-6210 tel. (212) 642-4900
fax (212) 398-0023
Aluminum Association (AA)
900 19th Street, N.W. American Petroleum Institute (API)
Suite 300 1220 L Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20006 Washington, DC 20005-8029
tel. (202) 862-5100 tel. (202) 682-8000
fax (202) 862-5164 fax (202) 682-8115
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) American Railway Engineering Association (AREA)
444 N. Capital Street, N.W. 50 F Street, N.W.
Suite 249 Suite 7702
Washington, DC 20001 Washington, D.C. 20001-2183
tel. (202) 624-5800 tel. (202) 639-2190
fax (202) 624-5806 fax (202) 639-2183
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Two World Trade Center 1711 Arlingate Lane
106th Floor P.O. Box 28518
New York, NY 10048 Columbus, OH 43228-0518
tel. (212) 839-5000 tel. (614) 274-6003
fax (212) 839-5130 fax (614) 274-6899
American Gas Association (AGA) American Society for Quality Control (ASQC)
1515 Wilson Boulevard P.O. Box 3005
Arlington, VA 22209 611 East Wisconsin Avenue
tel. (703) 841-8400 Milwaukee, WI 53201-3005
fax (703) 841-8406 tel. (414) 272-8575
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and fax (414) 272-1734
Petroleum Engineers (AIME) American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
345 East 47th Street 100 Barr Harbor Drive
New York, NY 10017 W. Conshohocken, PA 19428
tel. (212) 705-7695 tel. (610) 832-9686
fax (212) 371-9622 fax (610) 832-9668
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
One E. Wacker Drive American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Suite 3100 345 East 47th Street
Chicago, IL 60601-2001 New York, NY 10017
tel. (312) 670-2400 tel. (212) 705-7496
fax (312) 670-5403 fax (212) 355-0608
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
1101 17th Street, N.W. 345 East 47th Street
Washington, DC 20036-4700 New York, NY 10017-2392
tel. (202) 452-7100 tel. (212) 705-7722
fax (202) 463-6573 fax (212) 705-7674
63I
632 Appendix 2 Welding Encyclopedia
P
ultrasonic soldering ............USS -nonvacuum ..................EBW-NV
wave soldering ................... WS electroslag welding .............ESW
THERMAL
SPRAYING flow welding ........................ FLOW
flash welding ....................... FW CU'ITING
induction welding ................IW
projection welding ...............PW ( T W laser beam welding ............LBW
resistance seam welding ....RSEW percussion welding .............PEW
-high frequency .............RSEW-HF thermite welding .................TW
-induction ...................... RSEW-I
resistance spot welding ......RSW
upset welding ..................... UW oxyacetylene welding
-high frequency .............UW-HF oxyhydrogen welding ..........OHW
-induction ...................... UW-I
634
Appendix 4
Welding lest Positions
PLATES HORIZONTAL PLATES VERTICAL:
AXIS OF WELD
HORIZONTAL
PLATES VERTICAL:
AXIS OF WELD
VERTICAL PLATES HORIZONTAL
THROAT OF WELD
AXIS OF WELD
VERTICAL
.
HORIZONTAL
0
AXIS OF WELD
HORIZONTAL
NOTE: ONE PLATE MUST
BE HORIZONTAL
635
636 Appendix 4 Welding Encyclopedia
ii-M
15" 15' (e) TEST POSITION2G LI-4
15" 15"
PIPE OR TUBE HORIZONTAL FIXED (*15") AND NOT ROTATED DURING WELDING.
WELD FLAT, VERTICAL, OVERHEAD.
RESTRICTION RING
45"*50
BEVEL-GROOVE U-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE V-GROOVE
FLARE-V-GROOVE EDGE-FLANGE
J-GROOVE BRAZE
SQUARE-GROOVE
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET V-GROOVE
BEVEL-GROOVE PLUG
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SLOT
FLARE-V-GROOVE SPOT
J-GROOVE SEAM
SQUARE-GROOVE PROJECTION
U-GROOVE BRAZE
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET SLOT
BEVEL-GROOVE SPOT
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE PROJECTION
SQUARE-GROOVE BRAZE
PLUG
(C) TJOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
FILLET SLOT
BEVEL-GROOVE SPOT
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE PROJECTION
PLUG BRAZE
APPLICABLE WELDS
BEVEL-GROOVE U-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE V-GROOVE
FLARE-V-GROOVE EDGE
J-GROOVE SEAM
SQUARE-GROOVE
638
Appendix 6
Weld Joint Preparation
GROOVE FACE
GROOVE FACE^
639
640 Appendix 6 WeldinQ Encyclopedia
7, / GROOVE
j L E
ANGLE
B E T
GROOVE RADIUS
GROOVE
BEVEL4
-i
ANGLE
DEPTH OF BEVEL
(C)
ANGLE '
OPEN"% Lc GROOVE
RADIUS
BEVEL ANGLE
(E) (0
Section 2-Bevel Angle, Depth of Bevel, Groove Angle, Groove Radius, and Root Opening
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 6 641
APPLICABLE WELDS
I DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-BEVEL-FLARE-GROOVE
DOUBLE-J-GROOVE
SINGLE-J-GROOVE
SQUARE-GROOVE
EDGE
(A) SQUARE EDGE SHAPE SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE FILLET
SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE BRAZE
APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
SINGLE-V-GROOVE
BRAZE
(B) SINGLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-V-GROOVE
APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-J-GROOVE
SINGLE-U-GROOVE
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-J-GROOVE
DOUBLE-U-GROOVE
n APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE PROJECTION
SINGLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE SEAM
EDGE SPOT
FILLET BRAZE
IF) FLANGED EDGE SHAPE
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE
BRAZE
GROOVE
I
SQUARE SCARF V BEVEL
v
U J
-- I-----
=I
FLARE-V FLARE-BEVEL
---F;-- h
FILLET
PLUG
OR STUD
SPOT
OR SEAM
BACK
OR SURFACING
FLANGE I
SLOT PROJECTION BACKING EDGE CORNER
642
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 7 643
SPECIFICATION,
PROCESS, OR
OTHERREFERENCE
TAIL (OMITTED
WHEN REFERENCE
ISNOTUSED)----.--] I / / /
WELD SYMBOL i/ //-(N)
L NUMBER OF SPOT, SEAM,
REFERENCE
LINE
/
-ARROW CONNECTING
REFERENCE LINE TO
ARROW SIDE MEMBER
STUD, PLUG, SLOT,
OF JOINT OR ARROW
OR PROJECTION WELDS
SIDE OF JOINT
I
CONTOUR
WELD ALL MELT
FIELD WELD THROUGH
AROUND
P-
Figure 7-3-Supplementary Symbols
Appendix 8
WelB Discontinuities
-TOECRACKS
/ UNDERBEAD CRACKS
UNDERBEAD CRACKS
(B)
UNDERCUT
OVERLAP
UNDERFILL
UNDERFILL
c
Appendix 9
Types of Weld Cracks
LEGEND:
1 CRATER CRACK
2 FACE CRACK
3 HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACK
4 LAMELLAR TEAR
5 LONGITUDINAL CRACK
6 ROOT CRACK
7 ROOT SURFACE CRACK
8 THROAT CRACK
9 TOE CRACK
10 TRANSVERSECRACK
11 UNDERBEADCRACK
12 WELD INTERFACE CRACK
13 WELD METAL CRACK
645
Appendix 10
Torch Nomenclature
ELECTRODE -
SHIELDING GAS SI
i /
- CONSTRICTING
NOZZLE
GAS NOZZLE
PLENUM
CHAMBER
CONSTRICTING
ORIFICE LENGTH ELECTRODE
SETBACK
CONSTRICTING ORlF
DIAMETER
DISTANCE WORKPIECE
(A)
PLASMA ARC TORCH NOMENCLATURE
BACK CAP -- a
GAS
NOZZLE
y r ELECTRODE EXTENSION
STANDOFF
DISTANCE
WORKPIECE
(B)
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH NOMENCLATURE
646
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 10 647
ELECTRODE
GUIDE TUBE
MOLTEN SLAG
ELECTRODE
WELD POOL
WELD METAL
BACKING
SHOE
COMPLETED
. I
BASE METAL
I
(C)
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR ELECTROSLAG WELDING
PROCESS NOMENCLATURE
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE
STANDOFF
WORKPIECE 7 DISTANCF \ t
1 ,\ ARC LENGTH
(D)
GAS METAL ARC WELDING GUN NOMENCLATURE
Appendix 11
Weld Sizes
<
A
V
CONVEXITY
THEORETICAL THROAT-
(e) CONCAVE FILLET WELD
A
EFFECTIVE THROAT-
INCOMPLETE FUSION
THEORETICAL THROAT
(C) FILLET WELD WITH INCOMPLETE FUSION
648
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 11 649
ACTUAL THROAT AN
EFFECTIVE THROAT
ROOT OPENING
THEORETICAL THROAT
I
h4
LEG AND SIZE
DEPTH OF FUSION
INCOMPLETE JOINT
PENETRATION
JOINT PENETRATION
ROOT PENETRATION1 r GROOVE WELD SIZE
I
INCOMPLETE JOINT
PENETRATION
t t
ROOT PENETRATION
ROOT PENETRATION (D)
INCOMPLETE JOINT
JOINT PENETRATION GROOVE
r WELD S I Z E 1
I .
E2
650
Appendix 13
Safety
This Appendix covers the basic elements of safety trained to position themselves while welding or cut-
general to all welding, cutting, thermal spraying, and ting so that their heads are not in the gases or fume
related processes. It includes safety procedures com- plume. (Fume plume is the smoke-like cloud contain-
mon to a variety of applications. However, it does not ing minute solid particles arising directly from the area
cover all safety aspects of every process; especially of melting metal). Distinct from gas, fumes are metal-
not those involving sophisticated technology. For this lic vapors that have condensed to solids and are often
reason, the manufacturers literature should be refer- associated with a chemical reaction, such as oxidation.
enced for additional important safety information. Refer to American Welding Society, Fumes and Gases
Safety is an important consideration in all welding, in the Welding Environment: Miami, Florida, 1979.
cutting, and related work. No activity is satisfactorily Certain American Welding Society (AWS) specifi-
completed if someone is injured. The hazards that may cations call for precautionary labels on consumables
be encountered and the practices that will minimize and equipment. These labels concerning the safe use
personal injury and property damage are discussed. of the products should be read and followed. A typical
Management Support. The most important compo-
label is illustrated in Figure 13-1.
nents of an effective safety and health program are
management support and direction. Management must WARNING: PROTECT yourself and others. Read and under-
clearly state objectives and demonstrate its commit- stand this label.
ment to safety and health by consistent execution of FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health. ARC
RAYS can injure eyes and burn. ELECTRIC SHOCK can KILL.
safe practices.
Read and understand the manufacturers Instructions
Management must designate approved areas where and your employers safety practices.
welding and cutting operations may be carried on
Keep your head out of the fumes.
safely. When these operations must be done in other
than designated areas, management must assure that Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the arc, or both, to
keep fumes and gases from your breather zone and
proper procedures are established and followed to pro- the general area.
tect personnel and property. Wear correct eye, ear, and body protection.
Management must be certain that only approved Do not touch live electrical parts.
welding, cutting, and allied equipment is used. Such
See American National Standard 249.1 Safety in
equipment includes torches, regulators, welding Welding and Cutting published by the American
machines, electrode holders, and personal protective Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami, Florida
devices. Adequate supervision must be provided to 33126; OSHA Safety and Health Standards, 29 CFR
1910, available from U.S. Government Printing Office,
assure that all equipment is properly used and Washington, DC 20402.
maintained. DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL
Training. Thorough and effective training is a key
Figure 13-1-Minimum Warning Label for Arc
aspect of a safety program. Adequate training is man-
Welding Processes and Equipment
dated under provisions of the U.S. Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA), especially those of
the Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR Manufacturers of welding consumables must pro-
1910.1200). Welders and other equipment operators vide, on request, a Material Safety Data Sheet
perform most safely when they are properly trained in (MSDS) that identifies those materials present in their
the subject. (The term welder is intended to include all products that have hazardous physical or health prop-
welding and cutting personnel, thermal sprayers, braz- erties. The MSDS provides the OSHA Permissible
ers, and solderers). Proper training includes instruction Exposure Limit (PEL), and any other exposure limit
in the safe use of equipment and processes, and the used or recommended by the manufacturer. Employers
safety rules that must be followed. Personnel need to that use consumables must make the applicable MSDS
know and understand the rules, and the consequences readily available to their employees, as well as train
of disobeying them. For example, welders must be them to read and understand the contents.
65 1
652 Appendix 13 Welding Encyclopedia
The MSDS contain important informatiop about the Protective screens. Persons in areas adjacent to
ingredients contained in welding electrodes1 rods, and welding and cutting must be protected from radiant
fluxes, the composition of fumes which maJ be gener- energy and hot spatter by (1) flame-resistant screens or
ated in their use, and the means to be followed to pro- shields, or (2) suitable eye and face protection and pro-
tect the welder and others from hazards which might tective clothing. Appropriate radiation protective,
be involved. semi-transparent materials are permissible.
Under OSHA Hazard Communication Standard 29 Wall Reflectivity. Where arc welding or cutting is
CFR 1910.1200, employers are responsible for the regularly carried on adjacent to painted walls, the
training of employees with respect to hazardous mate- walls should be painted with a finish having low
rials used in their workplace. Many welding consum- reflectivity of ultraviolet radiation. A reference is
ables are included in the definition of hazardous Ultraviolet Reflectance of Paint, American Welding
materials according to this standard. Welding employ- Society, Miami, Florida: 1976.
ers must comply with the communication and training Finishes formulated with certain pigments, such as
requirements of this standard. titanium dioxide or zinc oxide, have low reflectivity to
The proper use and maintenance of the equipment ultraviolet radiation. Color pigments may be added if
must also be taught. For example, defective or worn they do not increase reflectivity. Pigments based on
electrical insulation cannot be tolerated in arc welding powdered or flaked metals are not recommended
or cutting, nor can defective or worn hoses be used in because they reflect ultraviolet radiation.
oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, brazing, or soldering.
Public Demonstrations. Persons putting on public
Proper training in equipment operation is fundamental
to safe operation. demonstrations involving observation of arc or oxy-
fuel gas welding or cutting processes are responsible
General Housekeeping. Good housekeeping is for the safety of observers and the general public.
essential to avoid injuries. A welders vision is often Observers are not likely to have the necessary protec-
restricted by necessary eye protection. Persons passing tive equipment to let them observe demonstrations
a welding station must shield their eyes from the flame safely. For exhibits involving observation of arc or
or arc radiation. The limited vision of the welder and oxyfuel gas welding and cutting processes, appropriate
passers-by makes them vulnerable to tripping over eye protection for both observers and passers-by is
objects on the floor. Therefore, welders and super- mandatory.
visors must always make sure that the area is clear of Fire. In most welding, cutting, and allied processes,
tripping hazards. Management must lay out the pro- a high-temperature heat source is present. Open
duction area so that gas hoses, cables, mechanical flames, electric arcs, hot metal, sparks, and spatter are
assemblies, and other equipment do not cross walk- ready sources of ignition. Many fires are started by
ways or interfere with routine tasks.
sparks, which can travel horizontally up to 11 m (35 ft)
When work is above ground or floor level, safety from their source and fall much greater distances.
rails or lines must be provided to prevent falls as a Sparks can pass through or lodge in cracks, holes, and
result of restricted vision from eye protection devices. other small openings in floors and walls.
Safety lines and harnesses can be helpful to restrict The risk of fire is increased by combustibles in the
workers to safe areas, and to restrain them in case of a work area, or by welding or cutting too close to com-
fall. bustibles that have not been shielded. Materials most
Unexpected events, such as fire and explosions, do commonly ignited are combustible floors, roofs, parti-
occur in industrial environments. All escape routes tions, and building contents, including trash, wood,
must be identified and kept clear so that orderly, rapid, paper, textiles, plastics, chemicals, and flammable
and safe evacuation of an area can take place. liquids and gases. Outdoors, the most common com-
Protection in the General Area. Equipment, machines,
bustibles are dry grass and brush.
cables, hoses, and other apparatus should always be Hot Work Permit System. When welding, cutting, or
placed so that they do not present a hazard to personnel similar hot working operations are to be performed in
in passageways, on ladders, or on stairways. Warning areas not normally assigned for such operations, a hot-
signs should be posted to designate welding areas, and work permit system should be used. The purpose of
to specify that eye protection must be worn. the hot-work permit system is to alert area supervisors
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 13 653
to an extraordinary danger of fire that will exist at a ProtectiveClothing. Sturdy shoes or boots, and
particular time. The permit system should include a heavy clothing similar to that in Figure 13-2 should be
check list of safety precautions that includes an worn to protect the whole body from flying sparks,
inspection for fire extinguishers, establishment of fire spatter, and radiation burns. Woolen clothing is prefer-
watches if necessary, search for combustible materials, able to cotton because it is not so readily ignited. Cot-
and safety instmctions for personnel in the area who ton clothing, if used, should be chemically treated to
are not involved in the hot work. reduce its combustibility. Clothing treated with nondu-
rable flame retardants must be retreated after each
Explosion. Combustible gases, vapors, and dusts,
washing or cleaning. Clothing or shoes of synthetic or
when mixed with air or oxygen in certain proportions, plastic materials which can melt and cause severe
present danger of explosion as well as fire. To prevent bums should not be worn. Outer clothing should be
explosions, avoid all sources of ignition. Welding, kept free of oil and grease, especially in an oxygen-
brazing, soldering, cutting, or operating equipment rich atmosphere.
that can produce heat or sparks must not be done in
atmospheres containing combustible gases, vapors or
dusts.
Hollow containers must he vented before applying
heat. Heat must not be applied to a container that has
held an unknown material, a combustible substance, or
a substance that may form combustible vapors on
heating. Additional information is given in AWS F4.1,
Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation f o r
Welding and Cutting of Containers and Piping that
Have Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American
Welding Society (latest edition).
Burns. Burns of the eye orbody are serious hazards
of welding, brazing, soldering, thermal coating, and
cutting. Eye, face,and body protection for the operator 0-
Durable gloves of leather or other suitable material American Conference of Governmental Industrial
should always be worn. Gloves not only protect the Hygienists ( ACGIH) in its publications Threshold
hands from burns and abrasion, but also prdvide insu- Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
lation from electrical shock. A variety of sdecial pro- Agents in the Workroom Environment. Persons with
tective clothing is also available for welder$. Aprons, special health problems may have unusual sensitivity
leggings, suits, capes, sleeves, and caps, all of durable that requires even more stringent protection.
materials, should be worn when welding overhead or Fumes and gases are usually a greater concern in
when special circumstances warrant additioqal protec- arc welding than in oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, or
tion of the body. Sparks or hot spatter in the ears can brazing because a welding arc may generate a larger
be particularly painful and serious. Properly fitted, volume of fume and gas, and greater varieties of mate-
flame-resistant ear plugs should be worn whenever rials are usually involved.
operations pose such risks. Protection from excess exposure is usually accom-
Noise. Excessive noise, particularly continuous plished by ventilation. Where exposure would exceed
noise at high levels, can damage hearing. It may cause permissible limits with available ventilation, respira-
either temporary or permanent hearing loss. U.S. tory protection must be used. Protection must be pro-
Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health vided not only for the welding and cutting personnel
Administration regulations describe allowable noise but also for other persons in the area.
exposure levels. Requirements of these regulations Refer to Industrial Ventilation,A Manual of Recom-
may be found in General Industry Standards, 29 CFR mended Practice, Cincinnati: American Conference of
1910.95. Governmental Industrial Hygienists (latest edition).
In welding, cutting, and allied operations, noise Arc Welding. Fumes and gases from arc welding and
may be generated by the process or the equipment, or cutting cannot be classified simply. Their composition
both. Additional information is presented in Arc Weld- and quantity depend on the base metal composition;
ing and Cutting Noise. Miami: American Welding the process and consumables used; coatings on the
Society, latest,edition. Processes that tend to have high work, such as paint, galvanizing, or plating; contami-
noise levels are air carbon arc and plasma afic cutting. nants in the atmosphere, such as halogenated hydro-
Engine-driven generators sometimes emit a high noise carbon vapors from cleaning and degreasing activities;
level, as do some high-frequency and inductlion weld- and other factors.
ing power sources. Various gases are generated during welding. Some
Machinery Guards. Welders and other workers must are products of the decomposition of fluxes and elec-
be protected from injury by machinery and equipment trode coatings. Others are formed by the action of arc
that they are operating, or by other machinery operat- heat or ultraviolet radiation emitted by the arc on
ing in the work area. Moving components and drive atmospheric constituents and contaminants. Poten-
belts must be covered by guards to prevent physical tially hazardous gases include carbon monoxide,
contact. Workers must be protected against accidental oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and phosgene or other
entry into the working envelope of a robot. decomposition products of chlorinated hydrocarbons,
Because welding helmets and dark filter lenses such as phosgene.
restrict the visibility of welders, they may be even Helium and argon, although chemically inert and
more susceptible than ordinary workers to injury from nontoxic, are simple asphyxiants, and can dilute the
unseen, unguarded machinery. Therefore, special atmospheric oxygen concentration to potentially harm-
attention is required to this hazard. ful low levels. Carbon dioxide (CO,) and nitrogen can
Fumes and Gases. Welders, welding operators, and also cause asphyxiation.
other persons in the area must be protected from over- Ozone may be generated by ultraviolet radiation
exposure to fumes and gases produced during welding, from welding arcs. This is particularly true with gas
brazing, soldering, and cutting. Overexposure is expo- shielded arcs, especially when argon is used. Photo-
sure that is hazardous to health, and exceeds the per- chemical reactions between ultraviolet radiation and
missible limits specified by a government agency. chlorinated hydrocarbons result in the production of
Such recognized authorities are the U.S. Department phosgene and other decomposition products.
of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra- Exposure Factors. The single most important factor
tion (OSHA), Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1lOOO; the influencing exposure to fume is the position of the
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 13 655
welders head with respect to the fume plume. When these hazards an air line respirator, hose mask, or gas
the head is in such a position that the fume envelops mask is required.
the face or helmet, exposure levels can be very high. Special Ventilation Situations
Therefore, welders must be trained to keep their heads
Welding in Confined Spaces. Special consideration
to one side of the fume plume. In some cases, the work
can be positioned so the fume plume rises to one side. must be given to the safety and health of welders and
other workers in confined places. Gas cylinders must
Ventilation. Ventilation has a significant influence be located outside of the confined space to avoid pos-
on the amount of fumes in the work area, and hence sible contamination of the space with leaking gases or
the welders exposure. Ventilation may be local, where volatile material. Welding power sources should also
the fumes are extracted near the point of welding, or be located outside to reduce danger of engine exhaust
general, where the shop air is changed or filtered. The and electric shock.
appropriate type will depend on the welding process, A means for removing persons quickly in case of
the material being welded, and other shop conditions. emergency must be provided. Safety belts and life-
Adequate ventilation is necessary to keep the welders lines, when used, should be attached to the workers
exposure to fumes and gases within safe limits. body in a manner that avoids the possibility of the per-
The bulk of fume generated during welding and cut- son becoming jammed in the exit. A trained helper
ting consists of small particles that remain suspended should be stationed outside the confined space with a
in the atmosphere for a considerable time. As a result, preplanned rescue procedure to be put into effect in
fume concentration in a closed area can build up over case of emergency.
time, as can the concentration of any gases evolved or
Welding of Containers. Welding or cutting on the
used in the process. The particles eventually settle on
outside or inside of containers or vessels that have
the walls and floor, but the settling rate is low com-
held dangerous substances presents special hazards.
pared to the generation rate of the welding or cutting
Flammable or toxic vapors may be present, or may be
processes. Therefore, fume concentration must be con-
generated by the applied heat. The immediate area out-
trolled by ventilation.
side and inside the container should be cleared of all
Adequate ventilation is the key to control of fumes obstacles and hazardous materials.
and gases in the welding environments. Natural,
When repairing a container in place, entry of haz-
mechanical, or respirator ventilation must be provided
ardous substances released from the floor or the soil
for all welding, cutting, brazing, and related opera-
beneath the container must be prevented. The required
tions. The ventilation must ensure that concentrations
air-supplied respirators or hose masks are those
of hazardous airborne contaminants are maintained
accepted by the US.Bureau of Mines or other recog-
below recommended levels. These levels must be no
nized agency. For more complete procedures, refer to
higher than the allowable levels specified by the U.S.
AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for the Prep-
Occupational Safety and Health Administration or
aration for Welding and Cutting Containers that Have
other appropriate authorities.
Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American Weld-
Respiratory Protective Equipment. Where natural or ing Society (latest edition). When welding or cutting
mechanical ventilation is not adequate or where toxic inside of vessels that have held dangerous materials,
materials require a supplement to ventilation, respira- the precautions for confined spaces must also be
tory protective equipment must be used. Respirators observed.
with air lines. or face masks that give protection Highly Toxic Materials. Certain materials which are
against all contaminants are generally preferred. Air- sometimes present in consumables, base metals, coat-
supplied welding helmets are also available commer- ings, or atmospheres for welding or cutting operations,
cially. Filter-type respirators, approved by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines for metal fume, give adequate protec- have permissible exposure limits of 1 .Omg/m3 or less.
tion against particulate contaminants that are less toxic Among such materials are the following metals and
than lead, provided they are used and maintained cor- their compounds:
rectly. Their general use is not recommended, how- (1) Antimony
ever, because of the difficulty in assuring proper use (2) Arsenic
and maintenance. They will not protect against mer- (3) Barium
cury vapor, carbon monoxide, or nitrogen dioxide. For (4) Beryllium
656 Appendix 13 Welding Encyclopedia
coatings should be done as described for fluorine Pressure reducing regulators must be used only for
compounds. the gas and pressure stated on the label. They should
Measurement of Exposure
not be used with other gases, or at other pressures,
even though the cylinder valve outlet threads may be
The American Conference of Governmental Indus- the same. The threaded connections to the regulator
trial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the U.S. Department of must not be forced. Improper fit of threads between a
Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration gas cylinder and regulator or between the regulator
(OSHA) have established allowable limits of airborne and hose indicates that an improper combination of
contaminants. They are called threshold limit values devices is being used. Refer to ANSUCGA V- 1, Com-
(TLVs), or permissible exposure limits (PELS). pressed Gas Cylinder Valve Outlet and Inlet Connec-
The TLV (a registered trade mark of the ACGIH) is tions. New York: Compressed Gas Association.
the concentration of an airborne substance to which
most workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after Oxygen. Oxygen is nonflammable but it supports
day, without adverse effect. In adapting these to the the combustion of flammable materials. It can initiate
working environment, a TLV-TWA (Threshold Limit combustion and vigorously accelerate it. Therefore,
Value-Time Weighted Average) quantity is defined. oxygen cylinders and liquid oxygen containers should
TLV-TWA is the time weighted average concentration not be stored in the vicinity of combustibles or with
for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour workweek to cylinders of fuel gas. Oxygen should never be used as
which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed a substitute for compressed air. Pure oxygen supports
without adverse effect. TLV-TWA values should be combustion more vigorously than air, which contains
used as guides in the control of health hazards, and only 20% oxygen. Therefore, the identification of oxy-
should not be interpreted as sharp lines between safe gen and air should be differentiated.
and dangerous concentrations. Oil, grease, and combustible dusts may spontane-
TLVs are revised annually as necessary. They may ously ignite on contact with oxygen. Hence, all sys-
or may not correspond to OSHA permissible exposure tems and apparatus for oxygen service must be kept
limits (PEL) for the same materials. In many cases, free of any combustibles. Valves, piping, or system
current ACGIH values for welding materials are more components that have not been expressly manufac-
stringent than OSHA levels. tured for oxygen service must be cleaned and
The only way to assure that airborne contaminant approved for this service before use. Refer to G4.1,
levels are within the allowable limits is to take air Cleaning Equipment for Oxygen Service; New York:
samples at the breathing zones of the personnel Compressed Gas Association.
involved. An operators actual on-the-job exposure to Apparatus that has been manufactured expressly for
welding fume should be measured following the oxygen service, and is usually so labeled, must be kept
guidelines provided in ANSUAWS F1.1, Method for in the clean condition as originally received.
Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding Oxygen valves, regulators, and apparatus should
and Allied Processes. This document describes how to never be lubricated with oil. If lubrication is required,
obtain an accurate breathing zone sample of welding the type of lubricant and the method of applying the
fume for a particular welding operation. Both the lubricant should be specified in the manufacturers lit-
amount of the fume and the composition of the fume erature. If it is not, then the device should be returned
can be determined in a single test using this method. to the manufacturer or authorized representative for
Multiple samples are recommended for increased service. Oxygen must never be used to power com-
accuracy. When a helmet is worn, the sample should pressed air tools. These are almost always lubricated
be collected inside the helmet in the welders breath- with oil. Similarly, oxygen must not be used to blow
ing zone. dirt from work and clothing because they are often
Regulators. A pressure-reducing regulator should contaminated with oil, grease, or combustible dust.
always be used when withdrawing gas from gas cylin- Only clean clothing should be worn when working
ders for welding or cutting operations. Gas regulators with oxygen systems. Oxygen must not be used to
should meet the requirements of E-4, Standardfor Gas ventilate confined spaces. Severe bums may result
Regulators for Welding and Cutting; New York: Com- from ignition of clothing or the hair in an oxygen-rich
pressed Gas Association, and other code regulations. atmosphere.
658 Appendix 13 Welding Encyclopedia
Fuel Gases. Fuel gases commonly usedlin oxyfuel competent person. As a minimum, the training should
gas welding ( O W ) and cutting (OFC) are^acetylene, include the points covered in ANSYASC 249.1, Safety
methyl-acetylene-propadiene(MPS), natural gas, pro- in Welding and Cutting (published by the American
pane, and propylene. Hydrogen is used in al few appli- Welding Society).
cations. Gasoline is sometimes used as fuel for oxygen Equipment Selection. Electric shock hazards are
cutting. It vaporiees in the torch. These gases should minimized by proper equipment installation and main-
always be referred to by name. tenance, good operator practice, proper operator cloth-
Acetylene in cylinders is dissolved in a solvent so ing and body protection, and the use of equipment
that it can be safely stored under pressure. In the free designed for the job and situation. Equipment should
state, acetylene should never be used at pressures over meet applicable National Electrical Manufacturers
103 kPa (15 psig) because it can dissociate with explo- Association (NEMA) or American National Standards
sive violence at higher pressures. Institute (ANSI) standards, such as ANSI/UL 551,
Acetylene and MPS should never be used in contact Safety Standard for Transformer Type Arc Welding
with silver, mercury, or alloys containing 70% or more Machines, latest edition.
copper. These gases react with these metals to form
When special welding and cutting processes require
unstable compounds that may detonate under shock or
open circuit voltages higher than those specified in
heat.
ANSI/NEMA Publication EW- 1, Electrical Arc Weld-
Valves on fuel gas cylinders should never be opened ing Apparatus, insulation and operating procedures
to clean the valve outlet, especially not near possible
must be provided that are adequate to protect the
sources of flame ignition or in confined spaces. welder from these higher voltages.
Shielding Gases. Argon, helium, nitrogen, and
Installation. Equipment should be installed in a
carbon dioxide (COz) are used for shielding with some
welding processes. All, except carbon dioxide, are clean, dry area. When this is not possible, it should be
used as brazing atmospheres. These gases are odorless adequately guarded from dirt and moisture. Installa-
and colorless and can displace air needed for
tion must be done to the requirements of ANSUNFPA
breathing. 70, National Electric Code, and local codes. This
includes necessary disconnects, fusing, and type of
Confined spaces filled with these gases must be
incoming power lines.
well ventilated before personnel enter them. If there is
any question, the space should be checked first with an Terminals for welding leads and power cables must
oxygen analyzer for adequate oxygen concentration. If be shielded from accidental contact by personnel or by
an analyzer is not available, an air-supplied respirator metal objects, such as vehicles and cranes. Connec-
should be worn by anyone entering the space. Contain- tions between welding leads and power supples may
ers of these gases should not be placed in confined be guarded using (1) dead front construction and
spaces. receptacles for plug connections, (2) terminals located
in a cover, (3) insulating sleeves, or (4)other equiva-
Electrical Safety lent mechanical means.
Electric Shock. Electric shock can cause sudden
death. Injuries and fatalities from electric shock in Wearers of Pacemakers. The technology of heart
welding and cutting operations can occur if proper pacemakers and the extent to which they are influ-
precautionary measures are not followed. Most weld- enced by other electrical devices is constantly chang-
ing and cutting operations employ some type of elec- ing. It is impossible to make a general statement
trical equipment. For example, automatic oxyfuel gas concerning the possible effects of welding operations
cutting machines use electric motor drives, controls, on such devices. Wearers of pacemakers or other elec-
and systems. tronic equipment vital to life should check with the
Some electrical accidents may not be avoidable, device manufacturer or their doctor to determine
such as those caused by lightning. However, the whether any hazard exists.
majority are avoidable, including those caused by lack Grounding. The workpiece being welded and the
of proper training. frame or chassis of all electrically powered machines
A good safety training program is essential. Before must be connected to a good electrical ground.
being allowed to commence operations, welding oper- Grounding can be done by locating the workpiece or
ators must be fully instructed in electrical safety by a machine on a grounded metal floor or platen, or by
1
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 13 659
connecting it to a properly grounded building frame or should not be confused with high-frequency arc stabi-
other satisfactory ground. Chains, wire ropes, cranes, lization equipment used in gas tungsten arc welding
hoists, and elevators must not be used as grounding (GTAW).
connectors or to carry welding current. Laser Beam Welding and Cutting. The basic hazards
The workpiece lead is not the grounding lead. The associated with laser operation are:
workpiece lead connects the work terminal on the (1) Eye damage from the beam, including burns of
power source to the workpiece. A separate lead is the cornea or retina, or both
required to ground the workpiece or power source
(2) Skin bums from the beam
work terminal.
(3) Respiratory system damage from hazardous
Care should be taken when connecting the ground-
materials evolved during operation
ing circuit. Otherwise, the welding current may flow
through a connection intended only for grounding, and
(4)Electrical shock
may be of higher magnitude than the grounding con- (5) Chemical hazards
ductor can safely carry. Special radio-frequency (6) Contact with cryogenic coolants
grounding may be necessary for arc welding machines Laser manufacturers are required to qualify their
equipped with high-frequency arc initiating devices. equipment with the U.S. Bureau of Radiological
Refer to EW- 1, Electric Arc Welding Power Sources, Health (BRH). Electrical components should be in
Section 10.5.6, National Electrical Manufacturers compliance with NEMA standards. User action is gov-
Association. erned by OSHA requirements. In all cases, American
National Standard 2136.1, Safe Use of Lasers (latest
Brazing and Soldering
edition), should be followed.
Hazards encountered in brazing and soldering oper-
ations are similar to those associated with welding and Friction Welding. Friction welding machines are
cutting processes. Brazing and soldering operations similar to machine tool lathes in that one workpiece is
may be done at temperatures where some elements in rotated by a drive system. They are also similar to
the filler metal will vaporize. Personnel and property hydraulic presses in that one workpiece is forced
must be projected against hot materials, gases, fumes, against the other. Therefore, safe practices for lathes
electrical shock, radiation, and chemicals. and power presses should be used as guides for the
It is essential that adequate ventilation be provided design and operation of friction welding machines.
so that personnel do not inhale gases and fumes gener- Explosion Welding. Explosives and explosive
ated during brazing or soldering. Some filler metals devices are a part of explosion welding. Such materi-
and base metals contain toxic materials such as cad- als and devices are inherently dangerous, but there are
mium, beryllium, zinc, mercury, or lead that vaporize safe methods for handling them. However, if the mate-
during brazing. Fluxes contain chemical compounds rials are misused, they can kill or injure operators or
of fluorine, chlorine, and boron that are harmful if they persons in the vicinity, and destroy or damage prop-
are inhaled or contact the eyes or skin. Suitable venti- erty. Explosive materials should be handled and used
lation must be provided to avoid these hazards. only by trained personnel who are experienced in that
High-Frequency Welding. High-frequency genera- field. Handling and safety procedures must comply
tors are electrical devices and require all usual safety with all applicable federal, state, and local regulations.
precautions when handling and repairing such equip- Refer to ANSUNFPA 495, Manufacture, Transporta-
ment. Voltages are in the range from 400 to 20 000 V tion, Storage and Use of Explosive Materials; New
and are lethal. These voltages may be either low or York: American National Standards Institute, latest
high frequency. Proper care and safety precautions edition.
should be taken while working on high-frequency gen- Ultrasonic Welding. With high-power ultrasonic
erators and their control systems. Units must be equipment, high voltages are present in the frequency
equipped with safety interlocks on access doors and converter, the welding head, and the coaxial cable con-
with automatic safety grounding devices to prevent necting these components. Consequently, the equip-
operation of the equipment when access doors are ment should not be operated with the panel doors open
open. The equipment should not be operated with pan- or housing covers removed. Door interlocks are usu-
els or high voltage covers removed or with interlocks ally installed to prevent introduction of power to the
and grounding devices blocked. This equipment equipment when the high-voltage circuitry is exposed.
660 Appendix 13 Welding Encyclopedia
The cables are fully shielded and present ino hazard Adhesive Bonding. Adequate safety precautions
when properly connected and maintained. must be observed with adhesives. Corrosive materials,
Because of hazards associated with the application flammable liquids, and toxic substances are commonly
of clamping force, the operator should not place hands used in adhesive bonding. Therefore, manufacturing
or arms in the vicinity of the welding tip^ when the operations should be carefully supervised to ensure
equipment is energized. For manual opedation, the that proper safety procedures, protective devices, and
equipment should be activated by dual palm buttons protective clothing are being used. Operations should
that meet the requirements of OSHA. comply with all federal, state, and local regulations,
Thermite Welding. Thermite mix, in the crucible or including OSHA Regulation 29CW 1900.1000, Air
on the workpieces, can lead to rapid formation of Contaminants.
steam when the chemical reaction for thermite weld- Severe allergic reactions can result from direct con-
ing takes place. This may cause ejection of molten tact, inhalation, or ingestion of toxic materials such as
metal from the crucible. Therefore, the thermite mix phenolics and epoxies as well as most catalysts and
should be stored in a dry place, the crucible should be accelerators. The eyes or skin may become sensitized
dry, and moisture should not be allowed to enter the over a long period of time even though no signs of irri-
system before or during welding. tation are visible. Once workers are sensitized to a par-
The work area should be free of combustible mate- ticular type of adhesive, they may no longer be able to
rials that may be ignited by sparks or small particles of work near it because of allergic reactions. Careless
molten metal. The area should be well ventilated to handling of adhesives by production workers may
avoid the buildup of fumes and gases from the reac- expose others to toxic materials if proper safety rules
tion. Starting powders and rods should be protected are not observed. For example, coworkers may touch
against accidental ignition. tools, door knobs, light switches, or other objects con-
taminated by careless workers.
Personnel should wear appropriate protection
against hot particles or sparks. This includes full face For the normal individual, proper handling methods
shields with filter lenses for eye protection and head- that eliminate skin contact with an adhesive should be
gear. Safety boots are recommended to protect the feet sufficient. It is mandatory that protective equipment,
from hot sparks. Clothing should not have pockets or barrier creams, or both be used to avoid skin contact
cuffs that might catch hot particles. with certain types of formulations.
Source: American Welding Society, Welding Hand-
Thermal Spraying. The potential hazards to the book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: American
health and safety of personnel involved in thermal Welding Society, 1987.
spraying operations and to persons in the immediate Additional Safety Resources
vicinity are as follows:
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/
(1) Electrical shock
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
(2) Fire
ANSUNFPA 51B, Cutting and Welding Processes,
(3) Fumes and gases Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
(4) Dust
(5) Arc radiation ANSUNFPA S 1, Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Weld-
(6) Noise. ing, Cutting and Allied Processes, Quincy, MA:
These hazards are not unique to thermal spraying National Fire Protection Association.
methods. For example, flame spraying has hazards American Society for Metals, Metals Handbook,
similar to those associated with the oxyfuel gas weld- Vol. 4. Heat Treating. Metals Park, OH: American
ing and cutting processes. Likewise, arc spraying and Society for Metals (latest edition).
plasma spraying are similar in many respects to gas American Welding Society. ANSUASC 249.1, Safety
metal arc and plasma arc welding, respectively. Safe in Welding and Cutting. Miami, Florida: American
practices for these processes should be followed when Welding Society.
thermal spraying with similar equipment. However,
thermal spraying does generate dust and fumes to a -. Arc Welding and Cutting Noise. Miami, FL:
greater degree. Refer to Thermal Spraying: Practice, American Welding Society.
Theory, and Application; Miami, Florida: American -. Arc Welding Safely. Miami, FL: American Weld-
Welding Society, latest edition. ing Society.
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 13 661
662
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 14 663
Table 14-2
Metric Conversion Factors for Common Welding Terms
Table 14-3
Temperature donversion: SI Units H U.S. Customary
I
Degtees Celsius w Degrees Farhenheit
Despite international acceptance and usage of thq Kelvin and the Celsius temperature scales, the Fahrenheit scale continues to be
widely used in the USA, hence the conversion table for "C to "F herewith. The term centigrade should not be used for
temperature because in metric countries this meahs one hundredth part of the unit of plane angle; i.e., the grade. Between the
temperatures of melting ice and boiling water, there are 180"on the Fahrenheit and Rankine scales as compared with 100" on the
Celsius and Kelvin scales. The ration of these numbers is 95, therefore, the following equations apply:
"C = SI9 (OF -32), and, "F = 915 "C = 32"
To use the tables below, enter the central (bold-face) columns with the number to be converted. If converting Fahrenheit degrees,
read the Celsius equivalent in column headed "C" to the left. If converting Celsius degrees, read the Fahrenheit equivalent in the
column headed "F" to the right.
C F C F C F C F
-273 -459 40.0 -40 -40.0 24.4 76 168.8 199 390 734
-268 -450 -34.0 -30 -22.0 25.6 78 172.4 204 400 752
-262 -440 -29.0 -20 -4.0 26.7 80 176.0 210 410 770
-257 -430 -23.0 -10 14.0 27.8 82 179.6 216 420 788
-251 -420 -17.8 0 32.0 28.9 84 183.2 221 430 806
-246 -410 -16.7 2 35.6 30.0 86 186.8 227 440 824
-240 -400 -15.6 4 39.2 31.1 88 190.4 232 450 842
-234 -390 -14.4 6 42.8 32.2 90 194.0 238 460 860
-229 -380 -13.3 8 46.4 33.3 92 197.6 243 470 878
-223 -370 -12.2 10 50.0 34.4 94 201.2 249 480 896
-218 -360 -11.1 12 53.6 35.6 96 204.8 254 490 914
-212 -350 -10.0 14 57.2 36.7 98 208.4 260 500 932
-207 -340 -8.9 16 60.8 37.8 100 212.0 266 510 960
-201 -330 -7.8 18 64.4 43.0 110 230.0 27 1 520 968
-196 -320 -6.7 20 68.0 49.0 120 248.0 277 530 986
-190 -310 -5.6 22 71.6 54.0 130 266.0 282 540 1004
-184 -300 4 4 24 75.2 60.0 140 284.0 288 550 1022
-179 -290 -3.3 26 78.8 66.0 150 302.0 293 560 1040
-173 -280 -2.2 28 82.4 71.0 160 320.0 299 570 1058
-168 -270 -454 -1.1 30 86.0 77.0 170 338.0 304 580 1076
-162 -260 -436 0.0 32 89.6 82.0 180 356.0 310 590 1094
-157 -250 -418 1.1 34 93.2 88.0 190 374.0 316 600 1112
-151 -240 400 2.2 36 96.8 93.0 200 392.0 321 610 1130
-146 -230 -382 3.3 38 100.4 99.0 210 410.0 327 620 1148
-140 -220 -364 4.4 40 104.0 100.0 212 414.0 332 630 1166
-134 -210 -346 5.6 42 107.6 104.0 220 428.0 338 640 1184
-129 -200 -328 6.7 44 111.2 110.0 230 446.0 343 650 1202
-123 -190 -310 7.8 46 114.8 116.0 240 464.0 349 660 1220
-118 -180 -292 8.9 48 118.4 121.0 250 482.0 354 670 1238
-112 -170 -274 10.0 50 122.0 127.0 260 500.0 360 680 1256
-107 -160 -256 11.1 52 125.6 132.0 270 518.0 366 690 1274
-101 -150 -238 12.2 54 129.2 138.0 280 536.0 371 700 1292
-96 -140 -220 13.3 56 132.8 143.0 290 554.0 377 710 1310
-90 -130 -202 14.4 58 136.4 149.0 300 572.0 382 720 1328
-84 -120 -184 15.6 60 140.0 154.0 310 590.0 388 730 1346
-79 -110 -166 16.7 62 143.6 160.0 320 608.0 393 740 1364
-73 -100 -148 17.8 64 147.2 166.0 330 626.0 399 750 1382
-68 -90 -130 18.9 66 150.8 171.0 340 644.0 404 760 1400
-62 -80 -112 20.0 68 154.4 177.0 350 662.0 410 770 1418
-57 -70 -94 21.1 70 158.0 182.0 360 680.0 416 780 1436
-5 1 4 0 -76 22.2 72 161.6 186.0 370 698.0 421 790 1454
-46 -50 -58 23.3 74 165.2 193.0 380 716.0 427 800 1472
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 14 665
Table 14-3
Temperature Conversion: SI Units tj U.S. Customary (Continued)
~ ~~
C F C F C F C F
~
432 810 1490 738 360 2480 1043 1910 3470 1349 2460 4460
438 820 1508 743 370 2498 1049 1920 3488 1354 2470 4478
443 830 1526 749 380 2516 1054 1930 3506 1360 2480 4496
449 840 1544 754 390 2534 1060 1940 3524 1366 2490 4514
454 850 1562 760 400 2552 1066 1950 3542 1371 2500 4532
460 860 1580 766 410 2570 1071 1960 3560 1377 2510 4550
466 870 1598 77 1 420 2888 1077 1970 3578 1382 2520 4568
47 1 880 1616 777 430 2606 1082 1980 3596 1388 2530 4586
477 890 1634 782 440 2624 1088 1990 3614 1383 2540 4604
482 900 1652 788 .450 2642 1093 2000 3632 1399 2550 4622
488 910 1670 793 .460 2660 1099 2010 3650 1404 2560 4640
493 920 1688 799 470 2678 1104 2020 3668 1410 2570 4658
499 930 1706 804 480 2696 1110 2030 3686 1416 2580 4676
504 940 1724 810 490 2714 1116 2040 3704 1421 2590 4694
510 950 1742 816 500 2732 1121 2050 3722 1427 2600 4712
516 960 1760 821 1510 2750 1127 2060 3740 1432 2610 4730
521 970 1778 827 1520 2768 1132 2070 3758 1438 2620 4748
527 980 1796 832 1530 2786 1138 2080 3776 1443 2630 4766
532 990 1814 838 1540 2804 1143 2090 3794 1449 2640 4784
538 1000 1832 843 1550 2822 1149 2100 3812 1454 2650 4802
543 1010 1850 849 1560 2840 1154 2110 3830 1460 2660 4820
549 1020 1868 854 1570 2858 1160 2120 3848 1466 2670 4838
554 1030 1886 860 1580 2876 1166 2130 3866 1471 2680 4856
560 1040 1904 866 1590 2894 1171 2140 3884 1477 2690 4874
566 1050 1922 871 1600 2912 1177 2150 3902 1482 2700 4892
571 1060 1940 877 1610 2930 1182 2160 3920 1488 2710 4910
577 1070 1958 882 1620 2948 1188 2170 3938 1493 2720 4928
582 1080 1976 888 1630 2966 1193 2180 3956 1499 2730 4946
588 1090 1994 893 1640 2984 1199 2190 3974 1504 2740 4964
593 1100 2012 899 1650 3002 1204 2200 3992 1510 2750 4982
599 1110 2030 904 1660 3020 1210 2210 4010 1516 2760 5000
604 1120 2048 910 1670 3038 1216 2220 4028 1521 2770 5018
610 1130 2066 916 1680 3056 1221 2230 4046 1527 2780 5036
616 1140 2084 92 1 1690 3074 1227 2240 4064 1532 2790 5054
621 1150 2102 927 1700 3092 1232 2250 4082 1538 2800 5072
627 1160 2120 932 1710 3110 1238 2260 4100 1543 2810 5090
632 1170 2138 938 1720 3128 1243 2270 4118 1549 2820 5108
638 1180 2156 943 1730 3 146 1249 2280 4136 1554 2830 5126
643 1190 2174 949 1740 3164 1254 2290 4154 1560 2840 5 144
649 1200 2192 954 1750 3182 1260 2300 4172 1566 2850 5162
654 1210 2210 960 1760 3200 1266 2310 4190 1571 2860 5180
660 1220 2228 966 1770 3218 1271 2320 4208 1577 2870 5198
666 1230 2246 971 1780 3236 1277 2330 4226 1582 2880 5216
671 1240 2264 977 1790 3254 1282 2340 4244 1588 2890 5234
677 1250 2282 982 1800 3272 1288 2350 4262 1593 2900 5252
682 1260 2300 988 1810 3290 1293 2360 4280 1599 2910 5270
688 1270 2318 993 1820 3308 1299 2370 4298 1604 2920 5288
693 1280 2336 999 1830 3326 1304 2380 4316 1610 2930 5306
699 1290 2354 1004 1840 3344 1310 2390 4334 1616 2940 5324
704 1300 2372 1010 1850 3362 1316 2400 4352 1621 2950
~- 5342
710 1310 2390 1016 1860 3380 1321 2410 4370 1627 2960 5360
716 1320 2408 1021 1870 3398 1327 2420 4388 1632 2970 5378
721 1330 2426 1027 1880 3416 1332 2430 4406 1638 2980 5396
727 1340 2444 1032 1890 3434 1338 2440 4424 1643 2990 5414
732 1350 2462 1038 1900 3452 1343 2450 4442 1649 3000 5432
Appendix 15
Element$-Chemical Symbols
and Atomic Numbers
Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element No. Element No. Element No.
Actinium (Ac) 89 Hafniuim (Hf) 72 Promethium (Pm) 61
Aluminum (Al) 13 Helium (He) 2 Protactinium (Pa) 91
Americium (Am) 95 Holmium (Ho) 67 Radium (Ra) 88
Antimony (Sb) 51 Hydrogen (H) 1 Radon (Rn) 86
Argon (A) 18 Indium (In) 49 Rhenium (Re) 75
Arsenic (As) 33 Iodine (I) 53 Rhodium (Rh) 45
Astatine (At) 85 Iridium (Ir) 77 Rubidium (Rb) 37
Barium (Ba) 56 Iron (Fe) 26 Ruthenium (Ru) 44
Berkelium (Bk) 97 Krypton (e) 36 Samarium (Sm) 62
Beryllium (Be) 4 Lanthanum (La) 57 Scandium (Sc) 21
Bismuth (Bi) 83 Lawrencium (Lw) 103 Selenium (Se) 34
Boron (B) 5 Lead (Pb) 82 Silicon (Si) 14
Bromine (Br) 35 Lithium (Li) 3 Silver (Ag) 47
Cadmium (Cd) 48 Lutetium (Lu) 71 Sodium (Na) 11
Calcium (Ca) 20 Magnesium (Mg) 12 Strontium (Sr) 38
Californium (Cf) 98 Manganese (Mn) 25 Sulfur, yellow ( S ) 16
Carbon, graphite (C) 6 Mendelevium (Mv) 101 Tantalum (Ta) 73
Cerium (Ce) 58 Mercury (Hg) 80 Technetium (Tc) 43
Cesium (Cs) 55 Molybdenum (Mo) 42 Tellurium (Te) 52
Chlorine (C1) 17 Neodymium (Nd) 60 Terbium (Tb) 65
Chromium (Cr) 24 Neon (Ne) 10 Thallium (Tl) 81
Cobalt (Co) 27 Neptunium (Np) 93 Thorium (Th) 90
Copper (Cu) 29 Nickel (Ni) 28 Thulium (Tm) 69
Curium (Cm) 96 Niobium (Nb) 41 Tin (Sn) 50
Dysprosium (Dy) 66 Nitrogen (N) 7 Titanium (Ti) 22
Einsteinium (E) 99 Nobelivm (No) 102 Tungsten (W) 74
Erbium (Er) 68 Osmium (Os) 76 Uranium (U) 92
Europium (Eu) 63 Oxygen (0) 8 Vanadium (V) 23
Fermium (Fm) 100 Palladium (Pd) 46 Xenon (Xe) 54
Fluorine (F) 9 Phosphorus, white (P) 15 Ytterbium (Yb) 70
Francium (Fr) 87 Platinum (Pt) 78 Yttrium (Y) 39
Gadolinium (Gd) 64 Plutonium (Pu) 94 Zinc (Zn) 30
Gallium (Ga) 31 Polonium (Po) 84 Zirconium (Zr) 40
Germanium (Ge) 32 Potassium (K) 19
Gold (Au) 79 Praseodymium (Pr) 59
666
Appendix 16
Standards for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
Definitions. The American Welding Society uses the Methods of achieving compliance vary with the
general term standards to refer to documents that gov- standards. Some have specific requirements that do
ern and guide welding activities. Standards describe not allow for alternative actions. Others permit alter-
the technical requirements for a material, process, native actions or procedures, as long as they result in
product, system, or service. They also indicate the pro- properties that meet specified criteria. These criteria
cedures, methods, equipment, or tests used to deter- are often given as minimum requirements; for exam-
mine that the requirements have been met. ple, the ultimate tensile strength of a welded specimen
Standards include codes, specifications, recom- must meet or exceed the minimum tensile strength
mended practices, classifications, methods, and specified for the base material.
guides. These documents have many similarities, and Sources. Private and governmental organizations
the terms are often used interchangeably, but some- develop, issue, and update standards that apply to their
times incorrectly. Each term has a specific definition. particular areas of interest. The following sources of
Codes and specifications are similar types of stan- standards are of interest to the welding industry:
dards that use the words shall and will to indicate the American Association of State Highway and
mandatory use of certain materials or actions, or both. Transportation Officials
Codes differ from specifications in that their use is American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
generally applicable to a process. Specifications are American Institute of Steel Construction (AISI)
generally associated with a product. Both become American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
mandatory when specified by one or more governmen- American Petroleum Institute (API)
tal jurisdictions or when they are referenced by con- American Railway Engineering Association
tractual or other procurement documents. (AREA)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Recommended practices and guides are standards
(ASME)
that are offered primarily as aids to the user. They use
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
words such as should and may because their use is
American Welding Society (AWS)
usually optional. However, if these documents are ref-
Association of American Railroads (AAR)
erenced by codes or contractual agreements, their use
ASTM
may become mandatory. If the codes or agreements
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
contain non-mandatory sections or appendixes, the use
Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
of referenced guides or recommended practices is at
International Organization for Standardization
the users discretion.
(ISO)
Classifications and methods generally provide lists National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel
of established practices or categories for processes or Inspectors (NBBPVI)
products. The most common example is a standard National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
testing method. Naval Publication and Forms Center (Military
The user of a standard should become acquainted Specifications)
with its scope and intended use, both of which are usu- Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI)
ally included within the Scope or Introduction section SAE
of the standard. It is equally important, but often more Superintendent of Documents (Federal Specifications)
difficult, to recognize subjects that are not covered by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
the document. These omissions may require additional Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Society
technical consideration. A document may cover the (UBPVLS)
details of the product form without considering special The welding interests of many of these groups
conditions under which it will be used. Examples of overlap, and some agreements have been made to
special conditions would be corrosive atmospheres, reduce duplication of effort. Many standards that
elevated temperatures, and dynamic rather than static are concerned with welding, brazing, and allied pro-
loading. cesses are prepared by the American Welding Society
667
: 668 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
(AWS) because these subjects are of primary interest ing are examples of other national standards designa-
to the members. Standards that apply to a1 particular tions and the bodies responsible for them:
product are usually prepared by the grou,p that has BS -British Standard issued by the British Stan-
overall responsibility. For example, those for railroad dards Association
freight cars are published by the Association of CSA -Canadian Standard issued by the Canadian
American Railroads (AAR). However, freight cars Standards Association
are basically structures, and the applicable AAR DIN -West German Standard issued by the Deut-
specification currently refers to ANSUAIWS D l . l , sches Institute fuer Normung
Structural Welding Code-Steel, for the qualification JIS -Japanese Industrial Standard issued by the
of welding procedures, welders, and welding oper- Japanese Standards Association
ators. In 1986, the American Welding Society pub- NF - French Standard issued by the Association
lished ANSIIAWS D15.1, Railroad Welding FranGaise de Normalisation
Specification. Revisions to the AAR standards will Of these, the Canadian Standards Association is dis-
reference ANSYAWS D 15.1. cussed in a following section. There is also an Interna-
Each organization that prepares consensus stan- tional Organization for Standardization (ISO). Its goal
dards has committees or task groups to perform this is the establishment of uniform standards for use in
function. Members of these committees or task groups international trade. This organization is discussed in a
are specialists in their fields. They prepare drafts of following section.
standards that are reviewed and approved by a larger
Applications. The minimum requirements of a par-
group. Each main committee is selected to include per-
sons with diverse interests balanced equally among ticular standard may not satisfy the special needs of
producers, users, and government representatives. To every user. Therefore, a user may find it necessary to
invoke additional requirements to achieve the desired
avoid control or undue influence by one interest group,
consensus must be achieved by a high percentage of quality.
all members. Most standards may be revised by using one of sev-
eral procedures. These are used when a stgndard is
The federal government develops or adopts stan- found to be in error, unreasonably restrictive, or not
dards for items and services that are in the public applicable with respect to new technological develop-
rather than the private domain. The mechanisms for ments. Some standards are updated on a regular basis;
developing federal or military documents are similar others are revised as needed. The revisions may be in
to those of private organizations. Standard-writing the form of addenda, or they may be incorporated in
committees usually exist within a federal department superseding documents.
or agency that has responsibility for a particular item If there is a question about a particular standard
or service. involving either an interpretation or a possible error,
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) the user should contact the responsible organization.
is a private organization responsible for coordinating When the use of a standard is mandatory, whether as
national standards for use within the United States. a result of a government regulation or a legal con-
ANSI does not actually prepare standards. Instead, it tract, it is essential to know the specific edition of the
forms national interest review groups to determine document to be used. If there is a question con-
whether proposed standards are in the public interest. cerning which edition or revision of a document is
Each group is composed of persons from various orga- to be used, it should be resolved before commence-
nizations concerned with the scope and provisions of a ment of work. It is unfortunate, but not uncommon,
particular document. If there is consensus regarding to find that an outdated edition of a referenced docu-
the general value of a particular standard, then it may ment has been specified, and must be followed to be
be adopted as an American National Standard. Adop- in compliance.
tion of a standard by ANSI does not, of itself, give it Organizations responsible for preparing standards
mandatory status. However, if the standard is cited by that relate to welding are discussed in the following
a governmental rule or regulation, it may then be sections. The publications are listed without refer-
backed by force of law. ence to date of publication, latest revision, or amend-
Other industrialized countries also develop and ment. New publications relating to welding may be
issue standards on the subject of welding. The follow- issued, and current ones may be withdrawn or
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 669
revised. The responsible organization should be Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. This
contacted for current information on the standards it AASHTO specification covers the design and con-
publishes. struction requirements for all types of highway
Some organizations cover many product categories bridges. It refers to the welding fabrication require-
while others may cover only one. Table 16-1 lists the ments in the AASHTO standard, Specificcitions for
organizations and the product categories covered by Welding of Structural Steel-Highway Bridges and the
their documents. The National Fire Protection Associ- ANSVAWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel.
ation is not listed in Table 16-1 because its standards Standard Specifications for Welding of Structural
are concerned with safe practices rather than with Steel Highway Bridges. This AASHTO specification
products. The American Welding Society and the provides modifications to the ANSVAWS D1.l, Struc-
American Petroleum Institute also publish standards tural Welding Code-Steel, which are deemed neces-
concerned with welding safety. sary for use by member agencies. These are referenced
American Association of State Highway and to the applicable sections of the AWS Code.
Transportation Officials Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-
The member agencies of the American Association Redundant Steel Bridge Members. Fracture-critical
of State Highway and Transportation Officials members or components of a bridge are tension mem-
(AASHTO) are the U.S. Department of Transporta- bers or components, the failure of which would likely
tion, and the Departments of Transportation and High- result in collapse of the structure. This document
ways of the fifty states, Washington DC, and Puerto assigns the responsibility for specifying those bridge
Rico. The AASHTO specifications are prepared by members or components, if any, that fall into the frac-
committees made up of employees of the member ture-critical category. It requires that such members or
agencies. These documents are the minimum rules to components be fabricated to the required workman-
be followed by all member agencies or others in the ship standards only by organizations having the proper
design and construction of highway bridges. personnel, experience, procedures, knowledge and
Table 16-1
Products Covered by Standards of Various Organizations
NBBPVI
Product AAR AASHTO ABS AISC API AREA ASME UBPVLS ASTM AWS AWWA FED PFI SAE UL
Base metals X X X X X X
Bridges X X X x X
Buildings X x
Construction equipment x X X
Cranes, hoists X x
Elevators, escalators X
Filler metals X X x X X
Food, drug equipment X
Machine tools x
Military equipment X
Power generation equipment X X X X
Piping X X X x x x X
Presses x
Pressure vessels, boilers X X X X
Railway equipment X X X
Sheet metal fabrication x
Ships X X X
Storage tanks X x x X
Structures, general X X
Vehicles X X X
670 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
equipment. For example, all welding inspe,ctors and and properties of rolled structural steel shapes, (2)
nondestructive testing personnel must hav& demon- beam, girder, and column design, and (3) welded con-
strated competency for assuring quality in c(imp1jance nection design. Part 5 of the manual is the Specifica-
with the governing specifications. The document also tion for the Design, Fabrication, and Erection of
contains requirements additional to those in the Stan- Structural Steel for Buildings. This part includes cer-
dard Specifications for Welding of Structurtzl Steel- tain aspects of structural steel design that are not
Highway Bridges. included in other parts of the manual.
American Bureau of Shipping Specification for the Design, Fabrication, and Erec-
The function of the American Bureau of Shipping tion of Structural Steel For Buildings. This document
(ABS) is to control the quality of ship construction. specifies, in detail, all principal steps required for the
Each year, ABS reissues the Rules for Building and construction of structural steel buildings. It references
Classing Steel Vessels. These rules are applicable to the AWS filler metal specifications, and specifies the
ships that are intended to have American registration. particular filler metal classification to be used with a
To obtain American registration and insurance, a welding process for each type of structural steel.
ship must be classed (approved) by ABS after inspec- Requirements for the types and details of fillet, plug,
tions and reviews by its surveyors (inspectors). The and slot welds are also included. The specification
surveys begin with a review of the proposed design. refers to ANSUAWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code-
Reviews are also made during and after construction Steel, for welding procedure and welder performance
to verify that construction complies with the ABS qualifications.
rules. The process is completed with the assignment Quality Criteria and Inspection Standards. This docu-
and registration of a class (numerical identification) ment covers such subjects as preparation of materials,
for the ship. fitting and fastening, dimensional tolerances, welding,
One section of the ABS Rules addresses welding surface preparation, and painting. It discusses the
and is divided into the following parts: practical implementation of some of the requirements
Part 1 - Hull Construction of other AISC specifications. Typical problems that
Part 2 - Boilers, Unfired Pressure Vessels, Piping, may be encountered in steel construction and recom-
and Engineering Structures mended solutions are presented. The welding section
Part 3 - Weld Tests provides interpretations regarding AISC requirements
The section addresses such topics as weld design, or prequalification of welding procedures, preheating,
welding procedures, qualification testing, preparation control of distortion, and tack welding.
for welding, production welding, workmanship, and American National Standards Institute
inspection.
ABS also publishes a list of welding consumables, The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
entitled Approved Welding Electrodes, Wire-Flux, and is the coordinating organization for the United States
Wire-Gas Combinations. These consumables are pro- voluntary standards system; it does not develop stan-
duced by various manufacturers around the world. dards directly. The Institute provides the means for
They are tested under ABS supervision and approved determining the need for standards, and ensures that
for use under the ABS rules. organizations competent to fill these needs undertake
the development work. The approval procedures of
American Institute of Steel Construction ANSI ensure that all interested persons have an oppor-
The American Institute of Steel Construction tunity to participate in the development of a standard
(AISC) is a non-profit trade organization for the fabri- or to comment on provisions of the standard prior to
cated structural steel industry in the United States. The publication. ANSI is the U.S. member of non-treaty
Institutes objectives are to improve and advance the international standards organizations, such as the
use of fabricated structural steel through research and International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
engineering studies, and to develop the most efficient and the International Electrotechnical Commission
and economical design of structures. The organization (IEC).
also conducts programs to improve and control prod- The American National Standards Institute provides
uct quality. a common language that can be used confidently by
Manual of Steel Construction. The first four parts of industry, suppliers, customers, business, the public,
the manual cover such topics as (1) the dimensions government, and labor. Each of these interests has
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 671
either participated in the development of the standards pumping, and transmission of crude petroleum, petro-
or has been given the opportunity to comment on their leum products, and fuel gases, and also to the distribu-
provisions. However, these standards are developed tion systems when applicable. It presents methods for
and used voluntarily. They become mandatory only the production of acceptable welds by qualified weld-
when they are adopted or referenced by a governmen- ers using approved welding procedures, materials, and
tal body. equipment. It also presents methods for the production
American Petroleum Institute of suitable radiographs by qualified technicians using
approved procedures and equipment, to ensure proper
The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes analysis of weld quality. Standards of acceptability
documents in all areas related to petroleum produc- and repair of weld defects are also included.
tion. Those documents that include welding require-
ments are related to pipelines and refinery equipment, The legal authority for the use of API Std 1104
storage tanks for refinery service, and safety and fire comes from Title 49, Part 195, Transportation ofLiq-
uids by Pipeline, of the United States Code of Federal
protection.
Regulations.
Pipelines and Refinery Equipment. The appendix
Storage Tanks for Refinery Service
entitled Inspection of Welding in The Guide for
Inspection of Refinery Equipment is the only part that Inspection, Rating and Repair of Pressure Vessels in
applies specifically to welding. Its objective is to guide Petroleum Refinery Service, RP 510. This recom-
the user in determining whether welded joints are of mended practice covers the inspection, repair, evalua-
acceptable quality and comply with both the require- tion for continued use, and methods for computing the
ments of the contract or job specifications and the pre- maximum allowable working pressure of existing
scribed welding procedure specifications. pressure vessels. The vessels include those constructed
in accordance with Section VI11 of the ASME Boiler
Recommended Pipeline Maintenance Welding Prac- and Pressure Vessel Code or other pressure vessel
tices, RP 1107. The primary purpose of this recom- codes.
mended practice is safety. It prohibits practices that are
Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of
known to be unsafe, and warns against practices for Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, Std 620.
which caution is necessary. It also includes 18methods These rules cover the design and construction of large,
for the inspection of repair welds, and for installing field-welded tanks that are used for storage of petro-
appurtenances on loaded piping systems being used leum intermediates and finished products under pres-
for the transmission of natural gas, crude petroleum, sure of 103 kPa (15 psig) and less.
and petroleum products.
The legal authority for RP 1107 comes from refer- Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, Std 650. This
ence to it in ASME B3 1.4, Liquefied Petroleum Trans- standard covers the material, design, fabricat ion, erec-
portation Piping Systems (described under the tion, and testing requirements for vertical, cylindrical,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers). The welded steel storage tanks that are above ground and
latter publication, like API Std 1104, Standard for not subject to internal pressure.
Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities, is also refer- Safety and Fire Protection
enced by Title 49, Part 195, Transportation of Liquids Repairs to Crude Oil, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, and
by Pipeline, of the United States Code of Federal Products Pipelines, PSD 2200. This petroleum safety
Regulations. data sheet is a guide to safe practices for the repair of
Recommended Practice for Welded, Plain Carbon pipelines for crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and
Steel Refinery Equipment for Environmental Cracking petroleum products.
Service, Pub1 942. This publication proposes actions
Safe Practices in Gas and Electric Cutting and Weld-
for protection against hydrogen stress cracking of ing in Refineries, Gasoline Plants, Cycling Plants, and
welds in plain carbon steel that are exposed, under Petrochemical Plants, Pub1 2009. This publication out-
stress, to certain aqueous-phase acidic environments, lines precautions for protecting persons from injury
such as moist hydrogen sulfide. and property from damage by fire that might result
Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facili- during the operation of oxyfuel gas and electric cutting
ties, API Std 1104. This standard applies to arc and oxy- and welding equipment in and around petroleum
fuel gas welding of piping used in the compression, operations.
672 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing VIII. These include towers, reactors and other oil and
Flammables, PSD 2201. This petroleum safety data chemical refining vessels, heat exchangers for refiner-
sheet lists procedures for welding, as well as for mak- ies, paper mills, and other process industries, as well
ing hot taps (connections while in operation), on pipe- as storage tanks for large and small air and gas
lines, vessels, or tanks containing flammables. This compressors.
data sheet and PSD 2200 are also requirements of Section 11, Material Specifications, contains the
ASME B3 1.4, Liquefied Petroleum Transportation specifications for acceptable ferrous and nonferrous
Piping Systems. base metals, and for acceptable welding and brazing
American Railway Engineering Association filler metals and fluxes. Many of these specifications
The American Railway Engineering Association are identical to and have the same numerical designa-
(AREA) publishes the Manual for Railway Engineer- tion as ASTM and AWS specifications for base metals
ing. This manual contains specifications, rules, plans, and welding consumables, respectively. Section V,
and instructions that constitute the recommended prac- Nondestructive Examination, covers methods and
tices of railway engineering. Two chapters specifically standards for nondestructive examination of boilers
cover steel construction. One of these covers the and pressure vessels. Section IX, Welding and Brazing
design, fabrication, and erection of buildings for rail- Qualifications, covers the qualification of (1) welders,
way purposes. The other addresses the same topics for welding operators, brazers, and brazing operators, and
railway bridges and miscellaneous steel structures. (2) the welding and brazing procedures that are to be
employed for welding or brazing of boilers or pressure
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
vessels. This section of the Code is often cited by other
Two standing committees of the American Society standards and regulatory bodies as the welding and
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) are actively brazing qualification standard for other types of
involved in the formulation, revision, and interpreta- welded or brazed products.
tion of standards covering products that may be fabri- The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is ref-
cated by welding. These committees are responsible erenced in the safety regulations of most states and
for preparing the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel major cities of the United States, and also the prov-
Code and the Code for Pressure Piping, which are inces of Canada. A number of federal agencies include
American National Standards. the Code as part of their regulations.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The ASME Boiler The Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Soci-
and Pressure Vessel Code (PVC) contains eleven sec- ety (UBPVLS) has, as its objective, uniformity of
tions. Sections I, 111, IV, VIII, E, and X cover the laws, rules, and regulations that affect boiler and pres-
design, construction, and inspection of boilers and sure vessel fabricators, inspection agencies, and users.
pressure vessels. Sections VI, VII, and XI cover the The Society believes that such laws, rules, and regula-
maintenance and operation of boilers or nuclear power tions should follow nationally accepted standards. It
plant components. The remaining Sections 11, V, and recommends the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
IX cover material specifications, nondestructive exam- Code as the standard for construction and the Inspec-
ination, and welding and brazing qualifications, tion Code of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure
respectively. Inspectors (NBBPVI), discussed in a following sec-
Section I, Power Boilers, covers power, electric, tion, as the standard for inspection and repair.
and miniature boilers; high temperature boilers used in The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is
stationary service; and power boilers used in locomo- unique in that it requires third-party inspection inde-
tive, portable, and traction service. Section 111, pendent of it the fabricator and the user. The NBBPVI
Nuclear Power Plant Components, addresses the vari- commissions inspectors by examination. These
ous components required by the nuclear power indus- inspectors are employed either by authorized inspec-
try. Section IV, Heating Boilers, applies to steam heat tion agencies (usually insurance companies) or by
and hot water supply boilers that are directly fired by jurisdictional authorities.
oil, gas, electricity, or coal. Section VIII, Pressure Ves- Prior to building a boiler or pressure vessel, a com-
sels, covers unfired pressure vessels. Unfired pressure pany must have a quality control system and a manual
vessels are containers for the containment of pressure that describes it. The system must be acceptable to the
either internal or external. All Code vessels not cov- authorized inspection agency and either the jurisdic-
ered by Sections I, 111, and IV are covered by Section tional authority or the NBBPVI. Based on the results
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 673
of an audit of the fabricators quality system, ASME products; gas, steam, air, water, and refrigerants,
may issue the fabricator a Certificate of Authorization except as specifically excluded.
and a code symbol stamp. The authorized inspection Piping for air and other gases, which is not now
agency is also involved in monitoring the fabrication within the scope of existing sections of this code, may
and field erection of boilers and pressure vessels. An be designed, fabricated, inspected, and tested in accor-
authorized inspector must be satisfied that all applica- dance with the requirements of this section of the
ble provisions of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Ves- Code. The piping must be in plants, buildings, and
sel Code have been followed before allowing the similar facilities that are not otherwise within the
fabricator to apply its code symbol stamp to the vessel scope of this section.
name plate. B3 1.4, Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping
Code for Pressure Piping Systems, covers piping for transporting liquid petro-
leum products between producers lease facilities, tank
The ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping, pres- farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, sta-
ently consists of seven sections. Each section pre- tions, terminals, and other delivery and receiving
scribes the minimum requirements for the design, points. Examples of such products are crude oil, con-
materials, fabrication, erection, testing, and inspection densate, gasoline, natural gas liquids, and liquefied
of a particular type of piping system. petroleum gas.
B31.1, Power Piping, covers power and auxiliary B31. 5, Refrigeration Piping, applies to refriger-
service systems for electric generation stations; indus- ant and brine piping for use at temperatures as low
trial and institutional plants; central and district heat- as -196C, (-320F) whether erected on the premises
ing plants; and district heating systems. or assembled in a factory. It does not include (1) self-
This section excludes boiler external piping which contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to the
is defined by Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pres- requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or any
sure Vessel Code. Boiler piping requires a quality con- other nationally recognized testing laboratory, (2)
trol system and third-party inspection similar to those water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or
required for boiler fabrication. Otherwise, the materi- internal pressure not exceeding 103 kPa (15 psig),
als, design, fabrication, installation, and testing for regardless of size. Other sections of the Code may pro-
boiler external piping must meet the requirements of vide requirements for refrigeration piping in their
section B3 1.1. A fabricator is not required to provide a respective scopes.
quality control system and third-party inspection for B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
the other piping systems covered by B3 1. Systems, addresses gas compressor stations, gas meter-
B31.2, Fuel Gas Piping, covers piping systems for ing and regulating stations, gas mains, and service
fuel gases including natural gas, manufactured gas, lines up to the outlet of the customers meter set
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and air mixtures above assembly. Gas storage lines and gas storage equipment
the upper combustible limits, LPG in the gaseous of the closed-pipe type that are either fabricated or
phase, or mixtures of these gases. These piping sys- forged from pipe or fabricated from pipe and fittings
tems, both in and between buildings, extend from the are also included.
outlet of the consumers meter set assembly (or point B3 1.9, Building Services Piping, applies to piping
of delivery) to and including the first pressure-contain- systems for services in industrial, commercial, public,
ing valve upstream of the gas utilization device. institutional and multi-unit residential buildings. It
B3 1.3, Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery includes only those piping systems within the build-
Piping, covers all piping within the property limits of ings or property limit.
facilities engaged in processing or handling of chemi- All sections of the Code for Pressure Piping require
cal, petroleum, or related products. Examples are qualification of the welding procedures and perfor-
chemical plants, petroleum refineries, loading termi- mance of welders and welding operators to be used in
nals, natural gas processing plants (including liquefied construction. Some sections require these qualifica-
natural gas facilities), bulk plants, compounding tions to be performed in accordance with Section IX of
plants, and tank farms. This section applies to piping the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, while in
systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized sol- others it is optional. The use of API Std 1104, Stan-
ids, and to all types of service including raw, interme- dard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities or
diate, and finished chemicals; oil and other petroleum AWS D10. 9, Specification for Qualification of Weld-
674 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
ing Procedures and Welders for Piping and Tubing is Some products covered by ASTM specifications are
permitted in some sections as an alternative to Section fabricated by welding. The largest group is steel pipe
IX. Each section of the Code should be codsulted for and tubing. Some types of pipe are produced from
the applicable qualification documents. strip by rolling and arc welding the longitudinal seam.
ASTM The welding procedures generally must be qualified to
the requirements of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
ASTM (formerly the American Society for Testing Vessel Code or another code.
and Materials) develops and publishes specifications
Other types of pipe and tubing are produced with
for use in the production and testing of materials. The
resistance welded seams. There are generally no spe-
committees that develop the specifications are com-
cific welding requirements in the applicable ASTM
prised of producers and users, as well as others who
specification. The finished pipe and tubing must pass
have an interest in the subject materials. The specifica-
specific tests that should result in failure at the welded
tions cover virtually all materials used in industry and
seam if the welding operation is out of control.
commerce with the exception of welding consum-
ables, which are covered by AWS specifications. Two ASTM specifications cover joints in piping
systems. These are ASTM A422, Standard Specifica-
ASTM publishes the Annual Book of ASTM Stan- tion for Butt Welds in Still Tubes for Refinery Service
dards that incorporates new and revised standards. It is and ASTM M22, Standard Specification for Welded
currently composed of 15 sections comprising 65 vol- Joints for Ship-board Piping Systems. ASTM E190,
umes and an index. Specifications for the metal prod- Guided Bend Test for Ductility of Welds, is presently
ucts, test methods, and analytical procedures of the only ASTM testing specification that is solely
interest to the welding industry are found in the first intended for welds.
three sections, comprising 17 volumes. Section 1 cov-
ers iron and steel products; Section 2, nonferrous American Water Works Association
metal products; and Section 3, metal test methods and The American Water Works Association (AWWA)
analytical procedures. Copies of single specifications currently has two standards that pertain to the welding
are also available from ASTM. of water storage and transmission systems. One of
Prefix letters, which are part of each specifications these standards was developed jointly with and
alpha-numeric designation, provide a general idea of adopted by the American Welding Society.
the specification content. They include A for ferrous Standard for Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe Joints
metals, B for nonferrous metals, and E for miscella- C206. This standard covers field welding of steel water
neous subjects including examination and testing. pipe. It includes the welding of circumferential pipe
When ASME adopts an ASTM specification for cer- joints as well as other welding required in the fabrica-
tain applications, either in its entirety or in a revised tion and installation of specials and accessories. The
form, it adds an S in front of the ASTM letter prefix. maximum wall thickness of pipe covered by this stan-
Many ASTM specifications include supplementary dard is 31.8 mm (1.25 in.).
requirements that must be specified by the purchaser if Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Stand-
they are desired. These may include vacuum treat- pipes, and Reservoirs for Water Storage, DIOO (AWS
ment, additional tension tests, impact tests, or ultra- D5.2). This standard covers the fabrication of water
sonic examination. storage tanks. An elevated tank is one supported on a
The producer of a material or product is responsible tower. A standpipe is a flat-bottomed cylindrical tank
for compliance with all mandatory and specified sup- having a shell height greater than its diameter. A reser-
plementary requirements of the appropriate ASTM voir is a flat-bottomed cylindrical tank having a shell
specification. The user of the material is responsible height equal to or smaller than its diameter. In addition
for verifying that the producer has complied with all to welding details, this standard specifies the responsi-
requirements. bilities of the purchaser and the contractor for such
Some codes permit the user to perform the tests items as the foundation plans, the foundation itself,
required by ASTM or other specification to verify that water for pressure testing, and a suitable right-of-way
a material meets requirements. If the results of the from the nearest public road for on-site erection.
tests conform to the requirements of the designated American Welding Society
specification, the material can be used for the The American Welding Society (AWS) publishes
application. numerous documents covering the use and quality
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 675
control of welding. These documents include codes, level applies to systems that require a high degree of
specifications, recommended practices, classifications, weld quality. Examples are lines in nuclear, chemical,
methods, and guides. The general subject areas cov- cryogenic, gas, or steam systems. The other level
ered are: applies to systems requiring an average degree of weld
(1) Definitions and symbols quality, such as low-pressure heating, air-conditioning,
(2) Filler metals sanitary water, and some gas or chemical systems.
(3) Qualification and testing AWS 82.2, Standard for Brazing Procedure and Per-
(4) Welding processes formance Qualification. The requirements for qualifica-
(5) Welding applications tion of brazing procedures, brazers, and brazing
(6) Safety operators for furnace, machine, and automatic brazing
Definitionsand Symbols are covered by this publication. It is to be used when
ANSVAWS A2.4 Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and
required by other documents, such as codes, specifica-
Nondestructive Examination. This publication describes
tions, or contracts. Those documents must specify cer-
the standard symbols used to convey welding, brazing, tain requirements applicable to the production
and nondestructive testing requirements on drawings. brazement. Applicable base metals are carbon and
Symbols in this publication are intended to facilitate alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, tita-
communications between designers and fabrication nium, zirconium, magnesium, and cobalt alloys.
personnel. Typical information that can be conveyed AWS 82.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and Per-
with welding symbols includes type of weld, joint formance Qualification. This standard provides require-
geometry, weld size or effective throat, extent of weld- ments for qualification of welding procedures,
ing, and contour and surface finish of the weld. welders, and welding operators. It may be referenced
ANSVAWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Defini- in a product code, specification, or contract docu-
tions. This publication lists and defines the standard ments. If a contract document is not specific, certain
terms that should be used in oral and written commu- additional requirements must also be specified, as
nications conveying welding, brazing, soldering, ther- listed in this standard. Applicable base metals are car-
mal spraying, and thermal cutting information. bon and alloy steels, cast irons, aluminum, copper,
Nonstandard terms are also included; these are defined nickel, and titanium alloys.
by reference to the standard terms. ANSVAWS C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating the
Filler Metals Strength of Brazed Joints in Shear. This standard
A listing of AWS specifications for filler metals is describes a test method used to obtain reliable shear
shown in Appendix 17. strengths of brazed joints. For comparison purposes,
specimen preparation, brazing practices, and testing,
Qualification and Testing
procedures must be consistent. Production brazed joint
AWS C2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray Operator and strength may not be the same as test joint strength if
Equipment Qualification. This guide provides for the the brazing practices are different. With furnace braz-
qualification of operators and equipment for applying ing, for example, the actual part temperature or time at
thermal sprayed coatings. It recommends procedural temperature, or both, during production may vary
guidelines for qualification testing. The criteria used to from those used to determine joint strength.
judge acceptability are determined by the certifying
agent alone or together with the purchaser. ANSVAWS B4.0 Standard Methods for Mechanical
Testing of Welds. This document describes the basic
AWS D10.9, Specification for Qualification of Welding
mechanical tests used for evaluation of welded joints,
Procedures and Welders for Piping and Tubing. This
weldability, and hot cracking. The tests applicable to
standard applies specifically to qualifications for tubu-
welded butt joints are tension, Charpy impact, drop-
lar products. It covers circumferential groove and fillet
weight, dynamic-tear, and bend tests. Tests of fillet
welds but excludes welded longitudinal seams
welds are limited to break and shear tests.
involved in pipe and tube manufacture. An organiza-
tion may make this specification the governing docu- For welding materials and procedure qualifications,
ment for qualifying welding procedures and welders the most commonly used tests are round-tension,
by referencing it in the contract and by specifying one reduced-section tension, face-, root-, and side-bend,
of the two levels of acceptance requirements. One and Charpy V-notch impact. Fillet weld tests are
676 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
I I
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 677
Root Pass Welding and Gas Purging, Recom- to buildings (static loading), bridges (dynamic load-
mended Practices for, ANSUAWS D 10.11 ing), and tubular structures.
Titanium Piping and Tubing, Recommended Prac- Safety
tices for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of, ANSIIAWS ANSUASC 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting,
D10.6 was developed by the ANSI Accredited Standards
Sheet Metal Committee 249, Safety in Welding and Cutting, and
then published by AWS. The purpose of the Standard
ANSIIAWS D9.1, Specification for Welding of
is the protection of persons from injury and illness,
Sheet Metal covers non-structural fabrication and erec-
and the protection of property from damage by fire
tion of sheet metal by welding for heating, ventilating,
and explosions arising from welding, cutting, and
and air conditioning systems; architectural usages,
allied processes.
food-processing equipment, and similar applications.
It specifically covers arc, oxyfuel gas, and resis-
Where differential pressures of more than 30 Wa
tance welding, and thermal cutting, but the require-
(120 in. of water) or structural requirements are
ments are generally applicable to other welding
involved, other standards are to be used.
processes as well.
Structural Welding The provisions of this standard are backed by the
ANSUAWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code- force of law since they are included in the General
Aluminum, addresses welding requirements for alumi- Industry Standards of the U.S.Department of Labor,
num alloy structures. It is used in conjunction with Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
appropriate complementary codes or specifications for Other safety and health standards published by
materials, design, and construction. The structures AWS include the following:
covered are tubular designs and static and dynamic Electron Beam Welding and Cutting, Recommended
nontubular designs. Safe Practices for, AWS F2.1
ANSIIAWS D 1.4, Structural Welding Code-Rein- Evaluating Contaminants in the Welding Environ-
forcing Steel, applies to the welding of concrete rein- ment, A Sampling Strategy Guide, AWS F1.3
forcing steel for splices (prestressing steel excepted), Measuring Fume Generation Rates and Total Fume
steel connection devices, inserts, anchors, anchorage Emission for Welding and Allied Processes, Labora-
details, and other welding in reinforced concrete con- tory Method for, ANSUAWS F1.2
struction. Welding may be done in a fabrication shop Preparation for Welding and Cutting Containers
or in the field. When welding reinforcing steel to and Piping That Have Held Hazardous Substances,
primary structural members, the provisions of ANSI/ Recommended Safe Practices for the, AWS F4.1
AWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, also Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by
apply. Welding and Allied Processes, Method for, ANSU
ANSUAWS D1.3, Structural Welding Code-Sheet AWS F1.l
Steel, applies to the arc welding of sheet and strip Sound Level Measurement of Manual Arc Welding
steel, including cold-formed members, that are 5 mm and Cutting Processes, Method for, AWS F6.1
(0.18 in.) or less in thickness. The welding may Thermal Spraying, Recommended Safe Practices
involve connections of sheet or strip steel to thicker for, AWS C2.1
supporting structural members. When sheet steel is Association of American Railroads
welded to primary structural members, the provisions Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices.
of ANSUAWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, The primary source of welding information relating to
also apply. the construction of new railway equipment is the Man-
ANSUAWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, ual of Standards and Recommended Practices pre-
covers welding requirements applicable to welded pared by the Mechanical Division, Association of
structures of carbon- and low-alloy steels. It is to be American Railroads (AAR). This manual includes
used in conjunction with any complementary code or specifications, standards, and recommended practices
specification for the design and construction of steel adopted by the Mechanical Division. Several sections
structures. It is not intended to apply to pressure of the manual relate to welding, and the requirements
vessels, pressure piping, or base metals less than 3 mm are similar to those of ANSUAWS D1.l, Structural
(1/8 in.) thick. There are sections devoted exclusively Welding Code-Steel. This Code is frequently refer-
678 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
enced, particularly with regard to weld procedure and required to be in accordance with (1) the latest recom-
performance qualification. mendations of the American Welding Society, (2) The
The American Welding Society pub1isl;les AWS Specifications for Design, Fabrication, and Construc-
D15.1, Railroad Welding Specification. AWS D15.1 is tion of Freight Cars, and (3) the welding requirements
written by the Committee on Railroad Welding, which of the Specifications for Tank Cars.
is made up of representatives of AAR and AWS. Field Manual of Association of American Railroads
ANSUAWS D15.1, Railroad Welding Specification, Interchange Rules. This manual covers the repair of
has been endorsed by the AAR. Revisions of the Man- existing railway equipment. The U.S. railway network
ual of Standards and Recommended Practices refer to is made up of' numerous interconnecting systems, and
AWS D15.1 for all welding requirements on construc- it is often necessary for one system to make repairs on
tion and maintenance of steel and aluminum railcars. equipment of another system. The repair methods are
The sections of the current Manual of Standards detailed and specific so that they may be used as the
and Recommended Practices that relate to welding are basis for standard charges between the various railroad
summarized below. companies.
Section C, Part II, Specificationsfor Design, Fabrica- Canadian Standards Association
tion and Construction of Freight Cars. This specifica- The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) is a
tion covers the general welding practices for freight voluntary membership organization engaged in stan-
car construction. Welding processes and procedures dards development and also testing and certification.
other than those listed in the document may be used. The CSA is similar to ANSI in the United States, but
However, they must conform to established welding ANSI does not test and certify products. A CSA Certi-
standards or proprietary car builder's specifications, fication Mark assures buyers that a product conforms
and produce welds of quality consistent with design to acceptable standards.
requirements and good manufacturing techniques. The Examples of CSA welding documents are the
welding requirements are similar to, though not as following:
detailed as those in ANSYAWS D 1.1, Structural Weld- Aluminum Welding Qualification Code, C S A
ing Code-Steel. The qualification of welders and W47.2
welding operators must be done in accordance with Certification of Companies for Fusion Welding of
the AWS Code. Steel Structures, CSA W47. 1
Section C, Part 111, Specification for Tank Cars. This Code for Safety in Welding and Cutting (Require-
specification covers the construction of railroad car mentsfor Welding Operators),CSA W117.2
tanks used for the transportation of hazardous and Qualification Code for Welding Inspection Organi-
non-hazardous materials. The requirements for fusion zations, CSA W178
welding of the tanks, and for qualifying welders and Resistance Welding Qualification Code for Fabri-
welding procedures to be used are described in an cators of Structural Members Used in Buildings, CSA
appendix. A second appendix describes the require- w55.3
ments for repairs, alterations, or conversions of car Welded Aluminum Design and Workmunship (Inert
tanks. If welding is required, it must be performed by Gas Shielded Arc Processes), CSA S244
facilities certified by AAR in accordance with a third Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding),
appendix. The rules for welding on the tanks are cov- CSA W59
ered by the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Welding Electrodes, CSA W48 Series
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Welding of Reinforcing Bars in Reinforced Concrete
issues regulations covering the transportation of Construction, CSA W186
explosives, radioactive materials, and other dangerous Compressed Gas Association
articles. Requirements for tank cars are set forth in The Compressed Gas Association (CGA) promotes,
the United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title develops, represents, and coordinates technical and
49, Sections 173.314, 173.316, and 179, which are standardization activities in the compressed gas indus-
included at the end of the AAR specifications. tries, including end uses of products.
Section D, Trucks and Truck Details. The procedures, The Handbook of Compressed Gases, published by
workmanship, and qualification of welders employed CGA, is a source of basic information about com-
in the fabrication of steel railroad truck frimes are pressed gases, including transportation, uses, and
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 679
safety considerations, and also the rules and regula- tions. Part 1910 covers general industry; Part 1926
tions pertaining to them. covers the construction industry. These regulations
Standards for Welding and Brazing on Thin Walled were derived primarily from national consensus stan-
Containers, CGA C-3, is directly related to the use of dards of ANSI and the NFPA.
welding and brazing in the manufacture of DOT- Similarly, the U.S. Department of Transportation is
regulated compressed gas cylinders. It covers pro- responsible for regulating the transportation of hazard-
cedure and operator qualification, inspection, and ous materials, petroleum, and petroleum products by
container repair. pipeline in interstate commerce. Its rules are published
The following CGA publications contain informa- under Title 49 of the United Sates Code of Federal
tion on the properties, manufacture, transportation, Regulations, Part 195. Typical of the many national
storage, handling, and use of gases commonly used in consensus standards incorporated by reference in these
welding operations: regulations are API Standard 1104 and ASME B3 1.4.
Acetylene, G-1 The U. S. Department of Transportation is also
Commodity Specifcation for Acetylene, G-1.1 responsible for regulating merchant ships of American
Carbon Dioxide, G-6 registry. It is empowered to control the design, fabrica-
Commodity Specification for Carbon Dioxide, tion, and inspection of these ships by Title 46 of the
G-6.2 United States Code of Federal Regulations.
Hydrogen, G-5 The U.S. Coast Guard is responsible for performing
Commodity Specificationfor Hydrogen, G-5.3 the inspections of merchant ships. The Marine Engi-
Oxygen, G-4 neering Regulations incorporate references to national
Commodity Specification for Oxygen, G-4.3 consensus standards, such as those published by
The Inert Gases Argon, Nitrogen, and Helium, P-9 ASME, ANSI, and ASTM. These rules cover repairs
Commodity Specification for Argon, G-11.1 and alterations that must be performed with the cogni-
Commodity Specification for Helium, G-9.1 zance of the local Coast Guard Marine Inspection
Commodity Specification for Nitrogen, G- 10.1 Officer.
Safety considerations related to the gases com- The U.S. Department of Energy is responsible for
monly used in welding operations are discussed in the the development and use of standards by government
following CGA pamphlets: and industry for the design, construction, and opera-
Handling Acetylene Cylinders in Fire Situations, tion of safe, reliable, and economic nuclear energy
SB-4 facilities. National consensus standards, such as the
Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres, SB-2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections I11
Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers, and IX, and ANSVAWS Dl.1, Structural Welding
P- 1 Code-Steel, are referred to in full or in part. These
Federal Government standards are supplemented by separate program stan-
Several departments of the federal government, dards, known as RDT Standards.
including the General Services Administration, are Military and Federal Specifications. Military specifi-
responsible for developing welding standards or cations are prepared by the Department of Defense.
adopting existing standards, or both. More than 48 000 They cover materials, products, or services specifi-
standards have been adopted by the federal government. cally for military use, and commercial items modified
Consensus Standards. The U.S. Departments of to meet military requirements. Military specifications
Labor, Transportation, and Energy are primarily con- have document designations beginning with the prefix
cerned with adopting existing national consensus stan- MIL. They are issued as either coordinated or limited-
dards, but they also make amendments to these coordination documents. Coordinated documents
standards or create separate standards, as necessary. cover items or services required by more than one
For example, the Occupational Safety and Health branch of the military. Limited coordination docu-
Administration (OSHA) of the Department of Labor ments cover items or services of interest to a single
issues regulations covering occupational safety and branch. If a document is of limited coordination, the
health protection. The welding portions of standards branch of the military which uses the document will
adopted or established by OSHA are published under appear in parentheses in the document designation.
Title 29 of the United States Code of Federal Regula- The Department of Defense has begun to replace mili-
680 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
tary specifications with consensus standards in the For a listing of military and federal specifications
interest of economy. that pertain to welding, brazing, and soldering, refer to
Two current military specifications cover the quali- American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol.
fication of welding procedures or welder performance, 1, 8th Edition, Miami, Florida: American Welding
or both. One is MIL-STD-1595, Qualification of Air- Society, 1987.
craft, Missile, and Aerospace Fusion Welders. The International Organization for Standardization
other, MIL-STD-248, Welding and Brazing Procedure The International Organization for Standardization
and Pe$ormance Qualification, covers the require- (ISO) promote,s the development of standards to facili-
ments for the qualification of welding and brazing pro- tate the international exchange of goods and services.
cedures, welders, brazers, and welding and brazing It is comprised of the standards-writing bodies of more
operators. It allows the fabricator to submit for than 80 countries and has adopted or developed over
approval certified records of qualification tests 4000 standards.
prepared in conformance with the standards of other ANSI is the designated U.S. representative to ISO.
government agencies, ABS, ASME, or other organiza- IS0 standards and publications are available from
tions. Its use is mandatory when referenced by other ANSI.
specifications or contractual documents. The IS0 standards that relate to welding have been
MIL-STD-1595 establishes the procedure for quali- categorized into six groups: (1) General, (2) Arc and
fying welders and welding operators engaged in the Gas Welding and Cutting Processes, (3) Resistance
fabrication of components for aircraft, missiles, and Welding Processes, (4)Filler Metals and Electrodes,
other aerospace equipment by fusion welding pro- (5) Design, and (6) Testing and Evaluation. For a list-
cesses. This standard is applicable when required in ing of I S 0 standards, refer to American Welding Soci-
the contracting documents, or when invoked in the ety, Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 8th Edition, Miami,
absence of a specified welder qualification document. Florida: American Welding Society, 1987.
MIL-STD-1595 superseded MIL-T-5021, Tests; National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
Aircraft and Missile Welding Operators Qualification, The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessels
which is obsolete. However, MIL-T-5021 is still refer- (NBBPVI), often referred to as the National Board,
enced by other current government specifications and represents the enforcement agencies empowered to
contract documents. When so referenced, a contractor assure adherence to the ASME Boiler and Pressure
has to perform the technically obsolete tests required Vessel Code. Its members are the chief inspectors or
by this standard. other jurisdictional authorities who administer the
Federal specifications are developed for materials, boiler and pressure vessel safety laws in the various
products, and services that are used by two or more jurisdictions of the United States and provinces of
Federal agencies, one of which is not a defense Canada.
agency. Federal specifications are classified into broad The National Board is involved in the inspection of
categories. The QQ group, for example, covers metals new boilers and pressure vessels.It maintains a regis-
and most welding specifications. Soldering and braz- tration system for use by manufacturers who desire or
ing fluxes are in the 0 - F group. are required by law to register the boilers or pressure
Some military and federal specifications include vessels that they have constructed. The National Board
requirements for testing and approval of a material, is also responsible for investigating possible violations
process, or piece of equipment before its submission of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code by
for use under the specification. If the acceptance tests either commissioned inspectors or manufacturers.
pass the specification requirements, the material or The National Board publishes a number of Pam-
equipment will be included in the applicable Qualified phlets and forms concerning the manufacture and
Products List (QPL). In other specifications, the sup- inspection of boilers, pressure vessels, and safety
plier is responsible for product conformance. This is valves. It also publishes the National Board Inspection
often the case for welded fabrications. The supplier Code for the guidance of its members, commissioned
must show evidence that the welding procedures and inspectors, and others. The purpose of this code is to
the welders are qualified in accordance with the maintain the integrity of boilers and pressure vessels
requirements of the specification, and must certify the after they have been placed in service by providing
test report. rules and guidelines for inspection after installation,
,
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 16 681
repair, alteration, or re-rating. In addition, it provides Installation of Blower and Exhaust Systems for
inspection guidelines for authorized inspectors during Dust, Stock, and Vapor Removal or Conveying, NFPA
fabrication of boilers and pressure vessels. 91
In some states, organizations that desire to repair Standard on Aircraft Maintenance, NFPA 410
boilers and pressure vessels must obtain the National Again, the user should check the standards to deter-
Board Repair (R) stamp by application to the National mine those that apply to the particular situation.
Board. The firm must qualify all welding procedures
and welders in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pipe Fabrication Institute
Pressure Vessel Code, Section ZX,and the results must The Pipe Fabricating Institute (PFI) publishes
be accepted by the inspection agency. The firm must numerous documents for use by the piping industry.
also have and demonstrate a quality control system Some of the standards have mandatory status because
similar to, but not as comprehensive as that required they are referenced in one or more piping codes. The
for an ASME code symbol stamp. purpose of PFI standards is to promote uniformity of
National Fire Protection Association piping fabrication in areas not specifically covered by
codes. Other PFI documents, such as technical bulle-
The mission of the National Fire Protection Associ-
tins, are not mandatory, but they aid the piping fabrica-
ation (NFPA) is the safeguarding of people and their
tor in meeting the requirements of codes. The
environment from destructive fire through the use of
following PFI standards relate directly to welding.
scientific and engineering techniques and education.
The NFPA standards are widely used as the basis of End Preparation and Machined Backing Rings for
legislation and regulation at all levels of government. Butt Welds, ES1
Many are referenced in the regulations of OSHA. The Manual Gas Tungsten Arc Root Pass Welding End
standards are also used by insurance authorities for Preparation and Fit up Tolerances, ES21
risk evaluation and premium rating. Minimum Length and Spacing for Welded Nozzles,
Installation of Gas Systems. NFPA publishes several
ES7
standards that present general principles for the instal- Preheat and Postheat Treatment of Welds, ES19
lation of gas supply systems and the storage and han- Recommended Practice for Welding of Transition
dling of gases commonly used in welding and cutting: Joints Between Dissimilar Steel Combinations, ES28
Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites, NFPA 50 Welded Load Bearing Attachments to Pressure
Design and installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Sys- Retaining Piping Materials, ES26
tems ,for Welding and Cutting and Allied Processes, Visual Examination-The Purpose, Meaning, and
NFPA 51 Limitation of the Term, ES27
Gaseous Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites, SA
NFPA 50A
National Fuel Gas Code, NFPA 54 SAE (formerly the Society of Automotive Engi-
Storage and Handling of Liquefied Petroleum neers) is concerned with the research, development,
Gases, NFPA 58 design, manufacture, and operation of all types of self-
Users should check each standard to see if it applies propelled machinery. Such machinery includes auto-
to their particular situation. For example, NFPA 51 mobiles, trucks, buses, farm machines, construction
does not apply to a system comprised of a torch, regu- equipment, airplanes, helicopters, and space vehicles.
lators, hoses, and single cylinders of oxygen and fuel Related areas of interest to SAE are fuels, lubricants,
gas. Such a system is covered by ANSUAWS 249.1, and engineering materials.
Safety in Welding and Cutting. Automotive Standards. Several SAE welding-
Safety related automotive standards are written in coopera-
NFPA publishes several standards which relate to tion with AWS. These are:
the safe use of welding and cutting processes: Automotive Resistance Spot Welding Electrodes,
Cleaning Small Tanks and Containers, NFPA 327 Standard for, HS 51156 (AWS D8.6)
Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels to be Repaired, Automotive Weld Quality-Resistance Spot Weld-
NFPA 306 ing, Specification for, HS 51188 (AWS D8.7)
Fire Protection in Use of Cutting and Welding Automotive Frame Weld Quality-Arc Welding,
Processes, NFPA 5 1B Specification for, HS 51196 (AWS D8.8)
682 Appendix 16 Welding Encyclopedia
Aerospace Material Specifications. Material specifi- Over 500 of the listed numbers are for welding and
cations are published by SAE for use by the kerospace brazing filler metals. Numbers with the prefix W are
industry. The Aerospace Material Spe4ifications assigned to welding filler metals that are classified by
(AMS) cover fabricated parts, tolerances, qu/alitycon- deposited metal composition.
trol procedures, and processes. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
For a listing of welding-related AMS specifications,
refer to American Welding Society, Weldivg Hand- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., (UL) is a not-for-
book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition, Miami, Florida: American profit organization which operates laboratories for the
Welding Society, 1987. examination and testing of devices, systems, and
materials to determine their relation to hazards to life
Unified Numbering System and property. UL Standards for Safety are developed
The Unified Numbering System (UNS) provides a under a procedure which provides for participation
method for cross referencing the different number- and comment from the affected public as well as
ing systems used to identify metals, alloys, and industry. This procedure takes into consideration a sur-
welding filler metals. With UNS, it is possible to vey of known existing standards, and the needs and
correlate over 4400 metals and alloys used in a vari- opinions of a wide variety of interests concerned with
ety of specifications, regardless of the identifying the subject matter of a given standard. These interests
number used by a society, trade association, pro- include manufacturers, consumers, individuals associ-
ducer, or user. ated with consumer-oriented organizations, academi-
UNS is produced jointly by SAE and ASTM, and cians, government officials, industrial and commercial
designated SAE HSJlO86/ASTM DS56. It cross refer- users, inspection authorities, insurance interests, and
ences the numbered metal and alloy designations of others. Examples of standards which contain welding
the following organizations and systems: requirements are the following:
AA (Aluminum Association) Tanks, Steel Aboveground, for Flammable and
ACI (Steel Founders Society of America) Combustible Liquids, UL 58
AIS1 (American Iron and Steel Institute) Tanks, Steel Underground, for Flammable and
Combustible Liquids, UL 142
ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Both of these standards include details relating to the
Engineers)
types of welded joints that are allowed to be used and
ASTM (Formerly American Society for Testing and how they are to be tested.
Materials UL should be contacted if no standard can be found
AWS (American Welding Society) for a particular product. The UL Standards for Safety
CDA (Copper Development Association) pertain to more than 11 000 product types in over 500
Federal Specifications generic product categories.
MIL (Military Specifications) Source: American Welding Society, Welding Hand-
SAE (Formerly Society of Automotive Engineers) book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: American
AMS (SAE Aerospace Materials Specifications) Welding Society, 1987.
Appendix 17
Filler Metal Specifications
The AWS filler metal specifications cover most Covered Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and Chro-
types of consumables used with the various welding mium-Nickel Steel Welding Electrodes, Specification
and brazing processes. The specifications include both for,ANSVAWS A5.4
mandatory and nonmandatory provisions. The manda- Flux-Cored Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
tory provisions cover such subjects as chemical or Chromium-Nickel Steel Electrodes, Specification for,
mechanical properties, or both, manufacture, testing, ANSUAWS A5.22
and packaging. The nonmandatory provisions, Iron and Steel Oxyfuel Gas Welding Rods, Specifi-
included in an appendix, are provided as a source of cation for,ANSUAWS A5.2
information for the user on the classification, descrip- Low Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes,
tion, and intended use of the filler metals covered. Specification for, ANSUAWS A5.5
Following is a current listing of AWS filler metal Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Sub-
specikations. merged Arc Welding, Specification for, ANSUAWS
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Bare Welding Rods A5.23
and Electrodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.10 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Covered Arc Weld- Welding, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.29
ing Electrodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.3 Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc
Brazing Filler Metal, Specification for, ANSUAWS Welding, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.28
A5.8 Magnesium Alloy Welding Rods and Bare Elec-
Composite Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, trodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.19
Specification for, ANSVAWS A5.21 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Bare Welding Rods and
Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Weld- Electrodes, Specification for,ANSVAWS A5.14
ing, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.20 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Covered Welding Elec-
Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged trodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.11
Arc Welding, Specification for,ANSVAWS A5.17 Solid Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, Spec-
Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc ificationfor,ANSUAWS A5.13
Welding, Specification for,ANSYAWS A5.18 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Bare Welding Rods
Consumable Inserts, Specification for, ANSVAWS and Electrodes, Specification for,ANSYAWS A5.16
A5.30 Tungsten Arc Welding Electrodes, Specification for,
Consumables Used for Electrogas Welding of Car- ANSVAWS A5.12
bon and High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Specification Welding Rods and Covered Electrodes for Cast
for,ANSUAWS A5.26 Iron, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.15
Consumables Used for Electroslag Welding of Car- Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Bare Welding Rods
bon and High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Specification and Electrodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.24
for,ANSUAWS A5.25 Most AWS filler metal specifications have been
Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and approved by ANSI as American National Standards
Electrodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.7 and are adopted by ASME. When ASME adopts an
Copper and Copper Alloy Rods for Oxyfuel Gas AWS filler metal specification, either in its entirety or
Welding, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.27 with revisions, it adds the letters SF to the AWS
Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and Chromium- alphanumeric designation. Thus, ASME SFA-5.4
Nickel Steel Bare and Composite Metal Cored and specification would be similar, if not identical, to the
Stranded Arc Welding Electrodes and Welding Rods, AWS A5.4 specification.
Specification for,ANSVAWS A5.9 AWS also publishes the following documents to aid
Covered Carbon Steel Arc Welding Electrodes, users with the purchase of filler metals:
Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.1 AWS A5.01, Filler Metal Procurement Guidelines,
Covered Copper and Copper Alloy Arc Welding provides methods for identification of filler metal
Electrodes, Specification for,ANSUAWS A5.6 components, lot classification of filler metals, and
683
684 Appendix 17 The Welding Encyclopedia
specification of the testing schedule in procurement of specific filler metals and their intended usage, as
documents. well as methods for classification, welding proce-
The Filler Metal Comparison Charts pro,vide lists dures, and safety considerations. Although reasonable
of manufacturers that supply filler metals In accor- care has been taken in the compilation and publication
dance with the various AWS specifications and of the Users Guide to insure authenticity of the con-
provides the brand names. Conversely, the AWS spec- tents, no representation is made as to the acczlracy or
ification, classification, and manufacturer of a filler reliability of this information. The Users Guide is
metal can be determined from the brand name. intended solely as a supplement to the AWS FilZer
The A WS Users Guide to Filler Metals is a collec- Metal Comparison Charts, and should not be regarded
tion of commentary information selected from the 30 as a substitute for the various AWS specifications to
technical standards written by the AWS Committee on which it refers. This publication is subject to revision
Filler Metal. The Users Guide provides descriptions at any time.
Appendix 18
Recommended Eye Protection
Arc Welding and Cutting. Welding helmets or hand gas welding and cutting, a bright yellow flame may be
shields containing appropriate filter lenses and cover visible during torch brazing. A filter similar to that
plates must be used by welders, welding operators and used for oxyfuel gas welding and cutting should be
nearby personnel when viewing an arc. Suggested used for torch brazing.
shade numbers for filter plates for various arc welding
and cutting processes are shown in Table 18- 1. Thermal Spraying. The general requirements for the
Duriqg submerged arc welding, the arc is covered protection of thermal spray operators are the same as
by flux and is not readily visible; therefore a welding for welders. Table 18-3 is a guide for the selection of
helmet is not needed. However, because the arc some- the proper filter shade number for viewing a specific
times flashes through the flux burden, the operator spraying operation.
should wear tinted safety glasses. Laser Beam Welding and Cutting. Eye injury is
Oxyfuel Gas Welding, Cutting, Brazing and Soldering. readily caused by laser beams. Safety glasses are
Safety goggles with filter lenses (see Table 18-2) and available that are substantially transparent to visible
full conforming side shields must be worn when per- light but are opaque to specific laser beam outputs.
forming oxyhel gas welding and cutting. For torch Selective filters for ruby, Nd-YAG, and other laser sys-
brazing and soldering, safety spectacles with or with- tems are available. Glasses appropriate to the specific
out side shields are recommended. As with oxyfuel laser system must be used.
Table 18-1
Suggested Viewing Filter Plates-Arc Processes
685
686 Appendix 18 Welding Encyclopedia
Table 18-2
Suggested Viewing Filter Plates-Oxyfuel Gas Processes
Plate Thickness
Comfort S h d e
Operation mm in. Numbera
Oxyfuel gas welding (steel)b 3.2 Under 118 4,5
3.2-12.7 118-112 596
12.7 Over 1/2 618
Oxyfuel cutting (steel)b 25 Under 1 3,4
25-1 25 1-6 4,5
150 Over 6 5,16
Torch brazing - - 3,4
Torch soldering - - 2
a. To select the best shade for the application, first select a dark shade. If it is difficult to see the operation properly, select successively
lighter shades until the operation is sufficiently visible for good control. However, do not go below the lowest recommended number,
where given.
b. With oxyfuel gas welding or cutting, the flame emits strong yellow light. A filter plate that absorbs yellow or sodium wave lengths of
visible light should be used for good visibility.
Table 18-3
Recommended Eye Filter Plates
for Thermal Spraying Operations
2
FINAL TAPER CURRENT
FINAL
CURRENT
LOW PULSE
TIME
TIME
I
I
COOLING WATER I
J k"
, I
I 1 I
FILLER METAL
TRAVEL START DELAY TIME
STOP DELAY TIME
FILLER METAL START DELAY TIME TRAVEL STOP
DELAY TIME
687
688 Appendix 19 The Welding Encyclopedia
WELDING CURRENT
START
CURRENT7
I
- WIRE FEED SPEED FILL CURRENT
- - a
WELDING VOLTAGE
I \?VOLTAGE
1. ....... I . . ..............
8
aa
s t' CRATER FILL VOLTAGE^ '
WELD TIME
CRATER MELTBACK POSTFLOW
FILL TIME TIME TIME
WELDING CYCLE TIME 4 -
Figure 19-2-Typical GMAW, FCAW, and SAW Program for Automatic Welding
Buyers Guide
The Buyers Guide is a list of products, manufacturers, and suppliers representative of major categories of
welding-related products. Companies listed were exhibitors at the 1996 AWS International Welding and
Fabricating Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. The list is categorized by product type, followed by an alphabetical
list of the names and addresses of manufacturers and suppliers, with telephone and fax numbers.
689
690 Buyers Guide Welding Encyclopedia
Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd. ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
CYBO Robots High Purity Gas Co.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Miller Thermal Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. Motoman, Inc.
Genesis Systems Group National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Invincible Airflow Systems Stellite Coatings
IRC Sulzer Metco
Jetline Engineering Inc. Tafa Incorporated
Lincoln Electric Company, The Thermadyne Industries
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Thermadyne International
Modular Vision Systems Thyssen Welding
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) UTP Welding Materials
Ogden Engineering Corporation Wall Colmonoy Corporation
OTC-Daihen, Inc.
Pandjiris Incorporated VERTICAL AUTOMATIC WELDING
Ransome Company AGA Gas,Inc.
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Bug-0 Systems, Inc.
S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc GE Welding & Machining
Servo-Robot Inc. Hobart Lasers & Advanced Systems
Thermadyne Industries Jetline Engineering Inc.
Thermadyne International Lincoln Electric Company, The
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Magnatech Limited Partnership
Tweco/Arcair National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Weld Engineering Co., Inc. PAC*MIG, Inc.
Weld-Motion Inc. Pandjiris Incorporated
Weldline Automation Powcon Incorporated
Ransome Company
SUBMERGED ARC (MANUAL) Tweco/Arcair
AGA Gas, Inc. United Proarc Corporation
American Torch Tip Company Weld-Motion Inc.
American Weldquip Inc. Weldline Automation
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Invincible Airflow Systems WELD JOINT TRACKING SYSTEMS
Korea Welding Industry Cooperative ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated
Lincoln Electric Company, The AGAGas,Inc.
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Bug-0 Systems, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated
Oxo Welding Equipment Gullco International Incorporated
Profax Hobart Lasers & Advanced Systems
RED-D-ARC Incorporated IRC
S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc Jetline Engineering Inc.
Thermadyne Industries Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated
Thermadyne International Lincoln Electric Company, The
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Modular Vision Systems
Tweco/Arcair Motoman, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
THERMAL SPRAYING Navy Joining Center
AGA Gas,Inc. Ogden Engineering Corporation
American Torch Tip Company Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
BTU Contracts, Inc. Powcon Incorporated
Bug-0 Systems, Inc. Servo-Robot Inc.
Welding Encyclopedia Buyer's Guide 697
L S Industries Tweco/Arcair
Los Angeles Diamond Tools, Inc. United Air Specialists, Inc.
M.K. Morse Weldsale Company
Metabo Corporation
MG Industries Welding Products Division ANTI SPAlTER COMPOUNDS
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp AGA Gas,Inc.
Norton Company CrowdNorth American Professional Prodwts
Pangborn Corporation Dynaflux, Inc .
Pearl Abrasive Company ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Fferd, Inc. Express WholesaleIWorldwide Welding, Inc.
Rex-Cut Products, Inc. Genesis Systems Group
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
Ski1 Power Tools Inweld Corporation
Sparky Abrasives James Morton, Incorporated
Standard Abrasives K & K Welding Products, Inc.
Suhner Industrial Products Lenco
T. C. Service Co. National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
United Abrasives, Incorporated Nattco Products - An NTT Company
Walter, Incorporated, J. Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Weiler Brush Company, Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Thermadyne Industries
AIR CLEANERWFUME COLLECTORS Thermadyne International
Aercology, Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, LtaU
AGAGas,Inc. TwecolArcair
Airflow Systems, Incorporated Walter, Incorporated, J.
Arcmaster Weld-Aid Products
CFA Weldsale Company
Coppus Portable Ventilation Division, Tuthill Corp. York Sales Company
Coral Spa
Dcm Clean-Air Products, Inc. BACKING MATERIALS
Diversi-Tech Inc. Alsimag Technical Ceramics, Inc.
Dualdraw By IMM Cerbaco Ltd.
Fab-Tech Incorporated Imperial Weld Ring Corporation
Farr Company
Gardner Environmental Products BOOTHS 81 BENCHES
Gas Tech, Inc. Bluco Corporation
Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris Coral Spa
Inweld Corporation Dualdraw By IMM
L S Industries M.Braun, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company, The Wilson Industries, Inc.
Micro Air Air Clnrs By Metal-Fab Inc.
Nederman, Inc. CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Arcal Chemicals, Incorporated
Optrel Ag CrowdNorth American Professional Products
Pangborn Corporation Dynaflux, Inc.
Plymovent Corporation ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Roberts-Gordon, Incorporated Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris
Thermadyne Industries High Purity Gas Co.
Thermadyne International Inweld Corporation
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. La-Co Industries, Inc./Markal Co.
Torit-Donaldson Company Lenco
Welding Encyclopedia Buyer's Guide 701
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy & Harman Oompany La-Co Industries, Inc./Markd CO.
Metalworks, S.D. Hawkins Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy & Harman Company
MG Industries Welding Products Division National Welding Alloys
National Welding Alloys Prince & Izant Company
Navy Joining Center Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Prince & Izant Company Superior Flux & Manufacturing Company
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Thy ssen Welding
Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Uniweld Products, Inc.
Superior Flux & Manufacturing Company
Thyssen Welding UTP Welding Materials
Uniweld Products, Inc. Welding Rod Factory, The
UTP Welding Materials
Wall Colmonoy Corporation FLUX (SUBMERGED ARC)
Welding Rod Factory, The ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Filler Metals, Inc.
FLUX (SOLDERING) Gas Tech, Inc.
Astrolite Alloys Hyundai Welding & Metal Company, Ltd.
Engelhard Corporation Inco Alloys International, Inc.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Lincoln Electric Company, The
Fusion Incorporated
McKay Welding Products
Gas Tech, Inc.
Handy & Harman of Canada Limited Midwest Alloys & Technology, Inc.
Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris Oerlikon Offshore
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Sandvik Steel Company
Inweld Corporation Thyssen Welding
Suppliers
3M OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANCED KIFFER SYSTEMS, INCORPORATED
SAFETY DIVISION 15666 Snow Road
3M Center Building, 275-6W-01 Cleveland, OH 44142-2351
Saint Paul, MN 55144-1000 (216) 267-8181
(612) 733-5608 FAX: (216) 267-8182
FAX: (612) 735-2555
ADVANTA BUSINESS SERVICES
69 DESIGN INC. 1020 Laurel Oak Road
2030 NW 7th Avenue Voorhees, NJ 08043
Miami, FL,33 127
(800) 469-0825
ABB FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION FAX: (800) 446-7129
INCORPORATED
AERCOLOGY, INC.
4600 Innovation Drive
Fort Collins, CO 80525 8 Custom Drive
(970) 225-7600 Old Saybrook, CT 06475
FAX: (970) 225-7700 (203) 399-7941
FAX: (203) 399-7049
ABMAST ABRASIVES CORPORATION
13 Industrial Boulevard AGA GAS, INC.
Plattsburgh, NY 12901 6225 Oak Tree Blvd.
(800) 361-2297 Cleveland, OH 44 131
FAX: (800) 300-2420 (216) 573-7800
FAX: (216) 573-7870
ABRASIVE ENGINEERING & MANUFACTURING
(AEM) AIR LlQUlDE AMERICA CORPORATION
540 East Old Highway 56 2121 North California Blvd., #350
Olathe, KS 66061 Walnut Creek, CA 94596
(800) 875-6040 (510) 977-6218
FAX: (913) 764-0429 FAX: (510) 746-6306
ABS QUALITY EVALUATIONS AIR PRODUCTS & CHEMICALS, INCORPORATED
16855 Northchase Drive 12200 East Iliff Avenue, Ste. 200
Houston, TX 77060 Aurora, CO 80014
(7 13) 874-6360 (303) 755-5230
FAX: (713) 874-5974
FAX: (303) 755-3723
ACCRA-WELD CONTROLS, INCORPORATED
AIR QUALITY ENGINEERING INC.
10891 Northland Drive
Rockford, MI 49341 3340 Winpark Drive
(616) 866-3434 Minneapolis, MN 55427
FAX: (616) 866-9468 (612) 544-4426
FAX: (612) 544-4013
ADVANCE MILWAUKEE BRUSH
W 142 N925 1 Fountain Blvd. AIRFLOW SYSTEMS, INCORPORATED
P.O. Box 830 11370 Pagemill Road
Menomonee Falls, WI 53052 Dallas, TX 75243-8306
(414) 255-3200 (214) 272-3003
FAX: (414) 255-1412 FAX: (214) 503-9596
723
724 Suppliers Welding Encyclopedia
758 Welding